1
Types of patterns used in sand casting:
(a) solid pattern (b) split pattern
(c) match-plate pattern (d) cope and drag pattern
2
• Reusability - can sand from broken mould be reused to make other
moulds?
3
INTRODUCTION
In casting, the liquid material is poured into a cavity (die or mould)
corresponding to the desired geometry. The shape obtained in the liquid
material is now stabilized, usually by solidification, and can be removed
from the cavity as a solid component.
The main stages, which are not confined to metallic materials alone but are
also applicable to some plastics, porcelain, and so on, are: production of a
suitable mould cavity; the melting of the material; pouring the liquid
material into the cavity; stabilization of the shape by solidification, chemical
hardening, evaporation, and so on; removal or extraction of the solid
component from the mould; and cleaning the component.
4
The differences between the many casting processes are due mainly to the
mechanical and thermal properties of the work and mould material, the
acceptable working temperature of the mould, the cooling method and
cooling rate of the workpiece, the radiation of heat from the work and the
mould material, the chemical reactions between the molten metal and the
mould, the solubility of gas in the work material, and the functional
requirements of the component.
Casting processes are important and extensively used manufacturing
methods, enabling the production of very complex or intricate parts in nearly
all types of metals with high production rates, average to good tolerances and
surface roughness, and good material properties.
5
CHARACTERISTICS OF CASTING PROCESSES
The molten and refined work material is now poured into the mould. The shape
obtained is stabilized by solidification; a process that is dependant on the work
material, the mould and the external conditions.
After solidification, the component is extracted or removed from the mould. A
component is finally cleaned and inspected.
If approved, machining, heat treatment, and other processes can then be
carried out. Each stage or operation listed in Fig. 10.1 can now be analyzed
according to the principles described in Chapter 1 (i. e., material flow, energy
flow, and information flow).
In this context, only the stages double-lined in Fig. 10.1 will be discussed:
melting, mould production, pouring, and solidification.
6
As mentioned previously, the casting processes can be characterized either by
the type of mould, the mould material, or the pouring principle, which makes it
difficult to describe mould production, pouring, and solidification without
relating these to specific processes. Melting can be described in a general
section covering all casting processes.
Therefore, in this presentation the melting methods are described first and then
a short introduction to the primary characteristics of mould production,
pouring, and solidification is given. After this, the casting processes are
discussed, including descriptions of moulding, pouring, and solidification. In a
final section, general design rules and comparisons of the casting processes
are presented.
When selecting the melting process (i. e., the furnace equipment) to
fulfil the casting specifications and the production requirements,
several factors or characteristic features must be considered. Among
these are the metal chemistry or the metallurgy, the temperature of
the melt, and the melting capacity, including the delivery rate. Before
the melting processes are described these factors will be discussed
briefly.
7
Thus, the final composition of the melt depends on the raw material
and all the changes that occur during and after the melting process.
The melting procedures can be divided into two categories: (1)
melting without refining and (2) melting with refining.
In the first category, the raw material and the minor changes
caused by the specific melting process determine the final
composition of the material. However, small corrections to the
compositions can be carried out just before pouring. Examples of
the application of this procedure include the melting of alloys
with low melting temperatures, the melting of light metals, and
the vacuum melting of alloys with high melting points.
8
If pouring is carried out at too high a temperature, the metal may react
with the mould material, causing gaseous inclusions in the casting. The
high thermal loading may also cause detrimental deterioration of the
mould in the latter case. The pouring or tapping temperature must be
chosen so that these problems are avoided.
9
Melting Processes/Furnaces
Depending on the type of furnace lining, the melting process can be classified
as acid or basic. In the acid process, the lining consists of fire clay and quartz
sand. In the basic process, a lining of magnesite is used. The acid process is
often preferred to the basic, as the lining is strong and cheap, giving a lower
energy consumption and a slightly higher production.
In general, acid linings are used when no refining is necessary and a small
quantity of sulfur can be tolerated. The basic process provides low-sulfur iron
and allows for carburizing to give higher carbon contents.
The lining and the slag must be of the same type, both acid or
both basic. In the acid slag, quartz sand (FeO, MnO, etc.) is
used, and in the basic slag, limestone is used. After establishing
the melting process, the sources of contaminations must be
minimized. Typical sources are:
The atmosphere (O2, N2, H2O, CO2), for example in unprotected
electrical furnaces.
Combustion products (CO2, CO, H2O, SO2) in furnaces fired by
oil, gas, coal, coke, and so on. Where solid firing materials are
used, the sulfur and phosphorus content often contaminates the
melt.
