CT Testing Theory

Laboratory #3: AC Power and Transformer Circuits
Electrical and Computer Engineering EE 204.3 University of Saskatchewan
Authors:
Denard Lynch
Date:
Sep 22, 2012

Oct 2&7, 2013: revisions-djl
Description:
This laboratory explores the power in AC circuits, and transformers The student will
measure parameters to verify real, reactive and apparent power in AC circuits, and the
effect of Power Factor correction. In addition, the student will the operation of an AC
transformer for voltage/current and impedance transformation.
Learning Objectives:
In this laboratory, the student will:

• Calculate real, reactive and apparent power based on AC circuit measurements,
• Correct the Power Factor in an AC circuit.
• Determine transformer parameters like transformation ratio, a (or turns ration, n)
from observed circuit behavior
• Verify impedance transformation of restive and complex impedance loads
Safety Considerations:
In addition to general electrical safety considerations, the student should also be aware of
the following considerations specific to this laboratory exercise:
• Resistors carrying current will generate heat energy and can be overheated in AC
circuits. Power is based on RMS voltages and currents. In all other respects, the
same considerations as in DC circuits apply.
• Unlike DC circuits, capacitors and inductors under AC excitation will conduct
current and can have potentials across them even in steady-state (not only
transient) conditions. The reactance (opposition to flow), current and voltage
present are also a function of the frequency of the excitation source. Always
consider these parameters when anticipating potential safety hazards and the
required ratings of components.
• Measurement of AC circuit parameters requires suitable test gear or the selection
of the appropriate scale and range. Use of DC instruments or incorrect scales can
result in equipment damage or safety risks.
Background and Preparation:
In this lab you will again measure phase differences using the time scale on your ADM as
well as circuit voltages and currents (using the voltage across a resistor).
Denard Lynch Page 1 of 15 Oct 7, 2013

Please refer to the class notes on AC circuits. A summary of key points is provided in
Appendix A at the end of this procedure.
Terms:
Complex Power A representation of Apparent (S), Reactive (Q) and Active

(Real) power (P) in AC circuits that can be derived using
phasors and impedances.
Power Triangle A graphical representation of the components of complex
power consisting of P, Q, the complex vector, S, and its
angle
Power Factor (PF) The cosine of the angle, θ, of the complex power, S. It is a
number between 0 and 1 and represents the fraction of the
Apparent power, S, that is Real or Active pawer, P. It is
specified as either lagging if the load is primarily
inductive, and leading if the load is primarily capacitive.
It is Unity or 1, if the load is entirely resistive.
transformer An electromagnetic device consisting of 2 or more
mutually inductive coils, which can be used to transform
(raise or lower) the voltage or current of an AC waveform
n Turns ratio: NS/NP ; n=1/a; a = transformation ratio.
Can also use the basic transformer relationships:
2
VP N P IP NS ZP ⎛ N P ⎞
= ; = ; =
VS N S IS N P Z S ⎜⎝ N S ⎟⎠
Excitation current Small amount of current required to establish the flux in a
transformer’s core so that voltage transformation can take
place
Procedure:
A: The first procedure will involve constructing several different circuits with
combinations of resistance, capacitance and inductance and determining the real, reactive
and apparent power in the circuit by using your Analog Discovery Module (ADM) to
measure the voltage and current in various elements as well as the phase difference
between the voltage and current. You will use these measured parameters to verify your
theoretical values. On a select circuit, you will add a reactive element and determine the
improvement in Power Factor by, again, measuring circuit parameters.
B: The second part of this laboratory will involve wiring a transformer in different
configurations and determining the transformer characteristics by again measuring circuit
parameters like voltage, current and phase angle. You will also verify the impedance
matching ability of a transformer by measuring parameters to determine input and load
impedances.

