Text Book of Automobile Engineering PDF

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ANNA UNIVERSITY SYLLABUS· Reg. 2013
ME6602 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
UNIT I VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND ENGINES

Types of automobiles, vehicle construction and different layouts, chassis, frame and
body, Vehicle aerodynamics (various resistances and moments involved), IC engines
-components functions and materials, variable valve timing (VVT).
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UNIT II ENGIN'= AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
Electronically controlled gasoline injection system for SI engines, Electronically
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controlled diesel injection system (Unit injector system, Rotary distributor type and
common rail direct injection system), Electronic ignition system (Transistorized coil
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ignition system, capacitive discharge ignition system), Turbo chargers (WGT, VGT),
Engine emission control by three way catalytic converter system, Emission norms
(Euro and BS).
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UNIT III TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS gin
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Clutch-types and construction, gear boxes- manual and automatic, gear shift
ing
mechanisms, Over drive, transfer box, fluid flywheel, torque converter, propeller
shaft, slip joints, universal joints, Differential and rear axle, Hotchkiss Drive and
Torque Tube Drive.
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UNIT IV STEERING, BRAKES AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
Steering geometry and types of steering gear box-Power Steering, Types of Front
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Axle, Types of Suspension Systems, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Braking Systems,
Antilock Braking System (ABS), electronic brake force distribution (EBD) and Traction
Control.
UNIT V ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

Use of Natural Gas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas, Bio-diesel, Bio-ethanol, Gasohol and
Hydrogen in Automobiles- Engine modifications required -Performance, Combustion
and EmiSSionCharacteristics of SI and CI engines with these alternate fuels - Electric
and Hvbrid Vehicles, Fuel Cell.

t CONTENTS
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UNIT 1 Vehicle Structure and Engines
UNIT 2 Engine Auxiliary Systems

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UNIT 3 Transmission Systems
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UNIT 4 Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems ing
UNIT 5 Alternative Energy Sources .ne
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Contents
Introduction 1.1
1.1.
1.1.1. Brief History of Automobiles 1.2
1.1.2. Requirements of an Automobile 1.5
1.2. General classification of vehicles 1.5
1.2.1. Single unit vehicles 1.5
ww 1.2.2. Articulated vehicles 1.6

1.6
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1.3.
1.2.3. Heavy tractor vehicles
Types of automobiles 1.6
1.4.
1.5.
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Vehicle construction
Different layouts of a car
1.10
1.12
1.5.1.
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Layout for the light passenger vehicle (car) 1.12
112
1.5.1.1. Front engine
1.5.1.2. Rear engine nee 1.12
1.5.1.3. Central or mid-engine

1.5.2. Front engine front wheel drive
r ing 1.13
1.14
1.5.3. Front engine rear wheel drive .ne 1.16
1.5.4.
1.5.5.
Rear engine rear wheel drive
Four-wheel drive
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1.17
1.18
1.6. Chassis 1.19
1.6.1. Basic construction of chassis 1.19
1.6.2. Main components of chassis 1.20
1.6.3. Classification of chassis 1.20
1.6.4. Characteristics of a good chassis 1.22
1.6.5. Layout of chassis 1.22
1.6.6. Components and drive systems in chassis 1.23
1.7. Frame 1.27

• 1.7.1. Functions or importance of frame

Automobile Engineering
1.27
1.7.2. Requirements of a good frame 1.28
1.7.3. Frame construction 1.28
1.7.4. Types of frame 1.30
1.7.5. Load on chassis frame (various resistances and
moments involved) 1.34
1.7.6. Materials for frame 1.35
1.7.7. Sub frames 1.35
1.7.8. Frame defects 1.37
ww 1.7.9.
1.7.10.
Frame repair and alignment
Checking frame alignment
1.37
1.38
1.8.
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Body
1.8.1. Importance of vehicle body design
1.39
1.8.2. asy
Requirements of vehicle body
1.40
1.40
1.8.3.
1.8.4.
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Types of vehicle body
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Body construction and its components
1.41
1.43
1.8.5. Materials for body construction
nee 1.51
1.9. Vehicle aerodynamics
1.9.1. Resistances to vehicle motion rin 1.52
1.52
1.9.2. Aerodynamics of automobile body g.n 1.54
1.10.
1.11.
Internal combustion engine (IC engine)
Engine construction
et 1.56
1.56
1.12. Components of IC Engine 1.58
1.12.1. Cylinder block 1.58
1.12.2. Cylinder head 1.58
1.12.: Crankcase 1.59
1.12.4. Oil Sump or Oil Pan 1.59
1.12.5. Cylinder liners 1.59
1.12.6. Piston 1.60
1.12.7. Connecting rod 1.64

I Contents fBI
1.65
1.12.8. Piston rings
1.12.9. Crank shaft 1.66
1.12.10. Flywheel 1.66
1.12.11. Cam Shaft 1.67
1.12.12. Spark Plug 1.68
1.12.13. Valves 1.68
1.12.14. Valve mechanisms 1.69
1.13. Classification ofIC engines 1.71
1.14. Working principle ofIC engines 1.73
ww 1.14.1.
1.14.2.
Working of four stroke cycle (petrol) SI engine
Working of four stroke cycle (diesel) CI engine
1.73
1.75
w.E 1.14.3. Working of two stroke cycle SI engine (petrol engine) 1.76
a 1.14.4.
1.14.5.
Working of two stroke cycle CI engine (diesel engine)
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Comparison of SI engine and CI engine
1.78
1.79
1.15.
1.14.6.
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Comparison of two-stroke and four-stroke engines
Classification based on number of cylinders
1.80
1.82
1.16. nee
Classification based on arrangement of cylinders 1.84
1.17.
1.18
Classification based on length of cylinders
Classification based on arrangement of valvesr ing
1.91
1.92
1.19. Classification based on methods of cooling
.ne 1.95
1.20.
1.21.
Wankel engine
Valve timing diagram for a four-stroke cycle SI engine
t
1.95
1.98
1.22. Valve timing diagram for a four stroke CI engine 1.100
1.23. Variable valve timing (VVT) 1.101
1.23.1. Types of variable valve timing 1.103
1.23.2. Advantages of variable valve timing 1.104
1.23.3. Applications of variable valve timing 1.105
1.24. Two mark questions and answers 1.105
1.25. Solved questions 1.126

2.1. Carburetors 2.1

L.1.i. Functions of carburetor 2.1
2.2. Factors affecting fuel vaporization 2.2
2.3. Types of carburetor 2.2
2.3.1. Simple carburetor 2.3
2.3.1.1. Defects in a simple carburetor
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2.4
2.3.2. Solex carburetor 2.13
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2.3.3.
2.3.4.
S.U carburetor
Zenith carburetor
2.19
2.21
2.3.5.
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Carter carburetor 2.22
2.4.
2.4.1. E
Electronically controlled gasoline injection system for SI engine
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Limitations of carburetor or necessity of petrol fuel injection
2.25
2.25
2.4.2.
2.4.3.
Types of gasoline injection system
nee 2.25
Working of electronically controlled gasoline injection system 2.27
2.5. Electronic diesel injection system
rin 2.30
2.5.1. Components of electronic diesel injection system
g.n 2.31
2.5.2.
2.5.3.
Unit injector system
Rotary distributor system et 2.33
2.35
2.5.4. Common rail direct injection system (CRDI) 2.36
2.6. Ignition system 2.38
2.6.1. Battery ignition system or coil system 2.38
2.6.2. Magneto ignition system 2.40
2.6.3. Electronic ignition system 2.43
2.6.4. Transistorised ignition system 2.46
2.6.5. Capacitive discharge ignition system 2.47
2.6.6. Distributorless ignition system 2.48
2.7. Supercharging 2.49

I Contents ED I
2.7.1. Types of supercharging methods 2.49
2.8. Turbo chargers 2.52
2.8.1. Methods of turbocharging 2.5£1
2.9. Engine emission and its control 2.56

2.9.1. Automobile engine pollutants 2.57
2.9.2. Diesel engine emission 2.59
2.9.3. SI engine emission 2.59
2.9.4. Pollution control 2.60
2.9.5. Evaporative emission control for SI engine 2.62
ww 2.9.6.
2.9.7.
Evaporative emission control system for CI engine
Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) system
2.64
2.64
w.E 2.9.8. Crankcase emission control system 2.66
2.10.
2.9.9.
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Engine emission control by catalytic converter
Emission norms (Euro and BS)
2.66
2.69
2.10.1.
2.10.2. EURONorms
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Setting emission norms 2.69
2.70
2.10.3. BS NonIl~ nee 2.72
2.11. Two mark questions and answers

rin 2.77
2.12. Solved questions

g.n 2.90
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3.1. Introduction 3.1
3.1.1. Functions or purposes of transmission systems 3.2
3.2. Clutch 3.2

3.2.1 Principles of operation of friction clutch 3.3
3.2.2. Functions of clutch 3.3
3.2.3. Characteristics or requirements of a clutch 3.3
3.3. Types of clutches 3.4

• 3.3.1.
3.3.2.
Single plate clutch
Multi-plate clutch
3.5
3.9
3.3.3. Cone clutch 3.10
3.3.4. Centrifugal clutch 3.11
3.3.5. Semi-centrifugal clutch 3.12
3.3.6. Diaphragm clutch 3.13
3.3.7. Positive clutch (or) dog and spline clutch 3.15
3.3.8. Hydraulic clutch 3.16
3.3.9. Electro-magnetic clutch 3.17
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3.4.
3.3.10. Vacuum clutch
Trouble shooting of clutch
3.18
3.19
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3.5. Gearbox 3.22
a 3.5.1.
3.5.2.
Necessity of transmission
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Purposes of transmission
3.22
3.23
3.5.3.
3.5.4.
Resistances to motion
Tractive effort ngi 3.23
3.24
3.6. Types of gearbox nee 3.25
3.6.1.
3.6.2.
Sliding mesh gearbox
Constant mesh gearbox
r ing 3.25
3.29
3.6.3. Synchromesh gearbox .ne 3.32
3.6.4.
3.6.5.
Epicyclic gearbox
Automatic gearbox
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3.34
3.36
3.7. Hydromatic transmission 3.37
3.8. Shift or selector mechanism 3.42
3.9. Trouble shooting of gearbox 3.43
3.10. Overdrives 3.47
3.10.1. Operation 3.49
3.10.2. Construction 3.49
3.10.3. Free-wheel assembly 3.50
3.10.4. Pawl action 3.51

I Contents IDI
3.10.5. Electrical controls 3.52
3.10.6. Trouble shooting chart for overdrive 3.54
3.11. Transfer box 3.55
3.12. Fluid flywheel 3.57
3.13. Torque converter gearbox 3.58
3.13.1. Difference between fluid coupling and torque convertor 3.61
3.14. Propeller shaft 3.62
3.14.1. Functions of propeller shaft 3.62
3.14.2. Propeller shaft construction 3.64
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3.l5. Slip joints
Universal joints
3.65
3.66
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3.16.
3.16.1. Types of universal joints 3.66
3.16.2.
3.16.3. asy
Maintenance of propeller shafts and universal joints
Trouble shooting for propeller shaft
3.69
3.70
3.17. Differential
3.17.1.
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Need for the differential gear unit
3.71
3.71
3.17.2. nee
Major components of differential 3.72
3.17.3. Construction
rin 3.72
3.17.4.
3.17.5.
Basic principle of operation
Types of differential g.n 3.73
3.74
3.17.5.1. Conventional differential e

3.17.5.2. Limited slip differential or self-locking differential or
t3.74
differential lockout 3.74
3.17.5.3. Non-slip differential 3.78
3.17.5.4. Double reduction type differential 3.78
3.17.6. Trouble shooting for differential 3.79
3.18. Rear axle 3.81
3.18.1. Construction of rear axles 3.82
3.18.2. Rear axle casing 3.82
3.18.3. Types of loads acting on rear axles 3.85

3.18.4. Types of rear axles 3.85
3.18.5. Comparison of different types of rear axles 3.8R
3.18.6. Rear axle drives 3.88
3.18.6.1. Hotchkiss drive J.88
3.18.6.2. Torque tube drive 3.89
3.18.6.3. Comparison between Hotchkiss drive and torque tube drive 3.90
3.18.7. Trouble shooting for rear axle 3.91
Solved questions 3.108
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3.20.
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4.1. Steering system ngi 4.1
4.1.1.
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Requirements and functions of the steering system 4.2
4.3
4.1.2.
4.1.3.
Layout of steering system
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Principle of operation of steering system
ing 4.7
4.1.4. Fundamentals of steering mechanism or condition for
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4.1.5.
true rolling motion
Ackerman - Jeantaud steering linkage
Davis steering gear
t4.7
4.9
4.11
4.1.6.
4.1.7. Steering linkage for vehicle with
independent front suspension 4.12
4.1.8. Steering geometry 4.12
4.1.9. Wheel alignment 4.19
4.1.10. Steering gears 4.20
4.1.11. Types of steering gear box 4.21
4.1.12. Steering ratio 4.27
4.1.13. Turning radius and slip angle 4.28

I Contents Ell I
4.1.14. Understeering and oversteering 4.29
4.1.15. Centre point steering 4.30
4.1.16. Cornering force 4.32
4.1.17. Reversible and irreversible steering 4.33
4.1.18. Power steering 1.33
4.1.19. Trouble shooting for steering system 4.37
4.2. Front axle 4.4~
4.2.1. Functions of front axle 4.44
4.2.2. Construction and components of front axle 4.44
ww 4.2.3. Types of front axles 4.46

4.3.
w.EStub axle
4.3.1. Types of stub axles
4.47
4.47
4.4. Suspension system
asy 4.48
4.4.1.
4.4.2.
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Components .ofsuspension system
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Functions or objectives of suspension system
4.49
4.49
4.4.3.
4.4.4.
Requirements of suspension system
Principles of suspension system
nee 4.50
4.50
4.4.5. Sprung weight and unsprung weight rin 4.50
4.4.6. Basic suspension movements g.n 4.52
4.4.7.
4.4.8.
Types of suspension springs
Leaf spring suspension
e 4.54
t
4.55
4.4.9. Helper springs 4.58
4.4.10. Coil spring 4.59
4.4.11. Torsion bar 4.60
4.4.12. Rubber springs 4.61
4.4.13. Air springs 4.63
4.4.14. ~ydro elastic suspension 4.66
4.4.15. Shock absorber 4.68
4.4.16. Types of suspension system 4.71
iI i
4.4.17. Independent front suspension 4.71

- 4.4.18.
4.4.19.
4.4.20.
Rigid axle front suspension
Independent rear suspension
Interconnected suspension system
4.78
4.79
4.82
4.4.21. Anti-roll bar (stabilizer) 4.84
4.4.22. Trouble shooting in springs and suspension 4.86
4.5. Braking system 4.90

4.5.1. Requirements of braking system 4.90
4.5.2. Stopping distance, time and braking efficiency 4.91
4.5.3. Theory of braking or principle of braking 4.92
ww 4.5.4. Friction resistance and coefficient of friction 4.93
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4.5.5.
4.5.6.
Types of brakes
Drum brake
4.94
4.95
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4.5.6.1. Types of drum brakes 4.97
4.5.7. Disc brakes
En 4.98
4.5.7.1. Components of disc brake
4.5.7.2. Types of disc brake gin 4.98
4.99
4.5.8. eer
Comparison between drum brake and disc brake 4.103
4.5.9. Hydraulic brakes

ing 4.104
4.5.9.1. Master cylinder

4.5.9.2. Wheel cylinder .ne 4.105
4.108
4.5.9.3. Advantages and disadvantages of hydraulic brakes
4.5.9.4. Brake fluid of hydraulic brake system
t 4.109
4.110
4.5.9.5. Bleeding of hydraulic brakes 4.111
4.5.10. Mechanical brakes 4.112

4.5.10.1. Fixed expander brake 4.113
4.5.10.2. Leading and trailing shoes 4.114
4.5.10.3. Floating-cam brake 4.114
4.5.10.4. Floating anchor brake 4.115
4.5.10.5. Brakes with two leading shoes 4.116

4.5.10.6. Brakes with two trailing shoes 4.116

I Contents
4.5.11. Air assisted hydraulic braking system 4.117
4.5.12. Pneumatic braking system 4.117
4.5.12.1. Comparison between pneumatic and hydraulic brakmg systems 4.119
4.5.13. Transmission or propeller shaft parking brake 4.120
4.5.14. Servo brake systems 4.121
4.5.15. Power-assisted braking system 4.122

4.5.15.1. Vacuum assisted hydraulic brake 4.123
4.5.16. Brake valve 4.124
4.5.17. Brake adjustments 4.125
ww 4.5.17.1. Micram adjuster 4.125

4.126
w.E 4.5.17.2. Taper screw adjuster

4.5.17.3. Girling mechanical brake adjuster 4.127
4.5.18.
4.5.19. asy
Brake compensation
Retarder
4.128
4.128
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4.5.19.1. Hydraulic retarder
4.5.19.2. Electric retarder ngi 4.128
4.129
4.5.20. Antilock braking systems (ABS) nee 4.129
4.5.20.1. Need of ABS in automobile
rin 4.130
4.5.20.2. Components of ABS

4.5.20.3. Working principle of ABS g.n 4.131
4.134
4.5.20.4. Types of anti-lock brakes
4.5.20.5. Advantages and disadvantages of ABS
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4.136
4.136
4.5.21. Electronic brake force distribution (EBD) 4.137
4.5.22. Traction control 4.139
4.55.22.1. Function of a traction control 4.139
4.55.22.2. Components ofTCS systems 4.140
4.5.23. Trouble shooting in brakes 4.141
4.58. Solved questions 4.174

5.1. Introduction to alternative energy sources 5.1

5.2. Alternative fuels 5.2
5.3. Properties of alternate fuels 5.4
5.4. Use of natural gas in automobiles 5.8
5.4.1. History of natural gas 5.9
ww 5.4.2.
5.4.3.
Properties/characteristics
Various forms of natural gas
of natural gas 5.10
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5.11
5.4.4. Natural gas production 5.13
5.4.5.
5.4.6. asy
Natural gas vehicles (NGVs)
Natural gas consumption pattern in different countries
5.14
5.17
5.4.7. E ngi
Compressed natural gas (CNG) and
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) 5.17
5.4.8. Advantages and Disadvantages of LNG
nee 5.18
5.5. Use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in automobiles
5.5.1. Properties / characteristics of LPG rin 5.19
5.20
5.5.2. LPG equipment g.n 5.23
5.5.3.
5.5.4.
LPG fuel/engine interaction
Current state of LPG engine/vehicle technology
e t
5.24
5.24
5.5.5. LPG vehicles 5.25
5.5.6. Advantages and disadvantages of LPG 5.27
5.6. Use ofbio-diesel in automobiles 5.29
5.6.1. Properties ofbiodiesel 5.30
5.6.2. Biodiesel production 5.30
5.6.3. Advantages and disadvantages of biodiesel 5.31
5.7. Use of bio-ethanol in automobiles 5.33
5.7.1. Sources ofbio-ethanol (Alcohol) 5.34
5.7.2. Bio-Ethanol (Alcohol) production 5.35

I Contents rEI I
5.7.3. Performance of ethanol-based engine 5.37
5.7.4. Engine cold start during winter 5.39
5.7.5. Fuel economy 5.39
5.7.6. Ethanol fuel mixtures 5AO
5.7.7. Properties/Characteristics of Ethanol / Alcohol 5.40
5.7.8. Advantages and disadvantages of Ethanol / Alcohol 5.40
5.8. Use of gasohol in automobiles 5.42
5.8.1. Potential of gasohol in India 5.43
5.8.2. Gasohol fueled vehicles 5.45
ww 5.8.3. Advantages and disadvantages of gasohol 5.45
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5.9. Use of hydrogen fuels in automobiles
5.9.1. Sources of hydrogen
·5.46
5.46
5.9.2.
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Advantages and disadvantages of using hydrogen as fuel 5.47
5.9.3.
5.9.4. E
Hydrogen as a fuel
Hydrogen properties
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5.48
5.48
5.9.5.
5.9.6.
Production of hydrogen
Hydrogen from natural gas nee 5.49
5.51
5.9.7. Thermochemical processes
rin 5.52
5.9.8. Other methods of producing hydrogen
g.n 5.53
5.9.9.
5.9.10.
Methods of using hydrogen in CI engines
Challenges for hydrogen fuel e 5.55
t
5.56
5.9.11. Hydrogen fueled vehicles 5.57
5.10. Engine modifications required for alternate fuels 5.57
5.10.1. Need for engine modification 5.57
5.10.2. Engine modification for bio-ethanol 5.58
5.10.3 Engine modification biodiesel 5.61
5.11. Performance of SI and CI engines with alternate fuels 5.62
5.11.1. Performance of a 4-stroke SI engine "sing CNG
as an alternative fuel 5.62

- 5.11.2.
5.11.3.
Performance of spark ignition engine fuelled with methane,
methanol, hydrogen, propane and ethanol gasoline fuels
Performance of compression ignition (CI) engine fuelled
5.64
with biodiesel as an alternate fuel 5.67

5.11.4. Performance of soyabean oil as an alternate fuel
for CI engine at variable compression ratio 5.68
5.12. .Combustion ofSI and CI engines with alternate fuels 5.69
5.13. Emission characteristics ofSI and CI engines with alternate fuels 5.70
5.14. Electric vehicles 5.71
ww 5.14.1. History of electric vehicles 5.72
w.E 5.14.2.
5.14.3.
Working of electric vehicles
Electric vehicles
5.72
5.73
a 5.14.4.
5.14.5.
Maintenance considerations
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Benefits of electric vehicles
5.74
5.75
5.14.6.
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Limitations of electric vehicles 5.75
5.76
5.15. Hybrid vehicles
5.15.1. Working of hybrid vehicles nee 5.76
5.15.2.
5.15.3.
Parallel HEV design
Series HEV design
r ing 5.77
5.78
5.15.4. Hybrid electric vehicle components .ne 5.79
5.15.5.
5.15.6.
Hybrid electric vehicle benefits
Hybrid electric vehicles
t 5.86
5.87
5.16. Use of fuel cells in automobiles 5.89
5.16.1. History of fuel cell 5.89
5.16.2. Comparison of a fuel cell car and battery car 5.90
5.16.3. Comparison of gasoline cars and fuel cell car 5.90
5.16.4. Working principle of a fuel cell 5.90
5.16.5. Parts of a fuel cell 5.91
5.16.6. Types of fuel cells 5.94
5.16.6.1. Hydrogen-oxygen cell 5.94
5.16.6.~. Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells 5.95

I Contents ami
5.16.6.3. Direct methanol fuel cells 5.96
5.16:.6.4.Alkaline fuel cells 5.97
5.16.6.5. Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs) 5.98
5.16.6.6. Molten carbonate fuel cells 5.99
5.16.6.7. Solid oxide fuel cells 5.100
5.16.7.8. Regenerative fuel cells 5.101
5.16.7. Conversion efficiency of fuel cells 5.101
5.16.8. Advantages and disadvantages of fuel cells 5.101
5.16.9. Applications of fuel cells 5.102
ww 5.16.10. Fuel cell vehicles 5.103

5.17.
5.18. w.E
Twonuukqu~wnsand~en
Solvedquestwns
5.105
5.125
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**********************************************************************
En
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g. net

I UNIT -1
J
ww
w.E
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E ngi
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Types of automobiles, vehicle construction
different layouts, chassis, frame and body, Ve'hicle
and
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aerodynamics (various resistances and moments
involved), Ie g.n
engines - components functions and
materials, variable valve timing (VVT).
e t

I Vehicle StrUcture and Engines

-
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w.E VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND ENGINES
1.1. INTRODUCTION asy

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The term automobile or automotive stands for a vehicle which can be moved by itself.
Therefore, an automobile is a self-propelled vehicle. It is used for the transportation of
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passengers and goods from one place to another on the ground. A vehicle producing
within itself for its- propulsion is known as self-propelled vehicles. Example. s.oooters,
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mopeds, cars, lorry, bus, jeep, tractors, ship, airplanes, helicopters, rockets etc.
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Automobile vehicles differ from aeronautical vehicle .such as ships, airplanes,
sail in water e
helicopters, rockets etc., which fly in air and from.marine vehicles such as motor boat which
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Modern automobiles are produced by using complex components of machineries and
therefore, it requires a caretul attention for making it to perform the task in a safe, eeonomical
and efficient way. It is made up of a frame supported by the body and power producing units
and power transmitting units. These units are further-supported by tyres ano Wheelswhich are
connected by springs and axles. In general, the power is produced by internal combustion
engines. This power inturn is transmitted to rear wheels through various transmission ~ystems
such as clutch, propeller shaft, gear box, differential units etc.
The various units are held together in a proper position and arranged on the frame. The
automobile is propelled through the friction between tyre and ground. The super structure or

- Automobile EnginHl1ng
body of the automobile provides protection and comfort to the passenger. The 'essential
features of the typical automobile (i.e. truck) are shown in Figure 1.1.
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Figure 1.1Essential features of an automobile
1.1.1.Brief History of Automobiles

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Germany is the birth place of automobile. It was invented there. It went through its initial
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phases and it was developed to a high level of technical maturity. The list of German
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automobile pioneers is a long one starting with Nicholas Cugnot, August, Otto, Carl Benz,
Gottlieb, Daimler, Wilhelm Maybach and Rudolf Diesel and going all the way up to
Ferdinand Porsche and Felix Wankel.
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The leading manufactures or motor vehicles in the world are as follows.
1. U.S.A.: General Motors, Ford-Ford cars, Chrysler, Dodge

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2. U.K.: Rolls-Royce Limited, Aston Martin, Bentley, Daimler
3. Japan: Toyota, Nissan, Honda, Suzuki, Mazda, Isuzu, Mitsubishi
4. Germany: BMW, Volkswagen, Audi, Skoda, Mercedes-Benz, Porsche, Daimler
AG, Opel, Porsche
5. Italy: FIAT
6. Sweden: Volvo
7. France: Renault

Vehicle Structure and Engines

8. India: TATA motors, Mahindra & Mahindra, Hindustan Motors, Premier
Automobiles Limited, Force Motors, Jaguar, Land Rover (Note. Jaguar,
and Land Rover are acquired by TATA Motors in 2008)
9. South Korea: Hyundai, KIA Motors, SsangYong Motor
The invention of automobiles is not the product of a single man, single country or a
single generation in any country. It is the evolution and development of many men at various
generations in different countries.
The real history of automobile was started during 15th century (i.e. during Leonardo Da
Vinci's period). But up to 18th century, it was not seriously considered for the development in
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practice.
Captain Nicholas Cugnot, a French engineer is considered to be the father of
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"Automobiles". He built the first road vehicle in 1769whlch was propelled by its own-power.
Actually, this vehicle was a 3 wheeler with a steam engine having four seats. It attained a
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speed of2.5miles per hour only for a period of 15minutes. During 1770s, he ~uilt another self-
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propelled vehicle which could run at 8mph carrving.e to 5 Jo1IS..()f weight.
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Richard Trevithick of England first built a practical full sized stearn automobile in 1801.
Julis Griffith of England built the first comfortable stearn vehicle in 1821.
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Onesiphore Pacquaur of France took out a patent on the differential for road vehicle in
1827.
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Etienne Lenoir of France (Paris) constructed an internal combustion engine which was
run by gas during 1860. Two years later, he fitted one of his engines in a vehicle. He drove it
for about 6miles.
Nikolaus A.Otto and Engen Langen of Germany invented four stroke engine in 1876
which was run by gas. It was further improved by Gottlieb Daimler of Germany (in 1885)
who substituted oil for gas. The present day automobile is the development of this vehicle.
Karl Benz of Germany built a tricycle with an l.C, engine in 1885-86 which was working
an Otto cycle. The speed of this engine was 10mph and produced 8HP.
In 1886, Daimler produced a four-wheeled vehicle with high-speed gas engine (800rpm
to 1OOOrpm)which was considered as the greatest achievement in the history of automobile.
In 1890, Charles Duryea, J. Frank Duryea, Elwood Haynes, Henry Ford and Ransom E.
Olds, and Alexander Winton manufactured a.gasoline automobile in America.

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Penhard and Levassor of France developed a first gasoline automobile which
incorporated many essential features of the present day automobile in 1895. This car
contained a vertical engine, modern type of chassis, sliding gear transmission operated by
right hand, clutch, brake and a foot operated accelerator.
Before 1900, a considerable work was carried in Germany, France, England and America
on the development of gasoline automobile. Until 1910, the automobile was in the
experimental work.
During 1900-1906, the production and sales of automobile became a real business. The
world's largest manufacturing industry was built in America. In America alone, there were
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121 car manufacturers in which some of the familiar names are Chrysler, Nash. Hudson.
Packard, Autocar, Oldsmobile, White, Ford, Cadillac, Buick overland, Maxwell, Franklin etc.
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Ford started an automobile industry with an initial run of 20000 vehicles in 1908 and it
was the period when the mass production was begun at the lowest possible price.
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Year 1920 was the period of gradual change and refinement in the automobile design.
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The spark ignition gasoline engine was made with compact, light, high speed, less vibration,
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air or water cooled and noiseless in nature. The engines were located in front of chassis. The
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sliding gear transmission and poppet valve were used in almost every engine.
History of automobile in India:

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In 1898, an American company imported three "Oldsmobiles" cars into Bombay
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(Mumbai). One of which was sold to Jamshedji Tata, an industrialist. It was the first motor
car in India.
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In 1903, an American company began to operate a public taxi service with a tleet of SO
cars.
In order to create and manufacture indigenous product, two automobile factories were set
up in India. They were the Permier Automobiles Ltd., Bombay in 1943 and Hindustan Motors
Ltd., Calcutta in 1944.
Now-a-days, there are many automobile industries for manufacturing automobile
vehicles. Maharastra and Tamil Nadu are the major states which are producing most of the
automobile and auxiliary manufacturing units.

VehicleSttvcture and Engines

1.1.2.Requirements of an Automobile
The following requirements must be fulfilled for an automobile.
1. It should develop power by itself.

2. The rate of power development must be easily controlled.
3. There should be an arrangement to transmit developed power to wheels.
4. An arrangement must exist to continue and discontinue power flow to wheels.
5. It should be possible to control or vary the torque.
6. The driving thrust should successfully be carried in the vehicle.
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8. An arrangement must exist to stop the vehicle while it is running.
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All above requirements are fulfilled by the following arrangements.
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1. The power is developed by the engme.
2. The rate of power development is controlled bv an accelerometer.
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3. The power developed by the engine is transmitted to wheels by transmission
system.
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4. The gear box is provided for varying or changing the torque.
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5. The driving thrust is carried to the chassis frame through the suspension system.
6. Directional control is maintained through the steering.
7. The moving vehicle is stopped by means of brakes. g. net
1.2. GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONOF VEHICLES
There are various types of automobiles vehicles used in the world. In general, these
automobiles can be classified into three main groups.
1. Single unit vehicles or load carriers

2. Articulated vehicles
3. Heavy tractor vehicles.
1.2.1.Single Unit Vehicles

These are conventional four-wheel types. The great majority of vehicles are of two axle
design. In these vehicles, the front axle is a steering or.non-driving axle. With the passage of
time; many changes have taken place in axles and driving arrangements.

-1.2.2.Articulated Vehicles
A lower powered three-wheeler with a single steering wheel in front and a conventional .
rear driving axle are an example of articulated vehicles. It has a greater handling ability in
awkward places. It can be turned about its own tail due to three-wheel construction. The
coupling mechanism between semi-trailer and tractor in most of these vehicles is arranged for
automatic connection and coupling up. If it is necessary, it is reversed into a position. But for
uncoupling operation, a lever is provided within the driver's cabin to reverse the whole
process. A pair of retractable wheels in front is also provided. Along with the coupling or
uncoupling operation, they can be automatically raised or lowered.
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1.2.3. Heavy Tractor Vehicles
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Heavy tractor or independent tractor vehicles are used to move heavy loads. They
. commonly operate in pair either in tendon or as 'puller' or 'pusher'. While descending
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appreciable gradients, the stability is provided by the 'puller' or 'pusher' arrangement.
1.3. TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES E ngi

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Automobiles can be classified with respect to different purposes. A general classification
of the automobiles is shown schematically in Figure 1.2.
(i) With respect to the purpose:

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(a) Passenger vehicles. Examples: Car, bus,jeep, scooter, mopeds and motor cycle.
(b) Goods carriers. Examples: Trucks and Lorries.
(ii) Weight of the vehicle: e t

(a) Heavy weight vehicle such as buses, trucks and trailers.
(b) Light weight vehicles such as.cars.jeeps etc.
(c) Medium weight vehicles such as minibus and station wagon.
(iii) With respect to the fuel used:

(a) Petrol vehicles Examples: Scooters, cars, motors cycles etc.
(b) Diesel vehicles Examples: Buses, trucks etc.
(c) Gas vehicles Examples: Coal gas, LPG, CNG vehicles.
(d) Electric vehicle Examples: Heavy cranes, battery truck, cars and forklifts.
(e) Solar vehicle.

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Figure 1.2 Classification of automobiles
(iv) With respect to body style:

According to body style following are major styles.
a) Closed cars such as, sedan cars, saloon cars, SUV~ coupe etc.
b) Open cars such as sport cars and convertible cars.
c) Special style vehicles such as estate car, station wagon etc.

..
, Automobile Enpineering
(v) With respect to capacity:
(a) Heavy transport vehicle or heavy motor vehicles. Example: Bus, Lorries,
Trucks, Tractors.
(b) Light transport vehicle or light motor vehicles. Example: Car, Scooter, Mopeds,
Motor cycles, Jeeps.
(vi) With respect to the number of wheels:

(a) Two wheelers. Examples: Scooters, Mopeds.
(b) Four wheelers. Examples: Car, Jeep, Buses.Trucks,
(c) Three wheelers. Examples: Auto, Tempos
ww (d) Six wheelers. Example: Heavy trucks.'
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(vii) With respect to the drive of the vehicle:
(a) Single wheel drive vehicles
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(b) Two wheel drive vehicles
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(c) Four wheel drive vehicles
(d) Six wheel drive vehicles.
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(viii) With respect to the side of driver seat:
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(a) Left hand drive. Example: Most of the American, European and UAE vehicles.
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(b) Right hand drive. Example: Most of the Indian vehicles.
(ix) With respect to the side of power drive: g.n

(a) Front wheel drive. Example: Most of the light weight cars.
(b) Rear wheel drive. Example: Trucks and Buses.
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(c) Four wheel drive. Example: Jeep, military trucks and off-road vehicles.
(x) With respect to transmission:
(a) Conventional type: In this type, ordinary gear box is fitted. Example: Most of
Indian vehicles.
(b) Semi-automatic type: A combination of manual plus some automatic gear box is
fitted. Example: Most of British vehicles.
(c) Fully automatic type: In this type, vehicles are equipped with full automatic
transmission system by using epicyclic gears and torque convertors. Example:
American and European vehicles.

I Vehicle Structure and Engines

(xi) With respect to their construction:
".
(a) Single unit vehicles
(b) Articulated vehicles
(c) Heavy tractor vehicles.
(xii) With respect to motion:

(a) Reciprocating Piston engines
(b) Rotary - Wankel engine
(c) Gas turbine.
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(xiii) With respect to the suspension:
(a) Conventional type. Leaf spring
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(b) Independent. Coil, torsion bar, pneumatic.
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(xiv) With respect to engine capacity:
The capacity of the engine is expressed in swept volume of the cylinder which is
vehicles are given in Table 1.1.

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normally expressed in cubic centimeter (CC). Examples of engine capacity of some of the
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Table 1.1 Engine capacity of some automobile
Vehicle
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Engine capacity (CC)
TVSXL 50
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Bajaj Discover 100,
TVS Sport, Hero Splendor
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Bajaj Pulsar 150 DTSi,
150
Hero Xtreme,
Maruti Suzuki Alto,

800
Chevrolet Spark
(xv) With respect to combination of number of wheels and axles:

The digital figures like 4x2, 4x4, 6x4 etc. are commonly used in the classification of
vehicles. By increasing the number of axles, the load per axle can be reduced which protects
the tyres from overloading and the road surface from damage.

I.. Automobile Engineering

1.4. VEHICLE CONSTRUCTION
Before invention of automobile, the most common type of vehicle used in our country
was a bullock cart. Now-a-days, People are also using bullock cart in rural areas. It is better to
understand the construction of bullock cart before discussing automobiles. Figure 1.3 shows a
bullock cart.
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Figure 1.3 Construction of a bullock cart
A bullock cart consists of the following main parts.

(i) Frame eer
(ii) Wheels and axle
ing
(iii) Yoke
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(iv) Body or superstructure and platform.
These parts can be divided into the following two main portions. t
(i) Machine portion
(ii) Carriage portion
Machine portion consists of a frame in which wheels are attached through the axle. f
yoke is fixed at the front of the frame through which the cart is pulled by bullocks.
The carriage portion consists of platform and body which is mounted over frames. The
platform consists of two long beam connected by cross members. The load or goods to be
carried by this portion and the total load are borne by the frame.
The basic construction of automobile is similar to a cart. An automobile also consists of a

machine portion and carriage portion similar to a cart. The difference between a cart and an

Vehicle Structure and Engines II1'II

automobile is that cart is a simple vehicle whereas automobile is a self-propelled vehicle. A
vehicle consists of engine to drive the vehicle. In addition, an automobile also consists of
power transmission systems such as clutch, gear box, propeller shaft, universal joints,
differential etc. Automobile is also provided with steering for directional control, acceleration
for speed control and brakes for stopping purposes.
The speed of the cart is slow as compared to automobiles. Due to this fact, the
automobile is subjected to more shocks which in tum put more strains on the frame.
Therefore, the automobile is needed robust frame and shock absorbers to bear all stresses and
strains. The axle is not directly fitted with the frame in the automobile. It is suspended with
the frame through strong springs. In order to arrest shocks and save the passengers from jerks
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and jolts due to rough road condition, shock absorbers are provided.
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Figure 1.4 shows the layout of a car. It consists of an engine which is located at the front
of vehicles followed by transmission systems. The radiator is located in front of the engine.
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Various other parts of the vehicle shown in Figure 1.4 are generator, starter, steering, clutch,
rear axle, differential, universai joint, wheel, tyres, body, lamp etc.
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Gear shift w'ih,,:ee~I _
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Engine Universal joints
crank case Flywheel
Figure 1.4 Layout of a car
The power developed by the engine is transmitted to the rear wheel through clutch,
gearbox, propeller shaft, universal joint and differential. Lamps are provided in the
automobile so that they could be safely driven during night hours. A hom is provided for
making warning sound to other road users.
The body or superstructure is built up to fulfill the requirements or trends of the

passenger. A brake is provided to the vehicle to stop or slow down the speed whenever

I" Automobile Engineering

required. A fuel tank is provided to store the required amount of fuel. A radiator is provided
for cooling the engine and related parts of the vehicle.
1.5. DIFFERENTLAYOUTS OF A CAR

1.5.1. Layout for the Light Passenger Vehicle (Car)
Due to various developments in technology and changes in lifestyle, a motor vehicle has
changed to meet upcoming requirements. Recent days, many types of layouts are used with
their own specific advantages and disadvantages. These changes occur in the location of the
engine and the driving arrangement in terms of number of wheels driven and location of
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wheels. The engine can be positioned laterally or longitudinally to drive either front wheels or
rear wheels or all four wheels.
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1.5.1.1.Front Engine
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Many reasons are involved for placing the engine at the front of a car as shown in Figure
1.5. The large mass of an engine placing at the front of the car gives the occupants protection
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in the event of a head-on collision. The engine cooling is simple as it can get benefit of ail
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movement against the motion of vehicle. Also, the cornering ability of a vehicle is generally
better if the weight is concentrated at the front side because the weight of the engine is placed
over steered wheels.
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Figure 1.5 Front engine
1.5.1.2.Rear engine
By placing the engine at the rear of the vehicle, it can be made as a unit to incorporate the
clutch, gearbox and final drive assembly. So, it is necessary to use some form of independent
rear suspension systems.


Most rear-engine layouts have been restricted to comparatively small cars because the
weight of the engine at the rear has poor effect in handling of the car. So, it makes 'tail-
heavy'. The engine mass on a rear-engine car acts behind the rear axle line. It creates a
pendulum effect during cornering. So, it makes difficult for most drivers due to high speeds.
TATA Nano, Volkswagen Beetle and Porsche sports cars are the example of a rear engine
location.
Rear located engines can also take up a large amount of space which would on a front-
engine car used for carrying luggage. Most of the space vacated by moving the engine from
the front can be used for luggage. At the same time, this space is usually less than available
space in rear side. Vertical engines are used in rear-engine cars. A 'flat' engine or a
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conventional engine mounted on its side will provide the additional space for luggage above
the engine.
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The main advantage of a rear-engine layout is the increased load on the rear driving
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wheels which will provide better grip on the road. Figure 1.6 shows the typical layout of a
rear-engme car.
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Figure 1.6 Rear engine
1.5.1.3. Central or Mid-Engine
Generally, the central or mid-engine location is applied in sports cars. In a rear-engined

car, the engine overhangs the rear axle line but in a mid-engined car, the engine is forward of
the rear axle line. This location provides excellent weight distribution to achieve both good
handling and maximum traction from driving wheels. This advantage attracts and makes
useful for sports and special cars but it becomes disadvantages when it is applied to traditional
passenger cars. The main disadvantage is that the mid-engine location takes up space which
will normally be occupied by passengers in conventional layout cars. Most cars using a mid-

engine position are always sports cars fitted with only two seats, one for the driver and the
other for passenger.
The mid-engined layout shown in Figure 1.7 combines the engine and transmission
components in one unit. Mid-engined cars are normally rear-wheel driven.
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w.E Figure 1.7 Mid-engine
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1.5.2. Front Engine Front Wheel Drive
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The majority of light vehicles have the engine at the front of the vehicle with the driving
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power being transmitted to front wheels. In the arrangement shown in Figure 1.8, the engine
and transmission units are placed transversely at the front of the vehicle. So, they are at right
angles to the main axis of the vehicle.
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FinalDrive Frontwheel Clutch
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Rearwheel
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Drive shaft
Universal Joint
Figure 1.8 Front enginefront wheel drive

Vehicle Structure and Engines .....

No propeller shaft is used in the front engine front wheel drive and differentials are
included in the same assembly. This layout provides an optimum body-luggage space and a
flat front line resulting a transverse longitudinal engine position. A good road adhesion is
provided by the large proportion of vehicle's weight acting on driven wheels.
Advantages:
1. Because the engine and transmission system are placed over the front wheels the road
holding is improved especially in wet and slippery conditions.
2. Good steering stability is achieved because the driving force at the wheels is in the
direction that the vehicle is being steered. There is also a tendency for front-wheel
ww drive vehicles to understeer which can improve drivability when cornering.

3. Passenger and cargo space~ are good because there is no need for a transmission shaft
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to the rear axle.
4. Good road adhesion is obtained due to a large part of the vehicle weights are carried
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on driving wheels under normal conditions,
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5. Under steady conditions, this drive is preferred by many drivers.
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6. Lower flat floor line is provided due to dispensing with the propeller shaft resulting
less centre of gravity.
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7. The engine clutch, gear box and final drive are combined similar to a rear engine car.
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It provides a more comfortable drive due to final drive spring.
Disadvantages:
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1. Complicated drive shafts are needed for constant velocity Joints.
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2. Acceleration is affected because the load transfer to rear of the vehicle lightens the
load on the drive axle at the front.
3. The turning circle radius is limited by the angle through which a constant-velocity
joint can function.
4. Due to the combination of steered and driven wheels with short shafts, special
universal joints and more complicated assembly are required.
5. To prevent the rear wheels from skidding under heavy brake, the required weight at
the rear usually necessitates a special arrangement.
6. The tractive effort is reduced which is mostly required on steep gradients and during
acceleration.

1-
1.5.3. Front Engine Rear Wheel Drive
In this layout, a front mounted engine-clutch-gear box unit drives a beam type rear
axle suspended on leaf springs through a propeller shaft with two universal joints. With
the help of coil springs, the front wheels are independently sprung.
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This layout is one of the oldest layouts which remain unchanged for many years.
Some of the advantages provided by this system are as follows.
Advantages: E ngi
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I. It is reasonably balanced weight distribution between front and rear wheels providing
good handling characteristics.
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2. For easy front wheel steering movement, the engine occupies the reduced width
between arches.
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3. Behind the rear seats, a large luggage space is available by providing the increased
carrying capacity as well as space for easy body movement. e t
4. Accessibility to various components such as engine, gear box and rear axle are better
compared to other layouts.
5. The control linkages such as accelerator, choke, clutch and gear box are short and
simple.
6. For the full benefits of the natural air stream created by vehicles, the movement is
taken by the forward facing radiator in reduced power losses from a large fan.
Disadvantages:
1. A single or split propeller shaft with universal joints and supporting bearings between
front mounted gearbox and rear axle may generate vibration, drumming, howl and
other noises under certain operating conditions.


2. The floor tunnel is necessary to provide a clearance for the operation of a propeller-
shaft system and it may interfere with passenger leg-room.
3. In case of a rigid casing for the axle and final drive, more weight is not supported by
the suspension system so that the quality of the suspension ride may be reduced.
4. Additional universal joints and drive shafts are required for independent rear suspen-
sion.
5. A rear-wheel-drive vehicle when stuck in mud, tends to plough further into the ground
when attempts are made to drive away.
1.5.4. Rear Engine Rear Wheel Drive
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This arrangement eliminates the necessity for a propeller shaft when the engine IS
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mounted adjacent to driven wheels. The engine-clutch-gearbox-final
unit in this layout. In order to reduce the 'overhang'
drive forms a single
distance between wheel centres and
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the front side of the engine, the final drive is generally placed between clutch and gear box.
Gearbox Rear wheel CI'Jtch
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Universal _;
Joint
Figure 1.10 Rear engine rear wheel drive
Advantages:
1. Short driveline because the engine, gearbox and final drive can be built into a single
unit.
2. A majority of weight at the rear of the vehicle gives improved traction during hill
climbing and acceleration.

_ Automobile Engineering
3. It has a simple drive shaft layout compared to a front wheel drive.
4. Effective rear wheel braking is possible with this layout.
5. Due to the absence of the propeller shaft, the obstructed floor space is reduced.
6. The exhaust gases, fumes, engine heat and noises are carried away from
passengers.
7. The drive arrangement results a compact layout and short car.
8. The front of the vehicle can be designed for good visibility and smooth air flow.
Disadvantages:
1. The rearward concentration of weight causes the vehicle to be more affected by side
ww winds at high speeds. It makes the vehicle unstable resulting over-steering and
turning very sharply into a curve.
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It is difficult to accommodate the liquid cooling of the engine.
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It is difficult to accommodate the fuel tank in a safe zone ofthe vehicle.
Space for luggage is reduced.
5.
6.
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Steering is difficult in slippery conditions.
It has a restricted luggage compartment due to narrow front which houses the fuel
tank also.
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7.
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Natural air cooling is not possible because it requires a powerful fan.
8.
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Long linkages are required for the engine, clutch and gear box controls.
1.5.5. Four-Wheel Drive

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To increase the effective use of the vehicle required to travel on rough unconstructed t
roads and trucks, a special arrangement known asfour-wheel drive is provided. Due to all four
wheels getting driven, the whole weight of the vehicle is available for traction. The system is
provided in jeeps which are known as 4x4 wheel drive or all-wheel drive vehicles. These
vehicles are also called off-road vehicles as it is constructed mainly for the purpose of
unformed or off-road driving conditions. Example: Mahindra Scorpio, Maruti Suzuki Gypsy,
Tata Safari, Toyota Fortuner, Mitsubishi Pajero, MahindraBolero etc.
Advantages:
1. The increased traction is obtainable from four driven wheels which is especially
useful on soft or slippery ground.
2. If the front wheel drops into a ditch, they tend to climb out with a rear wheel drive.

Vehicle Structure and Engines liP-

3. Wear oftyres and other driveline components are more evenly shared.
Differential
Front Axle
Engine
Clutch
Gear Box
Transfer Box
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~ Differential
Figure 1.11 Four-wheel drive

Disadvantages:
1. It increases weight and bulk. nee
2. It increases cost.
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3. It increases fuel consumption.
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4. It increases maintenance due to complexity of transmission system.
5. It is possibly difficult to accommodate an anti-locking brake system. e t
1.6. CHASSIS
,
To construct any automobile, chassis is the basic requirement:Chassis is a French term
and it was initially used to denote the frame or main structure of a vehicle. It is extensively
used in complex vehicles except the body. A vehicle without body is called chassis.
1.6.1. Basic Construction of Chassis
Chassis is the back bone of the vehicle. The components of the vehicle such as power
plants, transmission system, axles, wheels and tyres, suspension, controlling systems such as

lma Automobile Engineering

braking, steering etc., and also electrical system parts are mounted on the chassis frame. It is
the main mounting of all components including the body. So, it is also called carrying unit.
1.6.2. Main Components of Chassis
1. Frame
2. Front suspension
3. Steering mechanism
4. Engine, clutch and gear box
5. Radiator
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7.
8.
Wheels
Rear and front springs and shock absorber
9. Differential unit
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10.
11.
Universal joint
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Brakes and braking systems
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12.
13.
Storage battery
Fuel tank nee
14. Electrical systems
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15. Silencer
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16.
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Shock absorbers, fuel tank, petrol and hydraulics pipe cables and some means
of mounting these components.
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1.6.3. Classification of Chassis
The chassis can be classified into different types on the following basis.
1.According to the fitting of engine:

(a) Full-forward
(b) Semi-forward
(c) Bus chassis
(d) Engine at back
(e) Engine at centre.

Vehicle Structure and Engines _

In full-forward chassis, the engine is fitted outside the driver cabin or seat. Example:
Cars and Mahindra jeeps.
In semi-forward chassis, a half portion of the engine is exactly in the driver's cabin
whereas the remaining half is at the front side but it is outside the driver's cabin. Example:
Tata SE series of vehicles.
ww (a) Conventional drive (b) Froru engine drive
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asy
En
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(c) Rear engine drive (d) Centre engine drive
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Figure 1.12 Classification of chassis according to thefitting of engine
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In bus chassis, the total engine is fitted in the driver cabin. It provides the increased floor
g.
area in the vehicle. The driver seat is just above the front wheel. Example: Busses and trucks.
net
In most of the vehicles, the engine is fitted at the front portion of chassis. The drive is
only given to front wheels. Example: Matador vehicles. In some vehicles, the engine is fitted
at the back portion of the chassis. Example: Volkswagen cars, Leyland bus of England. In
some vehicles, the engine may be fitted at the centre of the chassis. Example: Royal tiger
world master buses of Delhi transport.
2. According to the number of wheels fitted in the vehicles and the number of driving
wheels:
(a) 4 x 2 drive chassis - It has four wheels out of which 2 are driving wheels
(b) 4 x 4 drive chassis - It has four wheels and all of them are driving wheels
(c) 6 x 2 drive chassis - It has six wheels out of which 2 are driving wheels
(d) 6 x 4 drive chassis - It has six wheels out of which 4 are driving wheels.

IrIm Automobile Engineering

1.6.4. Characteristics of a Good Chassis
For a good chassis design and its good performances, it must have the following
characteristics.
1. Fast pickup
2. Strength
3. Safety
4. Durability
5. Dependability
ww 6.
7.
Ease of control
Quietness
8.
9.
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Speed
Power accessibility
10. asy
Economy of operation
11.
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Low centre of gravity
12.
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Stability
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13. Load clearance
14.
15.
Braking ability
Good springing rin
16. Simplicity of lubrication. g. net
1.6.5. Layout of Chassis
Figure 1.13 shows the front and top views layout of the typical chassis. In this layout, the
engine location is at the front end of the vehicle. The engine is connected to the gearbox
through clutch. The drive of the engine can be connected or disconnected from the gearbox by
using clutch assembly. The clutch pedal provided at the vicinity of the driver facilitates to
engage or disengage the clutch with gearbox whenever required.
From gearbox, power is transmitted to the differential through a propeller shaft and
universal joints and finally to the wheels via rear axles. The radiator is placed at the front side
of the engine.