The lining may contribute to the contamination if it is not
completely inactive. Both metallic and non-metallic impurities (e,
g., AI, Si, O2, H2) may be introduced.
10
Classification of Some of the Most Frequently Used Industrial
Melting Furnaces
Chemical
Electrical
Arc Arc furnace Steel, cast iron
Direct/ Indirect
Induction Induction, High frequency Steel, cast iron
Low frequency Copper, aluminium alloys
Resistance Resistance furnace Alloyed steel, sometimes cast iron,
aluminium and copper alloys
Mould Production
11
The next step is the manufacture of a suitable mould. The
mould cavity must be such that the final component has the
desired properties.
13
• Method 1. The mould is permanent and the mould material solid
(i. e. , metal, graphite, etc.). The cavity, which is a negative of the
desired part, is produced by machining, pressing, and so on. To
be able to use the mould, a suitable parting line must be
available. This line marks where the two halves of the mould
meet.
• Method II. The mould is nonpermanent, the material granular
(sand, plaster, ceramics, etc.), and a pattern that can be used
several times is employed. The two halves of the mould are
formed around the pattern. The moulds are separated at the
parting line and the pattern removed. After reassembly the
mould is ready for use. Thus, the basic requirement is that the
pattern can be removed.
• Method III. The mould is nonpermanent, the material granular
(sand, plaster, ceramics, etc.), and the pattern nonpermanent.
The pattern is melted, dissolved, or otherwise removed if
sufficiently elastic (e. g., rubber patterns) leaving a cavity which
can have a complicated shape. The mould is not split into 2
halves.
The quality of the pattern depends on the number of castings and the
casting process. If only a few castings are to be made soft wood may
be employed; for a larger number, hard wood; and for very large
numbers, metal will be used.
Patterns can thus be divided into different types, according to how
they are employed in mould production.
Gated patterns are, in principle, loose patterns with attached gates and
runners. Because of their higher cost, they are used only for small castings
and when the number of castings is high (~1000).
Match-plate patterns are split patterns mounted on opposite sides of a
wooden or metal plate (known as a match plate) giving the parting surface
(see Fig. 10.5b). Gates and runners are also mounted on the plate. Locating
pins provide an accurate location of the plate between the upper (cope) and
lower (drag) flask.
Patterns
The match plate is used in machine moulding, allowing the cope and
drag mould halves to be made around the plate. Because of the high
15
cost of match plates, they are used only when a large number of
castings is required.
Cope and drag patterns are split patterns mounted on separate plates
(the cope plate and the drag plate), allowing the production of the
mould halves on different machines (see Fig. 10.5a).
16
Shrinkage Allowance
To compensate for the shrinkage of the casting during cooling from the
casting temperature to room temperature, a shrink rule is used to transfer
measurements to the pattern. The linear contraction or shrinkage here must
not be confused with the volume shrinkage, which to some extent is
compensated for by the application of risers.
Machining Allowance
On those surfaces where casting is to be machined, the pattern must be
provided with a reasonable machining allowance, varying between 2 – 10 mm
for cast iron, depending on the wall thickness and the tolerances.
Selection of pattern material depends on the casting process, the number of
castings, the tolerances, and other factors.
If disposable patterns made of polystyrene or Styrofoam are used, they are
not removed from the mould. When pouring the liquid metal into the mould,
they evaporate or burn. If wax is used as the pattern material, heating of the
mould results in the removal of the wax before the molten metal is poured into
the cavity.
• Figure 10.7 shows examples of moulds for sand casting.
17
The production of a casting without defects depends on many factors. One of
the important factors is the way in which the metal is poured into the mould
cavity. This pouring process can be characterized by the filling or pouring
pressure and the gating system (channels for delivering the metal). As
mentioned previously, the pouring pressure can be classified as high (2-15
Mpa), low (0. 12-0.30 MPa) or gravity. The higher pressures permit the
casting of thinner sections, higher quality, and so on, but at the same time,
there is a requirement for higher-strength mould material. High or low pouring
pressures normally require permanent metal moulds, but other materials,
such as graphite, can be used for the lower pressures.
A gating system for sand casting (Fig. 10.8) generally includes a pouring
basin, a sprue, a runner, and a gate. The liquid metal is poured first into a
pouring basin to avoid too heavy erosion at the bottom of the sprue and to
prevent slag from entering the cavity. The pouring basin is especially
important with large moulds. In pressure casting, the basin is replaced by an
injection system. From the pouring basin, the metal flows through the sprue,
which should be filled constantly during pouring. The sprue is tapered about
18
2°, so a higher velocity occurs at the bottom and does not cause aspiration of
air through the mould.