Modeling- (determining what you would expect to see)

This will involve using AC circuit and transformer theory to predict the circuit
parameters for each circuit. The required parameters are described in the detailed
procedure below. Please read the entire procedure over carefully before the lab and
calculate the expected values of the various parameters using AC circuit and transformer
theory.
Note that you are again using a “practical inductor”, which has some internal resistance.
The transformer you will be using is also an inductive device and the windings will also
have an internal resistance. You should account for this fact in your theoretical
calculations, and adjust your observable expectations accordingly.
Measurements-
I. Determining Power and Correcting the Power Factor
In this part of the procedure, you should measure the phasor voltage and current
across the R-L load. Then, after adding a Power Factor Correction capacitor to
balance some of the inductive VARs, measure the new total current supplied from
the source. Observe the change in current and phase angle in the circuit and
determine how much the source current is reduced as a result of correcting the PF.
Use your solderless breadboard and set up the circuit shown in Figure 1. A good
first step is to examine the circuit, make a list of the parts you will need, obtain the
necessary parts and construct the circuit. You may also need to measure the actual
value of your components (e.g. using the RLC Tester in 2C80 or equivalent) versus
their nominal value. For example:
Component Nominal Value Measured Value

1/4W resistor 1000Ω 986Ω
Capacitor 100WVDC 0.1µF 0.092µF
Etc.
Your lab instructor will indicate where to obtain the necessary parts if they are not
already in your parts kit, and how to measure their actual value. You can use your
Analog Discovery Module (ADM) as the AC source for these procedures. (Note:
there is a very limited amount of current available from the ADM’s WaveGen
(Arbitrary Waveform Generator); ~8 mA maximum, depending on the USB port
capability. Check your theoretical calculations, and observe the sinusoidal
waveforms to make sure there is no obvious signal distortion and the supply isn’t
overloaded whenever you use it.)
Using the circuit shown in Figure 1, without the Power Factor correcting capacitor,
CPF, you can determine the real, reactive and apparent power dissipated in this
circuit before correction. You will then add a corrective element (reactor), and
measure the effect on the total current draw and net reactive and apparent power.

Since the current in the series R – L circuit is common to both elements, we can
just measure the voltage across each element to
determine the magnitude of the real power, P in the
resistor, and the reactive power, Q in the inductor. ZX ZL-real
(Remember: there will be some real power dissipated in
the inductor because of its internal resistance – you can
estimate the total real power by adding Rint to the
external resistance. On the ‘Z-diagram’, at right, this ZR
resistive component is shown along the real axis. ) In
this case, it is advisable to use the 10Ω sense resistor to
measure current, as it will allow you to monitor the phase and magnitude of the
load current, IL, both before and after the addition of a corrective element in
parallel with the load. Remember, the smaller the sense resistor, the less effect it
will have on your circuit.
You have already measured the voltage across the same R-L combination in a
previous lab. A quick measure will verify the information required (VLoad. ILoad) to
determine the magnitude of the apparent power, S (=VI*). You have also measured
the differential phase angle between the voltage and current in this circuit, which is
the angular argument of the complex impedance, Z, and also the angular argument
for the complex apparent power, S (voltage leading current is a positive angle,
indicative of an inductive load. A capacitive load would have a negative angle.).
Digilent
ADM
WaveGen (W1)
Amplitude: 5V
Offset: 0V
Symmetry: 50%
f = 5 kHz
Figure 1: Power and PF Correction

Procedure Summary:
1. measure the RMS current with the ADM and a 10Ω sense resistor
2. measure the voltage across the R-L load (V+ : V-) using the ADM
3. measure the phase angle between VLoad and ILoad.
4. calculate S, P and Q in the circuit using these measurements
5. calculate the element required to correct the P.F. to Unity (1)
6. insert an available reactive element (your 47nF) to improve the P.F.
7. measure the new phase angle for the load and determine the new P.F.