Rear
Dump Front
spring
iron . spring
Front view (Elevation)
ww
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Side
rin Petrol
tank
members
Universal joint
g.n
Top view (Plan)
Figure 1.13 Layout of chassis
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1.6.6. Components and Drive Systems in Chassis
1. Frame:
Frame is the foundation for carrying the engine and body of the vehicle. It also
carries steering, power train etc. by means of springs, axles, rubber pads etc. The frames are
made of box, tubular, channel or U-shaped section, welded or riveted together. In order to
make them rigid to withstand shocks, blow twists and vibration mats, cross-bracing or cross
members are used When the engine, wheels, power trains, brackets and steering systems
are fitted on the frame, the assembly is known as chassis. Frame bends upward in a shape

at the fear to provide space for rear springs. It is tapered at the front to provide space for
turning front wheels when steered.
2. Suspe_nsionsystems:
"--~
Suspension systems are used in vehicles.
~ to insulate the wheel and axles from the frame

~ in order to avoid the transmission of road effects to passengers while travelling
on uneven road
~ to provide a comfortable ride to passengers and
~ to avoid additional stresses in the motor car frame.
ww
3. Steering system:
The function of the steering system is to enable the driver to accurately control the
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direction taken by the vehicle under all operating conditions. The system must be light and
easy to operate, free from shock and vibration as direct as possible. The steering system also
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helps to convert the rotary motion of the driver's steering wheel into the angular turning of the
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front wheels as well as to multiply the driver's effort with the leverage or mechanical
advantage of turning wheels.
4. Braking system: gin

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The most vital factor in running and controlling the modem vehicle is the braking
ing
system. In order to bring the moving motor vehicle to rest or slow down in a shortest possible
time, the energy of motion possessed by the vehicle must be converted into some other form
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of energy. Brake is a friction device for converting the power of momentum or kinetic energy
of the moving vehicle into heat.
5. Internal combustion engines: t

'In internal combustion engines, the combustion takes place within the engine unlike
steam engines which work using steam which has externally been. raised in a boiler. In all
Internal Combustion (IC) engines, the air is supplied along with a measured quantity of fuel.
This fuel bums within the engine and it produces a high pressure and high temperature gas.
6.._ Clute":
It is a friction type uncoupling device. It consists of a single steel disc faced with suitable
friction material. It is clamped between two surfaces directly driven by the engine. For
disengagirlg the clutch, the two surfaces are ,Positively separated by pressing the clutch pedal.
The main function of the clutch is to take up the drive smoothly from the engine and to release

Vehicle Structure and Engines _u .. .;.

or disengage whenever desired. The disengagement of clutch is reouired while changing the
gear or bringing the vehicle to rest.
7. Gearbox:
It consists of various types of gears which are constantly in mesh. The gear change-takes
place by sliding the dogs. The main function of the gear-box is to provide the necessary
variation to the torque applied by the engine to the road wheel according to the
operating conditions. The necessary variations are provided due to the presence of different
gear ratio among various meshing gears.
8. Propeller shaft:
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The function is to transmit the power from the rear end of the gear-box to the final
reduction gear in the axle. The vertical movement of the rear axle relative to the frame is also
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accommodated. It is an ordinary Hook~'s joint. The small and limited angular displacement in
the rubber joints is advantageous in damping out torsional vibrations.
9. Universaljoint: asy
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Due to the flexibility of road springs, the rear axle is constantly moving up and down.
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The propeller shaft fitted to the rear axle must also be free to move up and down. To permit
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the turning of the propeller shaft, this movement takes place and universal joints are fitted at
each of its ends. Therefore, the relative movement between engine and driving wheel is
maintained by the universaljoint,
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10. Differential:
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The differential gear carries the power from propeller shaft to rear wheel axles. It helps
two rear wheels to turn at different speeds when rounding a curve. The outer wheel must over-
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run than the inner wheels when taking a turn. The differential gear also ensures that the final
output torque is equally distributed between two wheels without any consideration of
their relative speeds.
11. Springs:
Springs are fitted between frame and wheel to prevent the upward movement of the
frame along with up and down movement of the wheel. A spring is a reservoir of energy
which is stored in steel springs by bending them or by twining them. When the spring resumes
to its normal state, this energy is released.

12. Front axle:
It is used for steering front wheels carried on stub axles swiveling upon kingpin's axle
extremities. Steering arms and track rod link, two stub axles are together used for swiveling
them by a steering wheel about kingpins. The steering wheel linked to one cf the stub axle by
a shaft, a gear box and suitable linkage are operated by the driver's hand wheel. An axle in
which one-piece beam is used to support the vehicle through springs (axle and spring
arrangement) was previously used. Now, an arrangement known as independent front
suspension replaces the axle and spring arrangement. Under the control of springs, wheels are
free to rise and fall independently in the vertical direction to each other.
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13. Rear axle:
Rear axle or driving axle is a tube such as shaft enclosing driving shafts with suitable
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bearings for rotating the wheels. It is used for fixing the rear wheels. It is enlarged at the
centre for enclosing the final drive gears used for providing main speed reduction between
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-engine and driving wheels. The change of direction from the line of propeuer shah to the
transverse line of the axle shafts is also provided by the rear axle.
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When going round a curve, the inner wheel has to travel for a smaller distance in
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comparison to the outer wheel. But both the rear wheel would rotate at the same speed if they
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are connected by a shaft. This rotation of both wheels would result the slipping of one or both
of them on the road surface causing excessive tyre wear as well as severe twisting loads on the
ing
shaft. Moreover, two wheels of exact diameter can only tum at the same speed without slip on
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the straight road. Each wheel is provided with its own separate half-shaft connected by a
differential gear and meeting at the centre of the axle. Therefore, when going round a
curve, the wheels are free to rotate at different speeds although they are provided with
equal drive by the differential gear.
t
For preventing the transmission of shock from uneven road surfaces to the vehicle,
springs are used to support the vehicle on the axle. In order to allow the vertical movements of
wheels relative to the frame as well as to allow the parts of the shaft to operate at different
angle final drive gears and the differential gear are used. These are mounted in a casting
attached to the frame with independent sprung wheels attached by means of shafts through
devices called universaljoints.
14. Battery:
In reality, the battery is the heart of the electrical system of a motor vehicle. It supplies
current to the cranking motor and ignition system. The function of the battery is to store
electrical energy which can be used whenever required. Battery may be called nerve- centre of
I Vehicle Structure and Engines . -J

the whole installation because it supplies electrical energy for operating all electrical devices
and other units except the charging device. It also supplies the electricity for operating the
various electrical devices when the vehicle is not operating or running slowly and generator
speed is insufficient to meet the full load requirements.
15. Wheels:
The wheels are fitted below the chassis to support the load of the vehicle and passengers.
They are fitted with hollow rubber tyres filled with air in rubber tubes under sufficien,
pressure necessary for carrying the load. The shocks caused by road irregularities are absorbed
by them. By fitting springs between wheels and vehicle to allow the vertical movement of the
wheels in relation to vehicle, a greater part of unevenness of road surfaces is taken care of.
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1.7. FRAME
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The frame is the main part of a chassis. It is the backbone of the vehicle. All other parts
a
of the chassis are mounted on the frame. It is a rigid structure which forms a skeleton to hold
all major parts together.
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At the front end of the frame, the engine is mounted. The engine in tum is connected to
clutch and transmission unit to form a complete power assembly. The frame is supported by
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wheel end tyre assembly. Some parts of the steering system are connected to the frame and
remaining to the body. The fuel tank is fastened to the rear end of the frame.
1.7.1. Functions or Importance of Frame

r ing
1. To form the base for mounting engine and transmission systems. .ne
2. To withstand the engine and transmission thrust and torque stresses as well as
accelerating and braking torque.
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3. To carry the load of passengers and goods in the body.
4. To accommodate a suspension system.
5. To carry the other parts of the vehicle.
6. To resist the effect of centrifugal forces when cornering a curve.
7. To withstand bending and twisting stresses due to the fluctuating or rear and front
axles.
8. To support the load of the body, engine, gear box, battery, fuel tank etc.

It must be strong, light and designed to withstand the shock blows, twists, vibrations and
other strains to which it is subjected to road conditions.
It should also resist the distorting force such as
(a) weight of the components and passengers causing a sagging effect due to bending
action.
(b) horizontal forces provided by road irregularities.
(c) upward twisting forces caused by road shocks.
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1.7.3. Frame Construction
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In order to provide good resistance to bending and torsional effect, the frame sections are
made of proper forms. A typical passenger car frame is shown in Figure 1.14. There are three
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common types of frame sections such as channel, tubular and box sections. They are 'made
from cold rolled open earth steel or heat-treated alloy steel.
E ngi
Channel section provides good resistance to bending but it is poor in resistance to torsion
while tubular section provides good resistance to torsion and poor in resistance to bending.
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The box sections provide comparatively better resistant to bending and torsion. These sections
are shown in Figure 1.15.
Side member
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X-member
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1J
C
Q)
.._
a:I
Q)
et
a:
Front cross member
Figure 1.14A typical carframe

Channel section Box section Tubular section I-section
Figure 1.15 Frame sections
The frame is narrow at the front end because of short turning radius of front wheels. It is
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widening out at the rear end to provide a bigger space for body.
The rear and front ends of the frame are curved upward to accommodate the movement
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of the axle due to springing and they are also kept the chassis height as low. It also avoids the
impact effect due to rear axle bouncing.
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member gin 'C
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W
'-
«S
ing
(I)
a:
/'" .ne
Side member
Figure 1.16 Conventional frame

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Figure 1.16 shows the simplified diagram of the frame. It consists of two longitudinal or
side members of channel section. The side members are braced by many number of eros;
members of channel or tubular section. In a conventional design, the cross members are at
right angles to side members shown in Figure 1.16. Several modern chassis frames have cross
members which has the cross section in the form of 'X' between side members shown in
Figure 1.17.
The brackets are provided to connect springs and support running boards. If necessary,
..
more brackets are provided to support the engine, gear box etc. The engine, clutch and

_ Automobile Engineering 1-
geaf.&oxate bolted together to form one rigid assembly. It is usually mounted at the front end
of the frame by means of rubber pads to withstand engine vibrations.
Body mounting brackets
Cross member
ww
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asy Figure 1.17X-type/rame
1.7.4. Types of Frame

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There are three types of chassis frame construction as follows.
1. Conventional frame construction

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2. Semi-integral frame construction
3. Integral or Frameless construction g.n
1. Conventional frame construction: et
This type of frame is also called non-load carrying frame. The loads on the vehicle are
transferred to the suspension by this type of frame. The frame supports various parts of the
vehicle such as engine, power transmission elements and car body. The total frame is mounted
on the wheel axle by means of springs.
The body of the vehicle is made of flexible materials such as wood and mounted on the
frame by using rubber mountings between body and frame. This arrangement makes the body
completely isolated from frame deflection. It is mostly used in heavy vehicles such as trucks.
For commercial vehicles with relatively low volume production, it has advantages of
strong-chassis of less weight which is sufficient to carry considerable pay loads and localized
accident damage. It is easy to repair in comparison to the integral chassis. Further, both long
---
wheel base version and short wheel base version of the same vehicle can be produced. The


cross-sections of the frame are usually channel, tubular or box type. Figure 1.18 shows a
dismantled view of conventional chassis frame and body construction.
ww
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E ngi
Figure 1.18 Dismantled view of chassisframe and body construction
2. Semi-integral frame construction:

nee
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In this type of frame, the rubber body mountings are replaced by relatively stiff
mountings. This arrangement also transfers a part of the frame load to the body structure. This
g.n
type of frame is mainly used in European cars and American cars. But, this construction is
heavy in nature as compared to the conventional type.
3. Integral frame construction or Frameless construction:

e t
This type of construction is also called chassis-less, unitary or monocoque construction.
Now a-days, it is used in passenger cars. This construction provides a stiff light construction
which is particularly suitable for mass-produced vehicles. In this type of construction, there is
no separate frame. All assembly units are attached to the body. In this design, heavy side
members of the frame are eliminated and cross members are combined with the floor of the
body. The body of the vehicle gives a mounting for engine, transmission, suspension and
other mechanical units and components. This type of construction is led to much reduction of
weight. Figure 1.19 shows the frameless chassis construction of a passenger car with the
loading distribution arrangements whereas Figure 1.20 shows the dismantled view of
frameless chassis construction for passenger car.

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Figure 1.19 Frameless chassis construction for car
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En
gin
eer
ing
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Figure 1.20 Dismantled view of'frameless construction for car
The structure includes a floor structure having side members, cross members, floor and
other components. They are welded together form a single assembly. The surfaces have ribbed
portions.to increase the strength and rigidity. For carrying the engine and front suspension, a
sub-frame is also attached to the front of the body shell. The floor and side panel surfaces
have pressed grooves to increase stiffness.


iiDi
Box section roof
rails & headers
Radiator
yoke
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rails
Heavy
structural sill
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Figure 1.21Assembly view of frameless construction
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In this type of construction, the stresses are evenly distributed throughout the structure. A
strong structure with good torsional rigidity and resistance in bending are provided by this
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construction. The structure is also free from shakes on rough roads which cause an increased
eer
life of door locks, hinges and many other small parts along with a reduced body rattle.
ing
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Figure 1.22 Frameless chassis construction for bus

I'" Automobile Engineering

Very low carbon (0.1%) steel with good ductility is required for manufacturing panels by
pressing. The structural members are required to be stiffened by forming thin steel sheets into
intricate sections by spot welding due to low strength of this material. Entire body is
immersed in a rust protective solution to increase corrosion resistance and rusting resistance.
In order to avoid the objectionable drumming sound from panel due to vibration, a sound
damping material should be packed on inside of the panel. Figure 1.21 and Figure 1.22 show
assembled view offrameless chassis construction for car and bus respectively.
1.7.5. Load on Chassis Frame (Various Resistances and Moments involved)
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A chassis frame is subjected to the following loads.
1. Loads of short duration:
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When the vehicle is crossing a broken patch of road, it is acted upon by heavy and
suddenly applied loads of short duration. This load results the longitudinal torsion.
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2. Combinedloadsof momentaryduration:
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These loads occur while negotiating curve, applying brakes and striking a pot hole.
3. Inertia loads: gin

eer
These loads are applied on the vehicle due to brake applied for a short period. This load
tends to bend side members in the vertical plane.
4. Impact loads: ing

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These loads are applied during collision of vehicles with another object. It results the
general collapse.
5. Load due to roadcamber:

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It is the load due to road camber, side wind and cornering force while taking a tum. It
results the lateral bending of side members.
6. Load due to wheelimpact:

Load due to wheel impact with road obstacles may cause a particular wheel to remain
obstructed while the other wheel tends to move forward. It will tend to distort the frame to
parallelogram shape.
7. Static loads:
Loads due to chassis parts such as engine, steering, gearbox, fuel tank, body etc. are
constantly acting on the frame. They are called static loads.


8. Overloads:
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The load of the vehicle exceeds beyond the specified design load known as overloads.
1.7.6. Materials for Frame

The various steels used for conventional pressed frame are as follows.
1. Aluminium alloy (ALPAX)

2. Mild steel sheet
3. Carbon steel sheet
ww 4. Nickel alloy steel sheet. .
The composition of sheet nickel alloy steel is given as follows.
w.ECarbon 0.25 to 0.35%

Magnanese
Silicon asy
0.35 to 0.75%
0.30% (Maximum)
Nickel
Phosphorus
3%
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0.05% (max) ngi
Sulphur 0.5% (max.).
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1.7.7. Sub Frames rin
g.n
In normal vehicles, various components are bolted on the main frame. But sometimes,
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the component on vehicle is installed on sub frames which are bolted on the main frame. The
sub frame provides a greater strength and furthermore, it is supported at three points on the
main frame.
Sub frames are structural modules which are designed to carry specific automotive
components such as engine or axle and suspension. The purpose of a sub frame in an
automobile is to distribute high local loads over a wider area of the body structure (most
relevant in thin-walled monocoque body designs) and to isolate vibration and harshness from
rest of the body. The sub frames are bolted or welded to the vehicle body. Bolted sub frames
are sometimes equipped with rubber bushings or springs to damp noise and vibrations. An
additional benefit is that sub frames can bel separately assembled and integrated into the
vehicle on an automated assembly line when required.

I Vehicle Structure and Engines ".

alignment may be determined by "X" or diagonal method of checking from given points on
each side rail. The most convenient way to make this check particularly is when the body is on
the chassis, all points are marked on the floor from which measurements should be taken.
Dropping a plumb-bob from each point indicated, the floor is directly marked underneath the
point. Then the vehicle is moved away from layout on the floor as per the procedure as
follows.
1. The frame width is checked at front end and rear end using corresponding marks on
the floor. If the width corresponds to specifications, the centre line is drawn for the
full length of the vehicle, half-way between marks indicating front and rear widths. If
wwthe frame width is not correct, centre line cannot be laid out from checking points at
the end of frame. It can be drawn through intersections of any two pairs of equal
2.
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diagonals.
With the centre line properly laid out, the distance is measured between points over
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the entire length of chassis. If the frame is in a proper alignment, the measurement
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should not vary. .:
3.
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The point is located at which the frame is sprung. Then, diagonals marked as A-B, B-
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C and C-D are measured. If the diagonals in each pair are within the limit, then the
part of the frame included between points of measurements may be kept as satis-
values do Dot satisfy above-mentioned rin

factory alignment. These diagonals should intersect at the centre line. If the measured
limits, it indicates the further correction to be
made between those points.
g.n
o c B A
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o c B A
F.Wure 1.24 Checking/rame alignment
1.8. BODY
The basic form of the modem automobile bcdy is older horse d-ver carriage. They have
5. a single seat type body construction which provides less safety to the passenger from weather.
Larger and more stylish bodies were developed and manufactured with passage of time to
provide increased space, safety or protection to the passengers.
/

Automobile EnglOeering
Body is the super-structure for all vehicles. It may either be constructed separately and
bolted to the chassis or manufactured integral with the chassis (i.e. Frameless construction).
The chassis and the body make the complete vehicle.
A body consists of windows and doors, engine cover, roof, luggage cover etc. The
electrical system in the body is connected to the chassis electrical units so that the battery and
the generator/alternator can furnish the required electrical energy to the system.
1.8.1. Importance of Vehicle Body Design
1. Weight of the body is 40% of total weight of the car and 60 to 70% of total weight of
buses. Therefore, the reduction in body weight is important.
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2. If the weight of the body is reduced, it will also improve the fuel economy (i.e.
~
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mileage).
3. The body of the vehicle determines its aerodynamic characteristics. Better
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aerodynamic structure leads to fuel economy at high speed and stability in cross
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winds. The positive pressure at the front of the vehicle should be minimized and it
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should be deflected smoothly to prevent the creation of eddies.
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4. The body is also important for aesthetic and ergonomics consideration. It should give
pleasant appeal and style for the customer.
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1.8.2. Requirements of Vehicle Body
The vehicle body should fulfill the following requirements. g.n

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1. It must be strong enough to withstand all types of forces acting on the vehicle. The
..
forces are including the weight of the car, inertia, luggage, braking and cornering
forces.
2. Stresses induced in the body should be distributed evenly to all portions.
3. Weight of the body should be as minimum as possible.
4. It should be able to cope with impact loads of reasonable magnitude.
5. It should have reasonable fatigue life.
6. It must provide adequate space for both passengers and the luggage.
7. It should have minimum number of components.
8. It must have sufficient torsional stiffness i.e., ability to resist the twisting stresses
produced by irregular road surface.


9. It should have good access to the engine and suspension elements.
10. It must ensure a quite ride, easy entry and exit.
11. It should create minimum vibration during running.
12. The shape of the body should be minimum drag.
13. It is easy to manufacture as well as cheap in cost.
14. It should be designed in such a way that passengers and luggage are protected from
bad weather.
15. It should give appeal finish in shape and colour.
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1.8.3. Types of Vehicle Body
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For different types of auto-vehicles, passenger space and overall dimensions vary. Various
types of bodies for different vehicles can be listed as below.
1. Car
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2. Straight truck
3. Truck - half body type E ngi
4. Truck-platform type
5. Tractor nee
6. Tractor with articulated trailer
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7. Tanker
g.n
8. Dumper truck
9. Delivery van e t
10. Station wagon
11. Pick-up
12. Jeep
13. Buses
14. Mini-buses
15. Three wheeler (i.e., Auto rickshaw)
The car bodies have great resistance to wind. For high-speed vehicles, a special attention
is given to streamline the body. The streamlining is the process for shaping the body to reduce
air resistance. It is mainly used for racing cars.

Truck Punjab body or straight truck Truck IIall body
Truck platform type Tractor
ww
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Pick-up
Tructor wUlt articulated trailer
E ngi C;~
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Dumper truck
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g.n
Tanker
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Dumper truck.
Car Jeep
Figure 1.25 Different types of bodiesfor different vehicles
Straight truck vehicle bodies are constructed into two parts. One is driver cabin and other
one is goods carriage. Goods carriage is a closed type with particular standard height. These

Vehicle Structure and

vehicles are used to carry goods which are affected by weather conditions. Example.
Vegetables, sugar, rice, sea foods etc.
Truck half body is having driver cabin as usual but the goods carriage has open at the top.
It is used to carry various goods which are not affected by weather. Truck platform type has
also a separate driver cabin. Its goods carriage is a platform type. It usually carries goods such
as iron billets, barrels, concrete slabs etc.
Tractor consists of small length body in addition to driven cabin. Usually, an articulated
trailer is attached to the rear end of the trailer. This trailer has various cabins. Figure 1.25
shows different types of bodies normally designed for different vehicles. It may be an open
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type or a closed type depending on the purpose of use. It is used to carry passenger cars,
mopeds, motor cycles etc. Most of these vehicles have six wheels.
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Tanker is the vehicle which consists of a tank to carry fluids of various natures. The tank
may be welded or bolted to the chassis frame behind the driver cabin. The tank has an opening
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at the top to pour fluid and a drain cock at the bottom to drain the fluid.
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Dumper truck has heavy goods carrying panel with open top in the rear side. The rear side
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can be tilted up and down by hydraulic cylinders. It is used to carry brick, stones, marbles etc.
1.8.4. Body Construction and its Components nee

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The main purpose of designing the car body is for containing and protection of the engine
g.n
and accessories as well as the passenger. To fulfill above requirements, the vehicle body has
various components which are grouped under the following three groups.
(a) Structure: All load carrying elements are defined as structure. e t

(b) Finish: This group includes all unstressed units such as bonnet, boot, lid, bumper etc.
(c) Equipment: This group includes various parts such as rim, seats, doors, window etc.
The various components of car body are: body, sheets, pillar-less frame, front and rear
doors, front panel, roof panel, floor panel with engine beams, wheel arches, bonnet, wind
screen pillar, wind screen, front and rear window, front and rear bumper, cowl assembly, front
and rear seats, luggage space as a continuation of passenger compartment, folding roof with
windup windows, sliding roof and folded flat windscreen, hood etc.
All steel sections of bodies are stamped out by dies separately and welded to other
sections for forming the steel bodies. The body of the car is made up of many sheet metal
panels. Each panel is so designed to give enough strength and rigidity to the assembled unit.

locations of the body, the reinforcing members are incorporated at proper
interspaces,
Front
Roof Doorpiller
Wind window
screenpillar-\----:T--t--~_
Wind
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Door
panels
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Figure 1.26 Components of car body
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The main skeleton of the car body has two types of panels: 1. Outer panel. 2. Inner panel.
The outside panels provide the shape of the car body whereas the inner panels reinforce the
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shell of the body. The various curved shapes are given to outer panels to provide the strength
to panels. The inner panels provide mounting locations for various trim panels and connecting
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assemblies. These two panels are welded together to pillars and rails so as to form the skeleton
of the car body.
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Initially, the floor of the cal"body is assembled and then pillars, rails and panels are
welded in order to form the complete car body. The floor is made up of 3 pressed steel panels
such as front, centre and rear sections as shown in Figure 1.27.
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'Each unit is so designed that it gives a low profile and the Cal" accommodates more
passengers. In order to give additional strength, rigidity and prevent excessive vibration, metal
.
strips have been welded at different places of the floor panel. Then the rear wheel houses
inner panels and rocker panels are welded to the floor. The wheel house panel is welded to the
floor to provide sufficient clearance for the up and down movement of wheels while running
on the road. The box shaped rocker panels which are fixed to sides of the floor, as shown in
Figure 1.28, provide additional strength to the floor panel.

Rear section
Front section
Centre section
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Figure 1.28Rocker panels attached tofloor
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The cowl assembly or the front portion of the car is made up of many smaller panel
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stampings of steel sheet metal shown in Figure 1.29. Usually, the cowl assembly is welded to
net
the rocker panel and floor panel. The wind-shield opening frame accommodates the front
glass which is curved in shape in many cars. The top outer cowl panel is sometimes vented to
allow the fresh air to enter into the car. The dashboard panel accommodates different warning
and indicating devices required to operate the car. The instrument panel is usually welded to
the cowl but in some design, it is also bolted to the cowl. The pillars on sides of the cowl are
used for fastening the front door hinges and cowl side panels. The fire wall of the cowl
assembly is the sheet metal panel which separates the front passenger space from the engine
space. This wall is insulated in such a way that the engine heat and noise are prevented from
entering into the passenger space.

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Cowl body mounts
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Cowl side panels
Figure 1.29 Cowl assembly
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Figure 1.30 Construction 0/ centre pillars and roo/rails

The centre pillar supports the rear doors and hinges and sticker plates of front doors. It
also supports the roof rails and centre pillars as shown in Figure 1.30. The roof rails and
centre pilJars are usually of box section. It gives maximum strength to the body. Drip
mountings are added to side rails of the roof panel as shown in Figure 1.31. The drip
mountings are U shaped channel. It is used to catch and direct the water of the roofto the back
of the car during raining: 'rhe, roof panel is welded to the top side rails. The rear window and
front windshield frames are attached to the roof.panel by spot welding.
U-shaped drip moulding
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g. net
Drain trough
Figure 1.32 Quarter panels
The rear quarter panels are welded to the rear wheel house panel, the floor panel and the
rear of the rocker panel as shown in Figure 1.32. The trunk lid provides cover for the trunk
compartment. It is attached to the body with the help of hinges as shown in Figure 1.33. In
order to prevent the water and dust to enter into the compartment, a rubber weather strip is
provided. Locking arrangement is also provided for the rear compartment.

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Figure 1.33 Trunk lid
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Engine compartment is formed by assembling different sheet metal panels. This
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assembly covers the frent wheels and therefore, it prevents the dirt, mud, snow etc. being
thrown off by front tyres on engine and body of the car. The radiator support is provided to
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support the radiator by means of bolts. A stone shield is bolted to the radiator support and the
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fenders. It prevents the striking of small flying stones on to the radiator grills and radiator and
thus, it avoids their damage. The two tenders which cover the front wheels are connected by
the radiator support.
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The arrangement of engine hood is shown in Figure 1.34. It is constructed in the same
manner as the trunk lid. It has inner and outer panels. The inner panel acts as the
reinforcement to the engine hood. It provides mounting locations for the hood lock and
hinges. The outer panel gives the shape to the body. The hood is attached to the car body by
means of hinges.
One of the most important components inside the car body is a seat. The seats of the car
are of various types such as folding back, bucket or rigid. The seats of the present day cars are
generally of the bucket type. The seats are mounted Uli laiiS wiucl; :::~L: them adjustable. The

back can also be tilted at the convenient position and they are also provided with head rest for
safety in case of accident.
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Present day cars use four doors, two in front and two in rear. The front doors are hinged
on front pillars whereas rear doors are hinged on centre pillars. Each door is provided with a
check arm consisting of an articulated plate secured on pillar and sliding into a slot in door.
The rubber weather strips are bonded with a special compound around doors. Each the door
consists of door handle, window, window glass regulator crank, arm rest, drop glass panel as
shown in Figure 1.36. In modern cars, five doors are provided. Fifth door is used as a trunk

lid. The special glass used in automobiles prevents the passenger seriously injured in case of
any accident. It is specially designed in such a way that it does not form sharp edges when
broken.
Four way
adjustable headrest
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Figure 1.35Self adjusting seat
Anti-draft
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Figure 1.36Front door of Fiat 1100 select car


Bumpers are provided at the front and rear end of the car. These are used to protect the
front end and rear end of the car from damage in case of light collisions. They are
manufactured by heavy gauge steel sheet. It is of £. channel section with the open side turned
inwards. It is bolted or riveted to ends of the longitudinal members of the car frame or front
body rails. Bumpers of modern cars are manufactured using fibre reinforced composite sheets.
1.8.6. Materials for Body Construction
The materials usedfor construction of various parts of the body are steel, wood, plastics,
toughened glass and aluminium. In earlier days, wooden bodies were used for construction.
But now-a-days, steel is mainly used for body construction because of low cost and easy to
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manufacture.
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WQoden bodies require a separate steel chassis frame to carry the load. The body
structure was ~eavy. Further, wooden bodies are flexed considerably and hence, they have
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short life: Initial cost is also high. Therefore, these bodies become obsolescence now-a-days.
Sheet metal is widely used for body construction. It has high stiffness which results
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negligible non-flexing and hence, it has longer life. Its initial cost is also less. Aluminium has
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also been used by some manufactures because of its good formability, light in weight and
rigidity. ee
more resistance to corrosion qualities. But, its main disadvantage is lesser stiffness and
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Present day, plastic bodies are popular. Thermoplastics are quite often used for many
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components such as boot covers, grills etc., whereas thermosetting plastics are mainly used for
net
body shells. ~temost widely used thermosetting plastic is glass fibre reinforced resin. This
material can be moulded to any shape easily. The resulting structure is of light weight. The
latest type of plastics used for body construction is carbon fibre reinforced plastics. It is
stronger than steel and also weightless. But the cost is very high.
Wind screen/and window panels are made by toughened glass. As already mentioned in
the previous section, it has a special property when broken. It does not form sharp edges or
pieces. All broken pieces are in the form of rounded granules which do not cause injury. There
are two different types of safety glasses, namely, laminated safety glass and tempered safety
glass. Laminated safety glass consists of two layers of glass bonded together with the help of
another inner layer of vinyl transparent plas~ic under heat and pressure. When this glass is
shattered by impact, the centre layer of plastic holds the broken pieces of glass together and
thus it is not allowing them to fly. These glasses are generally used for windscreen of the
vehicle. The tempered safety glass is made from a single piece of case-hardened or heat-

treated glass. Initially, it is cut to the required shape and then heat treated until it becomes soft.
Then it is blasted with cold air to the outer surface to create tension between inner soft and
outer hard surface. Thus, it becomes five times harder than ordinary glass. These glasses are
used for side or rear windows.
1.9. VEHICLE AERODYNAMICS

1.9.1. Resistances to Vehicle Motion
The fundamentals of vehicle design involve the basic principles of Newton's second law
of motion. According to Newton's second law the acceleration of an object is proportional to
the net force exerted on it. Hence, an object accelerates when the net force acting on it is not
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zero. In a vehicle, several forces act on it and the net or resultant force governs the motion
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according to the Newton's second law. The propulsion unit of the vehicle delivers the force
necessary to move the vehicle forward. This force of the propulsion unit helps the vehicle to
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overcome the resisting forces due to gravity, air and tire resistance. The acceleration of the
vehicle depends on.
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the power delivered by the propulsion unit
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the road conditions
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"the aerodynamics of the vehicle
the composite mass of the vehicle.
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(i) Air resistance or Aerodynamic drag
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Broadly the resistances can be categorized into the following categories.
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(ii) Gradient resistance
(iii) Rolling resistance
(iv) Inertia force.
All the above produce a restraining force working against the tractive force. The tractive
force must be greater than or equal to the resistive forces in order to maintain a sustainable
motion.
1.Air resistance / Aerodynamic drag:

A vehicle traveling at a particular speed in air encounters a force resistmg its motion. This
force is known as aerodynamic drag. Simply speaking, it is the resistance offered by air to the
vehicle motion. It depends upon the following factors.
(I) Size of the vehicle

..
I Vehicle Structure and Engines ,

(2) Shape of the vehicle
(3) Speed of the vehicle
(4) Wind velocity.
2. Gradient resistance:
It is the component of the vehicle's weight which is parallel to the plane of the road.
When a vehicle goes up or down a slope, its weight produces a component of force that is
always directed downwards. If the vehicle travels uphill, a component of its weight works in a
direction opposite to its motion. If some energy is not supplied to overcome this backward
force, then the vehicle would slow down, stall and roll backwards. If the vehicle is trading
" a slope of 8, then the weight of the vehicle. W has two components. one
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uphill at.
perpendicular to the road surface (with a value W x Cos 8) and the other along the road
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surface (with a value W x Sin 8). The component along the road surface is the one that tries to
restrict the motion.
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The gradient resistance is given by. FG = W x Sin 8
J. Rolling resistance:
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The rolling resistance of tyres on hard surfaces is due to hysteresis it. the tyre material.
When a vehicle rolls, it rolls with its tyres in contact with the road surface. The relative
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motion of two hard surfaces produces a friction. Further, neither the road, nor the tyre is
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perfectly rigid. Hence, both flex under the load slightly. As there is a gradual deformation at
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the contact between the road and the tyre, greatest at the bottom most point and least at the
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entry and exit points, the slip of the tyre with respect to the road produces another type of loss
of energy which results in a resistance.
Rolling resistance is the sum of the following components.
). Tyre Rolling resistance: Resistance from tyre deformation

). Road rolling resistance: Resistance from tyre penetration and surface
compression.
). Resistance due to tyre slip angle: Resistance from tyre slippage and air
circulation around wheel.
). Resistance due to bearing friction and residual braking.

I·M Automobile Engineering

4.lnertiaforce:
In addition to the driving resistance occurring in steady state motion, inertia forces also
occur during acceleration and braking. The total mass of the vehicle and the inertia mass of
those rotating parts of the drive accelerated or braked are the factors influencing the resistance
to acceleration. The rotational component is a function of the gear ratio. The moment of
inertia of the rotating drive elements of engine, clutch, gearbox, drive shaft, etc., including all
the road wheels are reduced to the driving axle.
1.9.2.Aerodynamics of Automobile Body
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Aero means air, dynamics means motion. Aerodynamics is the behaviour of air in motion
relative to the vehicle body. The body design pertaining to shape and size of the vehicle must
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have acceptable aerodynamic characteristics.
The following are various aerodynamic forces acting on the vehicle.
(i) Dragforce (Fj: asy

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Force of air drag is acting in the direction of vehicle motion with the wind acting along
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the longitudinal direction axis. This force is also called air resistance.
It offers the resistance to motion of the vehicle. The various factors such as profile drag
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(57% of total vehicle), induced drag (8%), skin friction (10%), interference drag (15%) and
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cooling and ventilation system drag (10%) affect the total drag. The total aerodynamic drag
can be calculated by using the equation.
2A
Ii. ~ =C .r pV -2
g. net
where
C,= drag coefficient
p = den~~ of air
V = Velocity of air
A = Proj~ area of the vehicle viewed from front.
The main causes of aerodynamic drag are:

);> shape drag
);> skin friction drli
The shape drag is due to the shape of the vehicle. The forward motion of the vehicle
pushes the air in front of it. However, the air cannot instantaneously move out of the way and

I Vehicle Structure and Engines 11m i

its pressure is thus increased. This results in high air pressure in the front of the vehicle. The
air behind the vehicle cannot instantaneously fill the space left by the forward motion of the
vehicle. This creates a zone of low air pressure. Hence, the motion of the vehicle creates two
zones of pressure. The high pressure zone in the front of the vehicle opposes its movement by
pushing. On the other hand, the low pressure zone developed at the rear of the vehicle opposes
its motion by pulling it backwards. The profile of the body should be carefully selected to
avoid the drag force.
The air close to the skin of the vehicle moves almost at the speed of the vehicle while the
air away from the vehicle remains still. The difference in speed between two air molecules.
produces friction. Skin friction drag can be reduced by using very smooth and well-polished
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body. Avoiding excessive projections such as door handles, mirrors, aerials helps in reducing
drag.
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Rolling
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moment
Figure 1.37Forces ami moments acting on the vehicle body

g. net
(ii) Lift force (FJ:
Aerodynamic lift force is the vertical component of the resultant force caused by the
pressure distribution on the body.
Lift force can be calculated by using the equation

2A
F_ =C_pV -
- - 2
where
Cz = lift coefficient
p = density of air.
The aerodynamic lift will tend to reduce the pressure between tyres and ground which
causes the loss of steering on the front axle and loss of traction on the rear axle.

'Automobile Engineering
(iii) Cross windforce (Fy):
Cross wind force is acting in the lateral direction on the side of the vehicle. It is formed by
the asymmetric flow of air around the vehicle body. These forces are acting at the centre of
pressure instead of centre of gravity and hence, they cause various moments as follows.
a. Pitching moment (My) is caused by the drag force F, or lift force F, about Y axis.
This moment makes the rear wheels lift off from the ground and further it reduces
the available traction.
b. Yawing moment (MJ is caused by the cross wind force Fy about Z axis.
c. Rolling moment (My) is caused by the cross wind force Fy about Z.
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1.10. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE (IC ENGINE)
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An engine is a prime mover. It is a heart of the automobile. It is one of the important and
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biggest units in automobiles. If it fails to work, the vehicle is dead. Internal Combustion
engine (K' engine) is a heat engine which converts the chemical energy of fuel into
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mechanical energy. The chemical energy of a fuel is first converted into thermal energy by
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means of combustion or oxidation with air inside the engine. This thermal energy is again
converted into useful work through mechanical mechanism of the engine. Most of the IC '
ing
engines are reciprocating engines having pistons that reciprocate back and forth inside a
cylinder internally within the engine.
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1.11. ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Figure 1.38 shows the construction details of an IC engine (Four stroke petrol engine).
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The main components of a four stroke cycle engine are cylinder, piston, connecting rod,
piston rings, cam shaft, crank shaft, crank case, inlet and outlet valves, spark plug, cylinder
head, push rod, gudgeon or piston pin, rocker arm, cam follower, valve spring, big end
bearing, inlet port, exhaust port etc.
The piston reciprocates inside the cylinder. Piston rings are inserted in the circumferential
grooves of the piston. The cylinder and cylinder head are bolted together.

Vehicle Structure and Engines lliiJI

Rocket
Inlet
port
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Figure 1.38 Constructional details of IC engine
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The reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into rotary motion of the crankshaft
by means of a connecting rod and crank. The small end of the connecting rod is connected to
the piston by a gudgeon pin or piston pin. The big end of the connecting rod is connected to
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the crank pin. Crank pin is a bearing surface and it is rigidly fixed to the crankshaft. The
crankshaft is mounted on the main bearing. The main bearings are housed in the crankcase.
Camshaft is driven by the crankshaft through timing gears. The camshaft actuates the inlet
and outlet valves. The valve springs are provided to bring back the valves to the closed
position. The oil sump containing lubricating oil is ~rovided at the bottom of the crankcase.
Lubricating oil is circulated to various parts of the engine from the oil sump. A spark plug is
provided in petrol engines to ignite the air-fuel mixture in the engine cylinder. An injector is
provided in diesel engines to inject the fuel into hot compressed air during power stroke.

Automobile Engine-ering
1.12. COMPONENTS OF IC ENGINE
The following are the list of major components found in most of the reciprocating I.e.
engines.
1.12.1. Cylinder Block

It is the main body of an engine which contains cylinders. The piston reciprocates inside
the cylinder to develop power. The cylinders are accurately finished to accommodate pistons.
The cylinder block also houses crank, crankshaft, piston and other engine parts. During
combustion, high pressure and temperature will be developed inside the cylinder. Therefore, it
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should be made of material which can resist high temperature and pressure. It is made of grey
cast iron or aluminium with steel sleeves. In water-cooled engines, the cylinder block is
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provided with water jackets for the circulation of cooling water as shown in Figure 1.39.
a Cylinder head
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Hole for spark plug
Cylinder
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Water Jackets
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Figure 1.39 Engine cylinder
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1.12.2. Cylinder Head
The cylinder head is bolted at the top of the cylinder block. It houses the inlet and exhaust
valves through which the charge is taken inside of the cylinder and burnt gases are exhausted
to the atmosphere from the cylinder. It also contains a spark plug hole or injector hole and
cooling water jacket. The materials used for cylinder heads are cast iron, aluminum alloy etc.


1.12.3. Crankcase
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It may be cast integral with the cylinder block. Sometimes, it is separately cast and bolted
to the cylinder block. It supports crankshaft and camshaft with the help of bearings.
Sometimes, the bottom of crankcase may be used as oil sump. It is made of cast iron,
-aluminum alloys or alloy steels.
1.12.4. Oil Sump or Oil Pan
Oil sump is fitted at the bottom of crankcase by using a gasket. It contains lubricating oil.
A drain plug is provided to the oil-sump to drain out the oil. It is made of pressed steel sheet.
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1.12.5.
, Cylinder Liners
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Inside the cylinder, the piston constantly moving up and down which will cause wear in
cylinders. When the cylinder diameter is increased beyond certain limit, the entire cylinder
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block should be discarded and it is costly. To avoid cylinder wear, a separate liner which is in
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the form of sleeve is inserted into the cylinder bore. Here, the wear will take place in the liner
only which can be replaced easily when worn out. There are two types of liners.
1. Wet liner: ngi

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The liners are surrounded by cooling water shown in Figure 1.40. It provides wear-
2. Dry liner: r
resisting surface for the piston to reciprocate. It also acts as a seal for the water jacket.
ing
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Dry liners have metal-to-metal contact with the cylinder block. They are not directly in
touch with cooling water. Liner material should withstand abrasive wear and corrosive wear.
Chromiumplated mild steel tubes are used as liners.
Cylinder Block Cooling water Cylinder Block
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Dry liner
Figure 1.40 Cylinder liners

Imll Automobile Engineering

1.12.6. Piston
It is a cylindrical shaped mass which reciprocates inside the cylinder. The piston serves
the following purposes.
,_. It acts as a movable gas tight seal to keep gases inside the cylinder.
,_. It transmits the force of explosion in the cylinder to the crankshaft through connecting
rod.
Lands
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boss
pin
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E Figure 1.41Piston
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The top Of the piston is called crown and sides are called skirt. It has grooves to hold
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piston rings and oil ring. It is opened at the bottom end and closed at the top. Sometimes, T-
slots are provided in the skirt to allow expansion.
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Piston is made of cast iron, Aluminium alloy, chrome-Nickel alloy, nickel-iron alloy and
cast steel. They are manufactured by casting orforging method.
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Various types of automotive pistons:
(i) Trunk piston:

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Trunk pistons are long relative to their diameter. They act both as piston and as a
cylindrical crosshead. As the connecting rod is angled for a part of its rotation, there is also a
side force that reacts along the side, of the piston against the cylinder wall. A longer piston
helps to support it.
Trunk pistons have been a common design of piston since early days of the reciprocating
internal combustion engine. They were used for both petrol and diesel engines although high
speed engines have now adopted the lighter weight slipper piston.


A characteristic of most trunk pistons particularly for diesel engines is that they have a
",-
groove for an oil ring below the gudgeon pin not just the rings between gudgeon pin and
crown.
lands
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Piston Boss
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(ii) Crosshead piston: gin
Figure 1.42 Trunk piston
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Large slow-speed diesel engines may require additional support for the side forces on the
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piston. These engines typically use crosshead pistons. The main piston has a large piston rod
extending downwards from the piston to a second smaller-diameter piston. The main piston is
responsible for gas sealing and it carries the piston rings. The smaller piston is purely .ne a
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mechanical guide. It runs within a small cylinder as a trunk guide and also carries the gudgeon
pin. Because of the additional weight of these pistons, they are not used for high-speed
engines.
Cross head
Piston rod
:::::::~.:::::~-·-..:::O""----I
Figure 1.43 Crosshead piston

(iii) Slipper piston:
A slipper piston, also called as partial skirt piston, is a piston for a petrol engine which
has been reduced in size and weight as much as possible. In extreme cases, they are reduced to
the piston crown, support for the piston rings and just enough of the piston skirt remaining to
leave two lands so as to stop the piston rocking in the bore. The sides of the piston skirt
around the gudgeon pin are reduced away from the cylinder wall. The purpose is mostly to
reduce the reciprocating mass, thus making it easier to balance the engine and so, it permits
high speeds. A secondary benefit may be some reduction in friction with the cylinder wall.
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Figure 1.44 Slipper piston
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(iv) Deflector piston:
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Deflector pistons are used in two-stroke engines with crankcase compression where the
gas flow within the cylinder must be carefully directed in order to provide efficient
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scavenging. With cross scavenging, the transfer (inlet to the cylinder) and exhaust ports are
directly on facing sides of the cylinder wall. To prevent the incoming mixture passing straight
across from one port to the other, the piston has raised a rib on its crown. It is intended to
deflect the incoming mixture upwards and around the combustion chamber.
Much effort and many different designs of piston crown are taken in developing
improved scavenging. The crowns developed are from a simple rib to a large asymmetric
bulge usually with a steep face on the inlet side and a gentle curve on the exhaust as shown in
Figure 1.45.

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Various types of piston failure:
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Figure 1.45 Deflector piston
(i) Piston wear: r ing

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Problems are related to the piston and rings will usually fall into one of two categories,
excessive wear or piston seizure. Excessive wear can often be detected visually even before
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any measurements are taken. From normal operation, the wear pattern on the thrust face of a
piston will cover 20-40% of the face. If it covers 50% or more with visible vertical scratches,
there has been contamination between piston and cylinder wall causing excessive wear.
(ii) Piston erosion:

The erosion at the top edge of the piston is also due to wear. As the rings wear, oil
consumption increases thereby more combustion deposits results and a carbon ridge forms at
the top of the cylinder.
In the area near the exhaust valve, the carbon becomes hard and abrasive from e .haust
temperatures. When the piston repeatedly hits those hard deposits, the material is gradually
eaten away.

Damage from contamination entering an engine can occur over an extended period of
time with very slight leakage or it can be quite rapid if a significant amount of dirt is entering.
(iii) Piston crack:
If a user ignores the first signs of wear (oil consumption and blue exhaust smoke) and
continues to run the engine, the wear will progress to the point that the piston begins to "slap"
because of excessive running clearance. The piston slap puts increased stress on the piston
skirts and they can begin to crack. With continued operation, the cracks will progress across
the thrust face and towards the oil ring groove.
(iv) Piston seizure:
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Piston seizure is also a common type of failure but it can be little more difficult to
analyze. There are a number of possible causes but the appearance does not vary much from
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one to another. Possible causes include overheating from insufficient cooling air, lack of
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lubrication, insufficient running clearance, oil additives and contamination or foreign material
in the engine.
1.12.7. Connecting Rod En

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Shank
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ing
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{f--l---~-tJ I .~. I
Big end
Figure 1.46 Connecting rod


It is used to connect the piston and crankshaft with the help of bearings. It is usually steel
forging of circular, rectangular, I, T or H cross-sections. Its small end is connected with the
piston by the piston pin and its big end is connected to the crank by the crank pin. It has a
passage for the transfer for lubricating oil from the big end bearing to small end bearing.
The connecting rod must withstand heavy thrust. Hence, it must have great strength and
rigidity. They are generally made of plain carbon steel, Aluminium alloy and nickel alloy
steels.
1.12.8. Piston Rings
They are used to maintain air tight sealing between piston and cylinder to prevent gas
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leakages. Piston rings are fitted in grooves which are provided for them at the top portion of
the piston skirt. Two types of piston rings are used in a piston.
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Compression ring
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Oil ring
Figure 1.47 Piston rings

a) Compression rings:
These rings provide an effective seal for high pressure gases inside the cylinder. Each
piston is provided with at least two compression rings.
b) Oil rings:
These rings wipe off the excess oil from cylinder walls. It also returns excess oil to the
oil sump through slots provided in rings. The materials used for piston rings are cast iron,
alloy cast iron containing silicon and manganese, alloy steels etc. Piston rings are generally
coated with chromium or cadmium.
1.12.9. Crank Shaft
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It is used to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion. Big end of
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the connecting rod is connected to crank shaft. It can be a single crank type for single cylinder
engines and a multiple crank type for multi cylinder engine. The crankshaft is held in position
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by main bearings. There are minimum two bearings provided to support the crankshaft.
Figure 1.48 shows the cranks shaft of a four-cylinder in-line engine. The counter weights
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are provided to keep the system in a perfect balance. Crankshaft gear, vibration damper and
fan belt pulley are connected to the front end of the crankshaft. Flywheel is mounted at the
nee
rear end of the crankshaft. The material of the crankshaft should be strong enough to resist
heavy impact force of the piston. They are made from a hot billet steel, carbon steel, nickel-
chromium and other heat treated alloy steels.
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Main journals
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Bearing for flywheel
et
Crank pins
Figure 1.48 Crank shaft
1.12.10. Flywheel
The flywheel is heavy and perfectly balanced wheel usually connected to the rear end of
the crankshaft. Flywheel serves as an energy reservoir. It stores energy during power stroke

Vehicle Structure and Engines qta

and releases energy during other strokes. Thus, it gives a constant output torque. It is usually
made of cast iron or cast steel.
1.12.11. Cam Shaft

It is used to convert rotary motion of the camshaft into linear motion of the follower or
lifter. Thus, it operates the inlet and exhaust valves through rocker arms. It has as many cams
.as the number of valves in an engine. An additional cam is also' provided to drive the fuel
pump. The camshaft rotates inside the plain bearings. It is driven by crankshaft through chain
or gear train. It is rotated at half of the speed of crankshaft. Camshaft is usually made of
chilled cast iron and billet steel; however forged steel, gray cast iron or nickel steel may be
ww
used depending upon the application.
w.E Bearing
Cam
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gin
eer
Figure 1.49 (a) Cam shaft
ing Chain sprocket
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t
Bearing Eccentric tor mechanically

shells operated fuel pump
Figure 1.49 (b) Cam shaft asse".~ly

I'"
1.12.12. Spark Plug
The function of the spark plug is to ignite the air-fuel mixture after completing the
compression stroke in the petrol engine. It is usually mounted in the cylinder head. It is only
used in petrol engines.
Reasons for the spark plug failure:
The following are four reasons due to which the spark plug may fail to function properly.
a) Sooted spark plug: Insulator nose, electrodes and air space are covered in velvety
black soot due to faulty carburation.
b) Spark plug insulator damage: Scorching is due to sparks jumping across the insulator
ww which may be caused because of a spark plug adaptor worn out, the rubber gasket
tom, brittled or hardened.
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c) Worn spark plugs: Center and ground electrode show a visible material loss due to
aggressive fuel or oil additives, thermal overload and exceeding replacement interval.
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d) Incorrect tightening torque causes traces of hydrocarbons on spark plug body, broken
ground electrodes.
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1.12.13. Valves
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Valves are used for closing and opening the passage of a cylinder. There are two valves
in an engine cylinder such as inlet and exhaust valves.
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Fresh air-fuel mixture or air alone enters into the cylinder through the inlet valve.
Exhaust gases are forced out through the exhaust valves. Valves are operated by cam and
et
rocker arm mechanisms. There are three types of valves such as sleeve valve, rotary valve and
poppet valve. A poppet valve (also called mushroom valve) valves are most commonly used.
Figure 1.50 shows a poppet valve. Normally, the valve contains head or poppet (angular
face ground 30° to 45°), face, stem and spring retainer lock groove. The head of the inlet
valve is bigger than the head of the exhaust valve.
Inlet valve is made of plain nickel, nickel-chrome or chrome-molybdenum. The exhaust
valve is subjected to more heat. Hence, it should be made of high heat resistance material such
as silicon-chrome steel, high speed steel, cobalt-chrome steel and tungsten steel.

I Vehicle Structure and Engines UM

Head
'c----""'"-----. _j
Valve
angle
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lock groove
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Figure 1.50Partsof poppet valve
1.12.14.Valve Mechanisms rin

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The valves are actuated by cams mounted on a cam shaft. The different types of valve
operating mechanisms are as follows.
(i) side valve mechanism
e t
(ii) overhead valve mechanism
(iii) overhead inlet and side exhaust valve mechanisms.
(i)Side valvemechanism:
This mechanism is shown in Figure 1.51. The cam mounted on the camshaft operates the
valve tappet during its rotation. The valve tappet is pushed up. The valve tappet pushes the
valve from its sheet against the spring force. Thus, the valve is opened. When the cam is not
in action, the valve returns to its seat by the valve spring and spring retainer.

(ii) Overhead valve mechanism:

Figure 1.52 shows overhead valve mechanism.. Here, the valves are located in the
cylinder head. When the cam rotates, the valve lifter pushes the push rod upwards. The push
rod moves the rocker arm. Since the rocker arm is pivoted at its centre, it pushes the valve off
its seat against the spring force. Thus, the valve is opened. When the cam is not in action, the
valve returns to its seat by the valve spring and spring retainer.
Adjustable screw Rocker
ww Engine block
w.E Valve steam

guide
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Valve lifter
or tappet
et
Figure 1.51 Side valve mechanism Figure 1.52 Overhead

valve mechanism
(iii) Overhead inlet and side~ exhaust

, .,'
.:. ,
valve mechanism:
In this system, inlet valve is located in the cylinder head whereas the exhaust valve is
located in the cylinder block. The inlet valve is actuated by overhead valve mechanism. The
exhaust valve is actuated by a side valve mechanism.


1.13. CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES
Ie engines are classified on the basis of following parameters.
(i) Type of ignition:
a. Spark Ignition (SI) engines
b. Compression Ignition (CI) engines.
(ii) Cycle of operation (Thermodynamics, cycle):

a. Otto cycle engine
b. Diesel cycle engine
c. Dual cycle engine
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(iii)Engine cycle per stroke:
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a. Four stroke cycle
b. Two stroke cycle
(iv) Types offuel used: asy

a. Petrol engine
b. Diesel engine
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c. Gas engine
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(v) Method of cooling:
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a. Air-cooled engines
b. Water-cooled engines. g.n
(vi) Number of cylinders:
a. Single cylinder engine
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b. Two cylinder engine
c. Three cylinder engine
d. Four cylinder engine
e. Six cylinder engine
f. Eight cylinder engine
g. Twelve cylinder engine
h. Sixteen cylinder engine.

(vii) Valve location:

a. Square engine
b. L-head engine
c. I-head engine
d. F-head engine
e. T-head engine.
(viii)ArrangemJIl1of cylinders:
a. Vertical engine
b. Horizontal engine
ww c. Radial engine
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d. V-engine engine
e. Opposed cylinder engine.
(ix) Speed of the engine:

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a. Low speed engine
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b. Medium speed engine
c. High speed engine gin
(x) Types of lubrication system: eer
a. Wet sump lubrication system
ing
b. Dry sump lubrication system
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(xi) Metlwd of governing:
a. Quantity governing t
b. Quality governing
c.Hit and Miss governing
(xii) Field of application:

a. Automobile, truck, bus
b. Locomotive engine
c. Stationary engine
d. Marine engine
e. Aircraft engine.