Gating Systems
When the gating system has been designed, attention must be given to the
avoidance of shrinkage voids. As mentioned, the total contraction or shrinkage
during cooling from the pouring temperature to room temperature is made up of
the following three contributions:
1. Contraction during cooling from the pouring temperature to the solidification
temperature (carbon steel ~1.6%)
2. Contraction during solidification (carbon steel ~ 3%)
3. Contraction during cooling from the solidification temperature to room
temperature (carbon steel ~ 7.2%)
For carbon steel, the solidification shrinkage is in the range 2.5-3%, for aluminium
6-7%, and for cast iron from 1. 9% to an expansion of 2.5%, depending on the
carbon content.
To compensate for the shrinkage taking place during cooling from the pouring
temperature to solidification, a reservoir of molten metal should be attached or
connected with the component. To supply liquid metal to compensate for the
shrinkage, the reservoir or riser must solidify after the component has solidified. The
size and placement of the risers are thus of utmost importance. [see fig. 10.10]
20
Stages of casting
Solidification
The mould design and mould material have a significant influence
on the solidification pattern. Solidification in sand and shell moulds is
relatively slow, and a directional solidification is desired, starting at
the lowest parts of the casting and continuing up through the mould.
The possibilities of obtaining a directional solidification depend on the
design of the component.
21
CASTING PROCESSES
Sand Casting
Sand casting of cast iron, steel, and metals is extensively used in
industry. In this description, moulding materials, mould production,
and applications are discussed.
Moulding Sand
Sand is the most extensively used mould material. To produce a
casting of 1000 kg, it is necessary to employ 4000-5000 kg of
moulding sand; in other words, large amounts of moulding sand must
be handled and maintained. The fundamental requirements of the
moulding sand are: temperature resistance, strength to retain a
given shape and to withstand the mechanical loading from the
liquid metal, permeability (to permit the escape of gases), and
collapsibility (to permit shrinkage).
The fulfillment of these requirements is obtained in moulding sand
from the following ingredients:
The sand (giving temperature resistance and permeability) The
binder (giving strength) Additives (giving collapsibility) Water (to
activate the binder).
The most widespread type of sand used in foundries is silica (SiO2) or
quartz sand. It is readily available and cheap. However, because of its
harmful effects on the lungs, it is being replaced to some extent by
olivine sand (especially for steel casting). Zircon sand can also be
used, but it is more expensive. In most countries, natural sand is
being replaced by synthetic sand, which has a specified type of grain
and grain-size distribution. The compounding elements are added in
the foundries. The binder, which together with water gives strength
and formability, can be:
* Clay * Cement * Sodium silicate (CO2
process) * Oils * Resins
In moulding sand, clay is generally used as the primary binder. The types of
clay are bentonite, kaolinite, or illite. The amounts vary between 5 and 20% of
the sand. Cement (portland) can be used as a binder when strong moulds are
desired. Sodium silicate and oils are used primarily in core production. These,
22
together with the additives, give high strength. The resins are used as primary
binders, in both moulds (shell moulding) and cores.
The water content in moulding sand is usually 4-8% when clay is used as the
primary binder. A moulding sand based on sand, clay, and water, perhaps
with some additives, is called green sand.
If a sand mould is baked in an oven (at 100-300°C) for several hours, a dry
sand mould is obtained. When using dry sand moulds, usually 1-2% of cereal
flour and 1-2% of pitch are added. Dry sand moulds reduce gas holes, blows,
or porosity in the casting.
Mould Production
When the pattern has been made, the mould can be
produced. The moulds are produced in flasks (i. e., four-
sided metal frames), usually consisting of a top flask
[cope] and a bottom [drag].
The flasks are supplied with handles and guide pins for accurate location of
the mould halves. To facilitate mould production, many different moulding
machines have been developed, to facilitate compressing the moulding sand
to a suitable strength at a high rate. These machines can, for example, be
activated by a compression punch combined with a shaking or vibration
motion to obtain uniform strength.
• Much effort has been put into the development of flaskless moulding.
methods. Figure 10.11 shows two different principles in the
arrangement of flaskless moulds.
23
Applications
Shell Mould Casting
24
Investment Casting
25
8. Heating the mould to higher temperatures (850-1000°C)
to drive off moisture and volatile matter.