Details:
Use one input channel of your ADM to measure the voltage across the sense
resistor so you can calculate the current through the load. Use the other input
channel to measure the voltage across the whole (R-L) load.
Measure the time differences between the voltage and the current and calculate the
phase shift. How does it compare to your theoretical expectation? You can use
these measurements to calculate the real and reactive power being consumed in this
circuit. What is the Power Factor of this R-L combination prior to any correction?
Recall that to correct (improve) the Power Factor, we want to “add” VARs of the
opposite sign. Since this is originally an inductive circuit, the VARs consumed will
be “positive”, and you will want to add negative VARs to compensate; this will
require the addition of a capacitor. (There are, in theory, situations where the
opposite will be the case, but in practice most correction situations are for
predominantly inductive loads and require the addition of a capacitor.) The best
place to add this corrective element is as shown in Figure 1, as it will have a
minimal effect of the voltage available, and thus the power, to the load. (Note: this
is effectively across the source side of the “load” (the R-L). The current sense
resistor is considered part of the source in this case, and the source voltage across
the load is as measured between V+ and V-.)
You should calculate the size of capacitor needed to correct the PF to Unity (1)
based on your measurements of Q above, but use a capacitor value that is available,
say 0.047µF (the slightly smaller, brown capacitor in your parts kit), and also
calculate the expected improvement using this value. What is the Power Factor of
the corrected load? How does this compare to your theoretical expectations?
Optionally, you can also measure the current through the corrective element by
using another sense resistor and the ADM ‘scope, or an ammeter. If you use a
sense resistor, you can observe the phase of the current compared to the “load”
current, and then plot both on a current phasor diagram to prove to yourself that
ISource = ILoad + IC-PF.
Record relevant values, such as those suggested in Table 1 and any others you may
need in your lab notebook. Show that the values you observed are substantially
what you would expect form your theoretical predictions.

Table 1
Pre- Post- Comments
Correction Correction
IRMS Common to L & R series
elements
Vload, φload
QXL I2XL, or VLIL. can use Vr to
determine IL
PR+Rint Must stay the same
|S| VLoadILoad
φS PF = cos(φ)
QC-PF E2/XC
new Q
New PF
II. Transformation of Voltages, Currents and Impedances

In this part of the procedure, you will want to measure voltages to verify the
transformer operation (step up or step down). Voltage current measurements will
also allow you to verify the impedance transformation and the preservation of the
phase angle of the load.
As discussed in the background, transformers are very common and useful pieces
of electrical gear. In this part of the lab, you will predict and then measure voltage
and current transformation in step-up and step-down configurations.
A practical transformer, like a practical inductor, has some resistance in its
windings. You should measure the resistance of the winding(s) you are using in
each circuit below (the nominal values are also in the data sheet for these
transformers, posted with this lab n the Class Web site). The simple model shown
in Figure 2 will help provide accurate prediction of the circuit’s behaviour. Note
the dots by pins 1 and 4.
Figure 2: Simple Transformer Model
a) Step-down configuration:
Set up your ADM WaveGen for a 5V sinusoidal output at ~5 kHz. Use the Tamura
TTC-108 transformer supplied in your parts kit, measure the internal resistance of

the windings you will be using in this part (Primary: 1-3; Secondary: 4-5). (There
is a data sheet for the TTC-108 transformer posted on the class web site on the Labs
page.) R1 and R2 represent the nominal values of the internal winding resistances
of your priomary and secondary respectively. Connect as shown in Figure 3 with a
220Ω resistor (R3) as a load.
Digilent
ADM
WaveGen (W1)
Amplitude: 5V
Offset: 0V
Symmetry: 50%
f = 5 kHz
Figure 3: Step-down Transformer Circuit

Procedure Summary:
1. With the load disconnected (i.e. open circuit secondary), measure the
primary current using a 10Ω sense resistor and one input channel of your
ADM. This is the “excitation current” and will be quite small.
2. measure the primary voltage using the second channel of your ADM,
observe the phase angle between the current and voltage.
3. measure the phase angle between the primary voltage and current. With no
load, the transformer primary will look like an inductor.
4. measure the secondary open-circuit voltage; determine a turns ratio.
5. connect the 220Ω load and measure the primary and secondary currents.
Also use these to determine a turns ratio. Which should be more accurate?
Details:
The ADM may be less accurate for measuring small voltages, so you could use a
DMM to find the primary current, but you will need to use the ADM to obtain the
phase relationship with the voltage. Observe the “dot notation” on the transformer,
and connect your leads so that the phases are consistent (as suggested in Figure 3).
Remember, there is an “excitation current” required to establish the magnetic flux
in the transformer core, which is basically an inductor, even without any load. The
initial measurements will identify this current. Note the phase angle with the
voltage. Is it what you would expect from an inductor?
(Note: If your partner also has an ADM, you can use a second one to
simultaneously measure the secondary parameters. Plug the second ADM into
another USB port and start another instance of the Waveforms software. The main
Waveforms window will be identified as “Digilent Waveforms 2”)
With the exception of the excitation current, there should be little voltage variation
between what you measure at the terminals and the “true” primary and secondary
voltages, as there should be little, if any, voltage distortion across the internal
resistances of the windings (very low current). This should give a reasonably
accurate estimate of the turns ratio. How does this compare to the turns ratio