1.14. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF IC ENGINES
1.14.1. Working of Four Stroke Cycle (petrol) SI Engine
As name implies, four stroke cycle engine operation consists of the following four
strokes.
1. Suction stroke
2. Compression stroke
3. Power or expansion stroke
4. Exhaust stroke.
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1. Suction stroke:
At the beginning of the stroke, the piston is at the top dead centre (TOC) and it is ready to
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move downward. As the piston moves downwards. the vacuum is created inside the cylinder.
Due to this vacuum, the air fuel mixture from the carburetor is sucked into the cylinder
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through inlet valves till the piston reaches bottom dead centre (BOC). During suction stroke.
the exhaust valve remains in a closed condition and inlet valve remains open. At the end of'the
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suction stroke, the inlet valve will be closed as shown in Figure 1.53(a).
2. Compression stroke:
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During the compression stroke, both the inlet and exhaust valves are in closed condition
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and the piston moves upward from BOC to compress the air fuel mixture. This process will
continue till the piston reaches TOC as shown in Figure 1.53(b). The compression ratio of
g.n
engine varies from 6 to 8. The pressure at the end of compression is about 600 to 1200kNlm2•
e
The temperature at the end of the compression is 250 to 300°C. At the end of this stroke, the
mixture is ignited by a spark plug. It instantaneously leads to increase both pressure and
temperature of the mixture.
t
3. Power or expanslon stroke:
Both pressure and temperature ranges of the ignited mixture are 1800 to 2000°C and
3000 to 4000KNlm2 respectively. During the expansion stroke, both valves are in closed
condition. The rise in pressure of the mixture exerts an impulse on the piston and pushes it
downward. Therefore, the piston moves from TOC to BOC. This stroke is known as power
stroke which is shown in Figure 1.53(c).
4. Exhaust stroke:
During exhaust stroke, the piston moves from BOC-to TOC, the exhaust valve is opened
and inlet valve is closed. The burnt gases are released through the exhaust valve when the

ImJI Automobile Engineering

piston moves upward. As the piston reaches TOe, the inlet valves will again open and the
fresh air fuel mixture enters into the cylinder for the next cycle of operation. Similarly, only
one power stroke is produced in each and every four stroke of the piston or two revolution of
the crankshaft. Hence, it is termed esfour-stroke engine.
Delivery valve
Delivery valve
Inlet valve
ww Connecting rod
tot
Inlet valve
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a syE
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(a) Suction stroke
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(b) Compression stroke
r ing
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(c) Power stroke (d) Exhaust stroke
Figure 1.53 Working offour stroke Sf engine


1.14.2. Working of Four Stroke Cycle (Diesel) CI Engine
The working of four-stroke cr engine is similar to SI engine except. Here, the fuel
injector is placed instead of a spark plug and only air is sucked into the cylinder during suction
stroke. The operations are described as follows.
Delivery valve
Delivery valve
Fuel injector
Inlet valve
ww Connecting rod
tot
Inlet valve
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(a) Suction stroke
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l 0 l tot e t
(e) Power stroke (d) Exhaust stroke
Figure 1.54 Working of four stroke CI engine

lrml Automobile Engineering

1. Suction stroke:
During suction stroke, the piston moves from TOC to BOC. The inlet valve is in open
condition whereas the exhaust valve is closed. When the piston moves from top to bottom, the
fresh air is admitted inside the cylinder through inlet valve as shown in Figure 1.54(a).
2. Compression stroke:
During compression stroke, both the inlet and exhaust valves are closed. The piston
moves from BOC to TOC to compress the air. In case of CI engines, the compression ratio
varies from ]2 -to 18. The pressure at the end of compression is from 3500 kNlm2 to
4000kNlm2. The temperature of the compressed air reaches from 600°C to 700°C.
3. Power stroke:
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In this stroke also, both inlet and exhaust valves are in a closed position. The fuel injector
opens just before the beginning of the third stroke, it injects the fuel in atomized form. The
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ignition of fuel automatically takes place at high pressure and temperature. Both pressure and
temperature will further increase due to combustion, it pushes the piston towards down. Thus,
it produces power stroke.
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4. Exhaust stroke:
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During this stroke, the inlet valve is closed and the exhaust valve is opened. The piston
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moves from BOC to TOC. It blows out the burnt gases from the cylinder. Thus, one cycle of
operation is completed and repeated again and again in the same manner.
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1.14.3.Working of Two Stroke Cycle SI Engine (Petrol Engine)
The working principle of two stroke SI engine is described as follows. g.n

1..First stroke (suction and compression): et
The first stroke consists of the suction and compression processes: During the first stroke,
the piston moves upward from BOC to TOC. When the piston is at BOC, the partially
compressed air fuel mixture from crank case enters into the cylinder through a transfer port as
shown Figure 1.55(a). Then, the piston moves upward and compresses the air contained in it
till the piston reaches TOe. At the end of the compression stroke, the spark plug produces the
spark, it will ignite the compressed high pressure fuel air mixture. When the piston is at TOC,
the inlet port opens and the air fuel mixture from the carburettor enters into the crankcase as
. shown in Figure 1.55(b). Thus, one stroke of the piston is completed.


2. Second stroke (expansion or power and ex/must stroke):
mal
When air fuel mixture is ignited, both pressure and temperature of the products of
combustion will suddenly increase. Therefore, the piston receives power impulse from the
expanded gas and it pushes the piston downward and it also produces the power stroke. This
process is described in Figure 1.55(c). During expansion stroke, some of the heat energy
produced is converted into mechanical work.
Spark plug
ww Deflector
w.E Piston
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(a) Suction stroke
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Fiuure 1.55 Working of two stroke SI engine

During downward stroke of piston, already entered air fuel mixture in the crankcase is
partially compressed by the underside of the piston. This pre-compression process is called
·crankcase compression. At the end of power stroke, the exhaust port opens and burnt gases
are sent out of the engine through this port as shown in Figure 1.55(d). At the same time, all
burnt gases are not exhausted. Some portions will remain in the cylinder. When the piston
moves to BDC, the fresh air fuel mixture from crankcase enters into the cylinder to sweep out
the burnt gases. The process of sweeping out·the exhaust gases with help of fresh air fuel
mixture is known as scavenging. The scavenging helps to remove the burnt gases from the
cylinder.
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1.14.4.Working of Two Stroke Cycle CI Engine (Diesel Engine)
The working of two stroke CI engine slightly differs from SI engine. Instead of
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sparkplug, the fuel injector is placed at the top of the cylinder.
a
1. First stroke:
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In the first stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC. When the piston is at BDC,
partially compressed air from the crank case enters into the cylinder through the transfer port
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as shown in Figure 1.56(a). Then, the piston moves upward and further compresses the air into
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high pressure and temperature till the piston reaches TDC. At the end of the compression
stroke, the fuel injector injects the fuel in atomized form and automaticatly ignited by the
r ing
compressed air. During the upward movement of the piston, a slight vacuum will be produced
at the crankcase to suck the air from atmosphere.
2. Second stroke:
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t
When the fuel and air are ignited, it suddenly increases the pressure and temperature 0':-
the gas. Therefore, the gases will expand and push the piston downward and producing the
power stroke as shown in Figure 1.56(c). During expansion, some of the heat energy produced
is converted into mechanical work.
During downward stroke of the piston, it first uncovers the exhaust port·and the burnt
gases are sent out of the engine as shown in Figure 1.56(d). At the same time, all burnt gases
are not exhausted. Therefore, the scavenging takes place in the cylinder.
At the time of downward movement of the piston, already entered air in the crankcase is
partially compressed by the underside of the piston. This process is called crankcase
compression.


Fuel injector
••
Deflector
Connecting rod
ww Crankcase
w.E (a) Suction stroke (b) Compression stroke
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Figure 1.56 Working of two stroke CI engine
1.14.5.Comparison of 51 Engine and CI Engine
S.No. SI or Petrol engine CI or Diesel engine
1. During suction stroke, the air fuel During suction stroke, the air is only
mixture is drawn from carburettor. drawn from the atmosphere.

tag Automobile Engineering l

2. Carburettor is used to mix the air Fuel injector or atomizer is required
and fuel in required proportion. to inject the fuel into cylinder in
atomized form.
3. Spark plug is required to ignite the Fuel is ignited automatically by high
fuel air mixture. pressure and temperature air.
4. The compression ratio varies from The compression ratio varies from 12
6 to 8. to 18.
5. It is operated by Otto cycle or It IS operated by Diesel cycle or
constant volume cycle.
ww6.
constant pressure cycle.
The starting is easy due to lower The starting is little difficult due to
7. w.E
compression ratio. higher compression ratio.
Running cost is high because of Running cost is less because of lower
8.
high cost of fuel.
asy cost of fuel.
required. En
For the same power, less space is For the same power, more space is
required.
9. Initial cost is low.
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Initial cost is high.
10.
eer
Maintenance cost is less because Maintenance cost is more because of
of few parts. more number of parts.
ing
11. Thermal efficiency is low.
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Thermal efficiency is considerably
12. These are used for high speed These are
applications. operations.
used for low speed
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1.14.6.Comparison of Two-Stroke and Four-Stroke Engines
Two stroke cycle engine Four stroke cycle engine

S.No.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. A cycle is completed in 2 strokes A cycle is completed in 4 strokes or
or one revolution of the two revolution of the crank shaft.
crankshaft.
2. It develops twice the number of It develops half the number of power


power strokes than the four stroke stroke than two stroke engine:
0:'.
engines.
3.
For the same power developed,
For the same power developed, the
the two stroke engine is much
four stroke engine is bulky, heavier
lighter, less bulky and it occupies
and it occupies more floor area.
less floor area.
4. Turning moment is more uniform

Turning moment is not uniform and
and hence, lighter flywheel is
hence, heavier flywheel is required.
required.
ww5. It contains ports which are
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therefore,
by the
no
piston itself
separate
It contains valves which are operated
by separate mechanisms.
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mechanisms are required.
6.
complexity in mechanism. E
Initial cost is low due to less
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Initial cost is high because of heavier
and complicated mechanisms.
7.
8.
Mechanical efficiency is more.
It is easy to start. nee

Mechanical efficiency is low.
It requires separate starting motor.

-_
9. It can be run in either direction rin
which is useful in marine engines.
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It can be run in only one direction.
s.
No.
Two stroke cycle engine
Disadvantages
Four stroke cycle engine
Advantages
e t
1. Thermal efficiency is low. Thermal efficiency is high.
2. Volumetric efficiency is low. Volumetric efficiency is more.
3. Greater cooling and lubrication Lesser cooling and lubrication are

are required. required.
4. Overall efficiency is less. Overall efficiency is mo. ~.
5. Greater rate of wear and tear. Lesser rate of wear and tear.
6. It is used in light vehicles only

Used in heavy vehicles such as cars,
(e.g.) scooters, motor cycles,

Ilmi Automobile Engineering I

mopeds etc. buses, trucks etc.
7. Release of exhaust gas is more

Sudden release of exhaust gases
uniform and hence noiseless
makes the exhaust noisier.
operation.
8. Specific fuel consumption IS

Specific fuel consumption IS less
more because of escaping of the
because of separate exhaust stroke.
fresh charge with exhaust gases.
9. Less compression ratio. More compression ratio.
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1.15. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUMBER OF CYLINDERS
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(i) Single cylinder engine.
It has only one cylinder. A single cylinder engines are generally used in light motor
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vehicles such as mopeds, motor cycles and scooters. Maximum size of the cylinder is
choice due to few parts to manufacture E

restricted to 250-300CC. Although a single cylinder engine seems to be the most popular
ngi
and maintain, the disadvantages
advantages. Since, it requires heavy construction for more power due to higher unbalanced
are more than
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forces. Also the weight increases at a greater rate in comparison to the power providing a
lower power to weight ratio. A single cyl inder engine may be two stroke or four stroke cycle
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engine. Some of the vehicles which consist of single cylinder engine with their CC are given
below.
g.n
Vehicle cc e t
Rajdoot => 175
Vespa => 150
TVSXL => 50
Bajaj M80 => 80
TVS Max 100R => 100
Bajaj pulsar => 150 and 180
Yamaha RX 100 => 100

Vehicle Structure and Engines lID I

Reasons 0/ using single cylinder two stroke petrol engines on two wheelers:
The following are the reasons for using single cylinder two stroke petrol engines on two
wheelers.
(i) Two stroke cycle engines are compact in size than the four stroke cycle engines for
the same power capacity.
(ii) Since two wheelers such as mopeds, scooters, bikes etc. are light duty vehicles
used for carrying one or two passengers only, the power developed by single
cylinder is sufficient to carry the load.
(iii) Since the single cylinder two stroke petrol engines are lighter engines, the vehicle
ww using these engines are also lighter in weight. Therefore, for the same tractive
force, a two wheeler gives higher acceleration.
(iv)
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A petrol engine runs at a lower compression ratio than a diesel engine. Therefore,
the weight to power ratio of a petrol engine is less than a diesel engine.
(v)
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Single cylinder two stroke engines are air-cooled engines and they do not require
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water, radiator and circulating pump. Therefore, weight to power ratio of such
engine is less.
(ii) Mutt! cylinder engines:gin

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Multi cylinder engine has two, three, four, six, eight twelve or sixteen cylinders which
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are arranged in many different ways. As compared to single cylinder engine, the unbalanced
more power can be developed with less weight to power ratio. g.

forces due to reciprocating parts are much lesser as the number of cylinders increases. Also
net
Reasons/or using multi cylinder diesel engines in commercial vehicles:
The following are the reasons for using multi cylinder diesel engines 111 commercial
vehicles such as trucks and busses.
(i) A multi cylinder engine develops marc power required to propel the commercial
vehicles as it carries greater load.
(ii) Diesel engines normally run at higher compression ratio of 18.1. At this high
compression ratio, the thermal efficiency of a multi cylinder engines is higher than
an Otto cycle petrol engine. Therefore, a diesel engine gives better fuel economy.
(iii) The swept volume of the multi cylinder engine is high and also surface volume ratio
is increased. It results a greater power output and also better cooling which is

IIDII Automobile Engineering

esseritial for the protection of engine parts such as cylinder head, cylinder liner,
piston etc. The lubricating oil is also prevented from partial oxidation.
(iv) Vibrations in multi cylinder engine are less due to balancing of the crank.
1.16. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON ARRANGEMENT OF CYLINDERS
The cylinders can be arranged in several ways such as vertical, horizontal, inline, V-type,
flat or pancake, radial. Single cylinder engines can be arranged in either vertical or horizontal
direction as shown in Figure 1.57.
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a
.,. ..
"..
I
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I
/'
I
....
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,
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,
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•
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I (b) Horizontal engine
\, /
", "
.............. _-_ ....,.... '
(a) Vertical engine
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Figure 1.57Single cylinder engines
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Merits of horizontal engines:
I. The inertia forces of the reciprocating parts i.e. primary and secondary forces .ne
combine together to give an impulse to the chassis frame of the vehicle as the
stroke of the engine piston is horizontal. If the cylinder head is towards the front
: ..
t
end of the vehicle, then a driving impulse is obtained from the engine. This
impulse force slides the engine forward on a smooth floor when the running
engine is placed on the floor. Therefore, a vehicle fitted with horizontal engine
tends to push forward the moped or the scooter by its impulsive force.
2. Fuel economy is also more.
Demerits of horizontal engines:

I. The crankcase cannot be used for storing lubrication oil for splash lubrication.

Vehicle Structure and Engines liD

2. There will be excessive wear at the lower side of the piston and cylinder liner
where the cylinder liner gives support to the engine because the weight of the
piston is carried by the cylinder liner.
3. Consumption of lubricating oil is more due to the lubricating oil which dribbles
from bearings not returning to the crankcase but it is thrown out by the centrifugal
forces.
Cylinders
Cylinders
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Crankshaft
~"
~\
Bearing
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(a) Inline vertical engine
(b) V-type engine
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(c) Opposed cylinder engine
Figure 1.58 Two cylinder engines
Two cylinder engines have two cylinders which can be arranged in three ways such as
inline vertical, opposed cylinder and V-type. In inline engine, the cylinders are arranged in
side-by-side, one row and parallel to each other.shown in Figure 1.58 (a). The cylinders are
zenerally placed in a vertical direction. The range of size of the twin cylinder engine varies


from 500 to 1000CC for heavy vehicles and three wheelers. It varies from 600 to 800CC for
small cars.
In V-type engines (Figure 1.58 (b)), the cylinders are arranged in two rows. The two
rows are set at an angle of 60° or 90° to each other. This arrangement is more compact and
economical than inline type.
In opposed cylinder arrangement, the two cylinders are arranged horizontally opposite to
each other. The piston and connecting rod movements are identical. The crankshaft and cam
shafts are positioned between two cylinders shown in Figure 1.58 (c).
In three cylinder engines, cylinders are arranged vertically in-line with the crankpins
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arranged at 120° intervals around the shaft. They produce power impulse every 120° of crank
rotation indicating that the torque produced is comparatively smooth. Three cylinder engines
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are only confined to two strokes. The crankcase serves as intake and pre-compression
chamber. The crankcase is divided into three compartments. Each sealed off section of the
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crank case is provided to one of the cylinders. Figure 1.59 shows a three cylinder inline four
stroke cycle engine.
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Bearing
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Figure 1.59 Three cylinder inllne four stroke engine
Four cylinder engines have become increasingly popular in recent years. A basic reason
is the trend towards small, lightweight and fuel-efficient cars. 1800 crankshaft arrangement is
always used. The balance of the four cylinder engines is not as good as the balance of the
opposed two-cylinder engines. But the torque is much more uniform. In these engines, two
pairs of four cylinders are moving in the opposite direction. The pairs move up and down
together with each cylinder being on a different stroke. In case of four cylinder four stroke
engines, four power strokes in two revolutions of the crankshaft with firing interval of 180°


are produced. In a four cylinder engine, the cylinders may be arranged inline, opposed, square
four or flat 4 and V-four manner.
ww Figure 1.60 Four cylinder inline engine

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In inlinefour cylinder engines, piston 1 and piston 4 are always moving in pair opposite
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to the direction of piston pair 2 and 3 shown in Figure 1.60. In this arrangement, firing interval
is regular. Since, this engine is similar to two, two-cylinder engines arranged end to end, the
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overall balance is very good due to the two rocking coup~es by neutralizing each other, the
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engine is not completely balanced and a secondary vibration is produced. It can be reduced by
using light weight pistons and connecting rods.
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Piston
4 g.n
Cylinders
e t
3
§1~Bearing
Connecting
rod
Figure 1.61 Opposedfour cylinder engine
In an opposed four cylinder engin~, the cylinders are arranged horizontally in pairs on
each side of a flat four crankshaft. Here, the engine balance is superior to inline engine. In this
engine, one power stroke is occurred in every 1800 of crankshaft rotation. The torque is also


smooth. Figure 1.61 shows this type of arrangement. This arrangement is also called flat four
or pancake engine. This arrangement is found in air cooled Volkswagen and water cooled
Jewett's Javelin.
\
V-four engines have cylinders arranged in two rows of two cylinders each. The two rows
are set at an angle (preferably 60°) to each other. The crankshaft and cam shafts are positioned
between two cylinders as shown in Figure 1.62. It is similar to two cylinder V engines having
a common crank shaft. This arrangement is more compact and economical than inline type.
The engine has a firing order of 1, 3, 4 and 2 with firing interval of 180°. This engine is
balanced by using a balance shaft that runs in a direction opposite to the crankshaft.
ww
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E Figure 1.62 V-4 engine
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Figure 1.63 Six cylinder inline engine
Some five cylinder automotive engines are being built. Mercedes produces a five-
cylinder diesel engine. Volkswagen has a five cylinder inline spark-ignition engine for a front-
drive car.
Six-cylinder engines give a better dynamic balance and a more uniform tor.quethan four-
cylinder engines: Most of the high powered as well as modern cars of the moderate powers are
employing six cylinder engines. Though expensive and complication involve in these engines,

they are much smoother; more flexible and quieter running. It requires only a light flywheel
due to the lower ratio of maximum to mean torque.
Six cylinder engines are generally inline engines built with 120° crank shafts. The
arrangement of crank shaft is as shown in Figure 1.63. This arrangement is such that the crank
throws of cylinders 1 and 6, 2 and 5, and 3 and 4 are in the same revolution of the crankshaft.
The possible firing order for good distributions of fuel is 1-5-3-6-2-4 and 1-4-2-6-3-5.
Six cylinder V-engines are very important engines which are built to have a bank of three
cylinders set at an angle or at V to each other. Same crank pin is used to attach connecting
rods from opposing cylinders in two banks. The arrangement of cylinders in V-6 engine is
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shown in Figure 1.64.
Opposed six-cylinder engines are also av_,ailable.The arrangement of cylinders is in the
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similar manner of a four cylinder opposed engine. Three cylinders are placed in each side of
two rows but they are opposite to each other.
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Figure 1.64 V-6 engine g.n
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The eight-cylinder engines have many advantages over six cylinder engines. They
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provide more uniform torque and better acceleration while the balance is not very good. Eight
cylinder inline engines provide a long engine with long and expensive crank and camshaft.
The interval of explosions of this engine is 90°. The crank throws for different pairs of
cylinders are in the same radial plane such as cylinders 1 and 8, cylinders 2 and 7, 3 and 6,
and 4 and 5. The firing order is 1-6-2-5-8-3-7-4 or 1-8-2-6-4-5-3-7. The disadvantages of this
engine are long and expensive crankshaft and its liability to torsional oscillation of the
crankshaft.
Eight cylinder V-engines employing two banks of four cylinders each at right angle have
replaced the inline eight-cylinder models in most of the higher power automobiles. The angle
between cylinder rows in V-8 engine is usually kept as 90°. These engines can operate
smoothly and silently. V-8 engines are almost universally in use. The Rolls Royce and

Daimler car manufacturers are producing different V-8 model engines. Three big
manufactures of car i.e., Ford, Chrysler and General Motors are employing V-8 engine as
standard engines.
ww Figure 1.65 V-8 engine
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Advantages of V-engines over inline engines:
The main advantages ofV-8 engines are summarized as follows.
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1. It is the shortest of all the eight-cylinder engines other than radial engines. It is also a
on small wheel base. E

lighter and more rigid engine. The shorter engine provides more space for passenger
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2. It provides relatively a simple valve gear, arranged both for the side valve or
overhead valve type engine, enabling a single crankshaft to be located above the
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crank shaft for 90° angle arrangement of two cylinder banks.
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3. It permits the use of intake manifolds that assure relatively even distribution of air-
fuel mixture to all cylinders since all cylinders are relatively close together.
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4. Good engine balance can be obtained by suitable choice of crankshaft angles. A good
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balance would be resulted if two outer cranks at 90° to the parallel inner pairs in the
same plane are provided.
5. It is not affected by similar torsional vibrations similar to an in-line type.
6. Since, the carburetor and other parts are rested between two rows of cylinders, it
permits lowering the engine load line and thus it lowers the car profile.
7. Instead of an eight-throw as inline type, only a four throw crankshaft is used. In this
case, same crank pin is used for operating two connecting rods from opposite
cylinders. This arrangement provides even firing intervals between cylinders.
Twelve cylinder engines were originally designed for aeroplanes. But certain cars such as
Rolls Royse, Daimler and Lincoln Zephyer also use these engines. These engines consist of


two sets of six cylinder inline engines with each forming a bank V-inclined at 60° or 75°.
They have common crankshaft and camshaft with six sets of forked and plain connecting rods.
The Italian Ferrari is the only car which is being manufactured with a twelve-cylinder engine.
Sixteen-cylinder engines having two sets of straight light cylinders inclined at an angle of
V have been used in Cadillac cars. These engines have been perfectly balanced with top gear
performance. The cylinders arranged in two banks of eight cylinders each are inclined at 135°.
Radial engines are mostly used in aircrafts, These engines are air-cooled and they have
cylinders arranged in a star form about the crankshaft axis. The cylinders are radiating from a
common centre similar to spokes of the wheel. A common crankpin is employed for all
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connecting rods. To get uniform firing intervals, the cylinders are odd in number such as 5, 7,
9 etc. These engines are compact with low weight per horsepower and accessibility, simplicity
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of the single throw crank shaft and single cam ring for operating the valves. But, they are not
used in motor vehicles due to more frontal area and more complicated exhaust pipe system.
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Figure 1.66Radial engine
1.17. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON l.ENGTH OF CYLINDERS
(i) Square engine:

Engine which has same bore and stroke is called square engine. Usually, engines have a
bore/stroke ratio of 0.95 to 1.04 referred as square engines.
(ii) Oversquare engine:

A piston engine is oversquare or short stroke if its cylinders have a greater bore than
stroke. Since a shorter stroke means less friction and less stress on the crankshaft. An
oversquare engine is generally more reliable, wears less and it can be run at higher speed. In

oversquare engines, power does not suffer but low-speed torque does to some degree since
torque is relative to crank throw. An oversquare engine cannot have as high compression ratio
as which is similar to an engine with a lower bore/stroke ratio and using the same octane fuel.
It causes the oversquare engine to have poor fuel economy and poor exhaust emissions.
Engines can be modified by being "de-stroked", shortening the stroke to increase maximum
rpms and top-end horsepower at the expense of low-end torque.
Oversquare engines are lighter and shorter than similar undersquare engines along the
direction of piston travel but they are wider in directions perpendicular to piston travel. As the
length is not a large problem, these engine types are highly favored by many manufacturers
because of their power and compact size.
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(ii) Undersquare engine:
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A piston engine is undersquare or long stroke if cylinders have a smaller bore than
stroke. Since a longer stroke usually means greater friction, more stress on the crankshaft and
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a smaller bore means smaller valves which restrict gaseous exchange. An undersquare engine
usually has a lower redline than an oversquare engine but it may generate more low-end
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torque. In addition, a long stroke or undersquare engine can have a higher compression ratio
with the same octane fuel compared to a similar displacement engine with higher bore/stroke
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ratio. It also equals better fuel economy and better emissions. An undersquare engine does not
overheat as easily as similar oversquare engine. Engines can be modified with a "stroker"
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crankshaft which increases engine stroke from stock thereby increasing torque. Undersquare
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engines typically are shorter in length, heavier and taller than equivalent oversquare which is
one of the reasons why this type of engine is not generally used.
1.18. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON ARRANGEMENT OF VALVES

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(i) L-Ilead engine:
Spark plug
Figure 1.67 L-head engine

I Vehicle Structure and Engines i ••

In this arrangement, all valves are arranged in one line (except in case of V-8 engine)
with the intake and exhaust valves are arranged side by side. The combustion chamber and the
cylinder are arranged in the form of inverted 'L'. All valves can be operated by a single
crankshaft. Figure 1.67 shows this arrangement.
Advantages:
I. One cam shaft is only required.
2. Height is reduced.
3. As valves are arranged in one line, the- removal of the cylinder is quite easy for
servicing.
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4. It is more dependable.
Disadvantages:
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1. More space for combustion chamber is required.
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2. Knocking tendency is more than T-head engine.
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3. Location of spark plug is difficult.
4. High compression ratio is not possible.
(ii) I-head engine: gin

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In these engines, the cylinder head carries the valve. It is also called overhead valve
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engine. In case of inline engines, valves are arranged in a single row and valves may be
actuated by a single crankshaft. g.

~arranged in a single row or double row in each bank in case of V-engines. All valves are
net
Cylinder head
Cylinder
block
Figure 1.68 I-head engine
Advantages:
1. A single camshaft actuates all valves.
2. Clearance volume is less. Hence, the compression ratio can be increased
considerably.
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3. The spark plug can be located at the centre.
4. Smooth operation can be obtained.
Disadvantages:
1. More valve mechanism parts are involved.
2. The cylinder head requires more cooling.
3. It is more complicated design.
4. The size of the inlet and exhaust valves is limited.
(iii) T-head engine:

It has the inlet valve on one side and the exhaust valve on the other side of the cylinder.
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Thus, two cam shafts are required to operate them. The combustion chamber and the cylinder
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form a letter' T . Generally, small engines are made with T-head arrangement.
Spark plug
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Figure 1.69 T-head engine rin
Disadvantages: g.n
1.
2.
Unequal temperature occurs in the cylinder.
More power is wasted in operating two camshafts.
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3. Cost and weight are more.
(iv) F-head engine:
Figure 1.70 F-head engine


In this arrangement, inlet valves are located in the cylinder head and exhaust valves by
sides of cylinders. These engines being combination of L-head and l-head engineers are
known as F-head engines. Both inlet and exhaust sets are driven from the same camshaft.
Advantages:
1. More turbulence is possible.
2. More speed is possible.
Disadvantages:
1. More space is required for the combustion chamber.
2. Location of spark plug is difficult.
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3. Design of combustion chamber is difficult
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1.19. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON METHODS OF COOLING
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(i) Air-cooled engines:
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In these engines, cylinders are usually mounted separately. They have metal fins which
provide a large surface area. It permits the engine heat to be carried away from cylinders. Air-
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cooled engines have shrouds which direct the airflow around cylinders for cooling. Air-
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cooling is generally provided in one cylinder or two cylinder engines such as mopeds, motor
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cycles and scooters. Some of the earlier car models were air-cooled.
(ii) Water cooled engines:

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Most of the present day engines are water-cooled. These engines use a liquid i.e. water to
take heat from engines. These engines have water jackets around cylinders and combustion
chambers. The water is passed through all parts of the engine and it takes away the heat from
it and passed through the radiator for cooling. In the radiator, water is cooled by passing air
around the fined tube.
1.20. WANKEL ENGINE
This engine was introduced by Felix Wankel in 1954. The engine works on ordinary Otto
cycle. It is a rotary combustion engine. The piston in this engine undergoes rotary motion.
This engine has been developed by Dr. Walter Froede of Germany for installation in NSU
motor vehicles. This engine was installed in two seater NSU spider sports car for the first
time. Several automobile manufacturers in various countries have obtained licenses and
started the manufacture of Wankel rotary engine.

Automobile Engineering, I
Construction details:
The engine rotor has three lobes. The rotor rotates in an eccentric pattern. The lobes are
in contact with the oval housing to form a tight seal. This seal is equivalent to the seal formed
by piston rings against the cylinder wall in a reciprocating engine. The rotor is mounted on the
crankshaft through external and internal gears. The rotor lobes A, Band C are placed tightly
against the side of oval housing shown in Figure 1.71 (a). Th"erotor also has over-shaped
recesses which are shown as dashed lines. The oval chamber not only revolves about its own
centre but also it is a circular path around the output shaft. This engine has inlet and exhaust
parts. The housing is surrounded by water jackets for cooling. When the engine runs, the four
cycles of operation will also take place around the rotor simultaneously. The working of
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engine and its action during one complete rotation of the rotor are shown in Figure 1.71.
Working:
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1. Intake process:
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In Figure 1.71 (a), lobe A has passed the intake port and the air fuel mixture is starting to
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enter (1). As the rotor moves as the space between lobes A and C will increase (2) as shown in
Figure 1.71(b). This motion produces vacuum which causes the air fuel mixture to enter. The
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air fuel mixture continues to enter as the space between lobes A and C are continued to
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increase in (3) of Figure 1.71(c). The lobe C starts to move past the intake port as shown in
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Figure 1.71 (d). Further movement of rotor carries lobe C past the intake port. So, the air fuel
mixture is sealed between lobes A and (C) at (4).
2. Compression process: g. net

In Figure 1.71 (a), the air fuel mixture has been trapped between lobes and A and B at
(5). Further rotation of the rotor decreases the space between lobes A and B at (6). By that
time, the rotor reaches the position shown in Figure 1.71 (c) and the space (7) is minimum.
This position is same as TOC position of the piston on the compression stroke in the
reciprocating engine. Now, the spark plug fires and ignites the compressed mixture.
3. Power or expansion process:

Pressure exerted on the side of the rotor when the combustion takes place and it forces
the rotor to move around. This process is similar to a power stroke of the reciprocating engine.
The high pressure of the burnt mixture in (8) forces the rotor around to position (9) again.
Expansion continues to rotate the rotor until the leading lobe passes through the exhaust port.


IS => Ignition Start
EVO => Exhaust Valve Open
EVC => Exhaust Valve Close
TDC => Top Dead Center
BOC => Bottom Dead Center.
Theoretical valve timing diagram:
The exact moment at which each of the valves opens and closes with reference to the
position of piston and crank can be shown graphically in a diagram. This diagram is known as
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"valve timing diagram".
In theoretical valve timing diagram, inlet and exhaust valves open and close at both dead
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centers. Similarly, all processes are sharply completed at TDC or BOC. Figure 1.72 shows
theoretical valve timing diagram for four stroke SI engines.
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EVO I
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Figure 1.72 Theoretical valve timing diagramjOf'1jour stroke Sf engines
Actual valve timing diagram:
Figure 1.73 shows actual valve timing diagram for four stroke SI engine. The inlet valve
opens 10-30° before TOC. The air-fuel mixture is sucked into the cylinder till the inlet valve
closes. The inlet valve closes 30-40°' or 'even 60° after BOC. The charge is compressed till the
spark occurs. The spark is produced 20-40° before TDC. It gi\leS sufficient time for the fuel to

111m Automobile Engineering

burn. Both pressure and temperature inc~ease.The burnt gases are expanded till the exhaust
valve opens.
The exhaust valve opens 30-60° before BOC. The exhaust gases are forced out from the
cylinder till the e:>dtaustvalve closes. The exhaust valve closes 8-20° after TOC. Before
closing, the inlet valve again opens 10-30° before TOC. If the piston is positioned between
fourth stroke (exhaust) and the first stroke (intake) at TOC, both valves open. The period
between NO and EVC is known as valve overlap period. The angle of valve overlap is the
sum of the angle of opening the intake valve before TOC and closing of the exhaust valve
after TOC. In Figure 1.73, the angle of overlap is specified as 10°.
TOC
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1.22. VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM FOR A FOUR STROKE CI ENGINE
Figure 1.74 shows the actual valve-timing diagram for four-stroke diesel (CI) engine.
The inlet valve opens (IVO) 10° to 25° before TOC. Fresh air is sucked into the engine
cylinder till the inlet valve closes. The inlet valve closes (IVC) 25° to 50° after BOC. The air
is compressed till the fuel is injected. The fuel injection starts (FIS) 5° to 10° before TOC in
the compression stroke. The air-fuel mixture burns. Both temperature and pressure increase.
The burning gases are expanded till the exhaust valve opens.
The exhaust valve opens (EVO) 30° to 50° before BOC. The exhaust gases are forced out
of the cylinder till the exhaust valve closes.

I Vehicle Structure and Engines '.,11

The exhaust valves close (EVC) 10° to 15° after TDC. Before closing the exhaust valve,
the inlet valve again opens 10° to 25° before TDC. The period when both the inlet and exhaust
valves are opened is known as valve overlap period. The angle between these two events is
known as angle of valve overlap. In Figure 1.74, the angle of overlap is specified as 5°.
Toe
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Figure 1.74 Actual valve timing diagram for four stroke CI engines
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1.23. VARIABLE VALVE TIMING (VVT)
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Fixed valve timing has been a standard feature of all engines until relatively recent times.
The valves opened and closed at a fixed period in relation to crankshaft rotation at all engine
speeds and loads. When the inlet and exhaust valve timing is fixed, the timing is not suitable
for all engine operating speeds and loads. So, there is increase in use of mechanisms to
provide variable valve timing (VVT). The variable valve timing systems alter the valve timing
to suit engine speed and load conditions. Although systems are purely mechanical-based
systems, most modern systems make use of the electronic engine management system to
regulate the mechanical actuation of changes to the valve timing.
A petrol engine has to operate at varying engine speeds from idle, typically 750 rpm
through to high speeds up to 7000 rpm and above. So, the engine will have valve timing more
suitable for one particular engine speed which is generally at around 50% to 60% of the
engine's maximum speed. Therefore, the variable valve timing results the increased
combustion efficiency at the selected engine speed.

TOC
IVO EVC
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Figure 1.75 Variable valve timing for four cylinder engine
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Variable valve timing optimises the overlap period during engine operation. It allows
different overlap periods to be used at different engine speeds. Practically, VVT systems are
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used to enable good power or torque to be achieved over the whole engine speed range but the
added benefit of valve overlap is to facilitate the mixing of some exhaust gas with the fresh
charge of air. Therefore, the combustion temperature and NOx emission are reduced.
(i) Slow engine speeds:

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At slow engine speeds, if the inlet valve timing is altered so that it is retarded or opened
late, all of the exhaust gas will be expelled through the exhaust valve and the cylinder will fiI
with fresh uncontaminated mixture. So, a fresh mixture will provide a good bum of the gas
during next power stroke. Therefore, the engine is stable when it is at idle.
(ii) High engine speeds:

At high speed, if the inlet valve timing is advanced, the fresh mixture can be drawn into
the cylinder by the depression caused by the flow of exhaust gas through the exhaust valve.
The flow of exhaust gas will improve the gas flow. through the cylinder at higher engine
speeds.

Vehicle Structure and Engines msl

(iii) Valve opening period:
The valve opening period is dictated by the profile of the cam lobe which is constant with
conventional valve operating gear. When the engine is at low to medium speeds, the valve
opening period allows sufficient fresh mixture into the cylinder to provide good engine
performance. At higher engine speeds, the volumetric efficiency of an engine will increase if
the opening period of the valve is increased. It is possible to increase the valve opening period
by increasing the valve lift. Increasing the valve lift at high engine speeds provides an increase
in the volume of fresh mixture drawn into the cylinder. So, it results an increase in engine
power.
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1.23.1. Types of Variable Valve Timing
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There are three types of variable valve timing such as cam changing VVT, cam phasing
VVT and combined cam changing and cam phasing VVT.
1. Cam changing VVT:

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This type ofVVT uses various cam profiles to lift valves based on load and speed. It also
uses two rocker arms for normal working in its two intake valves and third rocker arm is
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placed between other two arms. If the engine runs more than 5000 to 6000 rpm, the Electronic
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Control Unit (ECU) activates an oil pressure controlled pin to lock these three rocker arms
movement to intake valves in keep opening it for longer period. r

simultaneously. The center rocker arm follows the random profile and transfers the same
ing
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Similarly, when the engine speed reduces below the threshold speed, the spring
connected to it will deactivate the pin to reduce the oil pressur~ because rocker arms are not
locked. It is due to less control of valves by outer lobes. It is carried out in three stages.
Stage 1. Low speed

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Both intake and exhaust valves are configured for slow speed.
Stage 2. Medium speed

In this stage, intake valves are configured for high speed and exhaust valves are
configured for slow speed. So, medium speed is obtained.
Stage 3. High speed

In this stage, both intake and exhaust valves are configured for high speed. Therpfnrp
high speed is obtained.
~.

lam Automobile Engineering

Advantage:
It is very much powerful at top end.
Disadvantages:
1. Stage 2 or stage 3 is non-continuous and not much improvement to torque.
2. It is also complex in nature.
2. Cam phasing VVT:

It is the simplest, cheapest and most commonly used mechanism in recent days. It is
obtained by just shifting the phase angle of camshafts. At high speed, the inlet camshaft
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rotates 30° advance to enable previous intake. It can be achieved by engine management
system based on the need and type of actuation. Generally. the actuation is done by hydraulic
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valve gears.
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This arrangement does not alter the duration of valve opening but it allows valve to open
early or late based on the requirement. If the valves are opened early, they also close early.
Advantages:
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I. It is cheap and simple.
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2. It improves the torque throughout the running process.
Disadvantage:
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It provides lack of variable lift.and variable opening duration. It results the less top end
power.
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3. Combined cam changing and cam phasing VVT:
It offers the benefit of both cam changing and cam phasing VVT in terms of top end
power and flexibility throughout running. The only drawback is more complex in design.
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Toyota and Porsche have this design.
1.23.2. Advantages of Variable Valve Timing

1. It allows to recirculate internal exhaust gas.
2. Increased torque can be obtained.
3. It ensures better fuel economy.
4. It reduces nitrogen oxide.
5. Hydrocarbon emissions can be controlled.


1.23.3. Applications of Variable Valve Timing
Different manufacturers use different types ofVVT as listed below.
S.No. Type of valve Configuration Type of automobile
1. Valvetronic It offers continuous variable valve BMW

timing and valve lift on intake cam
only. It can be relied for amount of
valve lift to throttle the engine.
2. VANOS It allows to vary the timing of BMW

valves by moving the position of
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gear.
3. VTEC It uses two camshaft profiles and Honda
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profiles.
selects between
4. VarioCam
-
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5. AVCS/AVLS
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the tension of a cam chain.
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- It allows to change the Subaru Mitsubishi
timing
pressure.
(phase) with
r hydraulic
ing
MIVEC
AVLS - It varies duration, timing

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and lift by switching between two
different sets of cam lobes. t
1.24. TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Explain tile various applications 0/ automobiles. {Anna Univ. Dec'OBI

Automobiles are used for the transportation of passengers and goods from one
place to the other on the ground.
2. How are automobiles classified? {Anna Univ. May'I21

Automobiles can be classified with respect to different purposes which are as
follows.

AUWIIJ1oJ'Jile Engineering
(i) With respect to the purpose:
(a) Passenger vehicles. Examples: Car, Bus, Jeep, Scooter, Mopeds, Motor
cycle.
(b) Goods carriers. Examples: Trucks, Lorrys.
(ii) With respect to thefuel used:

(a) Petrol vehicles
(b) Diesel vehicles
(c) Gas vehicles
(d) Electric vehicle
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(iii) With respect to capacity:
(a) Heavy Transport vehicle or Heavy Motor vehicles. Example: Bus, Lorries,
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Trucks, Tractors.
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(b) Light transport vehicle or light motor vehicles. Example: Car, Scooter,
Mopeds, Motor cycles, Jeeps.
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(iv) With respect to the number of wheeIs:
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(a) Two wheelers. Examples: Scooters, Motor cycles, Mopeds.
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(b) Four wheelers. Examples: Car, Jeep, Buses, Trucks.
(c) Three wheelers. Examples: Auto, Tempos ing
(d) Six wheelers. Example: Heavy trucks. .ne
(v) With respect to the drive of the vehicle:
(a) Single wheel drive vehicles
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(b) Two wheel drive vehicles
(c) Four wheel drive vehicles
(d) Six wheel drive vehicles.
J. How are automohiles classified based on capacity? Give examples.

[Anna Univ. May']
(i) Heavy transport vehicle or heavy motor vehicles. Example. Bus, Lorri
Trucks, Tractors.

I Vehicle Structure lind Engines Rl

(ii) Light transport vehicle or light motor vehicles. Example. Car, Scooter,
Mopeds, Motor cycles, Jeeps.
4. What is meant by self-propelled vehicle?

A vehicle producing power within itself for its propulsion is known as self-
propelled vehicle.
5. Give examples to self-propelled vehicles.

Examples to self-propelled vehicles are scooters, mopeds, cars, lorry, bus, jeep,
tractors, ship, aeroplanes, helicopters, rockets etc.
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6. What is known as unitary or monocoque construction ill all atuomobile?
{Anna Univ. Dec'l3]
w.E Unitary or monocoque construction combines the bodywork and its underlying
structure into a single load-bearing unit.
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7. State the major types of automobiles according to the fuel used.
(a) Petrol vehicles
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(b) Diesel vehicles
(c) Gas vehicles gi nee
(d) Electric vehicle
(e) Solar vehicle. r ing
8. Brieflyaplain lI
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offroad" vehlcle willi example. [Anna Univ. May'08 & May'll]
An off-road vehicle may be any type of a vehicle which is capable of driving on
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and off paved or gravel surface. It is generally characterized by having large tires with
deep, open treads and a flexible suspension or even caterpillar tracks. Other vehicles
which do not travel public streets or highways are generally known as off-highway
vehicles which are tractors, forklifts, cranes, backhoes, bulldozers and Golf carts.
9. Classify automobiles with respect to the number of wheels.

(a) Two wheelers. Examples: Scooters, motor cycles and mopeds.
(b) Four wheelers. Examples: Car,jeep, buses and trucks.
(c) Three wheelers. Examples: Auto and tempos
(d) Six wheelers. Example: Heavy trucks.

IIImI Automoblfe Engineering

10. Classify automobiles witl, respect to the drive of the vehicle.
(a) Left hand drive
(b) Right hand drive.
11. How automobiles are streamlined based on type of transmission used?

(a) Conventional automobiles
(b) Semi-automatic automobiles
(c) Automatic automobiles.
12. Mention any four requirements of an automobile.
ww 1.
2.
It should develop power by itself.
The rate of power development must be easily controlled.
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wheels.
4.
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An arrangement must exist to continue and discontinue power flow to the
wheels.
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1. gi
13. How are tile requirements of an automobile fulfilled?
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The rate of power development is controlled by an accelerometer.
2. The power developed by the engine is transmitted to wheels by a
transmission system.
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3.
4.
The gear box is provided for varying or changing the torque.
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The driving thrust is carried to the chassis frame through the suspension
5.
system.
Directional control is maintained through the steering.
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6. The moving vehicle is stopped by means of brakes.
14. Wluu is the difference between normal control and forward control in commercial
vehicles? {Anna Univ. Dec'14/
In normal control commercial vehicles, engine is located at the front of the
driver's cab to give more cab space, less noise, heat and ease entry and exit
Forward control is a body style of truck or van that has a vertical front or "flat
face" with the cab sitting above the front axle. In other words, it can be stated that
engine is located either at the side or below the driver's cab.

I Vehicle Structure and Engines mpi

15. How does EMS operate? {Anna Univ. Dec'14J
Emergency Medical Services (EMS) provide out-of-hospital acute medical care
and transport to definitive care for those in need.
16. What is the needfor a gearbox in an automobile? {Anna Univ. Dec'UJ

The main function of the gear-box is to provide the necessary variation to the
torque applied by the engine to the road wheel according to the operating
conditions.
17. Describe briefly the machine portion in bullock cart.

Machine portion consists of a frame in which wheels are attached through the
wwaxle. A yoke is fixed at the front end of the frame through which the bullocks pull the
cart.
w.E
18. Mention the various parts of II car.
asy
Various parts of a car are generator, starter, steering, clutch, rear axle,
differential, universal joint, wheel, tyres, body, lamp etc.
En
. 19. What is meant by the term "chassis"?
gi
It is the main structure of a vehicle which is used to the complex vehicle except
nee
the body. A vehicle without body is called chassis.
r
20. What is chassis? How its design is related to vehicle aerodynamics?
ing
{Anna Univ. Dec'Uj.
.ne
A vehicle without body is called chassis. Chassis design is related to vehicle
aerodynamics due to various loads such as loads of short duration, combined loads of
moment any duration, inertia loads, impact loads, load due to road camber, load due
to wheel impact, static loads and overloads.
t
21. List any four compartments of a chassis.
1. Frame
2. Steering mechanism
3. Engine, clutch and gear box.
4. Radiator
5. Wheels
6. Rear and front springs and shock absorber


7. Differential unit
8. Propeller shaft and Universal joint.
22. Classify chassis based on number of wheels.

(a) 4 x 2 drive chassis - It has four wheels out of which 2 are driving wheels.
(b) 4 x 4 drive chassis - It has four wheels and all of them are driving wheels.
(c) 6 x 2 drive chassis - It has six wheels out of which 2 are driving wheels.
(d) 6 x 4 drive chassis - It has six wheels out of which 4 are driving wheels.
23. How chassis system is classified based onflttlng engine?
ww 1. Full-forward
2. Semi-forward
w .Ea
3. Bus chassis
4. Engine at back
5. Engine at centre.
syE
ngi
24. List any six characteristics of a good chassis.
1. Durability
2. Dependability nee
3. Ease of control
rin
4. Quietness
5. Speed g.n
6. Power accessibility. et
25. List out the various materials used in the construction of chassis frames.
[Anna Univ. May'07j
The various steels used in conventional pressed frame are mild steel sheet,
carbon steel sheet and nickel alloy steel sheet.
26. Enumerate the merits and demerits offront engine rear drive chassis layout.
[Anna Univ. May'07j
The drive of the engine can be connected or disconnected from the gearbox by
the driver with the help of a clutch pedal.

27. How does frame act?

The frame is the main part of the chassis. It is the backbone of the vehicle. All
other parts of the chassis are mounted on the frame. It is the rigid structure which
forms a skeleton to hold all major parts together.
28. Whyframe is narrow at the front?
Frame is narrow at the front to provide a better steering lock so that turning
radius should be small or minimum.
29. What are the functions of'frames in automobile? {Anna Univ. May'l1J
1. To form the base for mounting engine and transmission systems.
ww 2. To withstand the engine and transmission thrust and torque stresses as well as
accelerating and braking torque.
w.E3. To accommodate the suspension system.
asy
4. To carry the other parts of the vehicle and its passengers.
5. To resist the effect of centrifugal forces when cornering a curve.
En
6. To withstand bending and twisting stresses due to the fluctuating or rear and
front axle.
gi
30. Give any two requirements of goodframe.
nee
r
(a) Horizontal forces provided by road irregularities.
ing
(b) Upward twisting forces caused by road shocks to provide a torsional effect.
.ne
31. Name and sketch the various types of sectionsfor automobile frames.
t
Channel section Box section Tubular section I-section
Figure 1.76 Types offrame sections
32. What are the shapes offrame section?

1. Channel section
2. Box section
3. Tubular section, and


4. I - section.
33. Which section of'frame offers maximum resistance to Torsion and bending?
Frame with X-member provides a better resistance to twisting or torsion effect
whereas to resist bending moment, a frame should have double section frame.
34. List out the various loads acting on the chassis frame.
1. Loads of short duration
2. Combined loads of moment any duration
3. Inertia loads
4. Impact loads
ww 5. Loads due to road camber
w.E 6. Loads due to wheel impact

7. Static loads
8. Overloads.
asy
En
35. What types of components are mounted on the chassisframe?
l. Engine and radiator
2. Transmission system gi nee
3. Suspension system
4. Road wheels r ing
5. Steering system
6. Brakes. .ne
36. State the composition of sheet nickel alloy. t
Carbon 0.25 to 0.35%
Magnanese 0.35 to 0.75%
Silicon 0.30% (Maximum)
Nickel 3%
Phosphorus 0.05% (max)
Sulphur 0.5% (max.)
37. Classifyframes.
1. Conventional frame construction


2. Semi-integrai frame construction
3. Integral or Frameless construction.
38. Describe briefly semi-integral frame construction.

In this type of frame, the rubber body mountings are replaced by relatively stiff
mountings. This arrangement transfers a part of the frame load to the body structure.
This type of frame is mainly used in European cars and American cars. At the same
time, the construction is heavy in nature as compared to the conventional type.
39. What do you understand byframeless frame?

Frameless frames are frames in which floor is strengthen by cross members and
ww these member is welded together. Sometimes, sub members are also used as per the
requirement.
w.E
40. State the advantages of'frameless construction. {Anna Univ. Dec'12j
asy
1. The construction provides a stiff light construction particularly suitable for mass-
produced vehicles.
En
2. No separate frame is used.
gi
3. All assembly units are attached to the body.
nee
4. It reduces weight and consequent saving in fuel consumption.
5. It lowers manufacturing cost
r ing
6. During collision the body crumbles, it absorbs the shock due to impact and thus
providing safety to the passengers.
.ne
7. Compared to framed construction lower body position may be obtained, thus it
results the increased stability of the automobile.
41. Write short note on sub frames.

t
In normal vehicles, various components are bolted on the main frame.
Sometimes, components on vehicle are mounted on sub frames which are bolted on
the main frame. The sub frame provides a greater strength besides it is supported at
three points on the main frame.
The advantage of sub frame is the component bolted on the sub frame which is
isolated from the main frame on which various types of forces act such as tv-isting
force, bending force etc. It reduces the vibration. It also helps to simplify the 0\ erhead
or repair and increases the production of vehicle in assembly line.

42. What are the adl'!lntages ofsub-frames?
1. The mass of the sub frame alone helps to damp vibration.
2. The provision of sub frame simplifies the production on the assembly line and
facilities the subsequent repair.
43. What are the defects that can appear in a chassis body? [Anna Unlv. Dec'09]
(a) Dislocated parts
(b) Cracks
(c) Broken welds
(d) Buckling.
ww
44. What is the role of body in automobiles?
w.E Body is the super-structure for all vehicles. It may either be constructed
separately and bolted to the chassis or manufactured integral with the chassis (i.e.
asy
Frameless construction). The chassis and body make the complete vehicle.
45. List the importance of vehicle body design.
En
1. Weight of the body is about 40% of total weight of the car and 60 to 70010 of total
gi
weight of buses. Therefore, the reduction in body weight is important.
nee
2. If the weight of the body is reduced.jt improves the fuel economy (i.e. mileage).
r ing
3. The body of the vehicle determines its aerodynamic characteristics. Better
aerodynamic structure leads to fuel economy at high speed and stability in cross
wind.
.ne
t
4. The body is also important for aesthetic and ergonomics consideration. It should
give pleasant appeal and style for the customer.
46. Mention any four requirements of the vehicle body.

1. It must be strong enough to withstand all types of forces acting on the vehicle.
The forces are including the weight of car, inertia, luggage, braking and
cornering forces.
I
2. Stresses induced in the body should be distributed evenly to all portions.

3. Weight of the body should be as minimum as possible.
4. It should be able to cope with impact loads of reasonable magnitude.
47. Classify vehicle body.
1. Car 2. Straight trUCK

Vehlcl. StructUTe and Engines

3. Truck half body 4. Truck-platform type
5. Tractor 6. Tractor with articulated trailer
7. Tanker 8. Dumper truck
9. Delivery van 10. Station wagon
II. Pick-up 12. Jeep
13. Buses 14. Mini-buses
15. Three wheeler (i.e. Auto Rickshaw).
48. How are main components 0/ body grouped?
ww (a) Structure: All load carrying elements are defined as structure.

(b) Finish: This group includes all unstressed units such as bonnet, boot, lid,
w.E bumper etc.

(c) Equipment: This group includes various parts such as rim, seats, doors,
window etc.
asy
En
49. What are the materials used/or cylinder block and oil pan? {Anna Univ. May'll]
For cylindrical block.
(1) Grey cast iron
(2) Aluminium.
gi nee
For oil pan. r ing
(I) Hybrid nylon
(2) Aluminium modular .ne
(3) Rubber edged metal.
50. State the functions of centre pillar in automobiles.

t
The centre pillar supports the rear doors and hinges. It also supports the sticker
plates of the front doors.
51. Where are bumpers provided? Wlty?

Bumpers are provided at the front and rear end of the car. They are used to
protect the front end and rear end of the car from damage in case of light collisions.
52. Give the materials usedfor manufacturing of autol1Wbilebody.

The materials used for construction of various parts of the body are steel, wood,
plastics, toughened glass and aluminium. In earlier days, wooden bodies were used

IIII'lI Automobile Engineering

for construction. But now-a-days, steel is mainly used for body construction because
of low cost and easy to manufacture.
53. What is. double over head camshaft engine? [Anna Univ. May'12}
Double Over Head Camshaft (DOHC) engine has two camshafts located within
the cylinder head. One is operating the intake valves and the other one is operating
exhaust valves. This design reduces the valve train inertia more than a single overhead
camshaft engine since the rocker arms are reduced in size or eliminated.
54. Name the resistances to vehicle motion. [Anna Univ. May'15}

1. Loads of short duration
ww 2. Combined loads of moment any duration
w.E 3. Inertia loads

4. Impact loads
asy
5. Load due to road camber
En
6. Load due to wheel impact
7. Static loads
8. Overloads. gi
55. Wluu is meant by dragforce and lift force? nee
r ing
Force of air drag is acting in the direction of vehicle motion with the wind acting
along the longitudinal direction axis. This force is also called air resistance.
.ne
Aerodynamic lift force is the vertical component of the resultant force caused by
the pressure distribution on the body.
56. Define cross windforce.

t
Cross wind force is acting in the lateral direction on the side of the vehicle. It is
formed by the asymmetric flow of air around the vehicle body.
57. What are the three moments acting in cross windforce?