9. Preheating the mould to 500-1000°C (facilitating flow
of the molten metal to thin sections to give better
dimensional control)
10. Pouring the metal (by gravity, pressure, or
evacuation of the mould)
11. Removal of the casting from the mould after
solidification
26
Die Casting
27
28
The cold-chamber process has a separate melting furnace, and the
molten metal is transferred from the furnace to the cold-chamber
machine by hand or mechanically (see Fig. 10.13c). In the machine,
the metal is forced into the die by a hydraulically activated plunger.
The injection and solidification pressure is in the range 30-150 MPa.
29
Machines of 25 MN plunger force and more are available, allowing the
casting of components of up to 50 kg.
The cold-chamber method is used mainly for brass, bronze,
aluminium, and magnesium castings.
The die casting process is rapid (production rates of up to 1000 castings per hour) and it gives
smooth surfaces, good dimensional accuracy (0.002 to 0.003 per dimensional unit, cm/cm of
length) and thin sections (0.6 mm in zinc, 0.90 mm in aluminium, and 1. 25 mm in magnesium,
brass, and bronze). The draft necessary varies between 0.125 and 0.35 per dimensional unit
(cm/cm), depending on the material.
Die casting requires, in general, no machining except for the drilling of holes and threading.
Flash and fins must be removed.
The dies for die casting are made from heat-resistant steel and are water-cooled through internal
channels. For large castings, a single-cavity die is used and for small castings, multiple cavity dies
are used, often built up from inserts.
30
zinc/zinc alloys, and sometimes for brass and aluminium bronze. In recent years, the casting
of grey cast iron has gained in interest.
Depending on the requirements, the permanent mould can be operated manually or
mechanically.
The economical number of castings can vary from 500 to 40,000, and in critical places in
the die, the die is water cooled.
Compared to sand casting, permanent die casting gives better tolerances, surface finish, and
mechanical properties.
31
In slush casting, which gives a shell-like
component, liquid metal is poured into the mould
and, after solidification of a thin layer, the still-
molten metal is allowed to flow out by inverting
the mould. This process is used for ornamental
works, sculptures, toys, and so on. The common
materials are tin, lead, zinc, and bronze.
32
GEOMETRICAL POSSIBILITIES
Introduction
33
concerning geometry, size, material, surfaces, tolerances, and
so on, can be considered.
An important factor is the minimum wall thickness that can be cast.
In normal sand casting, this is about 3 mm for aluminium and 1-6
mm for cast iron, depending on the actual size. These figures
correspond to castings having a maximum dimension of about 400
mm.
Table 10. 5 shows a rough comparison between some important
casting methods. The comparison is intended only as a rough
guide. Table 10.6 shows another comparison, where the properties
of the castings are graded from 1 to 7 (1 is best and 7 poorest).
The comparisons in these figures are based on general information;
in actual cases, detailed information about the particular process
must be obtained.
34
Comparison of various casting processes
35
General Design Rules
A few of the main design rules that must be followed to obtain
sound castings are described briefly below. Figures 10.15 and
10.16 illustrate the most important rules.
When designing a component for casting, several main factors must
be considered, since if forgotten they can each contribute to
considerably increased cost. The most important factors are:
• Pattern and pattern costs (plane parting surface, simple,
draft, etc.)
• Mould production (method and properties)
• Core production (simplicity, methods, and properties)
• Casting [gating system, risers as a function of geometry (Fig.
10.16)]
• Cleaning (easy access to core cavities, easy removal of
gating system)
• Machining (where, how, and what allowances, Table 10.7)
36
• Thermal stresses [reduced by uniform section thickness or
when changes are necessary, gradual changes (Fig. 10.15),
by permitting the contraction to take place without restraints]
• Mechanical loadings (in the shaping of the component,
proper force transfer must be considered along with the
characteristics of the casting process)
• Appearance
the same conditions, Chvorinov's rule can be used to ensure that the casting
will solidify before the riser. This is necessary if the liquid within the riser is to
Solidification Shrinkage.
Once in the mould cavity, most metals and alloys contract during cooling. There are three principal stages
during which shrinkage occurs: (1) shrinkage of the liquid; (2) solidification shrinkage as the liquid turns to
solid; and (3) solid metal contraction as the solidified material cools to room temperature. The amount of
37
liquid metal contraction depends on the coefficient of thermal contraction (a property of the metal being
cast) and the amount of superheat. Liquid contraction, however, is rarely a problem in casting production
because the metal in the gating system continues to flow into the mould cavity as the metal in the cavity
cools and contracts.
As the metal cools between the liquidus and solidus temperatures and changes state from liquid to solid,
significant amounts of shrinkage tend to occur, as indicated by the data in Table. This table also shows that
not all metals contract. Some expand, such as grey cast iron, in which low-density graphite flakes form as
part of the solidification structure.