estimated by using the secondary and primary currents when there is a load? Can
you explain the similarity or difference?
The load resistor should “appear” at the primary being multiplied by n2. You can
verify this by using the measured voltages and currents to determine the apparent
primary and secondary impedances. You would expect the primary voltage and
current to be in phase, as they are in the secondary, but there may be a slight
distortion due to the inductive impedance of the primary and the excitation current.
How close is the primary impedance to a true reflection of the secondary load
resistance? Can you explain any variation”?
Table 2
Measurement Comments
Primary I No load, use Rsense
Primary V
φ
secondary V
n Turns ratio
Secondary I Load connected
n Using current ratio
b) Step-up configuration:
This is almost identical to the previous procedure. The circuit is shown in Figure 4.
Note the higher load resistance for this configuration due to the higher output
voltage.
Digilent
ADM
WaveGen (W1)
Amplitude: 5V
Offset: 0V
Symmetry: 50%
f = 5 kHz
Figure 4: Step-up Configuration

Procedure Summary:
1. With the load disconnected, measure the primary current using a 10Ω sense
resistor and one input channel of your ADM
2. measure the primary voltage using the second channel of your ADM
3. measure the secondary open-circuit voltage; determine n
4. connect the 2200Ω load and measure the secondary current ( use V across
the load resistor)

5. calculate the turns ratio, n, using the primary and secondary current
measurements
Details:
Again, note and measure the excitation current with no load connected. Does it
differ from what you measured for the step-down case? Remember you are using
approximately ½ of the available primary turns in this circuit; that means the
inductance will be approximately ¼ that of the step down case ( L ∝ n 2 ). Along
with the lower internal resistance, this means a lower impedance presented to the
same source voltage, so we would expect a higher current.
Whether you use the voltage or current ratios to estimate the turns ration, the
internal resistance of the windings will affect your result. The voltage drop across
the internal R will leave less “true” voltage across the coil, and less current because
of the higher total R. You can improve the estimate by taking this internal
resistance into account, but remember this is a simple model; don’t expect a high
degree of accuracy.
Note from your measurements of primary and secondary voltage and current how
the load impedance if affected as it is “transferred” through the transformer. After
compensating for the internal resistance and excitation current, you should notice a
reasonable comparison.
Table 3
Primary I No load, use Rsense
Primary V
secondary V
n Turns ratio
Secondary I Load connected
n Using current ratio
c) Complex Impedance Transformation:

The impedance transformation of a simple resistance is fairly straight forward to
understand, but a slight modification of the circuit in Figure 4 will allow you to find
out how a complex impedance is “reflected” back on the primary side. When the
voltage and current are in phase, there is no real concern about what happens with
the “angle” through the transformer, but when there is a phase difference, the result
may not be intuitively obvious. The objective in this part is to determine how the
phase angle of a complex impedance “behaves” when reflected through a
transformer.