1. Pitching moment (M;,.)
2. Yawing moment (MJ
3. Rolling moment (My)

~/e Structureand Engines am

58. Define 'bouncing' and 'pitching',
The vertical movement of the complete body is called bouncing. In other words,
the complete body of the vehicle moves up and down called bounce or bouncing.
Rocking chair action or rotating action about a transverse axis through the
vehicle parallel to ground is known as pitching.
59. Whatis meant by IC engine?

Internal Combustion engine (IC engine) is a heat engine which converts the
chemical energy of a fuel into mechanical energy. The chemical energy of a fuel is
first converted into thermal energy by means of products of combustion or oxidation
ww with air inside the engine. This thermal energy is converted into useful work through
the mechanical mechanism of the engine.
w.E
60. Whatis theprincipleof ignitionin CI engine? [Anna Univ.Nov'lOJ
asy
The pressurised air is combusted by injecting atomised fuel in CI engines. Due to
high pressure and temperature at the end of compression, the fuel gets ignited
En
automatically when it is injected in an automised form.
externalcombustionengines. gi
61. Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantagesof internal combustion and
nee [Anna Univ.May'l1J

Advantages of internal combustion engines:
r
1. It provides lower weight to power output ratio.
ing
2. It is simple in design.
3. It needs less initial cost. .ne
4. It produces high efficiency.
Advantage of external combustion engines.

t
Cheaper fuels can be used.
Disadvantages of internal combustion engines:
1. As much as rich fuel hydrocarbon based fuel should be used.
2. They need of some governing mechanisms to stabilize the output power
throughout cycle.
Disadvantages of external combustion engines:

1. It is large in size.
2. Transportation of heat in place to place needs special devices.

IIIDI Automobile Engineering

62. Mention any four engine components along with materials.
[Anna Univ. May'08 & May'I5]
1. Cylinder block: It is made of grey cast iron or aluminium with steel sleeves.
2. Cylinder head: The materials used for cylinder heads are cast iron, aluminum
alloy etc.
3. Crank case: It is made of cast iron, aluminum alloys or alloy steels.
4. Oil sump: It is made of pressed steel sheet.
5. Cylinder liners: Chromium plated mild steel tubes are used for manufacturing
liners.
ww 6. Piston: Piston is made of cast iron, Aluminium alloy, chrome-Nickel alloy,

nickel-iron alloy and cast steel.
w.E
63. State the purpose of providing piston in IC engines.
asy
I. Piston acts as a movable gas tight seal to keep the gases inside the cylinder.
En
2. Piston transmits the force of explosion in the cylinder to the crankshaft
through connecting rod.
gi nee
64. Why should a material for cylinder block or head have higher thermal
conductivity? What happens if this factor is overdone? [Anna Univ. Dec'I2]
r ing
As the engine cylinder block has to withstand high temperature and vibration
when the engine is in running conditions, it should have good thermal conductivity to
.ne
give out the heat produced during the combustion process in minimum time. Engine
seizer will happen due to overheating if this factor is overdone.
65. What are the purposes of using cylinder liners?

Inside the cylinder, the piston constantly is moving up and down which will
t
cause wear of cylinder. When the cylinder diameter is increased beyond certain limit,
the entire cylinder block should be discarded which is costly. To avoid early cylinder
wear, a separate liner which is in the form of sleeve is inserted into the cylinder bore,
Then, the wear will take place in the liner only which can be replaced easily when
worn out.
66. Name the prominent material for the manufacture of valves ami valve seat inserts.
[Alina trc« Dec'07]
Inlet valve is made of plain nickel, nickef~chromeor chrome-molybdenum. The
exhaust valve is subjected to more heat. Hence, it should be made of high heat


resistance material such as silicon-chrome steel, high speed steel, cobalt-chrome steel
and tungsten steel.
67. What are the types of piston rings?
);> Compression rings
);> Oil rings.
68. What are the functions of piston rings? {Anna Univ. Apr'08j
The functions are to maintain air tight sealing between piston and cylinder to
prevent gas leakages, to wipe off the excess oil from the cylinder walls and also to
return the excess oil to the oil sump through slots provided on the rings.
ww
69. State any four reasons due to which, the spark plug may fail tofunction properly.
{Anna Univ. Dec'13j
w.E The following are the four reasons due to which the spark plug may fair to
function properly.
asy
a) Sooted spark plug: Insulator nose, electrodes and air space are covered in velvety
En
gi
b) Spark plug insulator damage: Scorching due to sparks jumping across the
nee
insulator which may be caused because of spark plug adaptor worn out, the rubber
gasket torn, embrittled or hardened.
r ing
c) Worn spark plugs: Center and ground electrode show visible material loss due to
aggressive fuel or oil additives, thermal overload and exceeding replacement
interval. .ne
d) Incorrect tightening torque causes traces of hydrocarbons on spark plug body and
broken ground electrodes.
t
70. What is the use of connecting rod?
It is used to connect the piston and crankshaft with the help of bearings.
71. What is the purpose ofthejlywheel in an Ie engine? Where is it located?

{Anna Univ. Nov'10j
Flywheel serves as an energy reservoir. It stores energy during power stroke and
o it releases energy during other strokes to give a constant output torque. It is located on
the crankshaft.

Engineering
72. How are diesel engines identified at the moment of seeing any IC engines?
Absence of spark plug
73. What is the function of push rod and rocker arm? {Anna Univ. Nov'07j
The push rod and rocker arm actuates valves according to the engine stroke by
cams.
74. Classify IC engines according to cycle of operation.

b. Two stroke cycle.
75. What is known as valve overlap? ,{Anna Univ. Dec'13}
ww Valve overlap is the period during the valve timing where both intake and
w.E exhaust valves open. The valve overlap is the sum of the angle of opening the intake
valve before TOC and closing of the exhaust valve after TOC. If the piston is
asy
positioned between 4th stroke (exhaust) and lSIstroke (intake) at TDC, both valves
open.
En
76. Compare two-stroke andfour-stroke engine.
S.No.
gi
Two stroke cycle engine
nee Four stroke cycle engine
Advantages
1. Cycle is completed in two stroke or

r Disadvantages
ing
One cycle is completed in four stroke
one revolution of the crankshaft.
.ne
or two revolution of the crank shaft.
2. It develops twice the number of

power strokes than four stroke
t
It develops half the number of power
stroke than two stroke engine.
engines.
3. Thermal efficiency is low. Thermal efficiency is high.
4. Volumetric efficiency is low. "-

Volumetric efficiency is more.
Greater cooling and lubrication are Lesser cooling and lubrication are
5.
required. required.
6. Overall efficiency is less. Overall efficiency is more.


77.Mention anyfour applicationsof twostrokeengine andfour strokeengine.
[Anna Univ.Dec'llj
1. Automobiles such as trucks, bus, scooters etc.
2. Marine applications
3. Aircraft applications
4. Power plants, such diesel power plants
5. Hybrid power generation, such as combined solar-diesel power plant, wind-diesel
power plant etc.
78. CompareSI and CI engines.
ww
S.No. SI or Petrolengi~e CI or Dieselengine
w.E
1. During suction stroke, air fuel During suction stroke, air is only drawn
asy
mixture is drawn from carburetor. from the atmosphere.
2.
En
Carburetor is used to mix the air and
fuel in required proportion.
Fuel injector or atomizer is required to
inject the fuel into cylinder in atomized
gi form.
nee
Spark plug is required to ignite the Fuel is ignited automatically by high
r
3.
fuel air mixture.
ing
pressure & temperature air.
4. Compression ratio varies from 6 to 8.

.ne
Compression ratio varies from 12 to 18.
5. It IS operated by Otto cycle or It is operated by Diesel cycle or

t
constant volume cycle. constant pressure cycle.
6. The starting is easy due to lower The starting is little difficult due to
compression ratio. highei compression ratio.
79. Classify IC engines according to cycle of lubrication system and field of

application.
Types of lubrication system:
a. Wet sump lubrication system
b. Dry sump lubrication system.

Ima Automobile Engineering

Field of application:
a. Automobiles, truck, bus and locomotive engine
b. Stationary engine
c. Marine engine
d. Aircraft engine.
80. What is a square engine? [Anna Univ. Dec'07}

Engine which has same bore and stroke is called square engine. Usually, engines
that have a bore/stroke ratio of 0.95 to 1.04 are referred as square engines.
81. Write down the firing order of 4 and 6 cylinder engine. [Anna Univ. May'11}
ww 1. For 4 cylinders engine, the firing order is 1 - 3 - 4 - 2 or 1 - 4 - 3 - 2.
w.E 2. For six cylinders engine, the firing order is 1 - 5 - 3 - 6 - 2 - 4

2 - 6 - 3 - 5.
or 1 - 4-
asy
82. Write any two merits and demerits of horizontal engines? [Anna Univ. Dec'13}
Merits of horizontal engines:

En
gi
1. The inertia forces of the reciprocating parts combined together to give an
nee
impulse to the chassis frame of the vehicle as the stroke of the engine piston
is horizontal. If the cylinder head is towards the front end of the vehicle, then
r ing
a driving impulse is obtained from the engine. This impulse force slides the
engine forward on a smooth floor when the running engine is placed on the
.ne
floor. Therefore, a vehicle fitted with horizontal engine tends to push
forward the moped or the scooter by its impulsive force.
2. Fuel economy is also more. t
Demerits of horizontal engines:
1. The crankcase cannot be used for storing lubrication oil for splash
lubrication.
2. There will be excessive wear at the lower side of the piston and cylinder
liner where the cylinder liner gives support to the engine because the weight
of the piston is carried by the cylinder liner.
3. Consumption of lubricating oil is more due the lubricating oil which dribbles
from the bearings returning to the crankcase but it is thrown out by the
centrifugal forces.


83. List down the classification of LC engines based on the number of strokes and
method of charging. {Anna Univ. Dec'OS]
(i) Engine cycle per stroke:
b. Two stroke cycle
(ii) Types offuel used or methods of charging:

a. Petrol engine
b. Diesel engine
c. Gas engine.
ww
84. What are the advantages of diesel engines in cars? {Anna Univ. May'14]
w.E I. The running cost of diesel engine is low because of the lower cost of diesel and
higher fuel economy i.e. mileage.
asy
2. The thermal efficiency is up to about 40%.
En
3. Overheating trouble is less due to high thermal efficiency.
gi
4. Diesel engines are more easily turbo-charged.
85. Define the term valve timing diagram.

nee
The exact moment at which each of the valves opens and closes with reference to
r ing
the position of piston and crank can graphically be shown in a diagram. This diagram
is known as "valve timing diagram".
.ne
86. Differentiate between ideal and actual valve timing diagrams of a petrol engine.
Theoretical valve timing diagram:

t
[Anna Univ. Oct' 01}
In theoretical valve timing diagram, both inlet and exhaust valves open and
close at both dead centres. Similarly, all processes are sharply completed from TDC
orBDC.
Actual valve timing diagram:
The inlet valve opens to-30° before TDC. The air-fuel mixture is sucked into
the cylinder till the inlet valve closes.
The inlet valve closes 30-40° or even 60° after BDC. The charge is compressed
till the spark occurs.

A Engineering
The spark is produced 20-40° before TOC. It gives sufficient time for the fuel
to burn. Both pressure and temperature increase. The burnt gases expand till the
exhaust valve opens.
The exhaust valve opens 30-60° before BOC. The exhaust gases are forced out
from the cylinder till the exhaust valve closes.
The exhaust valve closes 8-20° after TDC. Before it closes, again the inlet valve
opens 10-30° before TOC.
87. Draw the valve timing diagram/or a CI engine. [Anna Univ. Dec'lOJ
ww TOC
w.E
asy
En i
:s
gi nee
'"o·
:s
r ing
.ne
BOC
t
Figure 1. 77Actual valve timing diagram
IVO => Inlet Valve Open IVC => Inlet Valve Close
EVO => Exhaust Valve Open EVC => Exhaust Valve Close
TDC => Top Dead Center BOC => Bottom Dead Center
IVO => Inlet Valve Open IYC => Inlet Valve Close
EVO => Exhaust Valve Open EVC => Exhaust Valve Close
IS => Ignition Start

88. What are the types of VVT?

1. Cam changing VVT
2. Cam phasing VVT
3. Combined cam changing and cam phasing VVT.
89. How is medium speed obtained in cam changing VVT?

Intake valves are configured for high speed and exhaust valves are configured for
slow speed. So, medium speed is obtained.
90. List down the advantages and disadvantages of cam changing VVT.
Advantage:
ww It is very much powerful at top end.
w.E
Disadvantages:
1. Stage 2 or stage 3 is non-continuous and not much improvement to torque.
asy
2. It is also complex in nature.
En
91. Mention the various advantages and disadvantages of cam phasing in VVT.
Advantages:
gi
1. It is cheap and simple.
nee
Disadvantage: r
2. It improves the torque throughout the running process.
ing
.ne
It provides lack of variable lift and variable opening duration. It results the less
top end power.
92. What is combined cam changing and cam phasing VVT?

t
It offers the benefit of both cam changing and cam phasing VVT in terms of top
end power and flexibility throughout running. The only drawback is more complex in
design. Toyota and Porsche have this design.
93. List down the advantages of VVT.

1. It allows to recirculate internal exhaust gas.
2. Increased torque can be obtained.
3. It ensures better fuel economy.
4. It reduces nitrogen oxide.
S. Hydrocarbon emissions can be controlled.

94. Tabulate any two applications of VVT.
Type of valve Configuration Type of automobile

Valvetronic It offers continuous variable valve BMW
timing and valve lift on intake cam
only. It can be relied for amount of
valve lift to throttle the engine.
VANOS It allows to vary the timing of BMW
valves by moving the position of
ww camshafts relative to the driving

gear.
w.E VTEC It uses two camshaft profiles and

electronically selects between
Honda
asy profiles.
1.25. SOLVED QUESTIONS En

gi
1. Describe the brief history of the automobile.
Refer chapter 1.1.1 in page 1.2. nee
r ing
2. What are the aspects considered in the design and construction of a body?
Refer chapter I.S.4 in page 1.43. .ne

[Anna Univ. Dec'l4j
3. Classify automobiles.
Refer chapter 1.3 in page 1.6.
t
4. Explain vehicle construction of a bullock cart with its neat sketch.
5. Draw the layout of an automobile and indicate its various components.

[Anna Univ.Dec '05, May' 10, May' 12 & Dec' 12]
6. List the various requirements of a good chassis and frame.

Refer chapter 1.6.4 in page 1.22.

I Vehicle Structure and Engines -" .....

7. Draw the layout of conventional chassis with a neat diagram and explain about the
various parts on it. [Anna Univ.May' 11]
8. Explain the construction of various frames used in automobiles with neat sketch.
[Anna Univ.May'07, Dec '09 & May '11]
Or
Discuss the frame type chassis construction with neat sketch. [Anna Univ. May'15]
9. List out the functions of frame in an automobile and explain anyone type of semi
ww integral frame. [Anna Univ.Dec '07]
w.E Refer chapter 1.7.1 in page 1.27 and refer page 1.31.
10. Explain briefly semi integral and integral type vehicle body construction.
asy [Anna Univ. Dec' 14]
En
Refer page 1.31.
gi
11. Write a note on sub-frames. [Anna Univ. Dec' 12]
nee
12. Write short notes on the following with respect to vehicle motion.
(i) Aerodynamic drag r ing
Refer page 1.52.
(ii) Gradient resistance .ne
Refer page 1.53.
(iii) Rolling resistance. [Anna Univ. May'll,Dec'J3&
t
Dec'U]]
Refer page 1.53.
13. Explain briefly the construction of an S.1. engine. [Anna Univ. May '06]
14. Explain the various components of engine with a neat sketch.

[Anna Univ. May '06, Dec '08 & Dec' 14]
Or
List the engine parts, materials, methods of manufacture and their func .ons.
[Anna Univ. May'14 & Dec '14]

M' Automobile :Englneerlng

15. Describe in detail on various types of automotive pistons. [Anna Univ. Dec'12]
16. Discuss in detail various types of piston failure. [Anna Univ. Dec'12]
Refer page 1.63.
17. What are the types of valve used to control air fuel mixture in the engine cylinder to
force the exhaust gaseous out at correct time? [Anna Univ. May'12]
18. Classify IC engines.
ww Refer chapter 1.13 in page 1.71.
w.E
19. Give reasons.
(i) For using single cylinder two stroke petrol engines on two wheelers
asy
En
(ii) For using multi cylinder diesel engines in commercial vehicles.
[Anna Univ. May'14]
gi
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20. Explain engine classification based on valve arrangement with a neat diagram.
Qefer chapter 1.18 in page 1.92.

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[Anna Univ. May'11]
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---------_._---- END of Unit 1'------------ t

I UNIT - 2
I
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En
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Electronically controlled gasoline mjection system
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for 81 engines, Electronically controlled diesel
r
injection system (Unit injector system, Rotary
ing
distributor type and common rail direct injection
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system), Electronic ignition system (Transistorized
coil ignition system, capacitive discharge ignition
system), Turbo chargers (WGT, VGT), Engine
t
emission control by three way catalytic converter
system, Emission norms (Euro and 88).

I Engine Auxiliary Systems UM
ww
w.E ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
2.1. CARBURETORS asy

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Carburetor is a device used for atomizing and vapourizing the fuel and mixing it with the
gi
air in varying proportions to suit for changing the operating conditions of engines. The
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process of breaking up and mixing the fuel with the air is called carburetion.
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The term vapourization and atomization should be understood clearly. Vaporization is a
ing
change of state of the fuel from liquid to vapour whereas atomization is a mechanical
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breaking-up of the liquid into small particles so that every minute particle of the fuel is
surrounded by the air.
The carburetor is supposed to supply the fuel air mixture in correct proportion under
different conditions of temperature, speed and load on engine. Relatively rich mixture of air
t
fuel ratio of 12:1 is required by the engine while accelerating or running at high speeds. A
leaner mixture of air-fuel ratio of 16:1 is sufficient while running on levelled roads. For idling,
a richer mixture of about 14:I is needed. Similarly, an extremely rich mixture having a ratio of
9: 1 is required during cold starting.
2.1.1. Functions of Carburetor

1. It prepares a mixture of petrol and air in correct proportions.
2. It maintains a small reserve of petrol in the float chamber at constant head.
3. It atomizes and vapourizes the fuel.

4. It supplies a fine spray of petrol.
5. It produces a homogeneous mixture.
6. It measures and supplies the proper quantity and proportions of air and fuel under all
conditions of engine operations such as temperature, speed and load.
2.2. FACTORS AFFECTING FUEL VAPORIZATION

(i) Concentration of the substance evaporating in the air:
If the air contains a high concentration of the substance evaporating, the given
substance will evaporate more slowly.
ww
(ii) Concentration of other substances in the air:
If the air is saturated with other substances. it can have a lower capacity for the
w.E
substance evaporating.
(iii) Flow rate of air:

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It is a part related to the concentration point. If fresh air is moving over the substance
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at all time, the concentration of the substance in air is less likely to go up with time
(iv) Inter-molecular forces: gi

thereby encouraging faster evaporation.
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The stronger is the force keeping the molecules together in the liquid state, the more
energy one must get to escape.
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(v) Pressure:
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Evaporation happens faster if there is less exertion on the surface keeping the
molecules from launching themselves.
(vi) Surface area:

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A substance which has a larger surface area will evaporate faster as there are more
surface molecules per unit of volume which are potentially able to escape.
2.3. TYPES OF CARBURETOR
The carburetors can be classified according to the following considerations.
I. According to the direction offlow.

a. Uplift carburetors or updraft carburetor

Engine Auxiliary Systems

b. Down draft carburetor
c. Horizontal carburetor.
2. According to the arrangement of thefloat chamber
a. Eccentric carburetor
b. Concentric carburetor.
3. According to the number of units

a. Single carburetor
b. Double carburetor.
4. According to the metering system

ww a. Air bled jet carburetor
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b. Metering pin type carburetor.
S. According to the type of venturi

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a. Plain venturi carburetor
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b. Double venturi carburetor
c. Vane venturi carburetor ngi
d. Nozzle bar venturi carburetor
e. Triple venturi carburetor.
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6. According to the type of power system rin
a. Manually operated carburetor g.n
b. Vacuum controlled carburetor.
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2.3.1. Simple Carburetor
The main components of a simple carburetor are float chamber, float, nozzle, venturi,
throttle valve, inlet valve and metering jet. In the float chamber, a constant level of petrol is
maintained by the float and a needle valve. The float chamber is ventilated to atmosphere. It is
used to maintain the atmospheric pressure inside the chamber, The float which is normally a
metallic hollow cylinder rises and closes the inlet valve as the fuel level in the float chamber
increases.to a certain level.

IU- Automobile Engineering

The mixing chamber contains venturi, nozzle and throttle valve. The venturi tube is fitted
with the inlet manifold. This tube has a narrow opening called venturi. A nozzle is provided
just below the centre of this venturi. The nozzle keeps the same level of petrol as the level in
the float chamber. The mixing chamber has two butterfly valves. One is to allow air into the
mixing chamber known as choke valve. The other one b to allow air-fuel mixture to the
engine known as throttle valve.
Air venturi
Vent
Needle valve
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En Float chamber
Petrol
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I
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Air-fuel mixture nee
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Figure 2.1 Simple carburetor
ing
Working:
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During suction stroke, vacuum is created inside the cylinder. It causes the pressure
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difference between cylinder and outside the carburetor. Due to this, the atmospheric air enters
the carburetor. The air flows through venturi. The venturi increases the velocity of air and
reduces the pressure. It produces the partial vacuum at the tip of the nozzle. Because of this
vacuum, the fuel comes out from the nozzle in the form of fine spray. These fine fuel particles
mix with the incoming air to form air-fuel mixture. Thus, it gives a homogeneous mixture of
air-fuel to the engine.
2.3.1.1.Defects in a Simple Carburetor

A simple carburetor is found useful only to a particular load and speed condition. But in
actual practice, the engine has to run at different speeds and load conditions.


There are two basic reasons for defects in a simple carburetor.
(i) If the carburetor is set or worked at high speed and at full throttle, it will not work
properly at lower speed and part throttle. It is due to insufficient suction created at
the venturi for drawing fuel from the main nozzle. Similarly, if the carburetor is set
to work at low speeds and part throttle, it will not work properly at high speed and
full throttle.
(ii) With the change of pressure heads, coefficients of discharge for air and fuel vary in
different quantities. At certain value of head, the coefficient of discharge for air
becomes constant while in case of fuel it increases gradually. Therefore, at high
head i.e., high engine speed, the air fuel ratio becomes rich and rich. Hence, if the
ww carburetor is set at one particular speed, it will give rich mixture at higher speeds
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and lean mixture at lower speeds.
Therefore, a number of defects are found in case of a simple carburetor. The remedies for
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removing these defects are also explained here.
1. Starting diffICulty:
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For starting the engine from rest, it requires rich mixture. But, the simple carburetor will
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supply lean mixture during starting. It will create starting difficulty for the engine. In order to
enrich fuel mixture at very low speeds, devices such as ticklers, choke, adjustable area jet and
a separate air passage are used.
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(a) Ticklers:
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Ticklers are the devices used for flooding of the carburetor while starting an engine.
More fuel will be supplied by depressing the tickler which would depress the float.
.----...,.- Fuel from
et
pump
chamber
Figure 2.2 Ticklers

IfJM Automobile Engineering

(b) Choke:
A choke is a simple butterfly valve (i.e. same as throttle valve) fitted at the top of the air
horn shown in Figure 2.3. It may be operated by hand or by automatic. During starting, in
order to provide a rich mixture, the chock is kept closed so that very small quantity of air
passes through it. The suction applied to the nozzle is quite sufficient to deliver a large
percentage of fuel.
Airflow
ww
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asy '----=-float
Fuelfrom
chamber
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gi Figure 2.3 Choke
Throttlevalve
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Air
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Air
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Figure 2.4 Eccentric mounting of choke Figure 2.5 Strangler in choke
In order to open the chock immediately after starting of the engine, any of the following
two methods are employed.

I Engine Auxiliary Systems tIM

(i) Chock is fitted eccentrically shown in Figure 2.4. When the engine starts, the air
force on the two side of the choke spindle are unequal. It produces turning moment
to open the choke.
(ii) A strangler valve is fitted on the choke shown in Figure 2.5. When the engine is
started, the stranger is opened against the spring pressure by the air pressure which
forces to allow the entry of air in the carburetor.
(c) Adjustable areajet:

In this arrangement, a long tapered needle is screwed into the jet. During starting, the
screw is loosened so that the area of the jet is increased to provide increased fuel shown in
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Figure 2.6.
Adjusting
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Figure 2.6 Adjustable areajet
(d) Separate air passage: g.n

Air flow
tl~ Venturi
et
Separate air
passage
Main
nozzle
'__--~uel from
L float chamber
~_ Air
r-----~rew
Throttle valve
Figure 2.7 Separate air passage

IN:- Automobile Engineering

A separate air passage is provided just below the throttle valve shown in Figure 2.7.
During starting, a throttle valve is kept closed and the auxiliary passage allows the flow of air
and the fuel goes through it because the whole of suction is now applied to it resulting in rich
mixture.
2. Idling diffiCUlty:
During idling and slow speed running, a rich mixture is needed by the engine. Although
it is less rich a mixture (about 10:1) when compared to required for starting, the quantity
required is more. It is done by providing a separate idle jet and an air bleed hole. With this
arrangement, the metered quantity of air fuel mixture is drawn into idle passage where they
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form an emulsion. This mixture is then supplied through the idle port which is located on the
engine side of the throttle shown in Figure 2.8.
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nozzle
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Idlejet
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Throttle
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Figure 2.8 Idling circuit
The idle adjustment screw is provided for controlling the volume of the mixture and
hence, the idle speed is obtained. A transfer port is provided for smooth changing of idle
circuit to the main nozzle circuit when the engine is accelerated from idling to main running
condition. When the throttle opens slightly, the transfer port is also opened to the manifold
which causes additional quantity of mixture to enter the engine. When the throttle is opened,
further the idle circuit will be stopped supplying the mixture.

I Engine Auxiliary Systems

3. Acceleration difficulty:
When sudden acceleration is desired, the throttle valve will be opened suddenly. It results
a maximum amount of air flow with lagging of the fuel which produces lean mixture. It
-
causes a defect of "Engine stumble or hesitation". To remove this defect, a separate pump
shown in Figure 2.9 is connected through linkage to the accelerator pedal. It is used to provide
the increased fuel momentarily. The fuel is forced out of the acceleration jet when the
acceleration pump is pressed to open the outlet valve. When the pedal releases, the piston
would move up to suck the fuel from the float chamber.
ww Linkage connected
w.E to acceleratorpedal
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...,~
from
float chamber
Accsleratlnq
pump
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_______I,-
__
Piston
--_--
__
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__.J..._~
--_--_--
-------------------
__ --
Throttle valve
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g.n
Air fuel mixture to engine
Figure 2.9 Accelerating circuit

4. Load and speed variation difficulty or compensation system in carburetor:
As already stated, a simple carburetor would provide rich mixture at high speed and lean
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mixture at low speed. For maintaining the desired mixture proportions at various speeds,
automation devices known as compensating devices are provided in modern carburetors.
The process of providing additional air or fuel required to maintain the correct air fuel
mixture is called compensation in carburetor. Automatic compensation systems are provided
in latest carburetors to maintain the correct air fuel mixture at high speed. They are as follows.
(i) Auxiliary or extra air valve compensation

(ii) Restricted air bleed compensation
(iii) Compensating jet compensation
(iv) Multiple jet compensation.

1-
(i); Auxiliary or extra air valve compensation:
According to the opening of throttle valve, an extra air valve as shown in Figure 2.10 is
also opened to keep the air-fuel ratio at a constant level reasonably.
(ii) Restricted air bleed compensation:
Fuel from pump
Roat
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Figure 2.10 Extra air valve compensation
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Fuel from pump
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Float
chamber
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Throttle valve
To induction manifold
Figure 2.11 Restricted air bleed compensation

I Engine Auxiliary Systems •••

There is a jet with many holes fitted in the carburetor in this system. The air coming from
the restricted air bleed opening mixes with the fuel in the jet tube and the mixture comes out
through the nozzle. At starting and low speeds. the pressure drop in the venturi is small due to
the effect of viscosity and surface tension of the air fuel mixture being less than the fuel alone.
More quantity of fuel flows into the venturi giving a rich mixture. But at high speeds, the
pressure drop in venturi is high and hence, a lean mixture is given when the throttle is opened
more. Thus, the restricted air bleed compensation provides rich mixture at starting at low
speed and lean mixture at high speed.
(iii) Compensatingjet compensation 0/ unrestricted air ble!d compensation:

Here, there are two jets namely main jet from the float chamber and compensating jet
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through a vertical tube C which is opened to atmospheric air. At opening of the throttle, both
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jets supply the fuel to the required quantity in the venturi. For higher load and speed
conditions, the throttle valve opened to supply more fuel supply from the main jet increases
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and from compensating jet, it decreases and makes the mixture lean at high speed.
To induction manifold
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FIQlit
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g.n
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ttt
Air
Figure 2.12 Compensating jet
(iv) Multiple jet compensation:

As the name implies, there are three to five jets with a cap E opening different jet
passages in tum as the throttle valve is opened. When the throttle valve is not operated, the
fuel supply is only from the nozzle. When the throttle opening is small, the suction is applied
to the cap which opens the nozzle 1. When the throttle valve is further opened, the cap will lift
up. The nozzle 2 opens to supply the fuel. The nozzle 3 is-so adjusted that it gives less amount

1_ Automobile Engineering
of fuel than nozzle 2. Thus, the compensation is obtained. Similarly, on further opening of the
throttle valve, nozzle 4 and 5 come into action.
5. Attitude influence:
With the increase of attitude, the atmospheric pressure and air density decrease. It results
proportionately less air and more fuel in the mixture. This factor has much influence in hills
area.
Slow running
---"r---:---n-- Bypas
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5 4
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1
._----------_.
-------------
-----------_.
-------------
Float chamber
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Jet
ing
Figure 2.13 Multiple jet compensation
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For controlling this effect as in case of Zenith carburetor, the top of the float chamber is
connected to the air horn by means of two extra pipes shown in Figure 2.13. A valve is
provided in the pipe AB. It is kept closed for ordinary low attitudes and hence, the fuel in the
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float chamber is under atmospheric pressure because of pipe CD. With the increase of attitude,
the valve is opened gradually to apply suction to the float chamber. It results the decreased
fuel supply and decreased pressure. Therefore, a weak mixture is obtained at high attitudes.
6. Influence of weather:
A simple carburetor can provide the correct air fuel mixture at a particular speed as well
as for a particular weather. When a simple carburetor is set to work properly for particular
summer weather, it would give a weak mixture in winter. Since the air density increases to a
large extend as compared with increase in fuel density, the viscosity of fuel is also affected by

I Engine Auxiliary Systems *,.

variation in temperature. In the same manner, a carburetor set for winter would give too rich
mixture in summer.
Climatic control devices are provided in most of the modern carburetors. The mixture
strength is controlled by these devices by varying the fuel jet area or the air intake.
ww Venturi
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Float chamber
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7. Icing difficulty:
Figure 2.14 Attitude control
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When the fuel is atomized and evaporated in the carburetor for mixing it with air, the
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cooling of the surrounding area takes place. Due to this effect of cooling, there is a danger of
ing
ice formation and chocking of venturi tube in cold areas. To avoid this de1 ct,
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(i) idle parts of the carburetor and throttle value are heated by means of exhaust gases
from the engine.
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(ii)the hot water is supplied by the engine cooling system for heating the carburetor. This
water passes through the water passages provided in the carburetor body.
2.3.2. Solex Carburetor

It is a down draught type of carburetor shown in Figure 2.15. It is used in Fiat,
Ambassador and Willys Jeep. It is manufactured in India by MIs Carburetor Limited, Chennai.
It has a special provision for a progressive starter. The various circuits for this carburetor are
explained below.
(1) Float circuit

(2) Starting circuit


(3) Idle and low speed circuit
(4) Norrral running circuit
(5) Acceleration circuit.
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8. s...
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"C nee :::

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ID
ID
...
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g.n~
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II')
.....
:i. r.i
c
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~
:::
.~
~
a) Float circuit:
The float circuit consists of a float chamber, float and a needle valve arrangement. The
float is pivoted to the float chamber in a lever. The lever is attached with the needle valve. The


needle valve seats on the valve seat through which the fuel comes into the float chamber.
f,.
When the needle valve is opened, the fuel enters the chamber. When the fuel reaches the
predetermined height, the needle valve close the passage as the float moves up. If the fuel
level drops, the float will move down and the inlet is opened as the needle valve also moves
down.
Petrol
+-- inlet
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E Aoat chamber
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Figure 2.16 Float circuit
b) Starting circuit:
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Figure 2.17 shows the construction of a starting circuit. There is a starter valve in the
form of a float disc with holes of different sizes. The starter valve is operated by a starter
g.n
lever. The starter lever is connected to a lever in the dash board. At the time of starting, the
et
starter lever is operated by the driver from dash board and the position of starter valve is
adjusted in such a way that bigger holes are connecting holes. These holes connect the petrol
jet and starting passage. Now, more fuel comes from a petrol jet. This petrol mixes with the
air coming from the air jet and flows to the engine through starting passage. This air fuel
mixture is rich enough for starting. At this time, the throttle valve is in closed position.
After the engine has started, the starter lever is brought to the second position. Now, the
smaller holes in the starter valve connect the passage. Therefore, less amount of petrol comes
and it mixes wAh the starting air supply. In this position, the throttle valve is also partly
opened so that the petrol is also coming from the main jet. This reduced mixture supply is
sufficient to keep the engine running. When the engine reaches the normal running
temperature, the starter is brought to 'off position.

IfmI Automobile Engineering

Air jet
ww
w.E Starting port
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(c) Idling or low speed circuit:

E ngi Air
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Pilot air jet
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g.n
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Idle port
Idling screw
Figure 2.18 Idling circuit

I Engine Auxiliary Systems ,'.
ww
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Figure 2.19 Slow speed circuit
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At idling, the throttle valve is almost closed. The engine suction is applied at the pilot jet.
eer
Thisjet gets petrol from main jet circuit. The air is drawn from the pilot air jet and mixed with
the petrol coming from pilot petrol jet. This mixture enters the cylinder through an idle port.
ing
During slow running period, the throttle valve is made to open slightly. The suction is also
created at slow speed openings. These slow speed openings are provided just above the
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throttle valve. Once, the air and fuel start to flow through the slow speed opening, the mixture
supply through the idle port is stopped.
(d) Normal running circuit:

t
During normal running, the throttle valve is partly opened. Now, the engine suction is
applied at the main jet. The fuel is supplied through emulsion tube. There are holes in the
emulsion tube at different heights. If the suction is less, the fuel comes out up to the first hole.
When the suction increases, the fuel supply will come out from the first hole up to the last
hole in the tube. The air enters directly through venturi and it mixes with the fuel and then it
flows to the cylinder. The air-fuel mixture is governed by the throttle valve.

Air bleed
tube
,,
'_, '----~-- Petrol from
L------r--
-- float chamber
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w.E Figure 2.20 Normal running circuit
e) Acceleration circuit:
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For immediate pick up of speed, the circuit will accelerate. During acceleration and
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sudden throttle opening, the engine requires some extra fuel supply. The extra fuel is supplied
through a separate fuel passage by the accelerator pump. Figure 2.21 shows an acceleration
circuit.
nee Diaphragm
rin
g.n
et
Figure 2.21 Accelerating circuit

I EngineAuxiliary Systems f,.

Acceleration circuit consists of a pump chamber connected to float chamber. There is an
accelerator pump in this circuit. It is a diaphragm type pump. The diaphragm is actuated by a
lever. The diaphragm is held in position by a compression spring. When the lever is pressed,
the diaphragm moves against the spring tension and forces the fuel through the acceleration
jet. The fuel is sprayed into venturi through a curved injector tube. When the pedal is released,
the diaphragm will move back and suck the fuel from float chamber through a pump inlet
valve. Thus, the pump is ready for the next charge.
2.3.3. S.U. Carburetor

This carburetor is an example of constant vacuum type of a carburetor. In this carburetor,
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the orifice area is varied to meet the varying demand of carburetor and the pressure difference
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is kept constant. Therefore, it is also called variable venturi carburetor.
This carburetor contains only one fuel jet in which a tapered needle slides up and down.
a syE
The needle is fitted to the piston which is contained in housing and moves up and down due to
the difference between engine suction and atmospheric pressure. The movement of piston in
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tum varies with the size of the jet through the needle movement. The up and down movements
of the tapering needle cause the annular area for fuel flow to increase or decrease. Figure 2.22
shows this arrangement.
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A damper plunger is placed in the hollow piston rod. Oil of suitable viscosity is filled in
ing
piston rod. The damper plunger has one-way valve in it. It regulates the rate of lift of the
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piston. At the same time, it allows the piston to fall freely when throttle valve is closed. When
the throttle valve is opened suddenly for acceleration, the lifting speed of the piston is retarded
by the damper plunger. Therefore, there is no necessity of acceleration pump in this
t
carburetor. Similarly, there is no separate idling or slow running circuit. Since, the position of
piston is adjusted automatically by engine suction as already explained.
A jet adjusting nut is provided to adjust the mixture strength. When the nut is tightened,
•
the jet will move up thereby reducing the annular area for fuel flow. Similarly, loosening of
nut lowers the jet and thus it increases the fuel flow.
The underside of suction disc is opened to atmospheric pressure through the hole in the
flange. The upper side of the disc is opened to the engine suction through a hole from the
underside of the piston. When the engine suction is increased, the pressure difference between
fupper and lower sides of the disc will increase. It causes the disc to move up. Thus, the taper
needle is withdrawn from the jet due to which more fuel flows out.

Hollow piston rod
Damper plunger
ww
w.E Airtuel
Air in
a mixture
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Fuelfrom
float chamoer r ing
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Jet operating lever
Figure 2.22 S. U Carburetor
When the engine is stationary, the pressure difference is same on both sides of the disc
which results the piston to move down to its lowest position and close the jet through the
needle.
For starting purpose, the needle is kept constant to its lowest position and the jet itself is
moved down from the rest by means of a jet operating lever. This lever is operated by a knob
controlled by a cable attached at dash-board. When the knob is pulled, the jet moves down and
the fuel flows from it to form the fuel air mixture for starting. When the knob is pushed down,

I Engine Auxiliary Systems f••

the jet returns to its original position. S.U. carburetors are used in Ambassador and Standard
Motor Cars.
2.3.4. Zenith Carburetor

Zenith carburetor is quite popular with England cars and is available in different form
and models. Few such models are given below.
(i) Zenith VE type carburetor

(ii) Zenith Stromberg carburetor
(iii) Zenith 30 VIG II carburetor'
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(iv) Zenith NV type carburetor
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(v) Zenith DBE type carburetor
(vi) Zenith WIA type carburetor etc.
a syE
Instead of employing two side by side jets in other types, a compound jet consists of an
inner main jet and a concentric outer jet is used in this carburetor. It is most popular due to its
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easy starting, slow running, better economy as well as simple to adjust and requiring no
adjustment once set. A standard model of a Zenith carburetor is shown in Figure 2.23. It is an
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old type of Zenith carburetor but in modem Zenith carburetors, economy devices as well as
accelerating pumps are also provided.
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It consists of three jets namely, main jet, compensating jet and idling jet. An outer cover
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is provided for the main jet. The annular space between main jet and outer cover forms the
delivery tube for compensating jet.
t
A choke is used for starting. For idling and slow speed running, a throttle valve is closed
and the air enters through holes A and B which mixes with the fuel in idling passage and then
the mixture passes to the idling jet. A knob is provided for idle adjustment which controls the
opening of B. It affects the air intake in B and thus, the quality of mixture is controlled. When
the throttle is opened slightly, some air will flow through venturi. The fuel mixture would be
supplied by both main jet and slow running jet.
When the throttle is opened further, the depression at the slow running jet will be
destroyed. The whole of the suction is being applied at the main and compensating jets. A
irrect air fuel ratio at different speed is maintained by a compensating jet. In this carburetor,
a provision is also made for collecting any sediment or dirt entering with the petrol.

Idle adjusting knob
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Air
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Compensating
Fuel
jet
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Figure 2.23 Zenith carburetor
2.3.5. Carter Carburetor

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Carter carburetor is a downdraft carburetor. It is an American make carburetor and used
t
in Jeep. Figure 2.24 shows a diagrammatic view of this carburetor. It consists of the following
circuits.
(i) Float circuit

(ii) Starting circuit
(iii) Idle and low speed circuit
(iv) Part throttle circuit
(v) Full throttle circuit
(vi) Acceleration pump circuit.


Construction:
The petrol enters the float chamber. The air enters the carb..sretor from the top and the
choke valve in the passage remains open during normal running. This carburetor consists of
three venturies. The smallest venturi i.e. primary venturi lies above the fuel leve' in the float
chamber. Other, two venturi's are below the fuel level and one is below other. At very low
speeds, suction in the primary venturi is adequate to draw petrol. The nozzle enters the
primary venturi at an angle delivering the fuel upward against the air stream in an atomized
form. The mixture from the primary venturi enters through the secondary venturi where it is
surrounded by a blanket of air stream and it finally leads to mam venturi. In main venturi,
again the fresh air supply insulates the stream from the second venturi. The mixture reaches
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the engine iIllatomized form.
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Multiple venturies result the better formation of the mixture at very low speed causing
steady and smooth operation at very low and also at very high speeds.
Operation:
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(i) Float circuit:
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The float chamber contains float. The inlet needle valve operated by a float controls the
supply of fuel from the fuel filter into float chamber.
(ii) Starting circuit: nee

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The choke valve of usual type is used for starting purposes. During starting, the choke
g.n
valve is in closed position; the whole of the engine suction is applied to the main nozzle which
delivers the fuel. As the air flow is quite small, the mixture supplied is very rich.
(iii) Idle and low speed running: et

For idling, a rich mixture of small quantity is required. During idling, a throttle valve is
almost closed. The whole of the engine suction is applied to the idle port. Consequently, the
petrol is drawn through the idle feed jet and air through first bypass and a rich mixture is
supplied. In low speed operations, the throttle valve is opened. The main nozzle also starts
supplying the fuel at this speed port through idle passage.
(iv) Part throttle circuit:

The throttle valve is opened further for increasing the speed. The fuel is delivered by the
main nozzle only.

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(v) Full throttle circuit:
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Now, the throttle valve is fully opened. Maximum amount of air is passed through th~
venturi. The higher rate of fuel flow is required. It is achieved by means of the metering rod.
Metering rod has two or more steps of diameter. The area of opening between metering rod jet
and metering rod governs the amount of petrol drawn into the engine. The metering rod is
connected to the accelerator pedal through linkage. When the accelerator pedal is pressed, the

throttle is held wide open and simultaneously, the metering rod is lifted up. Hence, the
smallest section of the rod is injet and the maximum quantity of petrol flows out
(vi) Accelerating pump circuit:

The accelerating pump is used to overcome flat spot during acceleration. The
construction of pump is similar to Figure 2.21 of "acceleration difficulty" in a previous topic.
When the throttle is suddenly opened by pressing accelerator pedal, a pump will be actuated
and a small quantity of petrol is spurted into the choke by an acceleration jet. Leaving the
accelerator pedal causes the pump piston to move up thereby sucking of fuel from the float
chamber for the next operation.
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2.4. ELECTRONICALLY CONTROLLED GASOLINE INJECTION SYSTEM FOR 51
ENGINE
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2.4.1. Limitations of Carburetor or Necessity of Petrol Fuel Injection
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Modem carburetors have certain limitations as given below.
(i)
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In multi cylinder 'engines, it becomes very difficult for a single carburetor to supply
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uniform quality and quantity. Since, the induction passages are of unequal lengths.
(ii)
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Venturi throat of the carburetor causes a restriction in the passage of air flow to the
engine. If the throat is made larger for this reason, the problem of suitable mixture
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supply becomes acute at low speed and air velocity decreases which causes less
efficient atomization.
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(iii) The carburetor has many wearing parts. After wear, it operates less efficiently.
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(iv) There is a loss of volumetric efficiency due to restricted flow of mixture in various
parts such as choke tubes, jets, throttle valves, inlet pipe bends etc.
All of above limitations of carburetor may be avoided by introducing the fuel through
injection rather than carburetion. The main difference between petrol and diesel injection is
that the diesel is injected at the end of compression stroke only due to high pressure ratio in
diesel engines whereas it may be injected at any time of suction stroke itself in petrol
injection. There is no critical timing for petrol injection.
2.4.2. Types of Gasoline Injection System

In a petrol injection system, the fuel is injected into the intake manifold through fuel
injection valves. There are two basic gasoline injection arrangements.

(i) MUlti-point injection system

(ii) Monopoint injection system.
(i) Multi-pointfuel injection (MPFl) system

It is also called port injection system. In this system, there is an injection valve for each
engine cylinder shown in.Figure 2.25 (a). Each injection valve is placed in the intake port near
the intake valve shown in Figure 2.25 (b). The main advantage of this system is that it allows
more time for mixing of air and petrol.
Air
ww Equal fuel to
each cylinder
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through injection
valves
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Fuel eer Port Injector
(a)
ing (b)
Figure 2.25 Multipoint or port injection system

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(ii) Monopoint or single-point fuel injection system:
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Manifold Injector
Figure 2.26 Monopoint injection system

This system is also called throttle body injection. In this system, an injection valve is
positioned slightly above each throat of the throttle body shown in Figure 2.26. The injection
valve sprays fuel into the air just before it passes through the throttle valve and enters the
intake manifold. This method simplifies the construction of the engine block. Also, it does
not obstruct hot spots near the valves affecting cooling water jacket size at the place.
Moreover, it requires only one circuit in the computer to control injection which simplifies the
construction of electronic control unit. Thus, it reduces the cost of the system.
2.4.3. Working of Electronically Controlled Gasoline Injection System

In electronically controlled gasoline injection system for SI engines, fuel supply and
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timings are controlled by electronic means. Electronic fuel injection has developed with the
development of solid-state electronic devices such as diodes and transistors. Recent days,
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these systems are commonly used as they function quickly and respond automatically to the
change in manifold air pressure, engine speed, crankshaft: angle and many other secondary
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factors. This system is developed by Robert Bosch Corporation. Figure 2.27 shows an
electronic gasoline injection system of Bosch L-type. It consists of the following four units:
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(i) Fuel delivery system
(ii) Air induction system gin
(iii) Sensors and air flow control system
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(iv) Electronic control unit.
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(i) Fuel delivery system:
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The reason for using gasoline fuel injection is to control the air-fuel ratio of the engine
more precisely. This system consists of an electrically driven fuel pump which draws fuel t
from the fuel tank through filter and forces it into the pressure line. At the end of the pressure
line, a fuel pressure regulator is placed. The fuel pressure regulator is connected to the intake
manifold. The pressure difference between fuel pressure and manifold pressure is kept
constant by this regulator so that the quantity of fuel injected is dependent only on the
injection open time. In this Bosch L-type system, fuel metering is controlled by engine speed
and measuring the intake air flow.
(ii) Air induction system:

The incoming air fromatmospbereflows initially through air filter and then through air
flow sensor. This air flow sensor measures the amount of air flow in the manifold and
generates a voltage signal which is dependent on the amount of air flow. The air flow meter

consists of a rectangular plate which turns in a rectangular shaped channel to a defined

angular position dependent on the pressure from flowing air. It returns to original position
during normal condition by using a spiral coil spring.
Ql
Fuel
Inlet ~ pressure
c:
....
::J regulator
(i)
....
'ijj
::J
U.
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Engine speed
signa~"'_"":::':':"'-r....l
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Figure 2.27 Electronic gasoline injection system
(iii) Sensors and airflow control system:
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Typical sensors used in electronic gasoline injection system are as follows.
(i)
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Air flow sensor: A sensor senses Electronic Control Unit (ECU) how much air is
being drawn into the intake manifold for adjusting the quantity of fuel.
(ii) Intake air temperature sensor: This sensor measures the temperature of the intake t
air for fine tuning the mixture strength.
(iii) Exhaust gas oxygen (EGO) sensor.; A sensor located in the exhaust system which
provides ECU about the amount of oxygen in exhaust gases. From this, ECU can
determine if the air/fuel ratio is correct.
(iv) Manifold absolute pressure (MAP) sensor: It senses the vacuum pressure in the
engines inlet manifold and it gives an indication of the load to the engine.
(v) Speed/crankshaft sensor: It provides the information to ECU about engine rotating
speed and the position of the crankshaft.


(vi) Engine temperature sensor: This sensor senses the temperature of the coolant in the
engine. Coolant temperature is used determine if more fuel is needed when the
engine is cold or warming up.
(vii) Crankshaft position sensor: ECU needs to know how fast the engine's spinning ard
where the crankshaft is in its rotation. ECU fires the spark and injectors at the right
time.
(viii)Knock sensor: The knock sensor is a microphone type sensor that detects the sounds
of knocking (detonation) so that ignition timing can be retarded.
A cold start valve is fitted just behind the injection valve to inject additional fuel for cold
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start. This valve has exceptionally good atomization characteristics. The operation of cold
start valve is controlled by a thermo time switch sensor to ensure cold start up to - 33°C. The
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extra fuel is needed by ordinary starting and warm up period is also supplied by this valve.
After cold start, the additional air required with richer air-fuel mixture is supplied by an
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auxiliary air valve during idling condition which by-passes the throttle valve. It is the
additional idling speed. The opening of the air valve varies as a function of engine
temperature.
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A throttle valve switch is attached to the throttle valve. It is equipped with a set of
contacts which generates a sequence of voltage signals during opening of the throttle valve.
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This signal results the injection of additional fuel required for acceleration through an
electronic control unit.
(iv) Electronic Control Unit (ECU): .ne

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It is the heart of a fuel injection system. It contains a computer which takes information
from sensors and controls the amount of fuel injected by operating the injectors for just the
right amount of time. The unit contains a number of printed circuit boards on which a series of
transistors, diodes and other electronic components are mounted. It makes vital data analysis
circuits respond to various input signals.
The data measured in the form of signals by various sensors such as manifold air
pressure, engine speed, crank angle, oxygen in exhaust etc. are transmitted to the electronic
control unit. This unit computes the air-fuel ratio required for the best performance of the
engine during each engine cycle and it sends signal to the iniection-velve -and-other p1ll'tSfOf
the system. The amount of fuel injected is varied by varying the injector opening time only.
ECU cannot be adjusted or serviced.

Advantages:
1. A very high quality fuel distribution is obtained. Therefore, higher compression
ratios can be adopted without any danger of detonation occurring.
2.' It increases the volumetric efficiency and hence, it also increases power and torque.
3. The manifold in an injection system carries only air. So, there is no problem of air
and fuel separation and the design of manifold becomes simple.
4. It reduces the specific fuel consumption due to better distribution of mixture to each
cylinder.
S. It is free from blowbacks and icing.
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6. Exhaust emissions are less due to precise air-fuel ratio according to engine
requirements .:
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7. Better starting and acceleration are ensured than a carburetor system.
a
Disadvantag~s:
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1. Initial cost is very high because of precise and complicated components of the
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electronic circuit. It is the major disadvantage.
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2. More complicated mechanism because of electronic system injection nozzle and fuel
injection pump.
3. Increased service problem occurs.
4. More noise is generated.
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S. Weight and space requirement are more than a conventional carburetor. .ne
2.5. ELECTRONIC DIESEL INJECTION SYSTEM
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In conventional diesel injection system, a precise controlling of various parameters
related to the injection process such as timing, rate of fuel injection, end of injection, quantity
of fuel injected etc. is difficult if the engine is operated at high speed. It may result the
reduced efficiency and higher emission levels. Conventional systems only senses a few
parameters and meter the fuel quantity or adjust the injection timing. Therefore, electronically
controlled diesel injection systems have been developed. This system facilitates the precise
, control of the following parameters.
(a) Quantity of fuel injection

(b) Injection timing


(c) Rate of injection during various stages of injection
(d) Injection pressure
(e) Speed of nozzle opening
(f) Pilot injection timing and its quantity.
Electronically controlled diesel injection system may use the following parameters which
can significantly affect the performance of the engine as input.
(i) Intake air mass flow rate

(ii) Intake air temperature and pressure
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(iv)
Engine temperature
Lubricating oil temperature
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(v)
(vi)
Engine speed
Crankshaft position
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(vii) Turbocharger boost pressure
(viii) Accelerator pedal position
(ix) Exhaust gas oxygen level.
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2.5.1. Components of Electronic Diesel Injection System nee
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The components of electronically controlled diesel injection systems are divided into the
following three main groups.
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Electronic sensors for registering operating conditions and changes. A wide
)0
array of physical inputs is converted into electrical signal outputs.
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Actuators or solenoids which convert the control unit's electrical output signal
into mechanical control movement.
)0 ECU (Electronic Control Unit) with microprocessors which process information
from various sensors in accordance with programmed software and outputs
required electrical signals into actuators and solenoids.
Various sensors used in electronically controlled diesel injection systems are as follows.
)0 Injection pump speed sensor: It monitors pump rotational speed.

)0 Fuel rack position sensor: It monitors pump fuel rack position.
)0 Charge air pressure sensor: It measures pressure side of the turbocharger.