When shrinkage occurs, it is important to know and control the form of the resulting void.
Metals and alloys with short freezing ranges, such as pure metals and eutectic -alloys, tend to form large
cavities or pipes. These can be avoided by designing the casting to have directional solidification. Here, the
solidification begins furthest, away from the feed gate or riser and moves progressively toward it.
As the metal solidifies and shrinks, the shrinkage void is continually filled with liquid metal. Ultimately, the
final shrinkage void occurs in the riser or the gating system.
Alloys with large freezing ranges have a wide range of temperatures over which the material is in a mushy
state. As the cooler regions complete their solidification, it is almost impossible for additional liquid to feed
into the shrinkage voids. Thus, the resultant structure tends to have small, but numerous, shrinkage pores
dispersed throughout. This type of shrinkage is far more difficult to prevent by control of the gating and
risering, and it may even be necessary to accept the fact that a porous product will result. If a gas- or liquid-
tight product is desired, the castings can be impregnated (the pores filled with a resinous material or lower-
melting-temperature metal) as a subsequent operation.
After solidification, the casting contracts further as it cools to room temperature. These dimensional changes
have to be compensated for when setting the dimensions of the mould cavity or pattern.
38
By consideration of Chvorinov's rule, a good shape for a riser would be one that has a long freezing time or a
small surface area per unit volume. A sphere would make the most efficient riser but presents considerable
difficulty to the pattern or mould maker who must remove the pattern from the mould. As a result, the most
popular shape for a riser is a cylinder, in which the height-to-diameter ratio is varied depending on the nature
of the alloy, the location of the riser, the size of the flask, and other variables.
Risers should be located so that directional solidification occurs. Since the thickest regions of a casting are
the last to freeze, the risers should be located so as to feed into these heavy sections. Various types of risers
are possible. A top riser, one that sits on top of a casting, has the advantage of feeding by additional pressure
(the weight of the metal), feeding a shorter distance, and occupying less space within the flask, thereby
permitting more freedom for the layout of the pattern and the gating system.
Side risers are located adjacent to the mould cavity in the horizontal direction. Figure compares a top and a
side riser. If the riser is contained entirely within the mould, it is known as a blind riser, while one that is
open to the atmosphere is called an open riser. Blind risers develop a solid skin because of surface
solidification and are generally bigger than open risers, because of the heat lost through the additional
surface.
Top riser side riser [blind riser]
(a) (b)
FIGURE: Schematic of a sand casting mould, showing a top riser (a) additional pressure and a side
riser (b).
Live (hot) risers receive the last hot metal that enters the mold and generally do so at a time when the metal
in the mold cavity has already begun to cool and solidify. Thus, they can be smaller than dead (cold) risers,
which fill with the colder metal that has already flowed through the mold cavity. Top risers are almost always
dead risers. Risers that are part of the gating system are generally live risers.
The minimum size of a riser can be calculated from Chvorinov's rule by setting the total solidification time
for the riser to be greater than the total solidification time for the casting. Since both will receive the same
metal and are in the same mould, the mould constant, B, will be the same for both regions. Assuming n = 2,
and a safe difference in solidification time of 25% (the riser takes 25% longer to solidify than the casting), we
can write this condition as:
triser = 1.25 tcasting (V/ A)2riser = 1.25 (V/ A)2casting
Calculation of the riser size then requires the selection of a riser geometry (generally cylindrical)
and specification of a height-to-diameter ratio, so that the riser side of the equation will have only
39
one unknown. For a cylinder of diameter D and height H:
V = π D2H / 4
A = π DH + 2 ( π D2 / 4)
Specifying the riser height as a function of the diameter enables the V/ A ratio to be written as a simple
expression with one unknown, namely, D. The VIA ratio for the casting can be calculated from its particular
geometry. Substitution of this information into the above form of Chvorinov's rule will then enable
calculation of the required riser size. Note, however, that if the riser and the casting share a surface, as with
a top riser, the common surface area should be subtracted from both segments since it will not be a surface
of heat loss to either component. While there are a variety of more sophisticated methods for calculating
riser size, the Chvorinov's rule method is the only one presented in this text.
A final aspect of riser design is the connection between the riser and the casting. Since it will ultimately be
necessary to separate the riser from the casting, it is desirable that the connection area be as small as
possible. On the other hand, the connection area should be large enough so that the link does not freeze
before solidification of the casting is complete. Short-length connections are most desirable. The adjacent
mould material will then receive heat from both the casting and the riser. Therefore, it will heat rapidly and
remain hot throughout the cast, retarding solidification of the metal in the channel.
40