Digilent
ADM
WaveGen (W1)
Amplitude: 5V
Offset: 0V
Symmetry: 50%
f = 5 kHz
Figure 5: Complex Impedance Load
Modify the load in your circuit as shown in Figure 5. If your partner has a parts kit,
use a second .047µF capacitor in series to obtain the .023µF value. If not, ask your
instructor for an additional .047µF or a single ~.02µF capacitor.
Procedure Summary:
1. use open circuit excitation current and voltage phase information from last
part
2. measure load voltage and current (you can use the voltage across the 1000Ω
resistor to calculate the current)
3. measure the voltage and current from the primary side, and use to determine
the apparent impedance (magnitude and angle)
Details
Measuring the voltage, current and phase angle on the primary and on the load side
will allow calculation of the complex impedance as seen by the source and the
actual load. Since the voltage and current are transformed by the turns ratio (or
transformation ratio, a, if you prefer), the magnitude of the impedance (V/I) is also
transformed in a predictable fashion. Since these are both transformed directly by
the transformer, it follows that the phase difference between them is unaffected!.
When comparing the phase angle on the primary side, don’t forget to consider the
initial “lag” of the excitation current. If we consider a “parallel” model (i.e. the
transformed load impedance appears in parallel to the transformer primary), the
phasor addition of the currents gives a little better correspondence to the phase
angle on the load side.
Table 4
secondary I
secondary V
ZS
Primary I
Primary V
ZP
n Apparent turns ratios using Zs

Optional: Power Conservation Verification

Use the voltage and current measurements you have taken above for either
configuration and verify that the power coming from the source is equal to the
power lost in the transformer (or other circuit losses) plus the power delivered to
the load. (This should be true for P and Q in your circuit.)

Reporting-
Use your lab notebook (logbook) to document
• the key objectives of this laboratory,
• your theoretical calculations
• Parts List: your equipment and circuit components used
• any measured values of components
• your measurements verifying your theoretical expectations (you can paste in
screen shots from your ADM where appropriate),
• use Power Triangles and Phasor Diagrams to help illustrate results (e.g. the
relationship between voltages or currents or powers).
• your observations and comments about how closely your observations matched
your expectations,
• related comments on practical limitations for your observations and comments on
possible sources of error

APPENDIX A: Background & Preparation Information
Recall some of the characteristics of the basic circuit elements (R, L, C) in AC circuits.
“Opposition to flow” in AC circuits is a scalar value measured in Ohms (Ω) and called
reactance, X, for capacitors and inductors. Resistance is generally the same value in AC
and DC circuits (RAC = RDC), but the reactance of capacitors and inductors is given by:
1
XC = Ω , (C in Farads) XL = ω LΩ , (L in Henrys),
ωC
where ω = 2π ⋅ frequency( Radians sec ond )
Phasor quantities (which are represented as complex-valued numbers), are used to
represent voltage and current in AC circuits, and the “opposition to flow” in the Phasor
domain is called the impedance, Z, and is also measured in Ohms and is defined as:
phasor _ voltage V
, or Z = , where we use the standard units of measure (Ohms,
phasor _ current I
Volts, Amperes). In rectangular form, the complex impedance can be written in terms of
the scalar resistance and reactances:
Z = R + j ( XL − XC ) , and can be shown graphically on a phasor diagram.
Power in AC circuits has special considerations too. While we can consider the power in
individual elements as scalar values, the overall power is again more usefully represented
as a complex-valued number and determined using phasor values. To differentiate
between the power in different elements and under different circumstances, the units vary
too. The “complex power” in an AC circuit is given by:
S = VI * , where S is the “Apparent Power” measured in Volt-Amperes (VA), V is
the phasor voltage and I* is the complex conjugate of the phasor current. Again, this can
be represented in terms of its scalar components in a rectangular form:

S = P + jQInd , or P − jQCap , where P is the real power, that which does actual
V2
work or is converted to heat ( P = = I 2 R ) and is measured in Watts (W) as in the DC
R
V2
case, and Q is the reactive power ( Q = = I 2 X ) and is measured in volts-amperes-
X
reactive (VARs). Note that the reactive power is considered positive for inductors and
negative for capacitors (the reactive powers, as all powers in an AC circuit, vary
sinusoidally, and are 1800 out of phase with each other, so one “subtracts” from the other).
It does not do any “real” work, and alternately transfers from the capacitance to the
inductance, and vice versa, at twice the excitation frequency.
Finally, the Power Factor is a unit-less number that gives an indication of how
much real work is being done by the current that is flowing. A Power Factor of 1 (or
Unity; 100%) means the voltage and current are completely in phase. A power Factor of
0 (zero) means the voltage and the current are 900 out of phase. It is the cosine of the