~ Fuel pressure sensor: It measures fuel pressure.
» Engine position sensor

» Temperature sensors: These sensors measure various operating temperatures such
as
• Intake temperature
• Charge air temperature
• Coolant temperature
• Fuel temperature
ww• Exhaust temperature (Pyrometer)
»w.E • Ambient temperature
Vehicle speed sensor: It .monitors vehicle speed.
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Brake pedal sensor: It operates with cruise control, exhaust brake, idle control.
);. Clutch pedal sensor: It operates with cruise control, exhaust brake, idle control.
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Accelerator pedal sensor: It monitors the amount of force given to the accelerator
»
pedal.
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the information to the ECU. r
Injector needle movement sensor: It monitors the actual injection time and feeds
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Electro-magnetic actuators are usually located on the fuel pump to transfer electrical
signals into mechanical action. Various actuators used in electronically controlled diesel
injection systems are as follows. t
» Injectors
» Boost-pressure actuator
» Fuel rack actuator
» Intake-duct switch off actuator
» Throttle-valve actuator
» Exhaust-gas recirculation actuator
}Ii> Electronic shutoff valve
» Rail-pressure control valve.

I EngineAuxiliary Systems , ..
The injection of fuel or the quantity of injected fuel has a decisive influence on engine
starting, idling, power and emissions. The ECU is programmed with relevant data to where
the fuel rack position has an equivalent signal for the amount of fuel being injected. The
driver requests the torque or engine speed requirements via accelerator pedal potentiometer
thereby sending a signal to the ECU. Depending on the data collected from various sensors
ECU calculates the quantity of fuel required, thus altering the fuel rack to the required
position. The road speed function can be used to evaluate vehicle speed. Further functions can
include exhaust brake operation which, when activated, will result in the fuel pump rack
position being set to zero delivery or idle. The engine ECU can also interface with various
other vehicle systems e.g. traction control and carry out self-monitoring duties and self-
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diagnostic functions to keep the system working at an optimal level.
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There are dlfferent types of electronically controlled diesel injection systems. They are
as follows.
(i)
a Unit injector system
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(ii) Rotary distributor system
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(iii) Common rail direct injection system.
2.5.2. Unit Injector System nee

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This system is also called individual pump injection system. The Unit Injector System
(UIS) combines the injection nozzle and the high-pressure pump in a single assembly. One
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such unit injector is fitted in the head of each engine cylinder as shown in Figure 2.28. The
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high pressure is built up by the activation of the pump plunger of the unit injector by the
engine camshaft via a tappet or rocker arm.
The basic operation can be described as a sequence of four separate phases such asfilling
phase, spill phase, injection phase and pressure reduction phase.
A low pressure fuel delivery pump supplies filtered diesel fuel into the cylinder head fuel
ducts, and into each injector fuel port of constant stroke pump plunger injector.
(i) Fill phase:

The constant stroke pump element (plunger of th:epump) on the way up draws fuel from
the supply duct into the chamber and the fuel line is open as long as electric solenoid valve
remains de-energized.

I'··
(ii) SpiUphase:
The plunger of the pump is on the way down, and as long as solenoid valve remains de-
energized the fuel line is open and fuel flows in through into the return duct.
.1'1" .1'1"
Injection nozzles
Pump with an
ii .dividual cylinder
for each nozzle
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Figure 2.28 Unit injector system
(iii)Injection phase:
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The plunger of the pump is still on the way down, the solenoid is now energized and fuel
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line is now closed. The fuel cannot pass back into return duct and it is compressed by the
g.n
plunger until t~e pressure exceeds specific "opening" pressure. Then the injector nozzle
needle lifts.and it allows fuel to be injected into the combustion chamber.
(iv) Pressure reduction phase: et

The plunger is still on its way down. The engine ECU de-energizes the solenoid when the
required quantity of fuel is delivered. Due to this, the fuel valve opens and fuel can flow back
into return duct causing pressure drop which in turn causes the injector nozzle needle to.shut.
Hence, no more fuel is injected.
Advantages:
)00- High performance for clean and powerful engines
)00- High engine power balanced against low consumption and low engine emissions
~ High degree of efficiency due to compact design
)00- Low noise level due to direct assembly in the engine block
)00- Injection pressures up to 2,200 bar for the ideal combination of air-fuel mixture.

I Engine Auxiliary Systems (. . flM

)> The injection nozzle operates with a rapid-switching solenoid valve which is triggered
electronically. It can produce a pilot injection which reduces engine noise.
Disadvantages:
}> Separate unit is required for each cylinder with actuation
}> Unit injector system is quite compact since at all operating loads and speeds, each
pump in this unit should very precisely match its companions and extremely close
tolerances are required during manufacturing. Therefore, it involves high costs.
2.5.3. Rotary Distributor System
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Figure 2.29' shows a schematic diagram of the rotary distributor system. In distributor
systems, the fuel is metered at a central point.
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Distributor
block ---+I
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Cams
Primary pump
Figure 2.29 Distributor system

A pump which pressurizes the fuel also meters the fuel and times the injection. The fuel
pump supplies the required amount of fuel after metering it to a rotating distributor at the
'correct time for supply to each cylinder. The fuel is distributed to cylinders in a correct firing

order operated by poppet valves which are opened to admit the fuel to nozzles. Distributor
pumps use control sleeves for metering the injected quantity. Thus, they can be easily made to
work with an electronically controlled solenoid actuator.
Advantages:
)i;> Simple construction
)i;> Low initial cost
)i;> Easy maintenance
)i;> Balanced cylinder fueling
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Disadvantages:
)i;> Overall reduced durability
)i;>
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Practically suitable for small bore engines.
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2.5.4. Common Rail Direct Injection System (CRDI)
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Generally, diesel engines have the specific advantage of good fuel efficiency and low
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CO2 emissions. Therefore, various new technologies have been developed in order to reduce
harmful emissions. One of such technologies is called Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDI)
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system of direct fuel injection. In this system, commencement of combustion takes place
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directly into the main combustion chamber located in a cavity on the top of the piston crown.
This system injects diesel five times more accurately than the normal injection system by high
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response injectors with electronic control. It results the greater reduction of particulate matter
and NOx thereby improving the fuel efficiency and increasing its torque. So, they lead to
reduce engine noise and vibration. Variouscomponents ofCRDI System are: t
)i;> High Pressure Fuel Pump
)i;> Common Fuel Rail
)i;> Injectors
)i;> Engine Control Unit
A common rail system consists of pressure accumulator called common rail (or in simple
words, a fuel distribution pipe) which is mounted along the engine block. The rail is fed by a
high pressure multi-cylinder fuel pump. .The injectors are activated by solenoid valves. Both
the solenoid valves and fuel pump are electronically controlled.