phase angle between the voltage and current in an AC circuit. An equivalent expression
is:
P
Power Factor, FP =
S
()
= cos θ
where θ is both the angular part of the complex power value, S (in polar form), and also
the phase angle between the voltage and the current (it can be shown that they are
mathematically related), and the phase angle of the complex impedance of the load, ZL.
Since cosine is ambiguous for positive and negative angles, it must be specified whether
the Power Factor is leading (for capacitive loads) or lagging (for inductive loads); i.e.
whether the current is lagging or leading the voltage, respectively. In order to improve
the power-delivering efficiency of an AC system, the Power Factor is “corrected” by
“adding VARs” with a reactive element (capacitor or inductor) that will reduce the net
VARs in the circuit, thus reducing the phase angle of the load impedance (and the phase
angle between the voltage and current), thus making sure more of the current that is
delivered is used for actual, real work (power). As a quick summery, the steps typically
involved in determining the corrective element are:
1. determine the Power Triangle components for the load prior to correction (at
least the P and the “old Q”)
2. determine the “new Q” required so that the new Power Factor is as desired while
( )
maintaining the same P ( QNew = tan cos −1 ( newPF ) P )
3. determine the amount and type of Q that must be “Added” to the circuit
(ΔQ=QNew – QOld; +ve = inductive, -ve = capacitive)
2
ESource 1 XL
4. calculate the value of the element ( X = ; C= or L = )
ΔQ ω XC ω
Transformers are very useful devices in AC circuits. They operate based on the
principle, described by Faraday’s Law, of magnetic induction. In simple terms, a
magnetic field produced by a current can induce a voltage in another coil of wire
“coupled” by the same flux. The magnitude of the induced voltage of proportional to the
number of turns of wire. By designing the number of turns in each coil appropriately, the
device can be used to efficiently increase (step-up) or decrease (step down) the voltage
for different purposes (e.g. step up to transmit energy over long distances with reduced
loss, or step down to obtain a voltage suitable for powering small electronic devices or
charging a battery). Transformers are also used to provide electrical isolation (i.e. no
conducting, metallic contact between one circuit and another) and impedance matching to
help maximize power transfer.
The key characteristic of a transformer is the ratio of the number of turns in the input
(primary) coil to the output (secondary) coil. This dictates, with some practical
limitations, the voltage and impedance levels that are obtained. A summary of the
relationships between the number of turns and resultant voltages, currents and
impedances are given in Table 5 below.

Table 5: Ideal Transformer Equations

Es
Voltage Es = nEp Ep =
n
Ip
Current Is = Ip = nIs
n
Rs
Impedance Rs = n 2 Rp Rp =
n2
E p− max = 2π fN p Φ max
Ns
Turns ration, n= .
Np
Notes:
Np
Transformation ratio, a=
Ns
Theoretical calculations of various circuit parameters should be performed as part of the

lab preparation (i.e. prior to your lab period). Calculating the expected currents and
voltages will also allow you to determine the required ratings for your components (i.e.
how much power they must dissipate, how much voltage they must withstand etc.)
Please refer to the Class Notes for background theory on impedance, reactance and
complex power and transformers.
References:
EE204 Course Notes

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Laboratory #3: AC Power and Transformer Circuits

Electrical and Computer Engineering EE 204.3 University of Saskatchewan

Sep 22, 2012

In this laboratory, the student will:

Background and Preparation:

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Complex Power A representation of Apparent (S), Reactive (Q) and Active

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Modeling- (determining what you would expect to see)

Component Nominal Value Measured Value

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Figure 1: Power and PF Correction

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II. Transformation of Voltages, Currents and Impedances

Figure 2: Simple Transformer Model

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Figure 3: Step-down Transformer Circuit

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Figure 4: Step-up Configuration

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c) Complex Impedance Transformation:

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Optional: Power Conservation Verification

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APPENDIX A: Background & Preparation Information

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Table 5: Ideal Transformer Equations

Theoretical calculations of various circuit parameters should be performed as part of the

EE204 Course Notes

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