----------- --- --- -------------------------------------
I Engine Auxiliary Systems .M
Fuel from fuel tank

~~~--_.---~~h~p~~
pump and filter
ww Multlcyllnder fuel pump
w.E Figure 2.30 Common rail direct injection system

In the common rail injection system, the injection pressure does not depend on engine
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speed and load. So, the control of injection parameters is easy. Usually, a pilot injection is
introduced in order to reduce engine noise and NOx emissions. The injectors use a needle-and
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seat- type valve to control the fuel flow. The fuel pressure is fed to both top and bottom of the
needle valve. The pressure on the bottom will push the needle off its seat by bleeding some of-
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the pressure off the top. Thus, the fuel will flow through nozzle holes.
A.dvantages:
(i) r ing
It delivers 25010 more power and torque than the normal direct injection engine.
(ii) Initial cost is low.
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(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Superior pick up is possible.
It maintains lower levels of noise and vibration.
Higher mileage is obtained.
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(vi) Emissions are low.
(vii) Fuel consumption is less.
(viii) Improved performance is obtained.
Disadvantages:
(i) Many parts involve the complicated design.
(ii) Production cost is high.
(iii) High degree of engine maintenance is required.

1-
2.6. IGNITION SYSTEM
This system is a part of the electrical system which carries the electric current to the
spark plug where the spark necessary to ignite the fuel-air mixture in the combustion chamber
is produced.
This system supplies high-voltage of current (as much as 20000 Volts) to produce spark
at the spark plug. The spark is provided at the exact time in various cylinders according to the
firing order of the engine.
There are different types of ignition systems used in petrol engines. They are as follows.
1. Coil ignition system or battery ignition system
ww 2. Magneto ignition system
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3. Electronic ignition system and
4. Transistorised ignition system.
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2.6.1. Battery Ignition System or Coil Ignition System
It is employed in petrol engines. Figure 2.31 shows the wiring diagram of a simple coil
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ignition system of a four cylinder engine. This system is used in automobiles.
Construction:
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ing
It consists of a battery, ignition coil, condenser, contact breaker, distributor and spark
plugs as shown in Figure 2.32. Generally, 6 or 12 volts battery is used. The ignition coil
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consists of two windings primary and secondary. The primary winding consists of thick wire
with less number of turns. The primary winding is formed of 200-300 turns of thick wire of
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#20-gage to produce a resistance of about 1.5 ohms. The secondary winding located inside the
primary winding consists of 21,000 turns of thin enameled wire of #38-40 gages with
sufficiently insulated to withstand high voltage.
It is wound closer to the core with one end connected to the secondary terminal and the
other end is wound either to the metal case or the primary coil. The secondary winding
consists of more number of turns of thin wire. The condenser is connected across the contact
breaker. It prevents excess arcing and pitting of contact breaker points.
The contact breaker is housed in the distributor itself. It makes and breaks the primary
ignition circuit. The distributor distributes the high voltage to the respective spark plugs
having regular intervals in the sequence of firing order of the engine. (The sequence in which
the firing or power occurs in a multi cylinder engine is known esfiringorder. The firing order

Il!ngln. Auxiliary Sy~tems _ I

of I 4-cylinder in-line engine is 1-3-4-2 or 1-4-3-2. The firing order of a 6-cylinder in-line
~tigh1"I. 1~S·3-6-2-4). The spark plug is fitted on the combustion chamber of the engine. It
produces spark to ignite the fuel-air mixture. The rotor of the distributor and contact breaker
cam are driven by the engine. There are two circuits in this system. One is the primary circuit.
It goo.ists of battery, primary coil of the ignition coil, condenser and contact breaker. The
other circuit i8 the secondary circuit. It consists of secondary coil, distributor and spark plugs.
.-------~To distributor
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w.E Primarywinding
asy Secondarywinding
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Figure 2.31
Working:
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The ignition switch is switched on and the engine is cranked. The cranking of the engine
opens and closes the contact breaker points through a cam.
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Spark plugs
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e t
istributor
Condenser
Figure 2.32 Battery ignition system

leg Automobile Engineering

Wizenthe contact breaker points are closed:
1. The current flows from the battery to the contact breaker points through the switch
and primary winding and then it returns to a battery through the earth.
2. This current builds up a magnetic field in the primary winding of the ignition coil.
3. When the primary current is at the highest peak, the contact breaker points will be
opened by the cam.
When the contact breaker points are opened:
1. The magnetic field sets up in the primary winding which is suddenly collapsed.
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2. A high voltage (15000 volts) is generated in the secondary winding of the ignition
coil.
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3. This high voltage is directed to the rotor of the distributor.
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4. The rotor directs this high voltage to the individual spark plugs in the sequence of the
firing order of the engine.
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5. This high voltage tries to 'cross the spark plug gap (0.45 to 0.6mm) and the spark is
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produced. This spark ignites the fuel-air mixture.
Advantages:
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(i)
ing
It provides better sparks at low speeds of the engine during starting and idling due
to availability of maximum current throughout the engine speed range.
(ii) The initial cost is low as compared with magneto ignition system.
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(iii)
(iv)
The maintenance cost is negligible except battery.
Spark efficiency remains unaffected by various positions of the timing control
mechanism.
t
Disadvantages:
(i) Frequent battery down occurs when the engine is not in use continuously. It
causes a starting trouble.
(ii) The weight is greater than magneto ignition system.
(iii) Wiring mechanism is more complicated.
2.6.2. Magneto Ignition System
In this system, the battery is replaced with a magneto. Figure 2.33 shows the wiring
diagram of a magneto ignition system. It consists of a switch, magneto, contact breaker,

condenser, distributor and spark plugs. This system is used in two wheelers such as motor
cycles, scooters etc.
Spark plugs
Rotating ~nat
assemblY
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Condenser
Figure 2.33 Magneto ignition system
Construction: nee
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The magneto ignition system consists of a rotating magnet assembly driven by an engine
g.n
and a fixed armature. The armature consists of primary and secondary windings. The primary
circuit consists of a primary winding, condenser and contact breaker. The secondary circuit
consists of a secondary windings, distributor and spark plugs.
When the contact breaker points are closed:

e t
1. The current flows in the primary circuit.
2. It produces a magnetic field in the primary winding.
3. When the primary current is at the highest peak, the contact breaker points will be
opened by the cam.
When the contact breaker points are opened:

1. There is a break in the primary circuit.
2. The magnetic field in the primary winding is suddenly collapsed.
3. A high voltage (15000 volts) is generated in the secondary win~ng.

If,. Automobll. Engii!_'f1n, _]

4. This high voltage is distributed to the respective spark plugs through the rotor oftht
distributor.
5. The high voltage tries to cross the spark plug gap and a spark is produced in the
gap. This spark ignites the fuel-air mixture in the engine cylinder.
Advantages:
(i) It has no maintenance problem similar to a coil ignition (i.e. for battery). So, it is
more reliable.
(ii) When the speed increases, it provides better intensity pf spark and thue, It
provides better combustion as compared to battery coil ignition system.
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(iii)
(iv)
Less space is required as compared to battery ignition system.
It is light in weight and compact in size.
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Disadvantages:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
a Initial cost is very high as compared with coil ignition system.
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Minimum 75rpm is necessary to start the engine.
For higher power engines, some other devices are necessary to start ignition.
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Comparison of the magneto and coil ignition system:
1. Simplicity: nee
r
A coil ignition system requires a greater attention against possible defects b'CfW$O tho
ing
wiring is quite complicated. On the other hand, the wiring of a magneto ignition IYlttm hi
comparatively simple and it forms a compact unit.
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2. Cost:
Due to less precision work, the manufacturing cost in coil ignition system is leSi t
than In
magneto ignition.
3. Starting and low speed operation:

At the time of starting and low speeds, the strength of the spark in magneto ignition hi
low while a good spark is given by the coil ignition.
4. Strength of spark at high speeds:

With the increase in speed, the strength of spark given by the magneto ignition system
increases but it decreases in th~ case of coil system as shown in Figure 2.34. Therefore, it Iii
unsuitable for high speed racing cars and airplanes.

I Engine Auxiliary Systems fiil
1 system
Coil ignition
system
Speed (R.P.M.)
ww Figure 2.34
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5. Dependence on battery and charging dynamo:
The operation of the coil ignition system is greatly influenced by the condition of the
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battery and charging dynamo. If a car stands for a few weeks and its battery gets discharged, it
becomes difficult to start the engine even by hand cranking. But, there is no such difficulty
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experienced in magneto ignition system which is more reliable.
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2.6.3. Electronic Ignition System
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There are some drawbacks in above discussed magneto ignition system. Firstly, the
contact breaker points will wear out or burn when it is operated with heavy current. Secondly,
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the contact breaker is only a mechanical device which cannot operate precisely at high speed
e
due to the dwell period which is not sufficient for building up the magnetic. field to its full
value at that particular speed. The conventional contact breaker can give satisfactory
performance only about 400 "Parksper second which limits the engine speed. At low speeds,
t
relatively high current is drawn from the battery due to the contacts remaining closed for
longer time. Thus, the system becomes inefficient at low speeds.
The disadvantages of the convention COil~RCt

breaker assisted ignition system can be
completely eliminated by the use of electronic controlled ignition system using contactless
triggers to give timing system.
The basic difference between contact point' and electronic ignition systems is in the
primary circuit. In the contact breaker system, the primary circuit is opened and closed by the
electronic control unit shown in Figure 2.35. The secondary circuits are practically similar to
previous systems.

Ignition
switch
To
spark plugs
Distributor
(8) Contact point Ignition system
Ignition
ww switch
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a syE (b) Electronic Ignition system
ArmatlJr.
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Figure 2.35 Difference between contact point and electronic Ignition ',Ntllm
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In the secondary circuit, the distributor, ignition coil and wiring are altered to handl~ tho
higher voltage that the electronic ignition system produces. The high voltage (about
r ing
47,OOOvolts)has the advantage that the spark plugs with wider gaps can be used. It
longer spark which can ignite lean air-fuel mixture. As a result, engines can run on 10M
rOll't,. ,.
mixture for better fuel economy. .ne

Construction:
t
A schematic diagram of an electronic ignition system is shown in Figure 2.36. It conlijliits
of a battery, ignition switch, electronic control unit, magnetic pick-up, reluctor or armature,
ignition coil, distributor and spark plugs. The construction of battery, ignition switch. ignition
coil, distributor and spark plug is similar to previous methods. In this system, a magnetic pick-
up is used instead of contact breaks points in a conventional system. Also a cam iii replaced by
a reluctor or armature.
The magnetic pick-up is shown in Figure 2.37. It consists of a sensor coil through which
the magnetic flux is generated by a permanent magnet. A star shaped rotor called reluctor or
armature is mounted on the distributor shaft which modulates the flux density in the coil and
induced voltage in the coil due to the consequent changes in the flux. This voltage serves as a

Engine Auxiliary Systems . . .. •

trigger signal for the high voltage generator circuit. Since there is one spark plug per cylinder,
the number of teeth of armature is equal to the number of engine cylinders.
Electronic
control
unit
. Ignition
switch
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asy Reluctor or armature
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Figure 2.36 Electronic ignition system
Reluctoror
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Sensor coil
Permanent
magnet
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g.n
To electronic
control unit
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Figure 2.37 Magnetic pickup control unit
Working:
When the ignition switch is closed (i.e. switch is 'ON' .), the reluctor rotates which makes
the teeth of the reluctor cone closer to the permanent magnet. It reduces the air gap between
reluctor tooth and sensor coil. Thus, the reluctor provides a path for the magnetic lines from
the magnet. The magnetic field is passed on to the pick up every time when the reluctor teeth
pass the pickup coil in which an electric pulse is generated. This small current then triggers
the electronic control unit which stops the flow of battery current to the ignition coil. The
magnetic field in the primary winding collapses and the high voltage is generated: in the
secondary winding. It led to spark in a spark plug via distributor. Meanwhile, the reluctor

-,teeth pass past the pickup coil. Therefore, the pulse unit is ended. It causes the electronic
control unit to close the primary circuit.
Advantages:
1. The parts such as reluctor, magnetic pickup and electronic control module are not
subjected to wear as in case of a mechanical contact breaker.
2. Periodic adjustment of engine timing is not necessary.
3. It gives very accurate control oftiming.
2.6.4. Transistorised Ignition System
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A transistor interrupts a relatively high current carrying circuit, i.e, it controls high
current in the collector circuit with less current in the base circuit. Therefore, a transistor is
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used to assist the work of a contact breaker. Hence, this system is known as Transistor-
assisted ignition system or transistorized ignition system.
a
Construction:
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It consists of battery, ignition switch, transistor, collector, emitter, ballast resistor, contact
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breaker, ignition coil. distributor and spark plugs. The emitter of the transistor is connected to
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the ignition coil through a ballast resistor. A collector is connected to the battery.
Working:
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The cam in th~ distributor is rotated by the engine. It opens and closes the contact breaker
points.
Wh(l" ,h(l contact breaker points are closed: .ne

1. J\ small CU11'ent
flows in the base circuit of the transistor. t
2, A large current flows in the emitter or collector circuit of the transistor and the
primary winding of the Ignition coil due to the normal transistor action.
3. A magnetic field is aet tlp in the primary winding of the coil.
JYh~n'he ca,,'act breaker poln~ "re opent

1. The current flow in the base circuit is stopped.
2. The primary current and the magnetic field in the coil collapse suddenly due to
immediate reverting of the transistor to the non-conductive state.
3. It produces a high voltage in the secondary circuit.

r ~ngine Auxiliary Systems . . Uti I

4. This high voltage is directed to the respective spark pjug~through tho rotor of the
distributor.
5. This high voltage produces a spark when it is tried to jump the spark plug gap. It
ignites air-fuel mixture in the cylinder.
Ignition
coil
~ I€mifipA
w1w sw~cI1
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..::::.:.Sattery
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Capacitor
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4dv(m'(#fI(J~;
n inpre~~s the life of contact breaker points. rin
J~
2. It gives higher ignition voltage. g.n
3. It gives longer duration of spark.
~: It hll~VllJ1l~~~J.m~t~
control pfHrnillg·
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~: n n~~9~less maintenance.
1J~(#f/y(#n'41Jf!S;
I: Mpr~ mpcj1~ni~alpoints are needed similar to a conventional system.
~: It has a tendency to side tracking.
'.1,1. Capacitive Discharge Ignition System
t)apacitive discharge ignition (CD!) is most widely used today on automotive and marine
engines. A CD! module has capacitor storage of its own as shown in Ftgure 2.39 and it sends
a short high voltage (about 250+ volts) pulse through the coil. The coil now acts similar to a

1_ Automobile Engineering 1
transformer and it multiplies this voltage even higher. Mod~rn COl coils step up the voltage
':b~i1t"lho:1. So, a typical 250V COl module output is stepped up to over 25,000V output
from the coil.
Diode Capacitor
Excitor
COII+
i Diode
@ N
s
'9nition
Stop
Switch-
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Figure 2.39 Capacitive discharge ignition system
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The huge advantage of COl is the higher coil output and hotter spark. The spark duration
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is much shorter (about 10-12 microseconds) and accurate. It is better at high RPM but it can
be a problem for both starting period and lean mixture or high compression situations. COl
systems can use low resistance coils.
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2.6.6. Distributoriess Ignition System ing
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An ignition system does not use a distributor to route high voltage to spark plugs called
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Distrtbiaorless Ignition System (DIS). This system is also called as Direct Ignition System
(DIS).The high voltage plug wire runs directly from the ignition coil to the spark plug. The
spark timing is controlled by an Ignition Control Unit (ICU) and Engine Control Unit (ECU).
Some DIS systems have one coil for every two spark plugs (a shared system) while others has
a separate coil for each spark plug. EI~minatingthe distributor makes the system more reliable
and it eliminates maintenance.
This system uses either a magnetic crankshaft sensor, camshaft position sensor or both to
determine crankshaft position and engine speed. This signal is sent to the ignition control
module or engine control module which then energizes the appropriate coil.

Ignition module
Engine
control
module 1/1
C)
"5
0-
Magnetic trigger -t:

(\1
c.
(/)
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Magnetic pick-up
®
Figure 2.40 Distributorless ignition system
The advantages DIS are as follows.
w.E 1. No timing adjustments are required.
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2. No distributor cap and rotor are required.
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3. There are no moving parts to wear out.
4. Less maintenance is required.
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5. It does not need a distributor which accumulates moisture and cause starting
problems.
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6. It does not require a distributor to drive thus providing less engine drag.
2.7. SUPERCHARGING g.n

An engine may not produce the same power output when it is operated at different e
locations and altitudes. It is due to variation in ambient!conditions. Supercharging and turbo - t
charging are used to overcome this problem.
Supercharging is the process of supplying the air fuel mixture to the engine just above the
atmosphere pressure. A supercharger increases the pressure of the air fuel mixture from the
carburetor before it enters the engine. Supercharger is a pressure boosting device which
supplies air in a diesel engine or air-fuel mixture in a petrol engine at high pressure.
2.7.1. Types of Supercharging Methods
Superchargers are broadly classified into the following types according to the method of
gas transfer.

Automobile
1. Positive displacement type:
Positive displacement bloMts afid compressors deliver at constant level of press¥e
increase at all engine .peeds (RPM). Major types of positive-displacement pumps include
roots blower, twin-screw, sliding vane and scroll-type superchargers.
2. Dynamic compressors type:
Dynamic compressors do not deliver pressure at low speed and above a threshold speed,
the pressure increases with engine speed. Dynamic compressors rely on accelerating the aif f6
high speed and then exchanging its velocity for the increase in pressure by diffusing or
slowing it down. Major types of dynamic compressor are centrifugal and multi-stage axial-
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flow. The following are the most commonly used superchargers.
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a) Centrifugal type supercharging:
Centrifugal supercharging compresses the air inside the case of the supercharger using an
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impeller. Then, it discharges the air out of a scroll to the motor. This design is similar to
turbo-charging except for centrifugal superchargers which do not use the exhaust to build
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pressure. They use a belt driven by the crank pulley to spin the impeller. The ability to change
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the impeller sizes and spin the impeller at different speeds creates a more inexpensive way to
have flexibility.
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Delivery
Casing
pipe
ing
Impeller
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Figure 2.41 Centrifugal type supercharging

I Engine Auxiliary Systems 'ijl

b) Roots type supercharging:
The roots type supercharger is the first style supercharger and it can be dated back to the
18808when the Roots brothers designed it as an air conveyor for mine shafts. Roots blowers
act similar to air pumps (not compressors) and in general, roots blowers have a two or three
lobe rotor design depending on the size of the case. Roots blowers will give the positive
pressure to the motor from just a crack of the throttle and it will give the pressure at full
throttle irrespective of the rpm of the motor. Roots blowers are also extremely reliable and
they require very little maintenance which is why Ford, GM, Mercedes, Jaguar and Austin
Martin have all featured Roots blowers as original equipment on select high performance
vehicles.
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Figure 2.42 Roots type supercharging
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c) Screw type supercharging:
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Screw type superchargers are derived from roots type concept but with vast
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improvements for street use. Although from the outside, screw type superchargers may look
more similar to roots type superchargers, on the inside, it pas a twin-screw design that
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compresses air unlike roots type superchargers which pump the ,air into the motor. Screw type
superchargers have an axial-flow design that compresses the air as it moves between screws to
create the posi~ive pressure without creating the heat which roots type superchargers can
create. The screw type supercharger has the ability to produce a dramatic increased power
from idle and throughout the rest of the power curve make them a great choice for heavy
vehicles, towing or commercial use.
Modifications required on engines supercharging:

The following modifications make the engine more suitable for supercharging:
(i) Increase the valve overlap period to permit complete scavenging of the clearance
volume.

If.,. Automobile Engineer/ng~

(ii) Increase the clearance volume by decreasing the compression ratio.
(iii) The injection system of I ditsel englne must be modified to supply the increased
amount of fuel. It is achleved by jjffi'Virlinggreater area in nozzle than normally
aspirated engines.
(iv) In case of a turbocharged engine, the exhaust valve should open a bit earlier in
order to supply more energy to the turbocharger.
(v) For normally aspired engine, the exhaust manifold is water-cooled. But, the
exhaust manifold of turbocharged engine is insulated to reduce the heat loss.
ww Air out
w.E Helical screw rotor
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En Gears
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ing
Air in
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2.8. TURBO CHARGERS
Figure 2.43 Screw type supercharging
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Generally, a centrifugal or axial flow or displacement type supercharger which is driven
by the engine crankshaft is used in Ie engines. Some superchargers are driven by a gas turbine
which is driven by using engine exhaust gases. This type of supercharger is called
turbocharger. This arrangement facilitates the utilization, of exhaust gas energy and hence
avoiding the utilization of engine Plowerto run supercharger.
Purpose of turbocharger:
I. To reduce the weight per horse power ofthe engine as required in aero engines.
2. To reduce the space occupied by the engine as required in marine engines.


3. To have better turbulence and it ensures more complete combustion giving greater
.1
power and low specific fuel consumption.
4. To improve volumetric efficiency of the engine at high altitudes, as in aero engines,
and at high speeds as in racing cars.
5. To maintain the power of a reciprocating Ie engines even at high altitudes where less
oxygen is available for combustion.
Principle of working of a turbocharger:

Figure 2.44 shows a turbocharger driven by engine exhaust gas. A turbocharger is driven
by a gas turbine. Exhaust gas from the engine flows along the exhaust manifold and through
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nozzle box assembly and it enters into the blades of the gas turbine where the mechanical
work is done by the gas turbine.
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Exhaust to
gas turbine
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Engine
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Atmospheric
air
Exhaust to
atmosphere e t
FiglU'e 2.44 Exhaust gas driven turbocharger
The wheel of the gas turbine and the impeller of the supercharger are mounted on one
common shaft. Thus, the supercharger compresses the atmospheric air in case of diesel
engines or air fuel mixture in case of petrol engines and it enters the engine cylinder. By using
a turbocharger, the engine fuel economy is improved by the use of the kinetic energy of
exhaust gases. The turbocharger o~tput can be controlled for its optimum performance by
introducing by-pass passage and disc valve on both inlet and outlet passages shown in Figure
14. 2.45.

.....
.....Airin
~-----.l"'"
Bypass
'- ...J.....Gassesfrom engine
Figure 2.45 Control of turbocharger output
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2.8.1. Methods of Turbocharging
Turbocharging is carried out in six methods such as
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1. Constant pressure turbocharging
2. Pulse turbocharging
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3. Pulse converter turbocharging
4. Two-stage turbocharging gin
5. Miller turbocharging
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6. Hyperbar turbocharging.
ing
1. Constant pressure turbocharging:
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The discharge or exhaust of all cylinders is connected to a common manifold which are
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maintained at higher pressure than atmospheric pressure. Usually, the exhaust gas expands in
exhaust valves without doing work at constant pressure process connected to a common
manifold. Then it enters the turbine. So, the internal energy in the form of blow energy is
converted into useful work in the turbine. If higher is the pressure ratio in the turbine
maintained, the greater will be the recovery of blow-down energy.
2. Pulse turbocharging:
A part of blow-down energy is converted into exhaust pulses immediately when the
exhaust valves open. These pulses enter into the turbine where more energy is recovered.
Dissimilar to constant pressure turbocharging, the exhaust of all cylinders does not hinder
with each other due to the use of separate exhaust pipe for each cylinder.


3. Pulse converter turbocharging:
/
This method of turbocharging combines the advantages of both pulse turbocharging and
constant pressure turbocharging. It is achieved by connecting the various branches of
manifolds together. Then it is connected with a specially designed venturi junction called
pulse converter. It is done before the turbine.
4. Two-stage turbocharger:
If two turbochargers of variou~ sizes are connected in series, it is known as two-stage
turbocharger. Among these two turbochargers, a high pressure turbocharger is operated on
pulse mode and a low pressure stage,on constant pressure mode. This type of turbocharging is
~ ww
mainly used in diesel engines which require high degree of supercharging.
Alillerturbochar,ging:
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Miller system increases the expansion ratio relative to compression ratio in such a way to
early closure of inlet valve when the boost pressure is increased. This mehtod is not popular
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due to frequent exhaust valve failures.
6. Hyper turbocharglng:
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Power output
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,...------1 Dieselenginet----.,
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By-pass control
t-----I Combustion
chamber
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Figure 2.46 Hyper turbocharging

This type of turbocharging consists of diesel engine, turbine, by-pass control and auxiliary
combustion chamber. In a diesel engine, low compression is obtained and high presusre ratio

1*11• Automobile Engineering

is maintained in turbine. The auillary combustion chamber is placed between drect exhaust
valve and turbine.
First, the turbocharger is started using an electrical starter. It is running by passing air.
Then-it-is-injected into the auxiliary combustion chamber when the engine is idle condition.
The amount of by passed and fuel injection are controlled according to the operating
conditions. After reaching sufficient pressure and temperature, the diesel engine is started.
Advantages:
(i) It provides high power-to-weight ratio.
(ii) High brake mean effective pressure can be obtained.
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(iii) Thermal loading is moderate.
(iv) Surge pre-operation is possible by using a by pass control.
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(v) Good torque and accerlaertion can be achieved.
Disadvantages:
(i) asy
Fuel consumption increase throughout the operation due to low compression ratio.
(ii)
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System is more complex.
LimiUltUlnsof turbocharging: ngi

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Special exhaust manifolds are required for the turbocharging system.
(ii)
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In order to inject more fuel per unit time, fuel injection needs modification.
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(iii) In contrast to a naturally aspired engine which can digest solid particles in the
inlet air without undue stress, a turbocharged engine can pass only the minutest
(j\{)
material particles without damage.
e t
It is difficult to obtain good efficiency over a wide range of operations since the
efficiency of the turbine blades is sensitive to gas velocity.
(v) Turbochargers are costly and add complexity. Adding a turbo can often cause a
cascade of other engine modifications to cope with the increased power such as
exhaust manifold, intercooler, gauges, plumbing, lubrication and pistons.
2.9. ENGINE EMISSION AND ITS CONTROL
Emission control is a term frequently used in day-to-day life among automobile and other
manufacturing industries throughout the world. The awareness among the public about
climate change and greenhouse effect due to environmental pollution, over the last century has


made the government and industrial corporate throughout the world, highly conscious about
the control of emissions from their products.
Presently, automobile engine emissions are one of the main elements which playa major
role in environmental pollution. Day-by-day the number of vehicles increases which leads to
increase the emission of pollutants from vehicles.
I.C. engines convert heat energy into mechanical energy by burning fuel in its
combustion chamber called cylinder. Mostly, petrol and diesel oil are used as fuels for I.C.
engines. These fuels contain hydrogen and carbon in various combinations. During
combustion, oxygen combines with hydrogen and carbon to form water (H20), carbon
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monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (C02). The fuel of the nitrogen in air combines with
oxygen forming nitrogen oxide (N02). Remaining fuel goes unburnt by resulting smoke and
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ash. Mainly incomplete combustion offuels in automobile emits polluted engine exhaust.
Exhaust gas constituents consist of partly burnt petrol, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides
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and if sulphur in petrol and sulphur oxides pollute the air. The oxides of nitrogen together
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with hydrocarbons react in the presence of sunlight and they form petrochemical smog. As a
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result, smog is created, the atmosphere becomes dirty and breathing becomes difficult. Its bad
effect includes crop damage, eye irritation, objectionable odour, decrease of visibility,
cracking in rubber etc.
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Smog is a kind of fog mixed with other substances. The smog covers the cities like a
blanket for days together during winter. The heat generated in large cities tends to circulate air
g.n
within a dome-like shape. Smog with smoke is the most visible evidence of air pollution.
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Some of the atmospheric pollutants are not visible until mixed with moisture. Unburnt
petrol, carbon monoxide, leaded compounds from leaded petrol and other gases which pollute t
the air may not be seen. All these pollutants are deadly harmful for men, animals and food
crops.
Men inhale nearly 15 kg of air per day. If these pollutants are added to the air, it gives
harmful effects to men such as asthma, eczema, emphysema, cardiovascular troubles, lung and
stomach cancer.
2.9.1. Automobile Engine Pollutants
Pollutants are produced by the incomplete combustion of the air-fuel mixture in the
combustion chamber of the automobile engines. The following pollutants are emitted from the
exhaust of the automobile engine.

1) Carbon monoxide (CO):
CO is mostly produced under rich air fuel mixture due to the lack of sufficient oxygen for
the combustion of the fuel. CO has more affinity than oxygen for hemoglobin in our blood. It
reduces the ability of hemoglobin to carry O2 to body tissues. Hence, it will affect the nervous
system and vision if the percentage of CO is more. Finally, it affects heart.
1) Carbon Dioxide (COl):

During complete combustion, the hydrocarbons in the fuel are converted into carbon
dioxide which is 13.7% of exhaust gas. The amount of carbon dioxide in the exhaust gas is
directly proportional to the fuel consumption.
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3) Oxides of nitrogen (NOx):
NOx is produced from secondary reactions which occur in all combustion processes
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where air containing nitrogen is burned. In high temperatures, nitrogen reacts with oxygen and
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produces nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (N02)' They affect living organisms. They
affect the blood purification system. It may be mixed with moisture. It may also produce
4) Hydrocarbons:
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dilute nitric acid in the heart and affect the heart.
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Hydrocarbon (HC) emissions are also the result of inadequate amount of oxygen being
present to support the complete combustion of the air fuel mixture. Hydrocarbon produces
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smog. It affects the vision of human being. Smog is the mixture of fog and smoke.
5) Water: g.n
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The chemical reaction which occurs between hydro carbons based on fuel and air from
the atmosphere causeS water to be produced as one of the products. Water constitutes 13.1%t
of exhaust gas from an IC engine.
6) Photo chemical smog:

Some hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen in exhaust react with at_mosphericair in the
presence of sunlight and produce photochemical smog. It damages the plant's life. It reduces
the visibility. It produces eye irritation and affects the respiratory system of human beings.
7)Smoke:
Smoke is produced because of insufficient mixing of fuel and air. It contains CO and
CO2• When cold starting, blue white smoke is produced when more carbon particles are mixed
with exhaust. Smog is produced by smoke. It causes irritation of eyes, coughing, headache and
vomiting.

I Engine Auxiliary Systems Ii.

8) Lead:
Lead is poisonous. It is a toxic air pollutant. It is produced from the combustion of
gasoline. It affects liver and kidneys. It causes mental effects to children.
9) Particulate:
Particulates are minute separate particles found in the air. They may be solid or liquid
particles. The dust soot and fly ash are included in it. It causes respiratory diseases such as
bronchitis and lung cancer and allergic diseases.
10) Sulphur oxide:

Sulphur oxide is produced if the fuel has sulphur. It may damage the plants. It causes
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irritation to eye and throat and it gives respiratory troubles to children. It corrodes materials.
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2.9.2. Diesel Engine Emission
A well-maintained diesel engine emits a negligible amount of carbon monoxide and
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hydrocarbons, though considerable amount of nitrogen oxides are emitted. Diesel smoke is
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another pollutant in case of diesel engines. The diesel smokes are of two types. They are
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(I) white smoke and (2) black smoke. The white smoke normally arises due to:
(i) very low operating temperature

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(ii) very long delay between start of fuel injection and beginning of combustion.
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White smoke appears during starting and warming up. The black smoke appears after the
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engine has fully warmed up and accelerating or pulling under load. The black smoke is a
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suspending of soot particles in exhaust gases. It results from incomplete combustion of fuel.
Blue smoke occurs due to excessive lubricating oil consumption. Its emission indicates a very
poor condition of the engine such as worn-out piston rings or valve guide etc. The blue smoke
t
is not considered as a serious pollution.
2.9.3. 51Engine Emission

There are three main sources of air pollution due to petrol engine.
I. Evaporative emission
2. Crankcase blow-by, and
3. Exhaust emission.

1. Evaporative emission:
Evaporative emission takes place from the fuel supply system. The main reason of
hydrocarbon evaporation is high temperature. Fuel volatility, locations of tank, layer of fuel
line and mode of operation also affect the evaporation. About 30% of the total hydrocarbon
emission is occurring from the fuel tank, fuel line and carburetor.
2. Crankcase blow-by:
Crank case blow-by means the leakage past the piston and piston rings trom the cylinder
to the crank case. In blow-by gases, there are 85% or raw hydrocarbons (HC) and rest 15% of
the current gases. It is about 20% of the total hydrocarbon emission from the engine and it
may be 30% of rings worn out. The blow-by gases are controlled by the crankcase ventilation
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system.
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3. Exhaust emission:
The exhaust emission contains HC, CO and N02. HC occurs in exhaust gas due to
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incomplete combustion. The emission of HC is closely related to many designing and
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operating factors such as induction system, combustion chamber design, air fuel ratio, speed,
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load and mode of operation. Lean mixture gives lower HC emission.
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CO occurs due to insufficient amount of air in the air fuel mixture or insufficient time for
complete combustion.
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The combination of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (N02) (called axtde« oj
g.n
nitrogen NOx) occurs only in the engine exhaust. High temperatures and avaiiabiUty of
oxygen are the two main reasons for the formation of N02. The spark advance and air-fuel
ratio are the two important factors which affect the formation ofN02•
e t
2.9.4. Pollution Control
The pollution may be controlled by the following two ways.
I. The formation of pollutants is prevented as far as possible.

2. The pollutants are destroyed after they are formed.
Control of hydrocarbon:
Formation of hydrocarbon may be reduced by the following methods.
1. Reducing the compression ratio.
2. Changing the design of combustion chamber.

I Engine Auxiliary Systems fj,_

3. Changing the design of piston.
4. By supplying lean mixture.
S. By maintaining of piston and piston ring.
Destroying the hydrocarbon may be done by the following methods.
I. By supplying air to the inlet manifold.

2. By using after burner.
3. By using catalytic converter.
Control of co:
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Methods of reducing CO are as follows.
t. By using closed loop control.

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2. By supplying lean mixture.
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3. By providing suitable overlap of valves.
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Methods of destroying CO are given below.
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1. By using reactor in the exhaust manifold.
2. By using after burner.
3. By using catalyst converter. nee
Control of oxides of nitrogen: rin
Methods of reducing oxides of nitrogen are listed below.
g.n
1. By supplying the exhaust again to the inlet manifold.
et
2. By spraying water in the inlet manifold to add moisture to the mixture.
3. By using catalyst converter in the exhaust, the oxides of nitrogen can be
destroyed.
Control of smoke and smog:

Methods of reducing smoke and smog are given below.
1. Running the engine with a limited load.

2. Maintaining the engine well.
3. By adding barium salt in the fuel.
4. By using a catalyst muffier.

If,.
Odour control:
Me.hods to control odour are as follows.

1. By using catalyst muffler.
2. By changing the injection system in diesel engine.
2.9.5. Evaporative Emission Control for SI engine

Petrol vapour from fuel tank escapes into atmosphere by evaporation. This vapour comes
out through a filter cap vent or tank vent tube. When the engine is not running, petrol will
evaporate in the carburetor float chamber. In the uncontrolled vehicles, fuel vapours from the
ww
fuel tank and carburettor were vented into the atmosphere that constituted about 20% of all
hydrocarbon emissions from a gasoline passenger car.
w.E Vent valve

Vapour liquid
separater
asy
Carburetor
E ngi Carbon
Intake
nee
Canister : : : Fuel tank ::
manifold
Purge control
valve
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Figure 2.47 Evaporative Emission Controlfor Sf engine
g.n
A simple and moueru < .
et
ative emission control system is shown in Figure 2.47. The
evaporative emission control system consists of a device to store fuel vapour produced in the
fuel system due to evaporation. A vapour-liquid separator is provided at the top of a fuel tank.
Vapour goes to the top of the separator where the liquid petrol is separated and it is returned to
the tank. A vent valve is provided for venteing the fuel vapour to the canister. A canister
containing activated charcoal is used to store the fuel vapour. The canister adsorbs the vapour
and stores it. "Adsorption" refers to the process of trapping of the petrol vapour by the
activated charcoal particles packed inside the canister. Due to the adsorption process,
hydrocarbons are left in the canister and the, air.leaves-to the atmosphere.
When engine is running, the vacuum created in the intake manifold is used to draw fuel
vapour from the canister into the engine. Purging air is sucked through the canister which
leads the fuel vapour from canister to the engine. Purging is the process by which the petrol
vapour is removed from the charcoal particles inside the canister. An electronically controlled

I Engine Auxiliary Systems f'D

purge valve is used. During engine acceleration additional mixture enrichment can be
tolerated and under these operating conditions the stored fuel vapours are usually purged into
the intake manifold.
This system is a fully closed system. A sealed fuel tank filler cap is used and a stable fuel
tank pressure is maintained by the purging process of the canister.
Figure 2.48 shows a float type vent valve. When the pressure increases, the float goes up
and closes the air vent and the vent is connected to the canister through orifice. Carburetor
float bowl has two vents. One is connected to the air cleaner and it helps to compensate a
clogged air cleaner. The other vents connect to the charcoal canister. Various arrangements
ww
may control this vent.
Orifice
w.E To canister
asy
E ngi
Figure 2.48
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A special filter cap is provided on the fuel tank which maintains some pressure in the
g.n
tank which forces fuel vapour from tank to canister. Flow of vapour from the fuel tank may be
et
controlled by a mechanically operated vent valve or an electrically operated solenoid valve.
The throttle linkage operates the mechanical valve. It allows the vapour from float chamber to
canister during idling.
When the throttle is opened, the vent valve is closed. So, the electrical vent valve is open
with the ignition switch 'off. When the ignition switch is 'on' the vent valve is closed by the
energization of solenoid. When the engine is operated, the fresh vapour enters through the
canister and picks up the petrol vapour from carbon in the canister. This action of clearing the
trapped petrol vapour from the canister is called purging. This air then flows into the intake
manifold and it becomes a part of air-fuel mixture entering the engine cylinders to be burnt.
Some evaporative control systems have the purge valve in the purge line. It connects to
the throttle body and it discharges vapour just above the throttle valve into the intake air.


2.9.6. Evaporative Emission Control System for CI Engine
The fuel injection system of CI engine has no float bowl. Therefore, the evaporative
cc-nrol system is used only fuel vapour from the fuel tank. Figure 2.49 illustrates the system.
In this, the canister has two connections. One is the connection to fuel tank and the other one
is the purge line to the throttle body. Instead of a vacuum operated purge valve, an electric
purge control solenoid may be used. It is mounted on the canister or in the purge line. Other
processes are similar to the one discussed in SI engine.
Air
ww Purge line
w.E , .••. Vapour ••
asy Canister Restrictor . - - - - - - - - -
:::: Diesel :::
E ngi
Figure 2.49 Evaporative emission control system/or CI engine
2.9.7. Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) System nee

rin
Excessive nitrogen oxides (N02) form when the peak combustion temperature exceeds
1950°C. To lower the combustion temperature, many engines have EGR system. The heat
g.n
e
capacity of the exhaust gas is higher than the air as it contains significant amount oftri-atomic
gases CO2 and water vapours. Therefore, addition of exhaust gas to fresh intake charge has a
higher effect in lowering the combustion temperatures compared to simple leaning of the
t
charge. It recirculates 5 to 10% of the exhaust gas back into the intake manifold. At higher
EGR rates, frequency of partial and complete misfire cycles increases resulting in
unacceptably higher He emissions and loss in fuel economy and power. EGR systems are
made to operate mostly in the part-load range. These are deactivated at engine idle, because
large amount of residual gas is already present in the cylinder.
The cooler exhaust gas absorbs heat from combustion process. It reduces the peak
combustion temperature and lowers the formation of N02• EGR system provides a passage
between exhaust manifold and inlet manifold. An EGR control valve is used to regulate flow
of EGR depending upon engine operating conditions. The intake manifold pressure or exhaust
back pressure may be used to control EGR r~te as these parameters vary with engine load.

! Engine Auxiliary Systems ,ta

Figure 2.50 shows a simplified diagram of a conventional EGR valve. It consists of a spring-
loaded vacuum diaphragm linked to a tapered valve. A vacuum chamber is provided at the top
of the valve.
Air
ww -t'
w.E~
Exhaust
gas
7'
'77/7/
I L..----::-----------:l
. 7777777777777777777777777~...
~
Intake
manifold
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Figure 2.50 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) System
En
This valve controls the passage of exhaust gas. The chamber is connected by a tube to a
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vacuum port in the throttle body. When there is no vacuum at this port, the spring pushes the
eer
diaphragm down and keeps the passage closed. Therefore,
happens during idle when N02 formation is at a minimum.
DO exhaust gas recirculates. It
ing
When the throttle is opened from the idle position, vacuum applied will gradually open
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the tapered valve. It causes the exhaust gas to flow into the mtake manifold. At wide-open
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throttle, the intake manifold vacuum is low and EGR valve is closed by the spring. Thus, EGR
valve systems do not affect full power operation. The exhaust gas is recirculated only in this
system when the engine operating conditions are supposed to form N02•
Many engines have thermal vacuum switch. It prevents EGR until engine temperature
reaches 38°C. This switch is mounted in the engine water jacket where it connected with
coolant temperature. The switch closes when the engine is cold. It prevents--EGRjust after a
cold engine starts, After the engine warms up, the switch is opened.
In the modern engines, EGR rate is controlled by the engine electronic control unit. A
pressure sensor in the exhaust or intake provides signal to the electronic control module of the
engine, which in its tum regulates the operation of the EGR valve.


2.9.8. Crankc;:ase Emission Control System
A small amount of charge in the cylinder leaks past piston rings into crankcase of the
reciprocating engines.'Near top dead centre (TDC) when the rings change their position in the
grooves at the end of compression stroke, combustion has already begun and the cylinder
pressures are high. A significant part of charge stored in the piston- ring-cylinder gap leaks
into the crankcase. These gases are known as 'crankcase blow-by' and their flow rate
increases as the engine is worn out and the piston-cylinder clearances and ring gaps increase.
In the homogeneous charge engines, the crankcase blow by gas is high in HC concentration.
Only a small fraction of the gas stored in the ring crevices and hence blow-by gases may
consist of partially burnt mixture. This source contributes about 20% of total hydrocarbons
ww
emitted by an uncontrolled car.
w.E
The crankcase blow-by gases in the uncontrolled engines were ventilated to atmosphere
under the effect of pressure difference occurring naturally between the crankcase and
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atmosphere. For control of crankcase emissions, the blow-by gases are recycled back to the
engine assisted by a positive pressure drop between the crankcase and intake manifold.
E ngi
When engine is running and intake charge is throttled the intake manifold is at a lower
pressure than the crankcase. The blow-by gases mix with the intake charge to be burned inside
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the engine cylinder to CO2 and H20. A tube connects crankcase or cylinder head cover to the
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intake manifold below throttle valve, which leads the blow-by gases back to the engine. Due
to suction effect of intake manifold as the pressure in the crankcase falls, ventilation air from
g.n
the air cleaner is drawn into the crankcase that continuously purges it. A one-way valve is
e
used to control the flow of blow-by gases. This valve restricts flow of blow-by gases during
idling and very light loads which otherwise would cause excessive leaning of the charge by
t
ventilation air. Under normal engine operation, PCV valve is fully open providing free flow of
the gases while under high intake manifold vacuum the flow is restricted.
2.9.9. Engine Emission Control by Catalytic Converter
The term catalytic converter covers the stainless steel box mounted in the exhaust
system. The catalyst is inside the cover which is a ceramic or metallic base with an active
coating incorporating alumina, ceria and other oxides and combinations of precious metals
such as platinum, palladium and rhodium. The base can be protected from vibration and shock
by a resilient ceramic or metallic 'mat'. The catalytic converter converts the pollutants such as
HC, CO and N02 into harmless gases. It is placed between exhaust manifold and silencer. All

I Engine Auxiliary Systems fl.

exhaust gas must flow through it. The catalyst causes a chemical change without being a part
of the chemical reaction.
The inside of the catalytic converter is a honeycomb set of passageways or small ceramic
beads coated with catalysts. A chemical reaction takes place to make the pollutants less
harmful. There are many passages for the exhaust gases to flow and allow for the maximum
amount of surface area for the hot gases to pass. There are two main types of structures used
in catalytic converters such as honeycomb and ceramic beads. Most cars today use a
honeycomb structure. Catalytic converters can either be a two-way or three-way type.
a) Two-way or oxidation catalytic converter:
ww
Early converters, called "two-way" (or oxidation) catalytic converter converts harmful
carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC) produced by relatively inefficient, low
w.E
compression engines to harmless carbon dioxide (C02) and water vapor with the assistance of
a precious-metallic catalyst. But these converters have little effect on nitrogen oxides (NOx)
a syE
and particulate matter. Two-way converters are most effective when used with engines that
have a lean air/fuel mix because this condition provides ample oxygen to burn pollutants.
b) 3-way catalytic converter:

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nee
Most cars today are equipped with a 3-way catalytic converter. The term 3-way refers to
the three emissions which help to reduce: carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC) or
r ing
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and NOx molecules. 3-way converters use two different
types of catalysts such as a reduction catalyst and an oxidization catalyst. Both types consist
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of a base structure coated with a catalyst such as platinum, rhodium and palladium. The
t
scheme is to create a structure which exposes the maximum surface area of the catalyst to the
exhaust flow while minimizing the amount of catalyst required.
3-way converters lise two catalyst processes. They are reduction and oxidation processes.
A sophisticated engine control system converts three harmful gasses such as HC, CO and
oxides of nitrogen (NOx)' It is not an easy task because the catalyst requires to clean up. NOx
is most effective with a rich air/fuel mix whereas HC and CO reduction are most effective
with a lean air/fuel bias. To operate properly, first, a three-way converter must convert NOx
and then HC and CO contents are converted into lean bias.
(i) Reduction catalyst:

The reduction catalyst is the first stage of the catalytic converter. It uses platinum and
rhodium to help in reducing NOx emissions. When an NO or N02 molecule contacts the
catalyst, the catalyst rips the nitrogen atom out of the molecule and holds on to it, freeing the

I,id:- Automobile Engineering

oxygen in the form of O2• The nitrogen atoms bond with other nitrogen atoms which are also
stuck to the catalyst, forming N2•
2NO => N%+ 0% or
(ii) .Oxidation catalyst:

The oxidation catalyst is the second stage of the catalytic converter. It reduces the
unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide by burning (oxidizing) them over a platinum
and palladium catalyst. This catalyst aids the reaction of the CO and hydrocarbons with the
remaining oxygen in the exhaust gas.
ww 2CO + o, => 2CO:z
w.E
Vehicles with catalyst converter must use unleaded petrol. Lead in petrol rests the
catalyst and makes it ineffective. For the catalytic converter to most effective, the air fuel
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mixture must have stoichiometric ratio of 14.7: 1. To achieve the described air fuel ratio at all
En
operating conditions, a feedback system is used. It determines the correct air fuel ratio of the
intake charge by measuring the amount of oxygen remaining in exhaust gases.
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The diesel engine catalytic converter is a pure oxidation catalytic converter. It oxidizes
HC and CO into water and COt. It cannot reduce N02•
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e~(IlJ
\\o~ ~O.,.
lI.~y.c. ing
'S''b-~'i>
f(;:#l ~\~
C0(\1
L.J .ne
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Figure 2.51 Catalytic converter

I EngineAuxiliary Systems Rml

2.10. EMISSIONNORMS (EURO AND as)
Emission norms for automobiles are the standards set by the authority of different
countries focusing on controlling the amount of pollutants released into the environment from
automobiles. Each stage of emission standards specifically describes the amount of pollutants
from vehicles such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide, carbon
dioxide (C02), hydrocarbons (HC) and particulates which can be emitted from an automobile
into the environment. These regulatory standards differ from natton to nation. But the aim is
common to control the environmental pollution.
Parameters determining emission from vehicles:
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While each one of the following four factors have direct environmental implications, the
vehicle and fuel systems have to be addressed as a whole and jointly optimized in order to
w.E
achieve significant reduction in emission.
~ Vehicular technology
~
~
a Fuel quality
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Inspection& maintenance of in-use vehicles
~ Road and traffic management. ngi
2.10.1. Setting Emission Norms nee
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The focus here is on simulation of actual driving versus assumed driving pattern in a
cycle based on long observation and trials on road. In simulation, the vehicle is "exercised" on
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a "tread mill" called chassis dynamometer replicating the assumed driving-pattern of the
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country. This is called the driving cycle of the country. The emissions are measured over the
cycle and the results computed to give mass emissions.
For the emission standards to deliver real emission reductions it is crucial that the test
cycles under which the emissions have to comply as much as possible reflect normal driving
situations.
In the United States, emissions standards are managed by the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA). The state of California has special dispensation to circulate more stringent
vehicle emissions standards, and other states may choose to follow either the national or
California standards.
In European countries the regulatory standards are called the Euro Norms and designated
by the letters EU suffixed by numerals I, II, III and IV in the increasing order of stringency.


The norms for vehicles vary from country to country reflecting the differences in traffic
density and regulation, road infrastructure, fuel quality, maintenance standards.
India uses Euro standards with only one modification which is lower maximum speed of
90 km/h in the last part of the cycle instead of 120 km/h as mandated in the EU norms. This
cycle is called modified European cycle. The other components of the driving cycle such as
idling period, acceleration and dece~eration rate and periods, cruising period are exactly the
same.as Euro practice. The norms derived from this cycle are called Bharat Stage standards
which is designated by the symbol BS suffixed by numerals in the increasing order of
stringency. The Indian emission standards are set by The Automotive Research Association of
India (ARAl).
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2.10.2. EURO Norms
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Euro norms refer to the permissible emission levels for both petrol and diesel vehicles,
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which have been implemented in Europe. In European Union member countries, some
automobile manufacturing countries in Asia and Africa and several non-manufacturing
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countries imports vehicles which have adopted European emission standard as their standards.
European standards are set on the classification of vehicles based on their weight and engine
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capacity. There are different standards for 2 wheelers and 4 wheelers. European standards are
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called Euro levels starting from EURO-/' As the proportion of two wheelers are small in
r
capacity and they are equipped with 4 stroke engine in European countries. The emission
ing
regulations for 2 wheelers are not much strict. European countries have progressed from
EURO-I to EURO- V. By January 2014, they launched EURO- VI standard.
.ne
t
European Union (EU) adopted catalyst-forcing standards for new gasoline-fu~lIed cars in
early 1990s called Euro-I standards and Euro-II was released in 1996 with several advantages.
Euro-III was released in 2000 and Euro-IV was followed in 2005. Similar requirements were
adopted for diesel cars and light and heavy commercial vehicles.
Euro-V standards for cars will further restrict emissions from both petrol and diesel cars,
of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and particulate
matters (PM) which are considered harmful to human health. The tighter standards were
applied from September 2009 for new models of cars and in January 2011 for all new cars.
For each vehicle type, different standards apply. Compliance is determined by running the
engine at a standardised test cycle. Non-compliant vehicles cannot be sold in the European
Union, but new standards do not apply to vehicles already on the roads. Within the European

I EngineAuxiliary Systems RI_

Union, road transport is responsible for about 20% of all CO2 emissions, with passenger
cars contributing about 12%.
Allowable emissions limits of Euro standards for gasoline and diesel passenger cars are
given in the following tables.
Euro emission limits for gasoline cars (values in g/Km):
Tier Date CO THC NMHC NOx HC+NOx PM
Euro 1 July 1992 2.72 - - - 0.97 (1.13)

(3.16)
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Euro 2 January 1996
January 2000
2.2
2.3
-
0.20
-
-
-
0.15
0.5
-
Euro 3
Euro4 w.E
January 2005 1.0 0.10 - 0.08 -
Euro 5 September 2009
asy 1.0 0.10 0.068 0.06 - 0.005
Euro 6 September 2014 1.0

En
0.10 0.068 0.06 0.005
gin
Euro emission limits for diesel cars (values in g/km):
Tier Date CO THC e

NMHC
er NOx HC+NOx PM I
Euro 1 July 1992 2.72 - - -

ing
0.97 (1.13) 0.14
Euro2 January 1996

(3.16)
1.0 - - - 0.7 .ne
(0.18)
0.08
Euro 3 January 2000 0.64 - - 0.50 0.56 0.05 t

Eur04 January 2005 0.50 - - 0.25 0.30 0.025
Euro 5 September 2009 0.5 - - 0.18 0.230 0.005
Euro 6 September 2014 0.5 - - 0.08 0.170 0.005
Euro-V standards include several parameters in order to minimize engine emission

harmfulness. They are as follows.
(i) Optimising diesel engines

(ii) Making particulate filters compulsory

(iii) Tax incentives to reduce emissions
(iv) International cooperation.
Beyond Euro- V, the three institutions have agreed on introducing longer-term limits,
under a Euro-VI stage which has been adopted at the same time as Euro-Vbut it will enter into
force after five years. Euro- VI will set significantly lower emission limits for NOx emissions
from diesel cars.
2.10.3. BS Norms
Bharat Stage (BS) emission standards are emission standards instituted by the
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Government of India to regulate the output of air pollutants from internal combustion engine
equipment, including motor vehicles. The standards and the timeline for implementation are
w.E
set by the Central Pollution Control Board under the Ministry of Environment & Forests.
The first Indian emission regulations were)dle emission limits which was started in
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1989. Then it is replaced by mass emission limits for both petrol (in 1991) and diesel vehicles
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(in1992). On April 29, 1999 the Supreme Court of India ruled that all vehicles in India have to
meet Euro I or India 2000 norms by June 1, 1999 and Euro II will be mandatory in the
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National Capital Region (NCR) by April 2000. Car makers were not prepared for this
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transition and in a subsequent judgment the implementation date for Euro II was not enforced.
In 2002, the Indian government accepted the report submitted by the Mashelkar committee.
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ing
The committee proposed a road map for the roll out ofEuro based emission norms for India. It
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also recommended a phased implementation of future norms with the regulations being
implemented in major cities first and extended to the rest of the country after a few years.
Based on the recommendations of the committee, the National Auto Fuel policy was
announced officially in 2003. The roadmap for implementation of the Bharat Stage norms was
t
laid out till 2010. The policy also created guidelines for auto fuels, reduction of pollution from
older vehicles and R&D for air quality data creation and health administration.
In 2000, India started adopting European emission and fuel regulations for four wheeled
light-duty and for heavy vehicles. Indian emission regulations are also used for two- and
three-wheeled vehicles. Progressively stringent norms have been rolled out since then. All
new vehicles manufactured after the implementation of the norms have to be compliant with
the regulations. Since October 2010, BS III norms have been enforced across the country. In
13 major cities, Bharat stage IV emission norms are in place since April 2010.
India is using European emission norms with a time lag of five years with BS-IV norms
currently applicable in 50 cities where the required grade of fuel is available while the rest of

I Engine Auxiliary Systems "jl

the country follows BS-III standards. But many vehicles are BS-I and BS-II compliant and
more polluting.
Overview of the Emission Norms in India:
);> 1991 - Idle CO Limits for Gasoline Vehicles and Free Acceleration Smoke for Diesel
Vehicles, Mass Emission Norms for Gasoline Vehicles.
);> 1992 - Mass Emission Norms for Diesel Vehicles.
);> 1996 - Revision of Mass Emission Norms for Gasoline and Diesel Vehicles,
mandatory fitment of Catalytic Converter for Cars in Metros on Unleaded
Gasoline.
)0>
ww1998 - Cold Start Norms Introduced.
)0>
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2000 - India 2000 (Eq. to Euro I) Norms, Modified IDC (Indian Driving Cycle),
Bharat Stage II Norms for Delhi.
)0>
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2001 - Bharat Stage II (Eq. to Euro II) Norms for All Metros, Emission Norms for
CNG & LPG Vehicles.
)0>
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2003 - Bharat Stage II (Eq. to Euro II) Norms for 11 major cities.
)0>
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2005 - From I April Bharat Stage III (Eq. to Euro III) Norms for 11 major cities.
)0>
r
2010 - Bharat Stage III Emission Norms for 4-wheelers for entire country whereas
Bharat Stage - IV (Eq. to Euro IV) for 11 major cities.
ing
Effectiveness of graduation to Bharat norms:
.ne
The country has simply adapted the European cycle to the Bharat cycle by just reducing
the maximum speed in the last phase. This modification alone will not give sufficient
justification to simulate the randomness of frequent acceleration and deceleration and long
t
periods of idling, which are prone to excessive discharge of exhaust emissions.
The Indian Driving Cycle (IDC) developed by the ARAJ after long-term effort is a more
realistic approach. The two-wh~eler industry recognized the merit of this and the IDC has
become the preferred cycle used to establish emission norms for these vehicles.
India must urgently use innovative methods to arrive at mass emissions under actual
service conditions. After rationalizing these methods we may arrive at appropriate norms in a
way equivalent to the Euro norms.

1_ AutomoliillFEngiReering I(
The ultimate aim is that mass emissions to atmosphere must not exceed the values
recommended by international standards. For export purposes however we have to comply
with Euro or any other norms acceptable in the foreign market. We have to balance th= market
forces and the societal objective of keeping our air cleaner.
BS emission standards for light duty vehicles (values in g/Km):

Emissions standards for light duty gasoline and diesel vehicles with (Gross Vehicle
Weight (GVW) ~ 3,500 kg) are summarized in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 respectively. Ranges
of emission limits refer to different classes of light commercial vehicles. The lowest limit in
each range applies to passenger cars (GVW ~ 2,500 kg; up to 6 seats).
ww Table 2.1: BS emission standards for gasoline vehicles (values in g/Km)
Year
1991 w.E
Reference
-
CO
14.3-27.1
HC
2.0-2.9 -
HC+NOx NO\;
- I
PM
-
I
1996 - asy
8.68 - 12.4 - 3.00 - 4.36 - -
1998
2000 Euro 1
- E
4.34 - 6.20
2.72 - 6.90 ngi -

-
1.50 - 2.18
0.97 - 1.70
-
- -
-.-
2005 Eur02 2.2 - 5.0 - nee

0.5 - 0.7 - -
2.3 0.20
rin 0.15
2010 Euro 3 4.17
5.22
0.25
0.29
- 0.18
0.21 g.n -
2010 Eur04
1.0
1.81
0.1
0.13 -
0.08
0.10
et -
2.27 0.16 0.11
Table 2.2: BS emission standards for diesel vehicles (values in glKm)
Year Reference CO HC HC+NOx NOx PM
1992 - 17.3 - 32.6 2.7 - 3.7 - - -

1996 - 5.0 - 9.0 - 2.0 - 4.0 - -
2000 Euro 1 2.72 - 6.90 - 0.97 - 1.70 - 0.14 - 0.25
2005 Euro 2 1.0 - 1.5 - 0.7 - 1.2 - 0.08 - 0.17


0.64 0.56 0.50 0.05
2010 Euro 3 0.80 - 0.72 0.65 0.07
0.95 0.86 0.78 0.10
0.50 0.30 0.25 0.025
2010 Eur04 0.63 - 0.39 0.33 0.04
0.74 0.46 0.39 0.06
The test cycle has been the for low power vehicles (with maximum speed limited to 90
kmlh). Before 2000, emissions were measured over an Indian test cycle. Engines for use in
light-duty vehicles can be also emission tested using an engine dynamometer. The respective
ww
emission standards are listed in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Alternative BS emission standards for light-duty diesel engines (values in g/Km)
w.E Year Reference CO HC NOx PM
1992 -
asy14.0 3.5 18.0 -
1996
2000 Euro I
-
E
11.20
4.5 ngi
2.40
1.1
14.4
8.0
-
0.36
2005 Euro II 4.0 1.1 nee 7.0 0.15
BS emission standards for heavy duty vehicles (values in g/Km) rin

Emission standards for new heavy-duty diesel engines applicable to vehicles of GVW > g.n
3,500 kg are listed in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4: BS emission standards for diesel heavy duty vehicles (values in g/Km)
e t
Year Reference CO HC NOx PM
1992 - 17.3 - 32.6 2.7 - 3.7 - -

1996 - 11.20 2.40 14.4 -
2000 Euro I 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36
2005 Euro II 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15
2010 Euro 1lI 2.1 0.66 5.0 0.10

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1. What are the factors that affect fuel vaporization? {Anna Univ. Dec'Uj
(i) Concentration of the substance evaporating in the air
(ii) Concentration of other substances in the air
(iii) Flow rate of air
(iv) Inter-molecular forces
(v) Surface area
(vi) Pressure and Temperature of the substance
2. What is carburetor?
ww Carburetor is a device used for atomi~ing and vaporizing the fuel and mixing it
with the air in varying proportions to suit the changing operating conditions of vehicle
engines.
w.E
3. What is meant by carburetion?
asy
The process of breaking up and mixing the fuel with the air is called carburetion.
En
4. Lis/out the major drawbacks of using carburettor in multi cylinder engines.
gin {Anna Univ. DecJ09j
(i)
eer
In multi cylinder engines, it becomes very difficult for a sinzle carburettor to
supply uniform quality and quantity. Since the induction passages are of unequal
lengths.
ing
.ne
(ii) Venturi throat of the carburettor causes a restriction in the passage of air flow to
the engine. If the throat is made larger, the problem of suitable mixture supply
becomes acute at low speed and air velocity decreases which causes less efficient
atomization.
t
(iii) There is a loss of volumetric efficiency due to restricted flow of mixture in various
parts such as choke tubes, jets, throttle valves, inlet pipe bends etc.
5. Define the terms vapourization and atomization.

Vaporization is a change of state of the fuel from a liquid to a vapour.
Atomization is a mechanical breaking-up of the liquid into small particles so that

every minute particle of the fuel is surrounded by the air.
6. What are the functions of carburetor? {Anna Un;v. Nov'05!

1. It maintains a small reserve of petrol in the float chamber at constant head.

1"1:1 Automobile Engineering

2. It atomizes and vaporizes the fuel.
3. It prepares a mixture of petrol and air in correct proportions.
4. It supplies a fine spray of petrol.
5. It produces a homogeneous mixture.
6. It measures and supplies the proper quantity and proportions of air and fuel under
all conditions of engine operations such as temperature, speed and load.
7. Classify carburetor.
1. According to the direction of flow.
a. Uplift carburetor
ww b. Down draft carburetor
w.E c. Horizontal carburetor
2. According to the arrangement of the float chamber

a. asy
Eccentric carburetor
E
b. Concentric carburetor
3. According to the number of units ngi

a. Single carburetor
nee
b. Double carburetor
rin
4. According to the metering system
a. Air bled jet carburetor g.n
b. Metering pin type carburetor
5. According to the type of venturi

e t
a. Plain venturi carburetor
b. Double venturi carburetor
c. Vane venturi carburetor
d. Nozzle bar venturi carburetor
e. Triple venturi carburetor
6. According to the type of power system.

a. Manually operated carburetor
b. Vacuum controlled carburetor.

I Engine Auxiliary Systems .hl

8. What is the function offloat chamber in a simple carburetor?
In the float chamber, a constant level of petrol is maintained by the float and a
needle valve. The float chamber is ventilated to atmosphere. It is used to maintain the
atmospheric pressure inside the chamber.
9. What does the mixing chamber do?

The mixing chamber has two butterfly valves. One chamber is to allow air into the
mixing chamber and it is known as choke valve. The other one is to allow air-fuel
mixture to the engine and known as throttle valve.
10. What is a variablejet carburetor? [Anna Ulliv. Apr'08j
ww Adjusting
screw ~_-Venturi
w.E
asy
En
gin
Fuel nozzle
eer
Figure 2.52
ing
A long tapered needle is screwed into the jet. During starting, the screw is loosened
.ne
so that the area of the jet is increased to provide the increased fuel. It is also called
adjustablejet.
11. State the two basic reasons for defects in a carburetor. t

(i) If the carburetor is set of working at high speed and at full throttle, it will not
work properly at lower speed and part throttle. It is due to insufficient suction
created at the venturi for drawing fuel from the main nozzle. Similarly, if the
carburetor is set to work at low speed and part throttle, it will not work properly at
high speed and full throttle.
(ii) With the change of pressure heads, coefficients of discharge for air and fuel vary
in different quantities. At the certain value of head, the coefficient of discharge
for air becomes constant while in case of fuel it increases gradually. Therefore, at
high head i.e., high engine speed, the air fuel ratio goes on becoming rich and

1- Automobile Engineering
rich. Hence, if the carburetor is set. at one particular speed, it will give rich
mixture at high speed and lean mixture at lower speed.
12. List the various defects occurred in a simple carburetor.
1. Starting difficulty
2. Idling difficulty
3. Acceleration difficulty
4. Load and speed variation difficulty or compensation system in carburetor
5. Attitude influence
6. Influence of weather
ww 7. Icing difficulty.
w.E
13. What is meant by compensation? (Anna Univ. Dec'14/
The process of providing additional air or fuel when it requires to maintain the
a syE
correct air fuel mixture is called compensation in carburetor.
U. Mention the different circuits involved in solex carburetor.

1. Float circuit
ngi
2. Starting circuit
3. Idle and low speed circuit nee
4. Normal running circuit r ing
5. Acceleration circuit.
.ne
15. What is a variable-venture carburetor? Both the variable venture carburetor and
SU carburetor are one and the same or not. Say true orfalse.
In this carburetor, the orifice area is varied to meet the varying demand of
t
carburetor and the pressure difference is kept constant. Therefore, it is called variable
venturi carburetor.
Yes, both are same.
16. What are the circuits involved in carter carburetor?

a) Float circuit
b) Starting circuit
c) Idle and low speed circuit
d) Part throttle circuit

I engine Auxiliary Systems 'J:.

e) Full throttle circuit
f) Acceleration pump circuit.
17. What are the limitations of carburetor?

(i) In multi cylinder engines, it becomes difficult for a single carburetor to supply
uniform quality and quantity since the induction passages are of unequal lengths.
(ii) Venturi throat of the carburetor causes a restriction in the passage of air flow to
the engine. If the throat is made larger, the problem of suitable mixture supply
becomes acute at low speeds and air velocity decreases which causes less
efficient atomization.
ww (iii) The carburetor has many wearing parts. After wear, it operates less efficiency.
w.E
(iv) There is a loss of volumetric efficiency due to restricted flow of mixture in
various parts such as choke tubes, jets, throttle valves, inlet pipe bends etc.
asy
18. State the important units of electronic fuel injection system.
(i) Fuel delivery system
(ii) Air induction system E ngi
(iii) Sensors and air flow control system
(iv) Electronic control unit. nee
19. State the purpose of turbocharger. rin
[Anna Univ. May'll & May'15}
g.n
1. To reduce the weight per horse power of the engine as required in aero engines.
e
3. To have better turbulence and it ensures more complete combustion giving t
greater power and low specific fuel consumption.
4. To improve volumetric efficiency of the engine at high altitudes as in aero
engines and at high speed as in racing cars.
5. To maintain the power of a reciprocating Ie engines even at high altitude where
less oxygen is available for combustion.
20. Enlist the limitations of turbocharging. [Anna Univ. May'14}

(i) Special exhaust manifolds are required for the turbocharging system.
(ii) In order to inject more fuel per unit time, the fuel injection needs modification.

(iii) In contrast to a naturally aspired engine which can digest solid particles in the
inlet air without undue stress, a turbocharged engine can pass only the minutest
material particles without damage.
(iv) It is difficult to obtain good efficiency over a wide range of operations since the
efficiency of the turbine blades is very sensitive to gas velocity.
(v) Turbochargers are costly and add complexity. Adding a turbo can often cause a
cascade of other engine modifications to cope with the increased power such as
exhaust manifold, intercooler, gauges, plumbing, lubrication and pistons.
21. What are the advantages and disadvantages of ECU? [Alma Univ. Apr'OS]
wwAdvantages:
1. A very high quality fuel distribution is obtained. Therefore, higher
w.E
compression ratios can be adopted without any danger of detonation
occurring.
asy
2. Volumetric efficiency, power and torque are increased.
Disadvantages:
E ngi
1. Initials cost is very high. It is the greatest disadvantage.
nee
2. It has more complicated mechanism because of electronic system injection
nozzle and fuel injection pump.
rin
22. What do you understand by monopoint and multipoint injection system?
g.n
[Anna Univ. Apr'OS, Nov'OS & Apr'lO]
et
In multipoint system, there is an injection valve for each engine cylinder. The
main advantage of this system is that it allows more time for the mixing of air and
petrol.
In monopoint system, an injection valve is positioned slightly above each throat

of the throttle body. The injection valve sprays fuel into the air just before it passes
through the throttle valve and it enters the intake manifold.
23. Write the main requirements of an injector nozzle. [Anna Univ. May'14]
The main requirements of an injector nozzle are as follows:
(i) To inject fuel at a sufficiently high pressure so that the fuel enters the
cylinder with a hi-gilvelocity. It -¬ Feates
liner droplet size of fuel. The
momentum of smaller droplets is less. Hence, the penetration is also less.

I Engine Auxiliary Systems fj:i'

(ii) Penetration should not be high so as to impinge on cylinder walls which
may results poor starting.
(iii) Fuel supply and cut-off should be rapid. There should be no dribbling.
24. What are the various types of fuel injection nozzle? [Anna Univ. May'12j
(i) Single hole nozzle
(ii) Multi hcle nozzle
(iii) Long stem nozzle
(iv) Pintle nozzle
(v) Delay nozzle
ww (vi) Pintaux nozzle.
w.E
25. What is gasoline injection system? [Anna Univ. May'15j
If the fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber instead of the intake
asy
port. the injection system is said to be gasoline injection system.
(i)
E
26. What are the requirements of a spark plug?
ngi
[Anna Univ. May'08j
The spark plug must have an insulated passageway for this high voltage to travel
nee
down to the electrode where it can jump the gap, it can conduct into the engine
block and grounded.
rin
(ii) The plug also has to withstand the extreme heat and pressure inside the cylinder.
g.n
It must be designed to deposit from fuel additives which do not build up on the
plug.
e
27. State any four reasons due to which the spark plug may fail tofunction properly. t
[Anna Univ. Dec'13j
The following are the four reasons due to which the spark plug may fail to.function
properly:
a) Sooted spark plug: Insulator nose, electrodes and air space are covered in velvety,
b) Spark plug insulator damage: Scorching is due to sparks jumping.across the

insulator which may be caused because of spark plug adaptor was worn out, the
rubber gasket was torn out, embrittled or hardened.

".1:" Automobile Engineering

c) Worn spark plugs: Center and ground electrode show visible material loss due to
aggressive fuel or oil additives, thermal overload and exceeding replacement
interval.
d) Incorrect tightening torque: It causes traces of hydrocarbons on spark plug body,

broken ground electrodes.
28. Give tile requirements of airfuel ratio in SI engine. [Anna Univ. Apr'Ll]
SI engine automobiles run with the help of a mixture of gasoline and air. The
amount of mixture depends on (i) engine displacement (ii) maximum revolution per
minute and (iii) volumetric efficiency.
ww
29. What are the classifications of an ignition system? [Anna Univ. May'12}
I.
2. w.E
Coil ignition system or battery ignition system.
Magneto ignition system.
3.
4.
asy
Electronic ignition system, and
Transistorised ignition system.
En
30. Name the component of Battery Coil ignition system used in vehicles.
gin [Anna Univ. Dec'08j
(i) Distributor
eer
(ii) Contact breaker
(iii) Primary winding ing
(iv) Secondary winding. .ne
31. State the advantages and disadvantages of battery ignition system.
Advantages:
t
);;> It provides better sparks at low speed of the engine during starting and idling
due to availability of maximum current throughout the engine speed range.
);;> The initial cost is low compared with magneto ignition system.
);;> The maintenance cost is negligible except battery.
);;> Spark efficiency remains unaffected by various positions of the timing control
mechanism.
Disadvantages:
);;> The weight is greater than magneto ignition system.

[E/J9me Auxiliary Systems fJ:b'

~ Frequent battery down occurs when the engine is not in use continuously. It
causes the starting trouble.
~ Wiring mechanism is more complicated.
32. Describe the function of secondary circuit in electronic ignition system.

In the secondary circuit, the distributor, ignition coil and wiring are altered to
handle the higher voltage that the electronic ignition system produces. The high voltage .
(about 47,000 volts) has the advantage that the spark plugs with wider gaps can be used.
It results a longer spark which can ignite leaner air-fuel mixtures. As a result, engines
can run on leaner mixtures for better fuel economy.
ww
33. State the advantages of transistorised ignition system.
I. It increases the life of contact breaker points.
w.E 2. It gives higher ignition voltage.
asy
3. It gives longer duration of spark.
4. It has very accurate control of timing.
E
5. It needs only less maintenance.
ngi
34. What is supercharging?
nee {Anna Univ. May'09J
Supercharging is the process of supplying the air fuel mixture to the engine above
rin
. the atmosphere pressure. A supercharger increases the pressure of the air fuel mixture
from the carburetor before it enters the engine.
g.n
automotive petrol engines rarely supercharged? e
35. Which is most common type of supercharger for automotive engines? Why are the
{Anna Unlv:Dec'12J
There are several kinds of supercharges such as centrifugal, roots, vane, rotary,
t
twin screw and axial flow fan. The most common type of supercharger is a root
supercharger.
Due to its poor fuel economy, supercharging of a petrol engine is not very popular
and it is used only when a large amount of power is needed or to restore the loss of
density at high altitude. Supercharging of petrol engine increases the intake temperature
of the engine which reduces the ignition delay and it increases the flame speed. Both
these effects result a greater tendency to knock or pre-ignite. For this reason, the
supercharged petrol engines employ lower compression ratios.
16.

lmill Automobile Engineering J

36. What is meant by turbocharging in automotive engines? [Anna Univ. Dec'09/
The process of forcing induction of an internal combustion engine to increase the
density of air entering the engine to produce more power using a gas compressor is
called turbocharging.
37. What is the use of turbo charger? [Anna Univ. Dec'08)
I. To reduce the weight per horse power of the engine as required in aero engines.
3. To have better turbulence and it ensures more complete combustion giving greater
power and low specific fuel consumption.
ww 4. To improve volumetric efficiency of the engine at high altitudes as In aero
w.E
engines and at high speeds as in racing cars.
5. To maintain the power of a reciprocating Ie engines even at high altitudes where
asy
less oxygen is available for combustion.
E
38. How does a turbo charger work?
ngi
[Anna Univ. Dec'14)
It spins an air compressor by pushing extra air (and oxygen) into cylinders and it
allows them to burn more fuel in each second with the help of exhaust gas to drive a
nee
turbine. The turbocharger on a car is similar to the principle to a piston engine.
rin
39. State how turbo charging is different from supercharging. [Anna Univ. May' 1O}
g.n
Supercharging is the process of supplying the air fuel mixture to the engine above
the atmosphere pressure. A supercharger increases the pressure of the air fuel mixture
et
from the carburetor before it enters the engine whereas turbocharging is the process of
forcing induction of an engine to increase the density of air entering the engine to
produce more power using a gas compressor.
40. What do you understand by the term DTS-I? [Anna Univ. Dec'14)
DTS-I refers a digital twin spark ignition. This technology introduces usage of two
spark plugs having 90° angle which ensures the complete fuel combustion as well as
better fuel economy.
41. What is meant by air pollution? What (Irethe pollutants emitted by an automobile?
[Anna Univ. May'06}
Exhaust gas constituents consist of partly burnt petrol, carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides and if sulphur in petrol and sulphur oxides, pollute the air. The oxides of
nitrogen together with hydrocarbons react in the presence of sunlight and form

I Engine Auxiliary Systems N:f-

petrochemical smog. As a result, smog is created, the atmosphere becomes dirty and
breathing becomes difficult. Its bad effect includes crop damage, eye irritation,
objectionable odour, decrease of visibility, cracking in rubber etc.
Air pollutants are as follows:

1. Carbon monoxide
2. Oxides of nitrogen
3. Hydrocarbons
4. Photochemical smog
5. Smoke
ww 6. Lead
w.E 7. Particulate
8. Sulphur oxide.
asy
42. Write short notes on oxides of nitrogen, smoke and particulates.
1) Oxides of nitrogen:
E ngi
In high temperatures, nitrogen reacts with oxygen and it produces nitric oxide and
nee
nitrogen dioxide. They affect living organisms. They affect blood purification system. It
may be mixed with moisture and produce dilute nitric acid in the heart and affects the
heart.
rin
2) Smoke:
g.n
e
Smoke is produced because of insufficient mixing of fuel and air. it contains CO
and CO2• When cold starting, blue white smoke is produced when more carbon particles
are mixed with exhaust. Smog is produced by smoke. It causes irritation of eyes, t
coughing, headache and vomiting.
3) Particulate:
Particulates are minute separate particles found in the air. They may be solid or
liquid particles. The dust soot and fly ash are included in it. It causes the respiratory
diseases such as bronchitis and lung cancer and allergic diseases.
43. What are the sources of air pollution by petrol engine?

1. Exhaust emissions through tail pipe.
2. Evaporative losses through carburetor, and
3. Crankcase blow by.

-
44. What are the parameters to be controlled in engine exhaust?
1. The formation of pollutants is prevented as far as possible.

2. The pollutants are destroyed after they are formed.
45. What are the various methods usedfor the measurement of emission parameters?
[Anna Univ. May'Ll]
I. Promulgated in the Federal register.
2. Source category approved alternative methods.
3. Historical conditional method.
4. Draft method of direct measurement of gas velocity and volumetric flow rate.
ww 5. Particulate screening method.
46. WhatisEGR?
w.E
EGR refers to exhaust gas recirculation. Excessive nitrogen oxides (N02) form
when the peak combustion
asy temperature exceeds 1950°C. To lower the combustion
En
temperature, many engines have EGR system. The heat capacity of the exhaust gas is
higher than the air as it contains significant amount of tri-atomic gases CO2 and water
gin
vapours. Therefore, addition of exhaust gas to fresh intake charge has a higher effect in
lowering the combustion temperatures
eer
compared to simple leaning of the charge. It
recirculates 5 to 10% of the exhaust gas back into the intake manifold.
47. What is the necessity of treating the exhaust gas? ing

.ne
Treating the exhaust gas means the process of cleaning or reducing the percentage
t
of pollutants in them. It takes place after the exhaust gas leaves the engine cylinders and
before it exists the tailpipe and enters the atmosphere. It reduces the amount of HC, CO
and N02 in the exhaust gas. The exhaust gas is treated in two ways. One is by injecting
fresh air into the exhaust system. The other one is by sending the exhaust gas through
catalytic converter.
48. What does catalytic converter do·r

The catalytic converter converts the pollutants such as HC, CO and N02 into
harmless gases. It oxidizes HC and CO into water and CO2•
49. What is a catalytic converter?

The catalyst is inside the cover which has a ceramic or metallic base with an active
. coating incorporating alumina, ceria and other oxides and combinations of the precious
metals platinum, palladium and rhodium. The basecan be protected from vibration and

I Engine Auxiliary Systems 'J:PI

shock by a resilient ceramic or metallic 'mat'. The catalytic converter converts the
pollutants such as HC, CO and N02 into harmless gases. It is placed between exhaust
manifold and silencer. All exhaust gas must flow through it. The catalyst causes a
chemical change without being a part of the chemical reaction.
50. How does oxidation catalyst differ from reduction catalyst?
Oxidation catalyst adds oxygen with pollution and hydrogen catalyst reduces
oxygen but the same time, the hydrogen will be increased.
51. Why unleaded petrol must he used if catalytic converter is used in a car?
[Anna Univ. May'05J
ww Unleaded petrol must be used if catalytic converter is used in a car because lead in
petrol reacts with the catalyst and makes it ineffective.
w.E
52. What are the types of oxygen catalytic converter?
asy
a) Two-way or oxidation catalytic converter
b) 3-way catalytic converter.
E ngi
53. At what air-fuel ratio does the three way catalytic converter operate at maximum
efficiency? How is this ratio achieved precisely?
nee {Anna Univ. Dec'12J
The three way catalytic converter operates at maximum efficiency when the
rin
catalytic converter receives exhaust from an engine running slightly above the
g.n
stoichiometric point. This point is between 14.6 and 14.8 parts air to 1 part fuel by
weight for gasoline. This ratio achieved precisely using a computerized closed-loop
feedback fuel injection system using one or more oxygen sensors.
e t
2.12. SOLVED QUESTIONS
1. What are the functions of carburetor? [Anna Univ.Apr'06]
2. Sketch and explain the construction and operation of a simple carburetor.

[Anna Univ.Apr '06]
3. Briefly explain the defects in a simple carburetor.
Refer chapter 2.3.1.1 in page 2.4.

4. Explain the construction and working of Solex carburetor.

[Anna Univ. Nov '07 & May '08]
5. Explain the principle of operation of a carburetor used in two wheelers with a sketch.
[Anna Univ.Nov'05]
6. Explain the working of a zenith carburetor with a neat sketch.
7. Explain the working of a modern carburetor with a sketch.
ww [Anna Univ. Apr '10 & Dec '14]
8. w.E
What are the limitations of carburetor?
asy
9.
En
Explain the operation of a MPFI system and compare it with TBI system.
Refer page 2.26. gin

[Anna Univ. Nov'07, Dec '08, Dec '09, Apr' 10 & May' 11]
eer
10. Explain working principle of electronic fuel injection system.
ing
[Anna Univ. Apr '05, Nov '07, Dec '08, Dec '12, Dec'J3 & May '14]

.ne
II. Briefly explain the electronic diesel injection system with necessary controls.

[Anna Univ. Dec' t
13 & May' 15]
12. What is Unit injector system? Explain its types with suitable diagram.
[Anna Univ. May' 12]
13. Explain the following with suitable sketches:

(i) Rotary distributor type [Anna Univ. Dec '14 & May '15]
(ii) Common rail direct injection system. [Anna Univ. May' 14, Dec' 14& May' 15]

I Engine Auxiliary Systems DI' I

14. List the various electronic ignition systems in use. Describe anyone of them clearly
stating its advantages over the conventional ignition system. [Anna Univ. Dec' 12]
15.- Draw the layout of a battery ignition system and mention the function of each
component. [Anna Univ.Nov '05 & Apr '06]
16. Compare the salient features of contact breaker ignition with electronic ignition.
[Anna Univ. Nov '07]
Refer page 2.38.
ww
17. Explain the working of any two ignition system used in automobiles.
w.E Refer chapter 2.6.1 & 2.62 in page 2.38 & 2.40 respectively.
18. With a neat sketch, explain the working of a magneto coil ignition system.
asy [Anna Univ. Apr'10]
E
ngi
19. Explain COl ignition system with a suitable diagram. [Anna Univ. May '08]

nee
rin
20. What is distributor less ignition system? Explain with neat diagram.
[Anna Univ. May '12]
g.n
21. Explain briefly the main types of supercharging methods.

e
[Anna Univ. Dec' 12]
t
22. Brief the modifications to be done in an engine to make it suitable for supercharging.
[Anna Univ. May'14]
Refer page 2.51.
23. Explain a turbocharger with a neat sketch. [Anna Univ. May '08 & Dec' 13]
24. Explain briefly about SI engine emission.


ImJI Automobile Engineering

25. Write short notes on air pollution and its pollutants.
26. Describe briefly evaporative emission control system for CI engine.
27. Explain engine emission control system. [Anna Univ. Dec' 13]
28. What is EGR? and explain the system with suitable sketch. [Anna Univ. May '05]
ww
29. Discuss the construction and working principle of3-way Catalytic controller.
w.E
[Anna Univ. May '07, May '08, Dec '08, May '09, May '10, May'II, Dec'JJ, May'l3, Dec'J4
& May '15]
a Refer chapter 2.9.9 in page 2.66.
syE
30. What do you know about emission norms? Discuss.· [Anna Univ. May '09]
ngi
-------------------------- nee
END of Unit 2 ---------------------------
r ing
.ne
t

UNIT - 3
I
ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
Clutch-types and construction, gear boxes- manual
and automatic, gear shift mechanisms, Over drive,
transfer box, fluid
nee
flywheel, torque converter,
propeller shaft, slip joints,
rin
universal
Differential and rear axle, Hotchkiss Drive and
joints,
Torque Tube Drive. g.n

e t

Transmission Systems ..
ww
w.E TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
3.1. INTRODUCTION asy

E ngi
Transmission system is the system by means of which power developed by the engine is
transmitted to road wheels to propel the vehicle. In automobiles, the power is developed by
nee
the engine which is used to turn wheels. Therefore, the engine is to be connected to the
transmission systems for transmitting power to wheels. Also, there should be a system by
rin
means of which engine could be engaged and disengaged with the transmission system
smoothly and without shock so that the vehicle mechanism is not damaged and passengers do
not feel inconvenience. A clutch is employed in automobiles for this purpose. g.n
( )
Rear axle
( e
)
t
l
Ii It..t-
II 1
Clutch
Propeller shaft
Q)
/ {H Engine I xC1l
C
~"~ Gear box e
u,
Differential
J
r
1111 II
( ) ( )
Figure 3.1 General arrangement of power transmission

The engines employed in automobiles are of very high speed. Hence, a speed reduction is
necessary to reduce the speed to moderate level as well as to get the required high torque
while moving from rest. For this purpose, a gearbox is employed in automobiles. Figure 3.1
shows the general arrangement of power transmission system of an automobile. The various
parts of the system are elaborately discussed in further topics of this unit. The motion of the
crankshaft is transmitted to the gearbox through the clutch. The gearbox consists of a set of
gears to change the speed according to the requirement. The motion is then transmitted to the
propeller shaft from gearbox through a universal joint. The purpose of universal joint is to
connect two shafts at an angle for power transmission. The power is transmitted to the
differential unit through another universal joint. Finally, the power is transmitted from
ww
differential to wheels through the rear end. The differential unit is used to provide the relative
motion between two run wheels while the vehicle is taking a turn.
w.E
3.~.1. Functions or Purposes of Transmission Systems
asy
1. It enables the running engine to be connected or disconnected from the driving
En
wheel smoothly and without shock.
2. It enables the leverage between engine and driving wheel.
gin
3. It enables the reduction of engine speeds.
eer
4. It enables the turn of the drive round through 90°.
ing
5. It enables the driving wheel to be driven at different speeds.
6. It serves as a safety device by slipping when the torque transmitted through it
.ne
exceeds a safe value, thus preventing the breakage of parts in the transmission
3.2. CLUTCH
train.
t
Clutch is a mechanism used to connect or disconnect the engine from the rest of
transmission elements. It is located between engine and gearbox. During normal running and
stationary position, it is always in engaged condition. The clutch is disengaged when the
driver processes the clutch pedal. The clutch is disengaged for starting, changing gears,
stopping and idling.
When the clutch is engaged, the engine will be connected to the transmission and power
flows from engine to rear wheels through a transmission system. When 'the clutch is
disengaged by pressing the clutch pedal, the engine will be disengaged from the transmission.
Thus, the power does not flow to rear wheels while the engine is still running.

Transmission Systems
U·
3.2.1. Principles of Operation of Friction Clutch
The clutch works on the principle of friction. In Figure 3.2, the driving shaft A with
flange C is rotating at 'N' rpm and shaft B with the flange 0 is keyed to the driven shaft which
is in stationary position when the clutch is not engaged. Now, external force is applied to the
flange 0 so that it comes in contact with flange C,
As soon as the contact is made, they are united due to friction between them and the
flange 0 starts rotating with flange C. The rotational speed of flange D depends on the friction
between surfaces C and D which in turn proportional to the external force applied.
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(a) Disengaged position (b) Engaged position
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Figure 3.2 Principle of'friction clutch
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If ::le force is gradually increased, the speed force transmitted will a.so be increased
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gradually. The torque transmitted by the friction clutch depends on pressure applied on flange,
coefficient of friction of the surface materials and radius of the flange. By increasing anyone
of them, the force transmitted can be increased.
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3.2.2. Functions of Clutch g.n
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(a) To permit the engagement or disengagement of a gear when the vehicle is stationary
and the engine is running.
(b) To transmit the engine power to rear wheels smoothly without shocks to the
transmission system when the vehicle is in motion.
(c) To permit the engaging of the gears when the vehicle is in motion without damaging
~ear wheels.
3.2.3. Characteristics or Requirements of a Clutch
A clutch must have the following requirements.
(a) Transmission of torque:

It should be capable of transmitting maximum torque of the engine.

(b) Gradual engagement:
The clutch should be able to engage gradually and positively without the occurrence of
suddenjerks.
(c) Dissipation of heat:

The design of the clutch is such that it should ensure the dissipation of heat sufficiently
which is generated during operation.
(d) Dynamic balancing:

The clutch should be dynamically balanced to the vibration in transmission system. It is
very important requirement in modern cars which is operated at high speed.
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(e) Size of the clutch:
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The size of the clutch should be as smaller as possible so that it will occupy minimum
space.
(f) Free pedal clutch play:
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In order to reduce effective clamping load on the car thrust bearing as well as wear on it, a
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provision should be made for clutch free pedal play.
(g) Vibration damping:

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A suitable mechanism should be incorporated within the clutch for damping of vibration
and elimination of noise produced during the transmission.
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(h) Non-exertive operation of disengagement:
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power transmission. e
The clutch must have non-tiresome operation of disengagement for the driver for higher
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3.3. TYPES OF CLUTCHES
~
The clutches are classified as follows.
1. Friction clutch
(i) Single plate clutch
(ii) Multi-plate clutch
~ Wet clutch
~ Dry clutch

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. Automobile En.r:Jin'~Ar:;nn
single plate clutch. consists of a flywhee I, c Iutch pate,
releas,,- ,.,"'_
I fri
ncnon or pressure plate, clutch cover
shaft. The various parts of the clutch are explained below.
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(i) Fly wheel:
The flywheel is the mounting surf:ace for the clutch. The flywheel rotates as the engine
crankshaft rotates. The friction or pressure plate bolts to the flywheel face. The clutch disc is
clamped and held against the flywheel by the spring action of the pressure plate. The face of
the flywheel is precision machined to a smooth surface. The face of the flywheel that touches
the clutch disc is made of iron. Even if the flywheel were aluminum, the face is iron because it
wears well and dissipates heat better. A pilot bearing or busn bearing supports the spigot end
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of the clutch shaft which is also housed in the flywheel. It is also the second driving member.
(ii) Pilot Bearing:

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The pilot bearing or bushing is pressed into the end of the crankshaft to suppurt the end of
the transmission input shaft. The pilot bearing is a solid bronze bushing, but it also may be a
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roller or ball bearing. The end of the transmission input shaft has a small journal machined on
its end. This journal slides inside the pilot bearing. The pilot bearing prevents the
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transmission shaft and clutch disc from wobbling up and down when the clutch is released. It
(iii) Clutch plate or disc plate n

also assists the input shaft center the disc on the flywheel.
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ing
It is one of the important driving members of a single plate clutch. Figure 3.4 shows the
constructional details of the clutch plate. A clutch disc is the plate between flywheel and
.
friction or pressure plate. It has a series of facings inverted on both sides to enlarge the
friction. These clutch facings are made of asbestos material. They are highly wear and heat
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resistive.
The clutch plate consists of a central hub machined with internal splines to limit the axial
travel along the splined gearbox during shaft. A cushion drive clutch plate is pr~vide.dwith
id d . ti . t the torsional vibrations or
modern motor vehicles. It helps to provi e a ampmg ac Ion agams
variations ofthe driving torque between engine and transmission.
. h b to the driven plate
The damping action is achieved by coupling the splmed center U ith torsi(1ll..sprlngs. ./
.
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with the help of a flexible mounting. The clutch pia.te is also provi
so as to y' nate tb-:
The purpose of torsion springs is to cushion _,;f,l'uffJb eaiageme: /. /'
danger of the clutch disc getting wrapped or broken. \ /' ,,/

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(iv) Pressure plate:
Figure 3.4 Clutch'plate
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The pressure plate is made of special cast iron. It is the heaviest part of the clutch
assembly. The main function of the pressure plate is to establish even contact with the driven
plate facing through which the pressure springs can exert a sufficient force to transmit the full
torque of the engine. The pressure plate presses the clutch plate on to the flywheel from its
machined surface. Between pressure plate and clutch cover assembly, pressure springs are
fitted. The pressure will be withdrawn from the flywheel whenever release levers are
depressed by the toggle or release levers are pivoted accordingly.
(v) Clutch cover assembly:

Clutch cover assembly is bolted to the flywheel. It consists of pressure plate, release lever
mechanism clutch cover and pressure springs. Figure 3.5 shows the view of the clutch cover

assembly. In general, the clutch plate revolves with the flywheel. But when the clutch is
disengaged, the flywheel as well as the pressure plates will be forced to rotate independently
from driven plate and driving shaft. The release mechanism is used to release the clutch. The
pressure plate is backed by a number of coil springs and housed with them in a pressed-steel
cover bolted to the flywheel. The springs push the pressure plate against the cover.
(vi) Release mechanism:

The clutch levers are pivoted on pins in the clutch cover. Their outer ends are located and
positioned on pressure plate legs and inner ends are projecting towards the clutch shaft. A
careful and accurate adjustment of the release mechanism is one of the most important factors
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of governing the performance of a clutch assembly.
Clutch plate Pressure
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..-.........~" springs
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Figure 3.5 Clutch plate assembly
(vii) Withdrawalforce and rearing:

The withdrawal force carrying the bearings is pivoted on a ball-mounted fulcrum in the
clutch outer casing. The bearing is generally facing the inner end ofthe toggle lever. The other
end of the force is connected to the clutch pedal by means of rods and levers.
(viii) Primary or clutch shaft:

The clutch plate is assembled on a splined shaft that carries the rotary motion to the
transmission. This shaft is called the clutch shaft, or transmission input shaft. It is also known
as driving shaft of a gearbox. One end of the clutch shaft is attached to the crankshaft or
flywheel and the other end is,connected to the gearbox or forms a part of the gear box.

Transmission Systems ft·

Working:
Due to friction between flywheel, clutch plate and pressure plate surfaces, the clutch plate
revolves with the flywheel. As the clutch plate revolves, the clutch shaft will also revolve. The
clutch shaft is connected to the gearbox. Normally, the clutch plate is always kept in between
flywheel and pressure plate by the number of pressure springs. When the clutch pedal is
pressed, the pressure plate moves out against the pressure springs and the gap between
pressure plate and flywheel increases. Now, the clutch plate is free to rotate. Thus, power is
not transmitted. This position is called clutch release or declutching.
As soon as the pedal is released, the pressure spring forces the pressure plate towards the
flywheel. The clutch plate is gripped between flywheel and pressure plate. It is called clutch
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engaging. At this position, the power is transmitted to the gearbox.
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Advantages:
1. It makes easy to change gears than a cone type.
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2. It is reliable than a cone clutch.
Disadvantages:
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1. It requires more force to release.
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2. Space required to accommodate the clutch is more as compared to multi-plate
clutch. nee
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3.3.2. Multi-Plate Clutch
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Multi-plate clutches are used in heavy vehicles with racing cars and motorcycles for
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transmitting high torque. As compared to single plate clutch, these are smooth and easy to
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operate due to their assembly of friction surface's contact. It may be used where the space is
very limited.
As the number of clutch plates is increased, the friction surfaces will be also increased.
The increase in friction surface obviously increases the capacity of the clutch to transmit more
torque for the same size. The multi-plate clutch of small size transmits approximately the
same torque as a single plate clutch of twice the diameter.
These clutches may be wet or dry type. When the clutch of this type is operated in a bath
of oil, it is called wet clutch. But, this oil immersed wet clutches are generally used in
conjunction with a part of the automatic transmission. The multi-plate clutch consists of

number of clutch plates. Its construction is similar to a single plate clutch except that the
number of clutch plates.
The total number of clutch plates is divided into two sets in which one from each set is
alternatively arranged as shown in Figure 3.6. One set of plate slides in grooves on the
flywheel and other one slides on splines on the pressure plate hub. These plates are firmly
pressed by a strong coil spring and assembled in a drum. Multiplate clutch works in the same
way as the single plate clutch by operating the clutch pedal.
Clutch pedal
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"Bearing
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Figure 3.6 Multi-plate clutc/t rin
Advantages: g.n
I. Increased torque transmission capacity could be obtained.
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2. The diameter is reduced as it has more friction surface which reduces the size of t
the clutch assembly.
3. It is highly reliable.
4. It is suitable for heavy vehicles.
3.3.3. Cone Clutch

Since the contact surfaces of this type of clutch are in the form of cone, it is called cone
clutch. It consists of two cones having leather facings. These cones are known as male and
female cones. One cone is fixed with the driving shaft i.e., flywheel whereas the male member
is splined on the driven,shaft i.e., gear box shaft. Figure 3.7 shows the construction details.

between plates is increased as the speed of rotation of the clutch increases in proportion to the
pressure requirements. It is accomplished by means of weights linked to the pressure plate as
shown in Figure 3.9. As the weight is linked to the pressure plate, the outward radial pull of
centrifugal force is translated into pressure on the plate. This pressure increases as the weight
increases.
Pressure plate
Clutch shaft
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Figure 3.9 Semi-centrifugal clutch
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As the speed increases, the rotating weights will tend to move the pressure plate towards
the flywheel. The ends of release levers are also moved back against the throw-out bearing
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along with this movement of the pressure plate. This construction permits the use of relatively
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light clutch pressure springs which exert low pressure at idling speed and facilitate depressing
the clutch pedal for gear shifting.
3.3.6. Diaphragm Clutch

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The construction of this type of clutch is similar to a single plate clutch except that ttl
diaphragm springs called Belleville springs are used instead of the ordinary coil spring. This
type of clutch is more advantages because it requires no release levers and the spring itself
acts as a series of levers. The pressure of the spring is always varying. It increases till the
spring reaches to its flat position and decreases with the passing of this position. If this clutch
is used, the driver does not require to exert such heavy pedal pressure to hold the clutch out of
engagerrrenras-in -the ease-of coil-spring.type clutch.

Front pivot ring

Cover
Oiaphram
spring Throwout
bearing
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w.E (a) Engaged position (b) Disengaged position
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Figure 3.10 shows the construction detaus of the diaphragm clutch. It consists of a
diaphragm spring which is supported on a fulcrum retaining ring i.e. pivot ring so that any
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section through the spring can be regarded as a simple lever.
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In the engaged position, the spring pivots on the rear pivot rings as it is held in a clutch
cover so that its outer rim contacts the pressure plate. In this position, the pressure plate is in
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contact with its outer rim. Therefore, sufficient pressure is exerted by the spring making a firm
et
contact between pressure plate and clutch plate as well as the flywheel in its natural conical
position.
To disengage the clutch, the pedal is depressed to cause the linkage to move throw-out
bearing towards the flywheel. As the bearing contacts the inner position of the conical spring,
it moves forward which causes the rim to move backward since the spring pivots on the front
pivot ring. It removes the pressure on the pressure plate and releases the clutch disc from
contact with both driving members.
Advantages:
1. It requires lower operating effort due to reduced friction in the clutch mechanism.
2. There is a constant and uniform load on the driven plate throughout the life of a
clutch.

Transmission Systems U.
3. - At high speeds, the clamping load on the diaphragm springs is not affected as in the
case of coil spring which starts bowing or distorting transversely.
4. The dangerous vibrations in the vehicles are altogether eliminated because it
provides accurate balance at all times.
5. Due to its compact design, a clutch housing required is quite short.
6. Due to firm foundation and absence of vibrations, it eliminates squeaks and rafting.
3.3.7. Positive Clutch (or) Dog and Spline Clutch

The positive clutch consists of two components, namely a driving member and a driven
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member. It is quite simple in construction and operation. Itis generally used to lock two shafts
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together or for locking a gear to shaft. It consists of a sliding sleeve fitted with the driving
member having two sets of internal splines. The smaller diameter splines are used to slide on a
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splined driving shaft whereas the bigger diameter splines match with the external dog clutch
teeth on the driving shaft.
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Dog clutch teeth
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Shaft A
Driven
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member
Figure 3.11 Dog and spline clutch
Figure 3.11 shows this arrangement, when the sleeve is made to slide on the splined
shaft, the larger internal splines match with the dog clutch teeth of the driven shaft. Thus, the
sleeve turns the splined shaft with the driven shaft. It is called engaged position. These
clutches are usually operated in conjunction with some type of synchronizing mechanism
because they can only be operated when both sets of teeth match perfectly. To disengage the
clutch, the sleeve is moved back on the splined shaft to have no contact with the driving shaft.

Imy Automobile Engineering

3.3.8. Hydraulic Clutch
A hydraulically operated clutch is used under the following circumstances,

(i) When the clutch is located so that it would be difficult to run rods or cable from the
foot pedal to the clutch.
.'
(ii) In heavy-duty mechanically operated clutches with high clutch spring pressure, the
force required by the driver to release the clutch becomes excessive.
Clutch pedal
Oil
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w.E Master
cylinder
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E ngi Clutch release fork
Slave
cylinder
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Figure 3.12 Hydraulic operated clutch
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Figure 3.12 shows the line diagram of hydraulic clutch. It consists of a master cylinder
and a slave cylinder and an oil reservoir. When the clutch pedal is pressed, the fluid undert
pressure from the master cylinder reaches the slave cylinder. The slave cylinder is mounted on
the clutch itself. The fluid actuates the slave cylinder push rod which further operates the
clutch release fork to disengage the clutch.
The hydraulic system is designed to multiply the driver's efforts so that a light force
applied to the foot pedal produces a much greater force on the clutch fork. A small piston in
the master cylinder travels a relatively long distance with only a low input force. It moves the
larger piston in the slave cylinder for short distance in transmitting a greater force. Another
advantage is that no mechanical linkage is required. Only hydraulic lines are required. These
lines can be performed to any angle by flexible turning. Since, it has no mechanical linkage

Transmission Systems .,.

between cylinders it does not involve frictional wears especially when it is subjected to heavy
forces. Therefore, it is mainly used in heavy duty operations.
3.3.9. Electro-Magn~tic Clutch

An electro-magnetic clutch consists of an engine flywheel provided with electric
winding. A driven plate lined with friction materials is provided. It is free to move on splines
of the gearbox shaft. A pressure plate is applied for engaging or disengaging the clutch.
Figure 3.13 shows the simplified diagram of this type of clutch. The operation of this
clutch takes place when the electric current is passed through the electric winding placed on
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the flywheel. When {hewinding gets energized, the pressure plate moves towards the flywheel
due to increase in armature attraction. It results the engagement of a clutch. The clutch is
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disengaged when the current supplied to the winding is cut off. There is no longer contact
between pressure plate and intermediate plate. Since, the current from vehicles dynamo
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increases with increase in speed, the clutch engaging force will also increase with the engine
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speed to provide a progressive clutch engagement.
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Clutch plate
Figure 3.13 Electromagnetic clute"
This type of clutch is best suited where the remote operation is desired. Since no linkages
are required to control its engagement. The main disadvantage of this type of clutch is that the
heat produced due to armature current is high. Its initial cost is also high.

[EII:M Automobile Engineering

3.3.10. Vacuum Clutch
The vacuum clutch is operated in the same way as the hydraulic clutch. The only
difference is that it is operated by vacuum pressure whereas the hydraulic clutch is operated
by oil pressure. In vacuum clutches, the partial vacuum existing in the engine manifold is used
for operating it.
Figure 3.14 shows the line diagram of a vacuum clutch. It consists of a vacuum cylinder,
solenoid valve, reservoir and non-return valve. One end of the reservoir is connected to the
inlet manifold through a non-return valve whereas the other end is connected to the vacuum
cylinder through a solenoid switch. The solenoid valve is operated by the battery and the
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circuit incorporates a switch which is placed in the gear lever.
The switch is operated when the driver holds the lever to change gears. A piston in the
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vacuum cylinder is connected to the clutch through linkages. When the throttle is opened in
the engine inlet manifold, the pressure in the manifold increases due to which the non-return
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valve closes. It isolates the reservoir from the manifold. Thus, a vacuum exists in the reservoir
all time.
E ngi Switch in the gear lever
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To inlet manifold rin
Solenoid
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Vaccum cylinder
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Reservoir
Vent
Figure 3.14 Vacuum operated clutch
During normal running conditions, the switch in the gear lever remains open and the
solenoid valve remains in its bottom. The atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of the
piston of vacuum cylinders. Since, the vacuum cylinder is opened to the atmosphere through
vent. When the driven member holds the lever to change the gear, the switch is closed. It
causes the solenoid to pull the valve up. Now, one side of the vacuum cylinder is connected to
the reservoir. Due to the vacuum pressure, the piston moves in the left hand side to actuate the
I TransmissionSystems Uk·
clutch When the driver is not operating gear lever, the switch will be opened and the clutch
remains engaged due to spring force.
3.4. TROUBLE SHOOTING OF CLUTCH
1. Clutch slips while engaged

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Causes Remedies
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I. Incorrect pedal-linkage adjustment. Readjustment has to be made.
2. Broken or weak pressure springs. Replacement of corresponding springs
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3. Binding in clutch-release linkage. Adjustment and lubrication should
be done.
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4. Broken engine mount. Replacement should be carried out.
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5. Worn friction-disk facings. Replace facings or disk
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6. Grease or oil on disk facings. Replace facings or disk
8. Warped clutch disk.

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7. Incorrectly adjusted release levers. Readjust
Replace.
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2. Clutch chatters or grabs when engaged g.
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net
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
...
Causes Remedies
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. Binding in clutch-release linkage. Free, adjust, and lubricate.
2. Broken engine mount. Replace.
3. Oil or grease on disk facings. Replace facings or disk glazed or

loose facings.
4. Binding of friction-disk hub. Clean and lubricate.
5. Splines on clutch shaft. Replace defective parts.
6. Broken disk facings or pressure plate. Replace broken parts.

1-
7. Warpped clutch disk.
Replace.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Clutch spins or drags when disengaged
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
--------------------------------------------- ,. .a _
1. Incorrect pedal-linkage adjustment. Readjust.

2. Warpped friction disk or pressure. Replace defective part plate.
3. Loose friction-disk facing. Readjust.
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4. Improper release-lever adjustment.
5. Friction-disk hub binding on

Clean and lubricate.
Replace.
clutch shaft.
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6. Broken engine mount.
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En 4. Clutch noises with clutch engaged
Causes gin
---------------------------------------------------------------~-------------------------------------------
Remedies
I. Friction-disk hub looses on clutch shaft. ee

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Replace worn out parts.
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2. Friction-disk dampener springs broken
or weak.
Replace disk.
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3. Misalignment of engine and transmission. Realign.
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5. Clutch noises with clutch disengaged
Causes Remedies
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Clutch thrown out bearing worn, Lubricate or replace.

binding, or out of lubricant.
2. Release levers not properly Readjust or replace.

assembly adjusted.
3. Pilot bearing in crankshaft worn Lubricate or replace.

or out of lubricant.

engine speed, more will be powerful contact between driving and driven members to obtain
the engagement.
Figure 3.8 shows the construction of centrifugal clutch. The simplest form of centrifugal
clutch consists of two members, one is fitted on the driving shaft and other one is attached to
driven shaft. The driven member is just a drum whichI encloses the driving member. The
driving member consists of a spider, shoes having friction lining at outer end and springs. The
shoes are attached to the spider by means of springs as shown in Figure 3.8. The springs exert
a radially inward force which is assumed constant.
Cover
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Shoes
plate
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Figure 3.8 Centrifugal clutch rin
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The driving member rotates with the engine shaft. As the engine speed increases, the
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shoes inside the driving member drum will fly outward due to centrifugal force and come into
contact with the inner surface of the driving member. The increase in centrifugal force due to
higher engine speed binds the driving member with the driven member thereby results the
rotation of both member and shafts at the same speed. The magnitude of the centrifugal force
depends on the speed at which the shoe is revolving.
When the engine speed decreases, the centrifugal force will decrease which results the
disengagement of clutch. The force with which the shoe presses against the driven member is
the difference between centrifugal force and spring force. The centrifugal clutch is extensively
used in light two wheelers such as mopeds or two wheelers without gears and lawn movers.
3.3.5. Semi-Centrifugal Clutch

These clutches are similar to the centrifugal clutches with only difference of relatively
light clutch pressure springs exerting low pressure at idling speed. In this
..,;
clutch, the pressure I
."
I Transmission Systems
When the clutch is in engaged position, the male cone is fully inside the female cone in
such a manner that the friction surfaces are in perfect contact. It is done by the pressure
springs which keep the male cone pressed all time. Now, the torque is transmitted from the
engine via the flywheel and the male cone to the gearbox.
Flywheel
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Figure 3.7 Cone clutch
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When the clutch pedal is pressed, the male cone slides against the spring force and the
clutch is disengaged. Hence, no power is transmitted.
Advantage: rin
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Normal force acting on the contact surface is larger than the axial force which reduces the
effort required to operate the clutch.
Disadvantages:
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I. If the angle of cone is smaller than 200, the male cone tends to bind or joint in tJ
female cone. It requires heavy force to disengage the clutch.
2. A small amount of wear on cone surface results a considerable axial movement of the
male cone for which it will be difficult to allow.
3.3.4. Centrifugal Clutch
This clutch is controlled by the engine speed through an accelerator. When the engine
speed falls down, the clutch will automatically disengage. When the speed rises above the
predetermined value the clutch is engaged. Greater is the centrifugal force due to higher

I Transmission Systems RI_

4. Retracting spring (diaphragm-spring Replace pressure- plate.
assembly clutch) worn.
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6. Clutch-pedal pulsations
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Causes Remedies
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I. Engine and transmission not aligned. Realign.
2. Flywheel is not seated on flywheel. Seat properly, straighten, replace

crankshaft flange or flywheel bent.
ww3. Clutch housing distorted. Realign or replace.
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4. Release levers not evenly adjusted. Readjust or replace assembly.
Realign or replace.
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5. Warped pressure plate or friction disk.
6. Pressure-plate assembly misaligned. Realign.
7. Broken diaphragm. E ngi Replace.

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7. Friction-disk-facing wear
Causes rin
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Remedies
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-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. Driver "rides" clutch.
necessary.
Reduce use of clutch.

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Keep foot off clutch except, when
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2. Excessive and incorrect use.
3. Cracks in flywheel. Replace pressure-plate face.
4. Weak or broken pressure springs. Replace.
5. Warped pressure plate or friction disk. Replace defective parts.
6. Improper pedal-linkage adjustment. Readjust.
7. Clutch-release linkage binding. Free, readjust, and lubricate.

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'ft. 8. Clutch pedal stiff

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Causes Remedies
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Clutch linkage lacks lubricant. Lubricate.
2. Clutch-pedal shaft binds. Make it free in flocr mat.
3. Misaligned linkage parts. Realign.
4. Overcenter spring out of adjustment. Readjust.
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5. Bent clutch pedal. Replace.
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3.5. GEARBOX
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Gearbox is a speed and torque changing device. It changes speed and torque between
engine and driving wheels. The mechanism through which the driving torque of the engine is
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transmitted to the driving wheel is the gearbox. Torque is not directly transferred but it can be
done in the form of power using a suitable device. It is done between engine of the automobile
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and driving wheels. During this, the gear ratio varies between engine and rear wheels.
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More power is required to keep an automobile in motion when compared to power
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required for keeping it rolling after starting. It means, ~lteautomobile requires more power at
the starting while the engine may be developing less power. A transmission system does to
turn the engine crankshaft to four, eight or twelve time approximately for each wheel .ne
revolution. A reverse gear is also set for backing the car.
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3.5.1. Necessity of Transmission
When a vehicle is running, various resistances oppose it. In order to keep vehicles
moving at a uniform speed, a driving force or tractive effort is equal to the sum of all
opposing forces. If the tractive effort increases the total opposing resistance, the excess
tractive effort will accelerate the vehicle. If the tractive effort is less than the total resistance,
the excess of the resistances will lower the speed of the vehicle.
When a vehicle starts to move from rest, it needs more force or high torque and also for
hill climbing, accelerating or carrying heavy loads due to various opposing resistances. It can

Transmission Systems _
be achieved by running the engine at high speed and wheels at low speeds. After starting the
vehicle, it is moving due to momentum gained by the weight ofvehic!e.
The same force or torque does not need to keep the vehicle in moving. So, the speed of
the road wheels has to be progressively increased when the vehicle gains speed gradually. The
gearbox is mainly provided for high torque at the time of starting, hill climbing, acceleration
and pulling a load. It can be achieved by a set of gears which are enclosed in a gearbox and
gear changing mechanism.
3.5.2. Purposes of Transmission
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1. It helps the engine to disconnect from driving wheels.
2. It helps the running engine to be connected to the driving wheel smoothly and without
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shock.
3. It provides the leverage between engine and driving wheels to be varied.
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4. It helps to reduce the engine speed in the ratio of 4 : I in case of passenger cars and in
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a greater ratio in case of heavy vehicles such as trucks and lorries.
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5. It helps the driving wheels to be driven at different speeds.
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6. It gives the relative movement between engine and driving wheels due to flexing of
the road springs.
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3.5.3. Resistances to Motion
A moving vehicle has to overcome the following resistances. g.n

1.Air resistance: e t
It is the resistance offered by air to the vehicle motion. It depends on the following
factors.
(l) Size of vehicle

(2) Shape of vehicle
(3) Speed of vehicle, and
(4) Wind velocity.
2. Gradient resistances:
It is the component of the vehicle's weight which is parallel to the plane of the road. This
component remains constant but independent of the vehicle's speed.

I ..
3. Miscellaneous resistance:
Other resistances such as rolling resistances depend on the following parameters.
(1) Road characteristics

(2) Tyre characteristics
(3) Weight of the vehicle
(4) Vehicle speed.
3.5.4. Tractive Effort
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The torque available on the wheel produces a driving force which is parallel to the road
known as tractive effort.
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The graph shows the detail of total resistance for the particular road with different
gradients. The curves A, B, C. D are total resistance curves for different gradients. The curves
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1,2,3 represent the tractive effort in first, second and third gears respectively.
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o M N P R
Vehicle speed __..
Figure 3.15 Tractive effort
Both curves are plotted with the same scales in Figure 3.15. When the vehicle is running
in 3rd gear on a gradient, it will give the total resistance curve. So, OP is the stabilizing speed.
If the speed at any instant is more than OP, say OR, then the excess resistance called
tractive effort will be decelerated to OP. Similarly, if the speed at any instant is less than OP,
say ON, then the excess tractive effort will be accelerated to speed OP.

Transmission Systems ,f. I

In the same 3rd gear, the next higher gradient curve B is considered. In this case, the
stabilizing speed has slightly decreased. The curve C does not cross the curve of 3rd gear. So,
the vehicle is not able to run at this gradient in 3rd gear. Therefore, we are lin a position to shift
on to 2nd gear.
Now, the stabilizing speed OM is obtained. Similarly, the vehicle is not able to run in the
2nd gear for gradient D. Thus, the vehicle has to be shifted in the 151 gear.
The vehicle requires more acceleration at the time of starting to gain the required speed
quickly. The maximum tractive effort is available in the first gear. Therefore, the vehicle is
running in the first gear at the beginning. Then, it is shifted to 2nd gear and so on. Similarly,
when the vehicle is running across a steeper gradient, then it is always shifted to the first gear
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by accelerating at very slow speed.
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3.6. TYPES OF GEARBOX
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There are many types of gearboxes. Generally, it can be classified as follows.
1. Manual transmission
(a) Sliding mesh gearbox En
(b) Constant mesh gearbox gin
(c) Synchromesh gearbox
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2. Epicyclic gearbox
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3. Automatic transmission
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(a) Hydramatic gearbox
(b) Torque converter gearbox. t
3.6.1. Sliding Mesh Gearbox
Among the manual gear transmissions, this sliding mesh type is simple in construction. It
consists of the following parts.
1. Output shaft
2. Low and reverse sliding gear

3. Second sliding gear
4. Clutch
5. Input shaft

I ..
6. Clutch gear
7. Counter shaft drive gear
8. Counter shaft
9. Low speed gear
10. Second gear
11. Reverse gear
12. Reverse idler gear
13. Gear shift fork.
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It is the simplest type of gearbox. In this gearbox, spur gears are used. Figure 3.16 shows
the construction of a sliding mesh type transmission having three forward and one reverse
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speeds. There are three gears (1, 6 and 5) attached on the main shaft and four gears (2, 3,4
and 7) on the lay shaft.
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The two gears on the main shaft (6 and 5) can be slided by a shafting yoke and mesh with
the gears (3 and 4) on lay shaft. Therefore, it is called sliding mesh gearbox. A separate idler
gear (8) is mounted on the idler shaft.E ngi -
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2 1 R
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-- Gear shift fork
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Figure 3,16 Sliding mesh gearbox
(i) Gears in neutral:

When the engine is running and the clutch is engaged, the counter shaft is driven by the
cultch gear. The cultch gear rotates in opposite direction to the counter shaft. The low speed
and high speed gears that are fitted on the transmission main shaft or gearbox shaft do not

Transmission Systems ... m I

rotate because they are not engaged with any driving gears. Therefore, there 1s no motion
transmitted from clutch to output shaft. Hence, the vehicle is stationary.
(ii) First or low speed gear:

When the gear shift fork moves towards direction (1) by operating the gear shift lever,
the sliding gear (5) on the output shaft will be shifted forward to mesh with low speed gear (4)
on the countershaft. It results the rotations of input shaft being transmitted in the order (1) ::::-
(2):::} (4):::} (5) to tum the output shaft, as shown in Figure 3.17. This gear combination is the
one that produces the lowest speed from the input shaft and low transmission.
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En
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Figure 3.17 First or low speed gear
(iii) Second gear:

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When the gear shift fork is moved toward direction 2, the second sliding gear (6) will be
shifted backward to mesh with the second speed gear (3) but gear (5) and gear (4) are
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unmeshed. The rotation of input shaft is transmitted in the order (1) :::}(2) :::}(3) :::}(6) to tum
the output shaft, as shown in Figure 3.18. It is the transmission in the second speed.
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Figure 3.18 Second gear

(iv) Third or top gear:
When the gear shift fork is moved toward direction 3, the clutch (6) will be meshed
directly with the clutch gear (1) and gear (3) is unmeshed, as shown in Figure 3.19. Due to
this, both the input and output shafts are coupled and rotated together. It is the transmission in
the third or top speed.
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asy Figure 3.19 Third or top gear
(v) Reverse gear:

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When the gear shift fork is moved toward direction R, the sliding gear'(S) will be shifted
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backward to mesh with the reverse idler gear (8), as shown in Figure 3.20. Then the rotation
of input shaft is transmitted in the order (1) => (2) => (7) => (8) => (5) to turn the output shaft
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in reverse direction. It is the transmission in reverse speed. Even though there is no measure to
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allow easy meshing of gears, "double clutching" technique must be acquired for shifting gears
properly. The gears also have some disadvantages such as noisy and defects. So, this type is
not practically in current use.
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Figure 3.20 Reverse gear

I Transmission Systems \
Figure 3.21 shows the construction ofa constant mesh type gearbox having three forward
and one reverse speeds. In this type of gearbox, all gears are in constantly in mesh and dog
clutches are used for engaging and disengaging the gears. The dog clutches (D) and D2) are
mounted on the main shaft. One (D2) is connected between clutch gear and reverse gear
whereas the other (D)) is placed between low speed gear and reverse gear. The splines are
provided on the main shaft for the linear movement of dogs. Dog clutch can slide on the shaft
and rotate along with it. All gears are rigidly fixed on the counter shaft.
All main shaft and lay shaft gears, and idler gears are engaged by dog clutch to obtain
opposite and slow speed. Only reverse gears are spur gear type and all others are helical gears.
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Slidingdpg
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Clutch gear",
clutch
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Figure 3.21 Constant mesh gearbox
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Figure 3.22 First gear of constant mesh gearbox

(i)First gear:
The dog clutch (0,) is shifted to left side for engaging on (7), as shown in Figure 3.22.
Now, the power is transmitted through the gear (1) => (2) => (4) => (7) to the dog clutch 0,.
Then, it is transmitted to the main shaft through splines. Hence, the first gear speed is
obtained.
(ii) Second gear:

In this, the dog clutch (0,) is disengaged and the dog clutch (02) is shifted to right to lock
with the gear (8) as shown in Figure 3.23. Therefore, the power is transmitted from clutch
shaft through (1) => (2) => (3) => (8) to dog clutch (02) and then to the main shaft. So, the
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main shaft rotates with the second gear speed.
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Figure 3.23 Second gear of constant mesh gearhox
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Figure 3.24 Third gear of constant mesh gearhox

(iii) Third or top gear:
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The dog clutch (D2) is moved left to engage with the gear (l) on clutch shaft as shown in
Figure 3.24. Now, the engine speed is directly supplied to the main shaft. It is called top gear
speed.
(iv) Reverse gear:
First, the dog clutch O2 is disengaged. Then the dog clutch 01 is shifted to right to engage
with the gear (6). Therefore, the power is transmitted from clutch shaft through (I) ~ (2) ~
(5) ~ (Idler gear) ~ (6) to dog clutch (02) and then to the main shaft. The idler gear causes
the main shaft to rotate in the opposite direction.
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En
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Figure 3.25 Reverse gear of constant mesh gearhox
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As compared with the sliding mesh type, the constant mesh type gearbox meshes more
readily with the gears having less danger of damaging during meshing because the gear
diameters are smaller with few numbers of teeth. So, this type has more defects when t
compared to a synchromesh type. The necessity of double clutching is needed so that it is not
used to any large extent.
Advantages of the constant mesh gearbox over the sliding mesh type:
1. Helical or double helical gear teeth can be used for the gears instead of spur gears
except reverse gears. So, a quicker gearing can be achieved.
2. Synchronizing devices can be used for smooth engagement of gears.
3. Only damage occurs on dog clutch teeth and not to teeth of gear wheels.
4. Once the dog clutches are engaged, there is no motion between their teeth but the
power is transmitted through the sliding action of the teeth of one wheel on those of

I... Automobile Engineering

the other when the gear teeth are engaged. To transmit the motion properly, the teeth
are suitably shaped.
3.6.3. Synchromesh Gearbox
To simplify the operations of changing gears without the occurrence of clashes and their
consequent damage, a synchromesh gearbox is used in different types of motor vehicles. The
synchronizer helps to synchronize the speeds of two gears to be engaged without necessity of
faster running gear to slow down.
Nowadays, both helical gears and synchromesh units are used in car gearboxes. It is
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used for easy and noiseless gear changing operation. The arrangement is similar to a constant
mesh gearbox. But, it has synchromesh unit instead of dog clutches. Synchromesh device first
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engages two gears into frictional contact. Once their speed attains equal or synchronized, they
are engaged smoothly.
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Generally, synchromesh units are connected with top two gears only. The reverse and
stationary. E
first gears are not connected with synchromesh units. They are engaged when the vehicle is
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The main features of this type of gearbox are as follows.
1. The main shaft or output gears are freely rotated on bushes of the output shaft. They
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are internally placed by splined thrust washers. Generally, single or double helical
gears are used in constant mesh with the long shaft gears.
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2. When their speed is equalized or synchronized by their cones, the output gears will
be locked to their shaft by the dog clutch.
Figure 3.26 shows the synchromesh unit. The synchromesh unit helps to synchronize the
speed of two gears to be engaged without necessity of faster running gear to slow down.
Quick shift is possible and noise is reduced by eliminating any clashing of gears. The clutch
brake of unit is engaged with the faster running gear of these two gears. The speed of the
faster running gear has to be quickly slowed down to the slow turning gears before putting
into operation. It is done for intermediate and high-speed gears. In an Ambassador car, this
system is incorporated on second, third and fourth gears.
A synchronizing unit has a set of sleeves. These sleeves slide endwise. The inner sleeve
is splined on the main shaft. It contains gunmetal faced female cones on both ends. These
cones are mounted over male cones integrated with each main gear having secondary toothed
wheel. The inner sleeve is fitted over the outer sleeve which contains internal teeth to engage _

Transmission Systems _ I
with the teeth of secondary wheel. The outer sleeve is locked at different positions through
balls. Springs are held on the inner sleeve. The shifting fork links into the groove at the outer
sleeve to slide it endwise for achieving various gear speeds.
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asyFigure 3.26 Synchromesh unit
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The synchronizing unit slides on the splines of the main shaft to engage the cones and
then the outer sleeve slides over the inner sleeve or hub to engage the gears through a dog
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clutch. \Vhen the synchronizing unit is moved to either left or right, the female cone in the
inner sleeve is mounted over the male cone. This female cone is an integrated with the gear
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which is moving free over the main shaft. The friction of the cones helps to revolve the main
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shaft with the main gear. Also, it speeds up or slows down as required until the speed of the
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main shaft and gear is same. The clutch is easier to the gear with the main shaft through the
synchronizing unit when the speed is synchronized. 'The synchronization of speed obtained
with a partial movement of the gear shift lever. Further movement of the gear lever causes the
outer toothed sleeve to slide relative to cones. It tends to engage with the secondary wheel in
the form of a dog clutch. It results the driving member of main shaft rotate with the main gear.
Advantages:
1. Gear changing is very much simplified.
2. Less wear in gears.
3. It allows the usage of helical gears that run quietly.
Disadvantages:
1. The design is very much complex.

1-
2. Initial cost is high.
Automobile Engineering ~
3. Quick change of gears occurs due to noise of crashing.
3.6.4. Epicyclic Gearbox
In ordinary gearing, the axes of various gears are fixed. These gears are simply rotated
I
about their axes. In the case of epicyclic gearing, at least one of the gears not only rotates
about its own axis but also rotates about some other axes. The two arrangements of the
epicyclic gear trains are shown in Figure 3.27.
In Figure 3.27 (a) arrangements, a spur pinion called sun wheel is an integral part of shaft
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which is made to rotate freely about its own axis XsX. The pinion shaft is mounted on
bearings in the frame. Also, 11crankshaft or carrier arm is also made to rotate freely about the
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same axis x-x. This arm is connected with a spur pinion called planet wheel by crankpin. The
planet wheel is freely to revolve about its own axis y-Y. When the carrier arm is rotated on its
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bearings, the planet wheel will also rotate bodily about the axis XsX.
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The planet wheel is meshed with the spur pinion and also meshed with an internally
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toothed ring called annulus. The annulus is one part of the frame as a fixed unit. The annulus
is circular and concentric with the axis X-X. It is an epicyclic train of gearing. It provides a
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definite and fixed speed or gear ratio between the shaft attached to the sun wheel and the shaft _
of the carrier arm.
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(a) (b)
Figure 3.27 Epicyclic gear box
In Figure 3.27 (b), the sun wheel (1) is a part of integral shaft which is freely to rotate
about its axis in the frame. This sun wheel is meshed with the teeth A of the compound planet

Transmission Systems ~.,.- I

wheel. Now, the compound wheel freely revolves on the pin of the carrier arm. The carrier
arm called shaft is mounted in the frame. It is free to revolve about the sun wheel.
The portion B of the compound planet wheel is meshed with the sun wheel (1). When the
carrier arm shaft is turned, the shaft attached to the sun wheel (1) will also be driven in the
same direction as the carrier arm rotates. But its speed is low.
The epicyclic or sun and planet type gearbox have no sliding dogs or gears to engage.
But different gear speeds can be obtained by tightening brake bands on the gear drum. Hence,
gear changing is simplified.
Figure 3.:28shows an epicyclic gearbox. The compound gear 1, 3, 5 is located to a pin
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fixed on a wheel A. The compound gear is freely rotated on the pin. Gears 1, 3 and 5 are
meshed with three different gears 2, 4 and 6 respectively. They are connected in turn to drums
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7, 8 and 9. The drums 7 and 8 have brakes in their outer circumference and a number of clutch
plates are provided on drum 9. A hub is attached to the flywheel spigot shaft N in which a
number of clutch plates are fitted.
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For obtaining top speed, the member lOis pressed against clutch plates. It will engage
the clutch by connecting the shaft N to the output shaft P directly. Thus, the top speed gear is
obtained.
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!-:::J
- ;lutCh plates
InputShJ~ Ii
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~I~---------~---------------
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N ~
Output shaft(P)
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~ ~~ ~ 10
1»1 diiti'ii ~
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9
7 8
Figure 3.28 Epicyclic gearhox
For obtaining low speed, the clutch is disengaged and brake is applied on drum 8. It is
done withthe-help.ofa gear change lever. This action locks the gear 4 by decreasing the speed
of gear 2. Hence, the output shaft is reduced.

Fo~obtaining reverse speed, the clutch is disengaged and brake is applied on drum 10. It
locks the gear 6 by reversing the direction of rotation of 2 with respect to the input shaft.
Thus, the speed of 2 is also reduced.
Advantages of epicyclic gearbox:

1. The planetary gears are in constant mesh. Hence, dog clutches or sliding gears are not
used.
2. External contracting hand brackets or multi-plate clutches of relatively small
dimensions are used for changing the gears.
3. It is a more compact unit because the planetary gear operates within a ring gear with
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4. It is distributed over several gear wheels instead of having the load on only one pair of
gears.
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5. A greater area of gear tooth contact can be obtained due to distribution of loads.
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6. In comparison to the three or four speed gearbox, gears and gear housings of this
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gearbox can be made smaller in overall dimensions.
3.6.5. Automatic Gearbox nee

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Various speeds are obtained automatically in gearboxes are known as automatic gearbox.
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Generally, the driver selects the car condition such as neutral, forward or reverse. The
selection, timing and engagement of gear for the required gear speed are selected
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automatically when the accelerator is pressed or depressed. Automatic gearbox does not
require gear change lever and clutch pedal. Since, both clutch and transmission are a
combined unit which works automatically. The automatic gearbox is operated in two ways
namely
1. Hydramatic transmission, and

2. Torque converter transmission.
In the case of hydramatic transmission gearbox, the planetary gear sets are connected in
such a way that power may be transmitted through them. A centrifugal governor in the
transmission chooses the: proper g~ar according to the speed and throttle position. The gear
shifting from one gear to another gear is done through hydraulically operated pistons by
actuating springs. These springs control the brake bands on the planetary gear sets and
clutches within the planetary unit. The various shifts are achieved by the throttle and

Transmission Systems UfM

centrifugal governor. Torque converter transmission system employs fluid coupling, torque
converter and epicyclic gear arrangement. If all different devices are combined into one unit,
they will do their duties jointly without any interruptions.
Now-a-days, automatic transmissions are popular with various names prescribed by the
manufacturers. They may differ in construction slightly. Somebody employ only fluid
coupling with the planetary transmission. But others may include a torque converter with fluid
coupling and planetary transmission as per their requirements.
3.7. HYDRAMATIC TRANSMISSION

In this case, the transmission is done by fully automatic system. It has a combined four
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speed forward and reverse automatic geared transmissions with a flywheel. Three sets of
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constant mesh helical planetary gears are connected in series to provide in the geared
transmission. The two sets of planetary gears are used to obtain the four forward speeds in a
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hydramatic gear system. The impact of the automatic shifts is cus~ioned and also the fluid
flywheel reduces the torque reactions of the engine. Motor veh icles attached with hydramatic
purpose of control. E
drive are not connected with clutch pedals. But the accelerator and brake are used for the
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Hydraulically operated pistons actuated by springs controls brake bands on the planetary
gear set. Clutches within the planetary unit are used for doing the change from one gear to
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another. The gears are shifted to higher speeds with throttle opening because throttle position
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and the centrifugal governor govern the various speed shifts. By this, maximum power and
acceleration are obtained. A lever and sector segment are located on the steering column to
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adjust any of the four positions such as neutral, drive, low and reverse. This arrangement helps
driver to control the vehicle movement position. The transmission is shifted automatically in
the driver position in any of the four forward speeds. Only, the first and the second gear
positions are used to drive. The low position is for hill climbing or heavy or muddy terrain.
The fluid flywheel is a part of the gear train providing drive from the internal gear in the
front unit by a shaft linkage. A torus cover is bolted to the engine flywheel and it encloses the
fluid flywheel. A drum enclosing a brake band for locking the drum and the sun gear is
attached to sun gear if the front unit is used for gear reduction. The gear is held stationary in
internal gear driving. Then the planet cage is made to connect the driven member of the front
unit shown in Figure 3.29. A hollow intermediate shaft having front section is connected with
the driving member called driving torus.

I .. Automobile Engineering
Sun gear
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w.E Figure 3.29 Hydramatic gearbox
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The rear section splined to the clutch hub of the rear unit is attached to a splined planet
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cage. The power from the internal gear of the front unit is transmitted forward through the
intermediate shaft to the driving torus. It is done by the planet cage. By this, the power is
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transferred to the driven member or driven torus. A main shaft which is turning inside the
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intermediate shaft is attached to a splined driven torus. It is for transmitting power rearward to
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the sun gear of the rear unit. If the rear unit is in reduction, the internal gear is fastened to a
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drum and brake band assembly in position. The planet cage splined to the output shaft is the
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driven member when the internal gear is held stationary. It is achieved by sun gear receiving
power from the main shaft, called driving member.
The two units are provided with hydraulically operated multiple disc clutches to lock t
various gears together if they are in direct drive. The planet cage is locked by the clutch. At
the same time, the sun gear is in the front set. The clutch connects with the internal gear in the
rear unit while applying the rear section of the intermediate shaft.
(i) First gear:

Both units are located in the first gear in such a way to produce maximum gear ratio.
They are held stationary when the brake bands are applied hydraulically and also with spring
operated devices known as 'servos'. Then, the power is transmitted from the flywheel to the
torus cover, then to the internal gear and to the planet cage with the sun gear when the front
unit is locked. Thus, the engine is running.

Transmission Systems _
The planet cage usually moves around the stationary sun gear with reduced speed. The
power is transmitted by the cage to the driving torus through the front section of the
intermediate shaft. Then the power from the driven torus is transmitted to the sun gear of the
rear unit. The sun gear drives the plant cage when the planet pinions move around the
stationary internal gear.
(ii) Second gear:

The front unit is placed in a direct drive by releasing the front band and also the front
clutch is applied to obtain the second speed. The power is first transmitted to the torus cover
and then to the locked front unit from the flywheel. Then the front section of the intermediate
shaft transmits the power directly to the fluid flywheel. Then, it is transmitted back to sun
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gear of the rear unit through the main shaft or driving shaft to the driven torus. The rear unit
transmits the power to the output shaft.
(iii) Third gear: w.E

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The controls are operated to release the clutch and also for applying the band in the front
unit to provide this speed. To transmit this speed to the direct drive, the clutch is moved back.
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Then the band is released and the clutch is applied in the rear unit. Now, the gear ratio is
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1.45:1. It is similar to front unit. The planet cage is driven by the internal gear. Now, the
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power is transmitted from the flywheel to the torus cover. The intermediate shaft is
transmitting the power forward to the fluid flywheel but reversed to the locked clutch of the
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rear unit. The rear unit is already driven by the planet cage. Therefore, the intermediate shaft
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and the fluid flywheel transmit power to the rear unit through the main shaft to the rear sun
gear. 40 % of power flows through the fluid coupling and 60 % flows through the
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intermediate shaft directly to the rear unit. Both the slippage and loss of power are
considerably reduced due to this arrangement.
(iv) Fourth gear:

The direct drive is obtained by controlling the transmission by locking the clutch and
releasing the band in the front unit. Now, the power is transmitted from the flywheel through
the torus cover to the locked front unit. The power is transmitted in two paths. One is along
the intermediate shaft which is transmitted from forward to the fluid flywheel. The other one
is to the clutch hub of the rear unit similar to the third gear. By dividing 40 % power through
the fluid drive main shaft, rear sun gear and 60 % directly through the intermediate shaft, the
slippage is reduced.

Ism Automobile Engineering
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(v) Reverse gear:
A third set of planetary gears is added to obtain the reverse gear in addition to gears used
in the rear unit shown in Figure 3.30. A reverse unit has a sun gear which is fastened to the
internal gear of the rear unit, a planet cage which is splined to the output shaft and an internal
gear. Both external and internal teeth are provided in the internal gear. When the pawl called
anchorpin engages its external teeth, it is held as stationary in the reverse gear.
The pawl and the external teeth are provided in a parking brake while the internal gear is
held by a hydraulic cone clutch in modern designs. The controls shift the front unit into

Transmission Systems IIDI I

reduction to release the rear band and clutch. It is also held the gear stationary by engaging the
anchor pinion. The power flows similar to the first gear which means from the flywheel to the
torus cover, to the front internal gear; to the planet cage, to the intermediate shaft and to the
fluid flywheel. The power is transmitted by the main shaft to the rear sun gear. Due to locked
reverse internal gear, the reverse planet cage cannot turn freely. Therefore, the rear planet
cage will act as an idler to force the rear unit internal gear in such a way to turn in reverse
direction with the rear unit.
The reverse planet cage turns the output shaft in reverse direction due to the rear unit
internal gear driving the reverse sun gear turning in a reverse direction. Reversal is obtained
by a compound reverse gear set which is already combined with the reduction produced in the
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front unit.
(vi) Neutral gear:
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The front band and clutch and also rear clutch are released by controls provided on a
selector lever. Due to this action, the engine flywheel is completely disengaged from the
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output shaft. It causes no power transmission. The controls release the rear band and also set
Advantages of automatic transmission:

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the blocked piston in the cone reverse units when the engine is running.
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1. It is a simplified driving control.
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2. It gives less physical and manual fatigue to the driver.
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3. There is no clutch pedal and gear lever and hence, it makes the simplification of
driver's compartment.
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4. It provides smoother running under all conditions due to hydraulic coupling and
automatic gear change.
5. No shocks or jerky driving are produced while running.
6. Improved acceleration and hill climbing are obtained.
7. Fuel consumption is reduced.
8. It has less wear and tear due to planetary gearing.
9. Noise free gear shifting is possible.
10, It has longer life.


3.8. SHIFT OR SELECTOR MECHANISM
For gear changing and selecting a particular gear train to operation, the selector mecha-
nism is implemented to obtain the same easier. In this case, the gears are shifted by a gear
shift lever. In manually operated selective transmission systems, the gear shift lever is
mounted either on steering column or on the floor board.
(a) Floor mounted shift mechanism:

In this type, the selector mechanism is provided at the top of the gearbox as shown in
Figure 3.31. The gear lever is ball mounted in the gearbox cover. It provides movement in any
direction. The lower end of the gear lever is fitted into a slot in the selector sleeve. Forks are
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mounted on sleeves on three separate selector rods. They are supported in the gearbox casing.
Each selector sleeve can slide on its rod just to avoid unwanted engagement of gears.
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Slots are provided on selector rods. The sleeves are made with spring loaded balls. These balls
oppose the movement of the forks until some force is applied to the gear lever to overcome
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their resistance. Grooves are made on the gear bosses where the selection forks are fitted.
Transverse motion of gear lever selects the fork to engage for obtaining the longitudinal
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movement. Then the fork is sliding to engage the selector gear.
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Gear
Figure 3.31 Floor board type shift mechanism

(b) Steering column mounted gear shift mechanism:
In this type, one gear lever rod is placed on the steering column shown in Figure 3.32. A
tongue is fitted on the gear lever rod to engage forks by the axial movement of rod. Then the
angular movement of the gear shift lever slides in the gearbox and there by engaging the
selected gear.
Gear lever is moved-axially upward and then moved radially forward or backward for
obtaining the first or second gear. The gear lever is moved downwards from the neutral

I
I
Transmission Systems EmIl
position and then moved radially forward or backward to obtain the third and fourth gear
speed, To obtain reverse gear, the knob is moved outwards, the lever then pushed downwards
in the neutral position to the extreme position. After this, the lever is moved backwards, thus
engaging the reverse gear.
3
Link to top & Link to 1st & z'" N .--.@
Reverse gears fork gears fork ,®- _-_-0
,/ .'N 1
R' ,
® :'
02
ww Rod
w.E Steering column
asy
Figure 3.32 Steering column mounted gear shift mechanism
3.9. TROUBLE SHOOTING OF GEARBOX

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1. Hard shifting into gear
----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------
Causes rin
Remedies
g.n
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Gearshift linkage out of adjustment.
2. Gearshift linkage needs lubrication.

Adjust.
Lubricate. et
3. Clutch not disengaged. Adjust.
4. Excessive clutch pedal free play. Adjust.
5. Shifter work bent. Replace or straighten.
6. Sliding gears or synchronizer tight on Replace defective parts.

shaft splines.
7. Gear teeth battered. Replace defective gears.
8. Synchronizing unit damaged or springs Replace unit or defective parts and

improperly installed. install spring properly.
9. Shifter tube binding in steering column. Correct the tube alignment.


Lubricate and replace bushing.
10. End of transmission input shaft binding in
crankshaft pilot bushing.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Transmission sticks in gear
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Gearshift linkage out of adjustment Adjust of adjustment.
and disconnected.
ww2. Gearshift linkage needs lubrication Lubricate.
w.E
3. Clutch not disengaged.
4. Detent balls stuck.

Adjust.
Free: lubricate.
asy
5. Synchronizing unit struck. Free: replace-damaged unit.
En
in transmission.
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6. Incorrect or insufficient lubricant
nee
Replace with correct lubricant.
and correct amount.
7. Internal shifter components damaged parts.

r Remove transmission to inspect
ing
and service shifter.
.ne
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Transmission slips out of gear
Causes Remedies
t
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Gear shift linkage out of adjustment. Adjust.
2. On floor shift, shift boot stiff or shift Replace boot: adjust console to
lever binding. relieve binding.
3. Weak lockout springs. Replace.
4. Bearings or gears worn. Replace
5. End play of shaft or Replace worn or loose parts.

gears excessive.
6. Synchronizer worn or defective. Repair; replace.

> •
7. Transmission loose on clutch Tighten mountings bolts;

housing or misaligned. Correct alignment.
8. Clutch housing misalignment. Correct alignment.
9. Pilot bushing in crankshaft loose Replace.

or broken.
10. Input shaft retainer loose Replace.

or broken.
ww
11. Broken engine mount. Replace.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
w.E 4. No power through transmission

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes
asy Remedies
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Clutch slipping.
En . Adjust.
2. Gear teeth stripped.

gin Replace gears.
3. Shifter fork or other linkage part broken.

eer Replace.
4. Gear or shaft broken.

Replace.
Replace.
ing
5. Drive key or spline sheared off
.ne
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Transmission noisy in neutral
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~
t
Causes Remedies
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Gear worn or tooth broken or chipped. Replace gears.
2. Bearings worn or dry. Replace: lubricate.
3. Input shaft bearing defective. Replace.
4. Pilot bushing worn or loose in crankshaft. Replace.
5. Transmission misaligned with engine. Realign.

1m. Automobile Engineering

6. Counters haft worn or bent, or thrust plate Replace worn or damaged
or washers. damaged parts.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ... -
6. Gears clash during shifting

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Synchronizer defective. Repair or replace.
2. Clutch not disengaging pedal free play Adjust.
incorrect.
ww 3. Hydraulic system defective. Check cylinder, add fluid, etc.
w.E
4. Idle speed excessive. Readjust.
5. Pilot bushing binding.
asy
6. Gearshift linkage out of adjustment.
Replace.
Adjust.
7. Lubricant incorrect. En Replace with correct lubricant.
gi
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7. Oil leakages
nee
Causes r
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------_
Remedies
ing
.. -
1. Foaming due to incorrect lubricant. .ne

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Replace with correct lubricant.
._--------
2. Oil level to high.

3. Gaskets broken or missing.
Use proper amount of oil.
Replace.
t
4. Oil seals damaged or missing. Replace.
5. Oil slingers damaged, improperly Replace correctly.
installed or missing.
6. Drain plug loose. Tighten.
7. Transmission retainer bolts loose. Tighten.
8. Transmission or extension case cracked. Replace.

<)_ Sneedometer gear retainer loose. T, .....
J.....""-

Transmission Systems IIlII I

10. Side cover loose. Tighten.
11. Extension housing seal worn or drive line Replace.

yoke worn.
8. Transmission noisy in reverse
Causes Remedies
1. Reverse idler gear or bushing worn Replace.

or damaged.
ww
2. Reverse gear on main shaft worn Replace.
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or damaged.
3. Counter gear worn or damaged. Replace.
asy
4. Shift mechanism damaged. Repair, replace defective parts and
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readjust.
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9. Transmission noisy in gear
Causes
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Remedies
1. Clutch friction disk defective. Replace. g.n

2. Incorrect or insufficient lubricant.
lubricant.
et
Replace with proper enough
3. Rear main bearing worn or dry. Replace or lubricate.
4. Gear loose on main shaft. Replace worn parts.
5. Synchronizer worn or damaged. Replace worn or

damaged parts.
3.10. OVERDRIVES
In transmissions, the high gear position produces a I:1 ratio between clutch gear and
transmission output shaft. There is neither gear reduction nor gear increase through the

transmission. It is the direct drive. At intermediate and higher car speeds, it is sometimes
desirable to have the transmission output shaft turned faster than the clutch gear and engine
crankshaft. Therefore, some transmission systems are designed with gears to provide an over
drive ratio. A transmission is in overdrive when the transmission output shaft is turning faster
than the transmission input shaft or clutch gear.
Some years ago, many cars were equipped with a separate overdrive unit which was
attached to the rear end of the transmission. Today, the overdrive is built into the transmission.
Many four-speed and five-speed transmissions have overdrive. The top gear position causes
the transmission main shaft to overdrive (tum faster) than the clutch gear.
ww
Overdrive is a device which is used to step up the gear ratio in the car. It is mounted in
between transmission and propeller shaft. It provides a high cruising speed with a
w.E
comparatively low engine speed (up to about 20-25% less) on long journeys. Due to this, less
wear of the engine parts, vibration and noise are produced. Though the friction losses at lower
asy
speeds are less, there will be a possibility in saving fuel with the overdrive.
E
Overdrive is generally fixed at the top gear only. Overdrives are fixed on gears other than
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the top gear for increasing the torque ratios available in some sport cars. For examples, by
connecting overdrive at the top, third and second gear, seven forward speeds or torque ratios
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can be obtained. Usually, overdrives are operated either manually or automatically at a
predetermined speed.
rin
g.n
A method of obtaining a fourth forward speed especially in modern passenger cars is
through "overdrive" only. It provides a speed ratio "over or high" with the direct or high-
et
speed ratio. Only 70% of the propeller-shaft speed is permissible to operate the engine by this
overdrive when the car is operating at higher speed range. The overdrives reduce engine wear,
vibration and save gasoline even the car is operated in high gear. Overdrives are used as
supplement to conventional transmissions. Slightly higher rear-axle gear ratio is used with an
overdrive.
Advantages 0/ overdrive:
1. It allows a lower engine speed to maintain the car at highway speed.
2. It does not require as much as power to keep it moving. Therefore, the engine can
turn more slowly, produce less power and still maintain car speed.
3. This system saves fuel.
4. Wear on the engine and accessories are reduced.

Transmission Systems m. I
5. A typical overdrive transmission can maintain a car speed of 88 kmlhr while
allowing the engine to tum at the equivalent of only 70 kmlhr.
3.10.1. Operation
The shift to overdrive can be obtained when the car is running above a predetermined
cut-in speed from 32 to 51 kmlhr by lifting the foot momentarily from the accelerator. The
action of the overdrive is controlled by a centrifugally operated switch. As the car slows down
below another predetermined speed (slightly lower than the cut-in speed), it is returned to
third speed automatically in most designs. Greater power and acceleration are needed through
ww
the overdrive gear ratio when a car runs on the road. So, the car gear is shifted back
gear when an overdrive is depressed by the accelerator to the full-throttle position.
10 direct
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3.10.2. Construction
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A design of overdrive used in late-model American passenger cars is shown in Figure
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3.33. This arrangement has a planetary gear set, a solenoid and pawl arrangement to lock the
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sun gear, a rail and fork assembly which is linked to a dash-control knob. It is used for
disconnecting the overdrive when it is not in use. On that time, a freewheel assembly or
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overrunning clutch drives the main shaft below the cut-in speed.
Ring gear
Ring gear
rin
Planetary gear
g.n Sun gear
plate
et
cam
Figure 3.33 Planetary gear set arrangement 0/ overdrive mechanism

fa Automobile Engineering
The planetary gears are used to increase the speed. It is done by arranging the ring gear
driven with the planet-pinion cage. At the same time, the sun gear is locked. Due to this, the
speed of the main shaft increases with decrease in power available to driving wheels.
The minimum speed of the engine varies with different models called cut-in speed. If the
engine runs below this speed, the drive is made direct by unlocking the sun gear through the
solenoid. This solenoid withdraws the pawl held to the gear plate. The operation of solenoid is
controlled by an electrical circuit.
When the engine speed is above the cut-in speed, the electrical controls having the
solenoid move the pawl to engage with the gear plate. Thus, the sun gear is locked. The power
ww
is transmitted from the transmission main shaft to the planet-pinion cage, to the ring gear and
to the overdrive main shaft. When the pinions rotate around the stationary sun gear, the ring
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gear is driven at increased speed. Generally, the gear ratio is about 0.7 : 1. The ring gear is
splined to the outer case of the freewheel assembly. It is a part of the overdrive main shaft.
asy
If the pawl is not engaged in the gear plate, the sun gear is unlocked. Due to this, the
E
planetary gears will not transmit power. When the unit is in direct drive, the power will flow
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from the transmission main shaft to the freewheel assembly and to the overdrive main shaft.
3.10.3. Freewheel Assembly or Overrunning clutch nee

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Freewheel assembly or overrunning clutch, sprang clutch or one-way clutch are essential
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parts of every overdrive. This mechanism transmits the rotational motion only in one direction
but not in reverse direction. It is a device in a transmission that disengages the driveshaft from
the driven shaft when the driven shaft rotates faster than the driveshaft.
et
The unit runs free whenever the power is transmitted through the planetary gears.
Otherwise, whenever the engine slows down, the transmission main shaft is started to drive
the output shaft.
The construction and principles of operation of a typical freewheel unit are shown in
Figure 3.34. It consists of cam, rollers and outer race. One part of the free wheel unit consists
of a hub having internal splines. These internal splines connect the transmission shaft to
freewheel unit. The outside surface of the hub is splined with cam and it has four cam profiles
to hold twelve rollers in a cage between them and outer race. The outer race is splined for
connecting with the overdrive output shaft.

Transmission Systems mill

Steel rollers
outer casing
/
Spring
Hub or splined shaft

~~~Y.r;t-
ww
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Figure 3.34 Freewheeling assembly
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When the transmission output shaft rotates faster than the overdrive main shaft as shown
in Figure 3.34, the rollers are shifted into narrow parts between cam and outer race to perform
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the locking action. By this, the transmission output shaft rotations are transmitted through cam
ing
to rollers and to outer race and then to drive the propeller shaft. It is the r -thod to drive the
output shaft in direct drive.
.ne
When the outer race turns faster than cam, the outer race becomes the driving member.
Now, rollers are dropped into valley parts of the cam to unlock the connection between
transmission output shaft and overdrive main iaft. Thus, the free wheel is moved
t
independent of the hub. So, the entire assembly acts as a roller bearing. The torque is not
transferred from the outer race to cam.
3.10.4. Pawl Action

Before engaging the pawl with the gear plate to lock the sun gear in overdrive, several
conditions must be satisfied. First, the control knob at the dash must be in overdrive position
to move the rail and fork assembly into the position. Then the vehicle must be moved at a
speed above the cut-in speed and then the driver must momentarily release the accelerator
pedal.

I~ Automobile Engineering I
When the vehicle speed is above the cut-in speed, the solenoid is energized by electrical
controls. By this, the pawl is pushed towards the position of engagement with the gear plate.
The movement of the pawl is locked by the blocker ring as shown in Figure 3.35(a). When the
driver releases the accelerator pedal, the freewheeling unit is slipped and also the engine is
slowed down. It drives the output shaft to drive the ring gear at a speed greater than the speed
of the planet cage. When the speed of the engine-driven planet cage comes to 0.7 of ring gear,
the speed of the engine is decreased. Thus, the sun gear is moved backward. In Figure 3.35(b),
the blocker ring is moved by its frictional drive from the sun gear-driven control plate hub. It
also rotates slightly backward and releases the pawl by snapping into the first notch of the
gear-control plate. It is carried out when the control plate rotates backward less than 113 of a
turn. For ensuring smooth running action of the shift from direct drive to overdrive, a perfect
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synchronizing mechanism is used.
w.E Sun gear control plate
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Frictional engagement
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(a) Pawl released
r ing
(b)Pawl engaged
Figure 3.35 .ne

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The CC11 speed of 5 or 6 kmlhr below the cut-in speed is maintained, once the overdrive is
engaged. So, the electrical controls shown in Figure 3.36 are put into action to withdraw the
pawl. The free-wheel direct drive is released when the throttle closes.
3.10.5. Electrical Controls of Overdrive
The overdrive electric control serves the following purposes.
1. It energizes the solenoid as the car reaches cut-in speed.

2. It disconnects the ignition circuit momentarily.
3. It opens the solenoid circuit when the kick down switch is closed if the driver wants
to come out of overdrive,

Transmission Systems u)l1

~----~--------------------------~~
Solenoid terminal
Relay
assembly
Armature Relay contact pOif1t,:
Governor
ww Battery
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Kickdown switch
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Figure 3.36 Overdrive electrical control
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A typical overdrive electrical circuit is shown in Figure 3.36. The governor has weights
that will fly out as the speed increases and closed a set of contact points when it is at and
g.n
above the cut-in speed (32-52 kmlhr). This action is performed by the circuit from the battery
et
through the ignition switch, to the ignition coil and battery terminal of the relay assembly.
Then the current flows through the windings of the relay electromagnet to THSW terminal of
the relay. This THSW terminal is connected to the terminal of the kick down switch which
forms the circuit if the switch is in any position except completely depressed. The circuit is
continued to the rail switch to the governor contacts. This circuit is called governor-control
circuit.
The energizing of the relay winding provides the armature to close the relay contact
points which forms another circuit. It is from the battery through the ignition switch to the
ignition and battery terminal of the relay. Therefore, the contact points are crossed the
solenoid terminal of the relay which is already connected to the terminal of the solenoid.

IfDII Automobile Engineering

Solenoid:
This unit has two winnings which form a strong electromagnet when energized by battery
current from the relay. A plunger is attracted by both windings. The pawl is forced towards
engagement. First, the winding called pull-in coil draws the large current. Then it is cut out by
the movement of the plunger. It is done by opening a set of contact points by its motion. Thus,
the small winding called hold- in coil current is left to complete the movement of the pawl.
Therefore, it is held in engaged position during overdrive operation.
Two springs are compressed by the movement of the plunger. The inner one engages the
pawl when the accelerator is released. Similarly, the outer one withdraws the pawl when it is
returned to direct drive. A pair of ignition ground-contact points is controlled by the plunger.
ww
These points are closed when the plunger holds the-pawl in the engaged position and opened
w.E
when the pawl releases.
Kickdown or Throttle Switch:
asy
This switch is used to return the direct drive when it is above the cut-in speed by pressing
En
the accelerator pedal down past the full-throttle position. The governor-control circuit between
contacts of the kickdown switch is opened by this movement as shown in Figure 3.36. At that
gi
time, the relay windings are de-energized. Thus, the relay-contact points are opened. Due to
nee
opening of contact points, the current supplied to the hold-in coil is cut off. So, the outer
spring of the solenoid acts withdraw the pawl.
r
to
ing
The fully depressed throttle switch forms the circuit across terminals when it is forced to
bottom position. It provides to ground the ignition system through the ignition ground
.ne
contacts of the solenoid. Still, the pawl is engaged. Therefore, the engine looses its power and
the output shaft begins to drive the engine. Hence, the pawl is released from its pinched
position. The outer spring withdraws the solenoid by opening the ignition ground contacts to
t
restore the ignition circuit. It is carried out rapidly not more than three or four ignition misses
during the entire process. For returning to overdrive, the accelerator pedal must be released by
the driver. So, the car speed is still above the cut-in speed.
3.10.6. Troubleshooting Chart for Overdrive
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Symptoms Causes
---------------------~-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Overdrive does not freewheel. (1) Broken roller, roller cage stuck or drive
cams worn.

Systems
(2) (a) Dash
in.
(b) Missing or blown fuse.

(c) Open circuit in governor or relay
circuit.
(d) Binding in the dash-control cable or
misalignment of shift trail,
(e) Defective or stuck kick down switch.
(f) Defective governor or solenoid.
ww (g) Wrong connections in the wiring.
w.E (h) Blocker ring not in proper position.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Overdrive does not engage.
asy (a) Grounded circuit between governor
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and relay.
(b) Improper installation of the solenoid.
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(c) Defective governor, relay, solenoid
or throttle switch.
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(d) Improper wire connections at
terminals.
g.n
3. Overdrive does not release. et
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(a) Kickdown (throttle) switch defective
or not properly adjusted.
(b) Open circuit between solenoid and
ignition distributor.
---------------~----------------------7_---------------------~.~------------------------------------------------
3.11. TRANSFER BOX

Transfer box is a part of a four-wheel-drive system used in four-wheel-drive or all-wheel-
drive vehicles. It is also called as "transfer gear case", "transfer gearbox", "transfer box",
o 'jockey box" or "T-case". Ttie function of transfer box is to distribute the torque generated in
engine to all four wheels of the vehicle. The transfer box is connected to the engine, front

1_ Automobile Engineering I
axles and rear axles through drive shafts. This shifting mechanism is placed in the transfer
case. The transfer gear box is controlled by the driver. The control is located in the vehicle
compartment. It is either in the form of a transfer lever or a button.
ww "
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asy Gearbox
En
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Figure 3.37 Positionof transfercase or transfer box
Figure 3.37 shows the position of transfer case or transfer box in the vehicle. The front
r ing
axle drive is disengaged and the transfer box is put for longer shift lever in forward position
when the vehicle is running on hard surface and unleveled roads. During this stage, the shorter
.ne
shift lever will control the gear ratio such as low and high. Only low gear will be engaged
t
when the longer shift lever is for front drive. The noise will be produced at higher speeds due
to inherent resonance behaviour of spur gear train used in the transfer box.
Functions01transferbox:
(a) It receives power from the transmission and sends to both front and rear axles.
(b) The on-road transfer case coordinates the difference between rotation of the front and
rear wheels.
(c) It locks the front and rear axles mechanically when required.
(d) It provides low and high range of speeds.

I Transmission Systems 'M

Types:
1. Gear-driven type transfer box
2. Chain-driven type transfer box
3. Housing type transfer box
4. Transfer case shift type.
3.12. FLUID FLYWHEEL

It is also known asjluid clutch ot fluid coupling which couples the driving member with
driven member through a media of fluid. It consists of two members in which one is driving
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member and the other one is driven member as shown in Figure 3.38. Among them, the
driving member is connected with the engine flywheel and the driven member is connected
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with the transmission shaft. These two members are not made to contact with each other. The
driven member is free to slide on splines provided on the transmission shaft. The two rotors
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are filled with fluid of required viscosity. Radial ribs are provided to form a number of
direction. E
passages to avoid the formation of eddies. They also guide the fluid to flow in the desired
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Driving member
rin
g.n
et
Figure 3.38 Fluid flywheel
When the engine is started, the driving member called impeller starts to move inside the
housing containing oil. Pockets of moving driving member are completely filled with oil. Due
to this, the centrifugal force forces the oil outward radially. The pockets are designed in such a

way that the splashed oil will strike the pockets or vanes of the driven member. Hence. it is
forced to move in the same direction. When the engine speed increases. the oil which is
coming out from the pocket of the driving member strikes the pockets of the driven member
with greater force. Thus, it tends the driven member to rotate at the same speed.
Advantages:
I. It gives smoother power take up than the centrifugal type when the engine IS
accelerated.
2. The fluid in the coupling behaves as a cushioning agent between engine and gearbox
in order to absorb shocks during braking or coasting down on incline.
ww
3. No need ofseparate pedal or lever to operate.
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4. The driving member acts as a flywheel on the crankshaft. Thus. it is smoothened out
the torque variation.
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5. There is no wear on moving parts.
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6. No need of adjustment is required.
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7. No maintenance is necessary. except maintaining required oil level.
3. It is simple in design. nee

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9. There is no jerk on transmission when the gear engages. It damps all shocks and
strains.
10. No skill is required for operating. g.n

et
II. Car can be stopped in gear and moved off just by pressing accelerator pedal itself.
Dlsadvantages:
I. There is a drag on the gear box-shaft even the slip is 100%.
2. It has the gear changing difficult with the ordinary crash type gearbox. So. the fluid
flywheel is generally used with epicyclic gearbox which avoids this difficulty.
3.13. TORQUE CONVERTER GEARBOX
The constructional features of a torque converter are similar to a fluid flywheel. The only
difference is that it has an additional stationary member called "stator or reaction member".
All members have blades or vanes of specific shape. But the operation is not similar. In the
case of fluid flywheel, the same torque is transmitted as given by the engine shaft. But, the
Transmission Systems .1
torque converter increases the torque in the ratio of about 2: 1 to 3: 1. So, the torque converter
does the same purpose similar to a gearbox that too in a better way. Only finite number of
steps in torque variation can be obtained in gearbox. But, the output torque variation is
continuously obtained. Hence, the efficiency of a torque converter is high only within narrow
limits of speed.
A single stage torque converter is shown in Figure 3.39. It consists of three main parts.
1. Impeller or driving member: This driving member is connected to the engine.
2. Turbine or driven member: This driven member is connected to the road wheels
through the transmission gears and the drive line, and
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3. Stator: It is connected to the frame through a free wheel.
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asy
Input shuft
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g.n
Figure 3.39 Torque converter
et
Apart from this, a transmission oil pump keeps the converter with full of oil under
pressure. This oil pressure is necessary to keep the converter rotating. Due to rotation, the oil
is pushed in the outward direction by the centrifugal force. It tends to form air pockets near
the centre of the converter. The phenomenon of forming air pockets due to low pressure is
called cavitation. It can be avoided by keeping the converter pressure between 200 to
1200kPa.
The impeller is started to rotate when the engine starts. First, the oil from the impeller is
pushed into the turbine due to high centrifugal force at the impeller. At that time, the turbine is
held stationary. Due to this, the oil gets high kinetic energy from the engine through the
impeller which hits the outer edge of the turbine. The flow of the high-energy oil creates

I. Automobile Engineering
enough force that tends to rotate the turbine. This force increases with increase in engine
speed. When it is great enough, the turbine starts rotating. Thus, the vehicle moves.
The turbine blade angle changes the direction of the oil flow to come out of the turbine at
the centre. Now, its direction is entirely backward. If there is no stator, it will enter the
impeller directly and push the impeller in the opposite direction. Thus, it will cause a loss of
power. The fluid from the turbine is just made to strike a stationary member to avoid this
dragging action on the impeller. It means, a stator changes its direction suitably to leave the
oil from the stator striking the impeller in the same direction of impeller turning as shown in
Figure 3.40. The stator is also called reactor because it takes reaction while working. Then the
oil is thrown back by the impeller into the turbine at the outer edge continuously. The repeated
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pushing of turbine blades makes the torque on the turbine to increase which is called
phenomenon of torque multiplication. Deflecting the fluid in the favourable direction on the
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stator and subsequent torque multiplication occur if the turbine speed (i.e. vehicle speed) is
less than the impeller speed (i.e. engine speed). Hence, the maximum torque multiplication iii
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possible when the turbine is stationary and impeller is running fast with the engine speed
E
called stall. The maximum torque multiplication at stall is about 2.1 to 2.6.
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When the vehicle starts to move, the turbine speed will start to increase. But the torque
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multiplication will gradually reduce due to decrease of the difference in both impeller and
turbine speeds. When the turbine speed becomes equal to the impeller speed, the torque
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multiplication will become unity. This speed is equal to direct gear.
Stator
(Stationary)
+
Stator
(Free wheeling)
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Turbine Impeller
et
Impeller
Figure 3.40

inl'rPQ<:p<: nearly 85% to 90% of the impe

point will reach. Due to this, the oil leaves the turbine in the forward direction which hits the
back of the stator blade. The stator blades make the flow of fluid from the turbine to impeller.
....
T-hestator is located on a freewheel clutch called cne way clutch to avoid the fluid flow in the
impeller. The fluid flow initiates to rotate the turbine or impeller in the opposite direction.
ww Input shaft
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Figure 3.41 Centrifugal clutch with torque converter
The centrifugal clutch used along with the conventional three-member torque converter is
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shown in Figure 3.41. The centrifugal clutch consists of a number of sliding friction shoes or
g.n
friction pads which are arranged around the circumference of the damper assembly. The
damper assembly consists of damper springs and a free wheel. The friction shoes slide
et
outward due to centrifugal force with increase in turbine speed till it contacts with the cover.
The power from the converter cover flows directly through the damper assembly to the turbine
shaft. The centrifugal clutch is designed in such a way that there is some slip at high loads. A
spilt occurs between direct mechanical drive and hydraulic drive through the torque converter
when the vehicle is under load.
3.13.1. Difference between Fluid Coupling and Torque Convertor
S.No. Fluici coupling Torque converter
1. It is used to transmit rotary motion It is also used to transmit rotary motion

from a shaft to another parallel from a shaft to another with increased

- 2.
coplanar shaft.
Casing rotates with shafts.

torque.
.I, ...
Casing is stationary.
...".....-...,..__ . ~ J
3. Output speed is less than the input Output speed is more than the input
speed. speed.
4. There are no stationary guide Stationary guide vanes are provided in

vanes in the flow path. the flow path.
S. There is no torque multiplication It provides' torque multiplication between
ww between shafts. shafts during acceleration.
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3.14. PROPELLER SHAFT
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The propeller shaft is connected between transmission shaft (i.e. gearbox output shaft)
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and pinion shaft (i.e. input shaft) of the differential at the wheel axle. The propeller shaft is
also called driveline shaft or drive shaft. The propeller shaft takes power from engine and it
final drive and differential unit.

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transmits to clutch, transmission gearbox unit and driving wheels of the vehicle through the
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3.14.1. Functions of Propeller Shaft r ing
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The engine is mounted at the front end and rear wheels of the vehicle are driven in mOJit
of automotive vehicles. This arrangement requires a longer propeller shaft. It can be avoided
by using more number of propeller shafts to make up the length in commercial vehicles. A
typical propeller shaft assembly is shown in Figure 3.42.
t
Universaljoint Universaljoint
Hollow shaft
Figure 3.42 Propetler shaft

Transmission Systems ..
The engine is located at the front end and the front wheels of the vehicle are driven in
some vehicles. The engine is kept at the front and the rear wheels are driven in some other
vehicles. In this arrangement, a short propeller shaft is used to drive rear wheels. The engine
and the transmission units are connected to the vehicle frame with some flexible mountings.
The rear axle housing with differential and wheels are connected to the vehicle frame by
suspension springs.
Both the transmission output shaft and the input shaft to the rear axle housing are in
different planes as shown in Figure 3.43. It restricts the propeller shaft to keep inclined.
Whenever the rear wheels absorb irregularities in the road, the rear axle housing will move up
and down by compressing and expanding the suspension spring. Then the angle between
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transmission output shaft and propeller shaft is changed shown in Figure' 3.43. Also, the
length occupied by the propeller shaft will change. The length occupied by the propeller shaft
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is defined as the distance between transmission shaft and pinion shaft of the differential. The
variation in the length of the propeller shaft is due to the rotation of propeller shaft and the
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rear axle housing. The rear axle rotation housing is in the form of arcs with different points as
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their centers of rotation. But, the rear axle housing moves in a shorter arc when compared to
the propeller shaft. It is due to the centre of the rear axle housing arc which is the point of
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attachment of the rear spring or control arm to the vehicle frame. It causes a reduction in
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length occupied by the propeller shaft making the angle between transmission and propeller
shaft increased.
To transmission ing
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Figure 3.43
The functions of the propeller shaft are as follows.
1. It transmits rotary motion of the gearbox output shaft to the differential and then
through the axle shafts to wheels.
2. It transmits motion at an angle which frequently varies.
3. It allows some changes in length between gearbox and rear axle.

~11IIiI==.='~ A_u_to_m__Ob_'_1$Engm88ring
3.14.2. Propeller Shaft Construction
The variation of the angle and length are considered in design and construction of the
propeller shaft during vehicle movement. The propeller shaft is made of two shafts and two
types of flexible joints such as one splined sleeve called slip joint and two universal joints.
The shafts are thin walled steel tubes. The diameter varies from 50 mm to 70 mm and the
thickness varies from 1.5 mm to 7.5 mm according to the type of applications. The reason for
using a tubular section is that it is lighter in weight but stronger when compared to a solid
shaft of the same size. Also, it is inexpensive.
The shafts are made of welded or seamless tubing. Universal joints are fitted at the ends
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of the propeller shaft. Two separate types of drives known as universal joints are connected
with the propeller shaft. If any variation in the inclination of the propeller shaft occurs, the
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universal joints will rake care of. So, a propeller shaft consists of three parts. Universal joints
are connected at both ends to provide the variation in position of rear axles and the slip joint is
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used to provide for its length variation as shown in Figure 3.43.
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The overall length of the vehicle is not too long. So, the propeller shaft of single length is
enough in most of cars. But, the distance between transmission shaft and pinion shaft of the
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differential is more in the case of trucks, buses and long chassis cars. In these cases, one or
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more intermediate propeller shafts are connected to the gearbox main shaft and other end is
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connected to the main propeller shaft. The intermediate propeller shaft is always supported in
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a bearing unit. The bearing unit consists of a bracket, rubber pad and ball bearing.
Generally, there are two types of propeller shafts.

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1. Solid or open type
2. Hollow or enclosed type.
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1. Open type:
The open type of propeller shaft is used in heavy commercial vehicles, different types of
cars and light vehicles. It has a tubular in cross-section but it is not enclosed. Two universal
joints connected one at each end. One of the universaljoints is connected to the gearbox main
shaft or output shaft and other one is connected to the driving axle pinion shaft. The propeller
shaft is comparatively longer. So, it is made up of two portions. It is connected to the chassis
cross member with the help of a bearing. The front universal joint is splined and connected to
the propeller shaft to provide a telescopic action for any fore. and aft movement of the-rear -
axle relative to the gearbox.

-,,' Enclosed type:

It prevents the twisting of the axle on its springs during power transmission. In this type,
the propeller shaft is of a solid cross-section. In this case, the propeller shaft is supported by
roller bearingllinside torque tubes rigidly at both front and rear axles. A torque tube is a rigid
extension of the axle housing. The diameter of this propeller shaft is small when compared to
open type. In some models, only one universal joint is used. It is fitted to the gearbox casing
by a ball joint or large spherical bearing to resist the torque reaction. The torque and twisting
metlon of rear axle casing are resisted by tube when the brake is applied. The rear end of the
lihaft is connected to the bevel pinion shaft by a splined sleeve. The splined sleeve is used
along with rivets In both shafts to prevent longitudinal movement.
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3,15. SLIP JOINTS
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The propeller shaft is inclined towards down from the transmission main shaft to the rear
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axle as stated earlier. The propeller shaft will also be shortened and lengthened again when
the axle rises as the rear springs are compressed and at the time the axle returns to its original
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position. A slip joint is used between propeller shaft and universal joint connecting the
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propeller shaft to compensate for this change of length and it helps to transmit power from
engine to rear axle at the same time. In cars having a torque-tube drive, a slip joint is not
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necessary. The joint consists of a male splined end of the main shaft to slide in corresponding
ing
grooves with the female member of the joint as shown in Figure 3.44. The female part is
integral with the universal-joint hub. The splines enable the slip joint to transmit power for
compensating any change of length in the propeller shaft when sliding.
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Universal
joint yoke
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External splines
on transmission
output shaft
Figure 3.44 Slip joint

3.16. UNIVERSAL JOINTS
Universal joints are mainly used to make a flexible connection between two rigid shafts at
an angle. It permits the transmission of constantly varying power. It is used to connect the
propeller shaft with the gear box shaft to transmit rotary motion. In case of an automobile, a
gearbox is rigidly mounted. Due to the action of the road springs, the position of the rear axle
is constantly varied and the allowance is provided if the gearbox is mounted to the rear axle
by a propeller shaft. Hence, universal joints are used for connecting two shafts inclined to one
another at angle and also for transmitting the rotary motion from engine to road wheels
throughout the variations in position of the rear axle with respect to gearbox and chassis.
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The transmission of power under varying condition is impossible without using of a
flexible device or universal joint. This flexible device is also used in vehicles having coupling
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shaft between clutch and gearbox, between main gearbox and auxiliary gearbox and also on
driving shafts of the driven front axle.
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A universal joint consists of two yokes. These yokes are connected to each end of the
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shaft. The two yokes are joined by a central or connecting cross piece. The connecting cross
piece will tum bearings of the yoke with the change in angularity between shafts. They do not
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transmit motion uniformly if the shafts are operating at an angle. Hence, the driven shaft
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increases to maximum and then it decreases to minimum. The rise and fall of driven shaft are
twice in each revolution due to rotation of pivot pins in different planes.
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g. net
Figure 3.45 Universaljoints
3.16.1. Types of Universal Joints

Universaljoints are classified as follows.
(a) Variable velocity joints,

(b) Constant Velocity (CV) joints.

I Transmission Systems UM
(a) Variable velocityjoints:
In this case, both the driven and driving shafts do not turn at the same speed even though
each part of a revolution is at the same rpm. The driven and driving shafts should be placed in
a straight line to turn at the same speed through each part of a revolution. But in actual
practice, it will not be feasible in any automobiles. The drive shaft is always inclined.
If there is an angle between driven and driving shafts, the driven shaft will tum lower
than driving shaft through half a revolution and it is faster than driving shaft through the othe-
half revolution. Hence, the average speed of the driven shaft is equal to the driving shaft. The
speed variation in the driven shaft increases with increase in flex angle of the universal joint.
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The yokes on the shafts connected with the universal joints should not be in different
planes if two variable velocity universal joints are used in one drive line. It provides the
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balancing to the speed variations.
Variable velocityjoints are of the following types.
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(a) Cross or spider type
(b) Ring type
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(c) Ball and trunion type.
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(i) Cross or spider type:
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In universal joints, the two yokes in which one is connected to the driving shaft and the
ing
other one is connected to the driven shaft at right angle to each other by a cross or spider.
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Needle type bearings are mounted between yokes and cross ends. These types of joints are
generally used in driving shafts.
(ii) Ring type: t

This type of joint uses a flexible ring. The shafts are having two or three armed spiders.
The arms are bolted to opposite faces of flexible ring. The arms of one spider are arranged
midway between the arms of the other shown in Figure 3.46.
The flexible ring is made of one or more rings of rubber to provide enough strength. A
number of thin steel discs are used instead of fabric rings. This joint itself provides a
considerable amount of axial movement of the shaft. It smoothens the torque fluctuations and
it needs no lubrication. The main drawback is that the ring does not withstand for longer
period.

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(iii) Ball and trunion type:
Figure 3.46 Ring type universal joint
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A combination of both universal and slip joint in one assembly is used in this type. A pin
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or cross shaft is connected crosswise in 'T' fashion in the end of universal joint shaft. Each
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end of the cross shaft has a ball mounted on needle bearings. The complete assembly freely
slides in grooves machined in the outer body of the joint. A heavy spring resists excessive
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longitudinal movement of the shaft. The power is transmitted through the trunion, balls and
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cross shaft. The bending moment occurs in one direction by rolling action of balls. It is also in
the other direction by moving balls lengthwise in trunion grooves. The open end of the shaft is
covered by leather or rubber boot covers.
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(b) Constant velocityjoints:
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In this type of joint, the driven shaft is turned at the same speed as the driving shaft turns
through each part of revolution at any degree of flex. These joints are mainly used in front
drive axles for transmitting power through a large angle required. Cadillac cars use ball and
socket type constant velocity joints in their propeller shafts. These types of joints are of the
following main types.
(i) Rzeppa,
(ii) Bendix Weiss,
(iii) Tracta.
(i) Rzeppa:
It consists of spherical inner and outer ball races having grooves cut parallel to shafts.
Steel balls are placed in grooves on the spherical recess shown in Figure 3.47. The torque

1- Transmission Systems ... l

transmission is done from one race to another ball. The circular pattern of balls cause.
shafts to turn at the same velocity.
(ii) Bendix Weiss:

The principle of driving through balls held in a circle around a sphere is used in this type
of joint. Four numbers of driving balls are held into machined races in close fitting yokes. A
fifth or centre ball is placed between two yokes as an inner race. The driving balls are
arranged themselves in a circle in the same manner to Rzeppa joint. The aligning action of the
balls gives a constant velocity joint.
Outer spherical
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socket
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Figure 3.47 Constant velocityjoint
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(iii) Tracta:
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This joint differs from the above two joints. Four yokes are used in this joint in which
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two yokes are fastened to shafts and the other two are floating at the centre of the joint. The
mating parts of the yokes are made into segments of a circle. Both circular segments and
floating action of the two yokes provide a constant velocity joint.
3.16.2.Maintenance of Propeller Shafts and Universal Joints
Inspection procedures:
Serviceability of propeller shafts, slip joints and universal joints can be determined by
inspection while they are installed on vehicles. In general, these parts are inspected similar to
normal vehicles. If a rear propeller shaft is to be inspected, chocks are placed in front and rear
of front wheels. Then. wheels are raised to the propeller shaft being examined so the wheels
are free to tum.

1- .. . Automobile Engineering I
The propeller shaft IS carefully looked for big dents, Breaks or cracks are inspected at the
welded seams at each end. Excess dirt or tar is cleaned off which may stuck to the shaft
causing it to be unbalanced. A proper mounting is checked to make sure that the propeller
shaft has been installed with the slip joint end nearest the transmission. Also, the yokes are
made sure on each end of the propeller shaft are aligned.
The slip joint oil seal and the universal joints are examined. The slip joint oil seal cover
is checked for its position and location. The universaljoint mounting bolts must be tight and it
must have no stripped threads. Each universal joint bearing is checked for breaks or cracks.
Cracks usually occur in the bearing at the inside of yokes. At this time, missing and cracked
bearing grease seals are inspected which are also atthe inside of yokes. Broken or missing
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bearing are seriously checked for retaining snap rings.
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Universal joints and slip joints should be properly lubricated before the inspection starts
for looseness. The joints are lubricated for good functioning of vehicles. All grease fittings
a
should be replaced when they are severely damaged.
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After lubricating, the propeller shaft is checked for the shake and any noted looseness.
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With the hand brake is applied and wheels are off the ground, the propeller shaft back is
attempted to rotate. No looseness is allowed at the universal joint bearings but a very small
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amount of slack is normal at slip joint splines. The transmission in neutral is placed and the
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propeller shaft is turned by hand and listened for squeaking, grinding or grating sounds. These
noises indicate improperly lubricated or defective bearings.
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3.16.3. Trouble Shooting tor Propeller Shaft
Propeller shaft vibration

et
---------------------------------_ .._-----------------------------------------------------------_._ .._----_
Causes Remedies
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~--.--
I. Inspect propeller shaft for Clean foreign material from propeller
foreign material or damage. shaft, or replace if damaged.
2. Inspectpropeller shaft for loose screws. If any screws are loose, tighten.
3. Check universal joints for play or looseness. Repair or replace universaljoint.

Ifrust is visible around universaljoint,
disassemble and inspect.

4. Remove universal joint, disassemble Replace universal joint if damaged.
and inspect.
-_._-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.17. DIFFERENTIAL
3.17.1. Need for the Differential Gear Unit
Both right and left wheels are always rotated at the same speed when the vehicle is
running on flat roads. But when the vehicle travels on curved road during turning the inner
wheels need to run slower than the outer wheel as it is required to travel less distance. So, the
wheels are designed in such a way that they rotate at different speeds.
ww
The path of the inside wheel (A) and the path of the outside wheel (B) of a vehicle when
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it turns along ~ curve are shown in Figure 3.48 for comparison. The outside wheel (B) draws
an arc with the radius of distance OB and the inside wheel (A) draws an arc with radius of
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distance ~A. Therefore, the distance travelled by the outside wheel is more than the inside
wheel.
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RPM of inside wheel < RPM of outside wheel
Figure 3.48
The outside wheel is forced to move faster and rotates more than the inside wheel. The
wheel (A) on the rough surface naturally must run at higher rpm than other wheel (B) on the
flat surface. Both wheels run at an identical rpm on ordinary roads due to contact between
road surface and two wheels. The difference in rpm between right and left wheels occurs due
to the difference in amount of tire inflation and wear. Mostly, both wheels are forced to run at

IIIlJI Automobile Engineering I

the same rpm even anyone of them slips. So, tyres will wear faster. Therefore, the driving
performance of vehicles will be slightly affected. Thus, a differential device is incorporated to
allow the differences in rpm when it is transmitting equal torque.
3.17.2. Major Components of Differential
The following main components are used in the differential assembly.
l. Drive pinion or Bevel pinion

2. Ring gear or Crown wheel
3. Differential case
ww 4. Differential side gear or Sun gears

5. Differential pinions (or) Planet gears
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7.
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Pinion shaft or Cross pin (or) spider.
3.17.3. Construction E ngi

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Differential side gear or sun gear
Differential pinion or planet gear
Figure 3.49 Rear wheel drive differential
Figure 3.49 shows the basic parts of the type of differential used in rear-wheel-drive cars.
On the inner ends of each axle a smaller bevel gear called differential side gear is mounted.
Two bevel gears are put together to mesh both driving and driven shafts at an angle of 90°.
The differential case is mounted with two wheel axles and differential side gears. The
differential case has bearings which rotate two axle shafts. Then, the two pinion gears and
their supporting shaft, called pinion shafts, are fitted into the differential case. Then, the

Transmission Systems mw
pinion shaft is meshed with the two differential side gears connected to inner ends of the axle
shafts.
The ring gear is bolted to a flange on the differential case. The' ring gear rotates the
differential case. Finally, the drive pinion is mounted. The drive pinion is assembled with the
differential housing called differential case or carrier. The driver shaft is connected with the
drive pinion by a universal joint and it is meshed with the ring gear. So, the drive pinion is
rotated when the driver shaft turns. Thus, the ring gear is rotated.
3.17.4. Basic Principle of Operation
Input torque is applied to the ring gear through drive pinion, which turns the entire
ww
differential ca~e. The differential case is connected to both the differential side gears only
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through the differential pinions. Torque is transmitted to the differential side gears through the
differential pinions. The differential pinions revolve around the axis of the differential case,
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driving the differential side gears.
While the car is running on a-straight road, the resistance at both wheels is equal and the
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ring gear, differential case, differential pinion gears and two differential side gears will turn as
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a unit. Itresults the side gears rotating at the same speed as the ring gear makes both drive
wheels to rotate at the same speed. The differential pinions revolve without spinning about its
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own axis, and both wheels turn at the same rate.
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If the left differential side gear encounters resistance (when the vehicle runs on curved
g.
path), the differential pinions spin as well as revolve which allows the left differential side
net
gear to slow down, with an equal speeding up of the right differential side gear. It causes the
outer wheel to turn faster than the inner wheel.
Thus, for example, if the vehicle is making a turn to the right, the main ring gear may
make 10 full rotations. During that time, the left wheel will make more rotations because it
has further to travel, and the right wheel will make fewer rotations as it has less distance to
travel. The differential side gears will rotate in opposite directions relative to the ring gear by,
say, 2 full turns each, resulting in the left wheel making 12 rotations, and the right wheel
making 8 rotations. The rotation of the ring gear is always the average of the rotations of the
differential side gears.

3.17.5.Typesof Differential
Normally, the differential is of any on-eof the following type.
1. Conventional differential
2. Limited slip differential
3. Non slip differential
4. Double reduction differential.
3.17.5.1.ConventionalDifferential
ww Differential Case
Axle Shaft .
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Differential Side Gear
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Figure 3.50 Pictorial view of differential
The conventional differential is shown in Figure 3.50. 7 shows the pictorial

representation of the differential. The principle of operation is same as described earlier.
3.17.5.2.Limited Slip Differential or Self-Locking Differential or Differential

Lockout
The standard differential works well in most situations. However, on very slippery
surfaces such as icy or muddy roads, a lack of driving force, called traction force, can cause
rear wheels to slip because the standard differential will drive the wheel with the least traction.
If one drive wheel is on dry pavement and the other is on ice or mud, the ring gear and
differential case will drive the pinion gears. But, the pinion gears will not drive both side

Transmission Systems .,. I

gears. When the pinion gears are driven by the differential case, they will walk around the side
gear related to the wheel on dry pavement. It results the pinion gears driving the slipping
wheel and the vehicle will not move. The standard differential sends almost all engine power
to the slipping wheel. This problem can be avoided by using differential locks. Differential
locks overcome traction problems by sending the same power to both wheels while allowing
the vehicle to make normal turns.
ww
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asy
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ginFigure 3.51 Limited slip differential
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The limited slip differential (LSD) restricts the differential rpm between two wheels, two
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thrust washers and a clutch plate which are incorporated in the differential case shown in
Figure 3.51.
g. net
When the resistance of left side differential gear is larger than the wheel, the right side
differential gear will rotate. It makes the teeth of the right side differential clutch member
climbing the teeth of the left side differential clutch member. So, it makes two ciutch
members to move away from each other. Hence, the side gears are pushed against the thrust
washers. Due to this, the rpm of the rear axle shafts comes closer to the differential case due to
the friction between side gears and thrust washers. So, it is called the limited slip effect.
Types of limited-slip differential:

The two most common types of limited-slip differential are as follows.
I. Clutch-plate differential
2. Cone clutch differential.

~l"~
I~f~
..
1. Clutch-plate differential:
A_u_to_m__o_b_il_e_E_n~g_in_e_e_n_n~g~__ ~1-
The clutch-plate differential uses several friction discs which are similar to small manual
clutch discs. The main difference between this limited-slip differential and a standard
differential is the clutch packs placed between side gears and differential case. The clutch
friction discs are made of steel covered with a friction material. The clutch plates are made of
steel. The discs and plates are alternately splined to the side gear and dogged (meaning tabs fit
into grooves) to the differential case. Grooves in discs or plates are for better grabbing power.
Drive Pinion
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Axle Shaft
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Figure 3.52 Clutch-plate differential
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The pinion gears, side gears and other parts are similar to a standard differential. The
differential case of the limited-slip differential is made in two parts to allow for clutch pack
removal. The discs and plates are applied by the preload springs and by the mechanical
pressure of the pinion gears on the side gears. Since, the pinion and side gears are bevel gears,
their teeth try to come out of engagement when the differential is transmitting engine torque.
It creates a pushing action on the side gears and forces them outward against the differential
case. The outward pressure of the side gears presses the friction discs and steel plates together
between side gears and case. Whenever the discs and plates are pressed together, the splined
and dogged connections ensure the side gear:and differential case are locked together.

Transmission Systems ,,,.

When the vehicle is moving straight ahead, the clutch-plate differential operates similar
to a standard differential. The rear wheels and the differential case tum at the same speed. The
clutch packs are applied but they are not needed.
When the vehicle is making a tum, a high torque caused by the outer wheel rotating
faster than the case and it causes the clutch pack to slip. It allows the differential to operate
similar to a standard differential when making turns. The discs and plates slide against each
other discs turn with side gears, plates turning with case allowing different rotating speeds
between case and side gears. Therefore, rear wheels rotate at different speeds.
2. Cone clutch differential:
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It is next version of the limited-slip differential. In place of clutch packs, the friction
lined cones are used. The cone differential uses a cone-shaped clutch which engages a
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matching cone-shaped receptacle. The operation is similar to the clutch-plate differential.
Preload spring and side gear pressures force the cone into a dished depression in the
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differential case. Friction tries to lock the cone. Therefore, the side gear sends power to the
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wheel with the most traction. Both clutch-plate and cone differentials require a special
limited-slip gear oil. Using ordinary gear oil in limited-slip differentials, it will cause the discs
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and plates or cones to slip and vibrate during turns.
ee Cone Clutch
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Differential pinion or planet gear
Figure 3.53 Cone differential

3.17.5.3. Non Slip Differential
The differential is a torque controlled differential. Preloading the system is possible. So,
the differentialis operated by resultant moments.Preload can be adjusted.
Advantages:
(i) Maximum traction can be achieved for all grip levels (adjustable).
(ii) Fuel consumption is reduced.
(iii) Tyre wear is reduced.
(iv) A comfort driving is obtained.
ww(v) Constant speed drive is ensured.

(vi) Understeer in corners is reduced.
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3.17.5.4. Double Reduction Type Differential
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In final drives, there is a single fixed gear reduction. It is the only gear reduction in most
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automobiles and light- and some medium duty trucks between drive shaft and wheels. Double-
reduction final drives are used for heavy-duty trucks. In this arrangement, it is not necessary
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to have a large ring gear to get the necessary gear reduction.
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The first gear reduction is obtained through a pinion and ring gear as the single fixed gear
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reduction final drive. The secondary pinion is mounted on the primary ring gear shaft. The
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second gear reduction is the result of the secondary pinion which is rigidly attached to the
net
primary ring gear and driving a large helical gear which is attached to the differential case.
Differential Gear
(Second Reduction Stage)
Bevel Pinion and

Bevel Drive Gears
(First Reduction Stage)
Figure 3.54 Double-reduction differential

Double-reduction final drives may be design vehicles such as 5-ton
truck. Many commercially designed vehicles of this size use a single- reduction or double-
reduction.
3.17.6. Trouble shooting for Differential
1. Differential noisy
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------_.
Causes Remedies
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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1. Check to see if front wheel drive is engaged. Disengage front wheel drive when
traveling on hard, flat surfaces.
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2. Check lubrication level in
axle housing differential.
If low, fill to proper oil level.
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3. Check for loose inner wheel adapter nuts (a) If inner wheel adapter nuts are
or loose lug nuts.
En loose, tighten.
gin (b) If lug nuts are loose, tighten.
4. Check for loose or damaged wheel bearings.

eer (a) Adjust wheel bearings ifloose.
Raise wheel off ground. Use prey bar to

check for excessive play. bearings.ing
(b) If damaged, replace wheel
5. Check differential operation. Remove .ne

(a) Iftyres will not rotate, check
differential propeller shaft(s). Raise wheels
manually tum wheels, observe differential operation. t
brake shoe condition and
operation. (b) Remove brake drums. If brake

system components are
defective, repair or replace as
necessary.
(c) If tyres still will not rotate,

replace differential.

(d) Iftyre rotation drags at some
points during full rotation,
remove and inspect axle shafts.
(e) If axle shafts are defective,
replace.
------------------------------------------------------~-----~----------------------------------------------
2. Differential clunks during turns or initial takeoff
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
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-------------------------------------------------------------------------------_._-------------------------
1. Check for loose or damaged wheel bearings. (a) Adjust wheel bearings if loose.
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Raise wheel off ground. Use bar to
check for excessive play.
(b) If damaged, replace wheel
bearings.
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2. Check torque rod for damage. Repair or replace torque rods.
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3. Check differential propeller shaft(s)
and universal joint(s) condition. ngi Repair or replace defective
components.
4. Check front axle shafts and universal nee (a) Repair or replace defective
joints for defects.
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components.
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(b) If problem still exists, replace
differential.
e
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Differential vibrates t
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Check tyres and rims condition. Repair or replace defective
components.
2. Check front axle shafts and universal (a) Repair or replace defective
joints for defects. components.
(b) If problem still exists, replace
differential.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. Differential leaks oil
,':1.
Causes Remedies
1. Check axle seals condition. Replace seals if defective.
2. Inspect drum for presence of gear oil. If gear oil is present in or around
drums, replace axle seals,
3. Check housing for loose hardware. Tighten all loose hardware. '
ww
3.18. REAR AXLE
w.E
The power is transmitted through rear axles to driving wheels. On modern passenger cars
almost ail rear axles are live axles. It includes revolving shafts for driving wheels. In ordinary
asy
cars, the live axle will be at the front and the rear axle will be dead which simply remains
stationary.
En
All live axle shafts are splitted into two parts in modern cars. Each part is driven by one
gin
of the differential gears through a spline connection, Both shaft and gears are completely
eer
enclosed by a housing protected from water, dust and injury to inner bearings a~d to provide a
container for the lubricant. The rear axles are basically of two types such as
1. dead axles and ing

2. live axles.
.ne
t
Dead axles do not rotate with wheels. It ·is also called stationary axles. Horse driven
vehicle has a dead axle. The rear weight of the vehicle is only supported. A chain drive is used
in these axles. In a front wheel drive car, the rear axles are the dead axles which are held
stationary and wheels only rotating on them.
Live axles are connected to the wheel for rotating together. The differential is supported
by the inner end of the axle. Half shafts or driving axles are the other types of axles. It
revolves inside the casing. Bevels are splined for receiving one end of the each of the half
shaft. Ball or roller bearings are used to support the other end of half shaft. According to the
arrangement of the bearings, the half shaft or the driving axle supports the following.
(a) Total weight of the rear wheel causes bending and also the shearing action.

IfIfJI AutOmobile Engineering

(b) Bending load and also an end thrust or pull caused by side thrust on the wheels when
cornering.
(c) Driving torque.
Functions of rear axle:

1. To transmit power from differential to the wheels.
2. To carry weight of automobile.
3.18.1. Construction of Rear Axles

On light commercial vehicles, a conventional spiral bevel of hypoid-type rear axle
ww
construction is used. As the load-carrying capacity of the vehicle increases, the axle ratio also
has to be increased to give the required torque at rear wheels. When this ratio reaches
w.E
approximately 8:1, the single bevel gear axle is given way to a worm and worm wheel
arrangement or uses a double reduction arrangement to give the desired ratio within increased
asy
strength. Medium carbon alloy steel containing nickel and chromium and molybdenum are
En
used to manufacture axles to withstand various stresses.
gin
Pinion shaft
eer
ing
.ne
Crown
wheel
t
W'leel
Figure 3.55 Rear axle
3.18.2. Rear Axle Casing

There are the following three types of rear axle casing.
1. Split type axle casing

I Transmission Systems ":pl

2. Banjo type axle casing
3. Carrier type axle casing.
(i) Split type axle casing

In these types of units, the casings are made into two halves with central rings as shown
in Figure 3.56. Then, it is bolted together during assembling. The central ring has a neck to
support one of the bevel-pinion shaft bearings. The left hand side of the ring is made opened
whereas the right hand side is closed by the web which forms a cup to fit the other pinion
shaft bearing. Two extensions are bolted on both sides of the central ring. The outer ends of
the extension carry the wheel bearing, spring seats and brake anchorage brackets. The
ww
differential unit is carried in bearings which are housed at one side in the recess of the central
ring and at the other side in the cup supported in the right hand side extension.
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
(ii) Banjo type axle casing
Figure 3.56 Split type axle casing
t
The tubular axle section of this casing is made up of steel pressings which are welded
together and suitably strengthened to withstand the bending load. The centre of this casing
with the axle tube on one side resembles a banjo. The final drive assembly is mounted in
detachable malleable iron housing and it is secured by a ring of bolts to the axle casing as
shown in Figure 3.57. The axle shafts slide into this assembly from the road wheel end of the
casing.
On some banjo axles, a domed plate is bolted to the rear face of the casing. The removal
of this plate provides recess to the final drive gears where the axle shaft is secured to the
differential; it enables the axle shaft to be unlocked from the sun gear.

ww Figure 3.57 Banjo type axle casing
w.E
A lubricant level plug is screwed into the domed cover or the final drive housing at a
height about one third up the crown wheel which is normally just below axle tubes. It allows
asy
lubricating hub bearings by splashing due to rotation of the crown wheel. The final drive
becomes hot during operation. Hence, some form of air vent is provided to release the
En
pressure in the axle casing.
gin
(iii) Carrier type axle casing
ee
This type of casing is more rigid than a banjo type and it is often employed to support a
rin
hypoid gear. The final drive assembly is installed in a rigid malleable cast iron carrier into
which axle tubes are pressed and welded. For additional rigidity, reinforcing ribs are extended
g. net
from the pinion nose to the main carrier casing. A domed plate is fitted at the rear of the
casing to provide access to the final drive gear.
Figure 3.58 Carrier type axle casing

3.18.3. Types of Loads Acting on Rear Axles
The weight of the body and load due to occupants is transmitted through springs to the
axle casting. The casting is supported by wheels. Various forces and torques experienced by
the rear axle are as follows.
1. Weight of the body:
The rear axle may be considered as a beam supported at ends and loaded at two points.
The rear weight of the body is transmitted to the rear axle through two suspension springs.
The reaction forces come from road wheels. This weight causes both shear force and bending
moment in the axle shaft.
ww
2. Driving thrust:
The driving torque produced in the engine causes the thrust to be produced in the road
w.E
wheels which has to be transmitted from the axle casing to the chassis frame and the body of
the vehicle. It is carried out by some form of member connecting the axle casing and the
asy
chassis frame in the longitudinal direction. Such members are called thrust members or radius
rods.
3. Torque reaction: En
gin
If the road wheels are prevented from rotating with the propeller shaft, the bevel pinion
eer
will tend to roll round the crown wheel. This tendency is also present when the vehicles are
ing
running. Then only the bevel pinion always tends to climb round the crown wheel. Hence,
there is a force on the axle casing which supports to rotate the bevel pinion called torque
.ne
reaction. Similarly, the braking torque on the axle casing is opposite to the direction of torque
t
reaction. This tendency on the part of the axle casing has to be opposed because the propeller
shaft would be subjected to heavy bending loads. It can be effectively done by means of a
member in which one end is attached to the axle casing and the other end is attached to the
frame to remain the direction of the vehicle axis.
4. Side thrust:
Often the rear axle experiences side thrust or pull due to any side load on the wheel e.g.
the cornering force.
3.18.4. Types of Rear Axles

There are three types of live axles.
1. Semi-floating,

1":(· Automobile Engineering

2. Three-quarter floating, and
3. Full-floating.
Almost all modern passenger car axles are semi-floating type.
(i) Semi-Floating axle

In semi-floating axle, inner end is only supported by the differential side gear. The
differential case carrying the inner bearing between these differential side gears and axle
housing supports the axle. Since, the inner end of the axle shaft supports the weight of the car
and the outer end carries end thrusts it is called semi-floating. The inner end of the axle shaft
is splined to the differential side gear shown in Figure 3.59.
ww
The outer end is directly flanged to the wheels using bolts. The wheel, drum and bearing
retainer plate should be removed to withdraw the hie shaft. It results the axle shaft to support
w.E
the weight of the car .and also transmits the rotation to wheels. The bearings mounted on the
axle by retainer axle bearings are mostly pre-lubricated.
asy
En
gin
ee rin
Figure 3.59 Semi floating axle
g. net
In a semi floating axle, the various forces acting on the half shaft are as follows.
1. Side thrusts when a vehicle negotiates a corner.

2. Shear force and bending movement due to weight of the vehicle.
3. Twisting caused due to driving and braking torques.
(ii) Three-Quarter floating axle

A three-quarter floating axle is shown in Figure 3.60. The single bearing supports the
wheel hub located at the center of the wheel hub. It runs on the axle housing. The axle shaft is
rigidly keyed with the hub. So, it provides the driving connection and it maintains the
alignment of the wheel. The construction of the inner end axle shaft is similar to a semi-

Transmission Systems ,'IJ

floating axle. Still three-quarter floating axle has only one bearing at the outer end and it will
carry some bending stresses. So, it is not a full-floating type.
ww
w.E
asy
Figure 3.60 Three-Quarter floating axle
En
The three-quarter floating axle sustains the following loads.
gin
1. Bending load due to side thrust, when the vehicle is cornering, and
2. Twisting caused due to driving and the braking thrusts.
(iii)Full-Floating axle eer

ing
.ne
Axle shaft
t
Figure 3.61 Full floating axle

The wheel hub is directly supported by two bearings running upon the axle housing as
shown in Figure 3.61. The axle shaft is connected with the wheel hub flange by couplings
through which the rotary motion of the axle shaft is transmitted to the hub and wheel. The axle

I~ Automobile Engineering
shaft is removed from the housing without disturbing the wheel. It is done by simply
removing the hubcap and coupling. Hence, the axle is relieved of all strains by the weight of
the vehicle or end thrusts. So, it is called full-floating. The wheel comes off and the vehicle
drops. The full-floating axle is used in most of the trucks. Either taper-roller or ball bearings
can be used in all applications.
3.18.5. Comparison of Different Types of Rear Axles
Full-j1oating Three-quarter Semi-j1oating rear

S.No. Description
rear axle floating rear axle axle
wwI. Cost High Medium Low
2. w.E
Vertical load
taken
Nil
Yes, by a single
bearing placed over
Yes, taken by half
shaft bearings
asy the axle casing
3.
En
Side load Nil Present Present
4.
the wheelsgin
Driving torque to
Yes Yes Yes
5. Application ee In heavy
vehicles
More in cars
rin In medium vehicles
3.18.6. Rear Axle Drives

g. net
The whole of the rear axle unit moves forward and the vehicle is also pushed when the
road wheels begin to rotate. The provisions are made to impart the thrust of the axle to the
chassis. Both power and torque are transmitted to wheels by the engine. This torque does not
rotate the wheels to the desired direction but it also rotates the differential housing in the
opposite direction. So, this reaction is known as torque reaction or rear end torque. The
arrangement to withstand both thrust and torque reaction is given below.
i) Hotchkiss drive
ii) Torque tube drive.
3.18.6.1.Hotchkiss Drive
Hotchkiss drive consists of a propeller shaft, two longitudinal leaf springs. The propeller
shaft has a slip joint. The front end of the leaf springs is hinged to the frame and the rear end
is connected with the frame by swinging shackles as shown in Figure 3.62. The slip joint
,':P.
provides the increased length of propeller shaft if the rear springs get deflected. The rear-end
torque is borne by springs. It gets deflected while driving fast and also while braking. The
deflection helps to improve flexibility and damp shocks. Then, the driving force is transferred
from the axle casing to the front end of the spring and then to the frame. Hence, both rear-end
torque and driving thrust are opposed by springs.
Shackle
ww
w.E
asy Figure 3.62 Hotchkiss drive
En
3.18.6.2. Torque Tube Drive
gin Frame
ee rin
g. net
Gear shan or
transmission output
shaft
Gear shaft or
Universal joint
Cross section of differential housing
Figure 3.63 Torque tube drive

I~ Automobile Engineering
A hollow tube encloses the propeller shaft in this type. The tube is rigidly connected to
the differential housing at one end. The other end of the tube is connected to the gearbox
casing by a flexible ball and socket arrangement as shown in Figure 3.63. The driving thrust
and rear end torque are carried by a hollow tube. The tube is used in bearing to support the
propeller shaft. Only one universal joint is enough at the gearbox. There is no sliding joint
needed in the propeller shaft.
Helical or torsion bar springs are used when the rear end torque and driving thrust are
carried out by a torque tube. If laminated springs are used, shackles will also be placed at both
ends. The driving thrust is transferred to the front end of the frame through gearbox, In
Hotchkiss drive, the driving thrust is transferred to the rear end of frame through cup and
ww
gearbox shaft.
w.E
3.18.6.3.Comparison Between Hotchkiss Drive and Torque Tube Drive
S.No.
asy
Description Hotchkiss drive Torque tube drive
1.
En
N umber of universal joint It has two numbers. It has only one number.
2. gin
Slip joint in propeller shaft It is needed. It is not needed.
3.
I
Posture of Propelleree It is open.

It is enclosed within the
rin
torque tube
4. Effect on propeller shaft

It can bend and the
length changes.
g.
It cannot bend and there
net
is no change in length.
One end is fixed and

Both ends are in shackle
5. Spring support the other end is in
position.
shackle position.
6. Geometry of spring It deflects. It does not deflect.

Torque and brake
7. Load on spring reactions, driving and Only side thrust acts.
side thrusts act.
There is no shift in
8. .Effect on final drive shaft The position alters
position.

3.18.7. Trouble Shooting For Rear Axle
1. Axle noisy on acceleration
.".
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Heavy heat contact on ring gear. Correct it.
2. Improper adjustment of pinion and ring gear. Readjust.
3. Rough pinion bearings. Replace.
ww
4. Loose pinion bearings. Adjust.
w.E
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Axle noisy on coast
asy
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes
En Remedies
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Excessive backlash in ring gear and pinion. gin Adjust.
2. End play in the pinion shaft.

eer Readjust.
3. Heavy toe contact on ring gear.

ing
Readjust.
4. Rough bearings. Replace.

.ne
3. Axle noisy on both coast and acceleration t
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
------------------------------------------------------------------------------~----------------------------
1. Worn differential gears. Replace.
2. Worn pinion and ring gears. Replace.
3. Defective bearings. Replace.
4. Excessive backlash between ring gear and pinion. Adjust.
5. Pinion set too deep in ring gear. Adjust.

'am6. Pinion and ring gear too tight.

Automobile
Adjust.
Engineering
4. Backlash
Causes Remedies
1. Axle shaft splines worn. Replace axle shaft.
2. Axle shaft nut loose. Tighten as necessary.
3. Worn universal joints. Replace.
ww4. Worn differential bearings. Replace.
w.E
S. Worn differential side gear thrust washers. Replace.
asy
En
1. State the functions of transmission on systems.
gin
1. It enables the running engine to be connected or disconnected from the driving
ee
wheel smoothly and without shock.
rin
2. It enables the leverage between engine and driving wheel.
3. It enables the reduction of engine speeds.
4. It enables the turn of the drive round through 90°. g. net
S. It enables the driving wheel to be driven at different speeds.
6. It is based on the effect of torque reaction during thrust and braking effort
effectively.
2. What is a clutch?
Clutch is a mechanism used to connect or disconnect the engine from the rest of
transmission elements.
3. Mention the function of a clutch. [Anna Univ. Apr'OS & Nov'OS]
1. To permit engagement or disengagement of a gear when the vehicle is stationary

and the engine is running.

I Transmission Systems PIi"

u, To 'transmit the engine power to rear wheels smoothly without shocks to the
transmission system while the vehicle is in motion.
lll. To permit the engaging of gears when the vehicle is in motion without damaging
gear wheels.
4. Name the types of clutches. {Anna Univ:Apr'OS, Nov'OS & May'15J
1. Friction clutch
(i). Single plate clutch
(ii), Multiple clutch
.:. Wet
ww .:. Dry
w.E
2. Cone clutch
.:. Internal
.:.
3. Centrifugal clutch.
asy
External
4. Semi centrifugal clutch. En

S. Coil pressure spring clutch. gin
6. Conical spring clutch or diaphragm clutch
eer
.• :. Tapered
.:. Crown spring ing
-
7. Positive clutch - dog and spline clutch .ne
8. Hydraulic clutch
9. Vacuum clutch
t
10. Electromagnetic clutch
11. Overrunning clutch
5. What are the features of a good quality clutch? [Anna Univ. May'I2l
(i) It should be capable of transmitting maximum torque of the engine.
(ii) The clutch should be able to engage gradually and positively without the
occurrence of sudden jerks.
(iii) The design of the clutch is such that it should ensure the dissipation of heat
sufficiently which is generated during operation.

(iv) The clutch should be dynamically balanced to the vibration in transmission
system. It is very important requirement in modern cars which is operated at
high speeds.
(v) A suitable mechanism should be incorporated within the clutch for damping
of vibration and elimination of noise produced during the transmission.
6. Mention anyfour important requirements of a clutch.

(a) Transmission of torque:
It should be capable of transmitting maximum torque of the engine.
(b) Gradual engagement:
ww The clutch should be able to engage gradually and positively without the
occurrence of sudden jerks.
(c) w.E
Vibration damping:
asy
A suitable mechanism should be incorporated within the clutch for damping of
vibration and elimination of noise produced during the transmission.
En
(d) Size of the clutch:
gin
The size of the clutch should be as smaller as possible so that it will occupy
minimum space.
ee
7. List the various part of a single plate clutch.
rin
(i) Fly wheel
(ii) Clutch plate or disc plate
(iii) Pressure plate
g. net
(iv) Clutch cover assembly
(v) Release mechanism
(vi) Withdrawal force and rearing
(vii) Primary or clutch shaft.
8. What are the advantages of a single plate clutch? [Anna Univ. May'llj
1. It makes easy to change gears than cone type.
2. It is reliable than cone clutch.

Transmission Systems U·
9. Why multi-plate clutches are used in automobiles?
As compared to single plate clutch, they are smooth and easy to operate due to
their assembly of friction surfaces contact.
10. Give the two types of multi-plate clutches.

Wet and dry type
11. Distinguish between single and multi-plate clutch. [Anna Univ. May'09]
1. Multi-plate increases torque transmission capacity.
2. The diameter is reduced as it has more friction surface which reduces the size
of the clutch assembly.
ww 3. It is highly reliable.
4. It is suitable for heavy vehicles.
w.E
12. How cone clutches are engaged and disengaged?
asy
When the clutch is in engaged position, the male cone is fully inside the female
cone in such a manner that the friction-surfaces are in perfect contact. It is done by the
En
pressure springs which keep the male cone pressed all time. Now, the torque is
gin
transmitted from the engine via the flywheel and the male cone to the gearbox. When
the clutch pedal is pressed, the male cone slides against the spring force and the clutch
is disengaged. eer
13. What is known as one way clutch?
ing[Anna Univ. May'14]
.ne
The one way clutch or unidirectional clutch will transmit a drive when rotated in
one direction and will 'freewheel' when turned in the opposite direction.
14. What is the special springs used in diaphragm clutch? t

Belleville springs
15. What are the advantages of a diaphragm clutch?

1. It requires lower operating effort due to reduced friction in the clutch mechanism.
2. There is a constant and uniform load on the driven plate throughout the life of a
clutch.
3. At high speeds, the clamping load on the diaphragm springs is not affected
although the coil spring starts bowing or distorting transversely.
4. The dangerous vibrations in vehicles are altogether eliminated because it provides
accurate balance at all time.

16. How is dog and spline clutch disengaged?
The sleeve is moved back on the splined shaft to have no contact with the driving
shaft.
17. What is the necessity of hydraulic operated clutch in automobiles?
I. When the clutch is located so that it would be difficult to run from the foot pedal
to the clutch.
11. In heavy-duty mechanically operated clutches with high clutch spring pressure,
the force required by the driver to release the clutch becomes excessive.
18. Describe briefly the actuation of hydraulic operated clutch.
ww It consists of a master cylinder and a slave cylinder and an oil reservoir. When
the clutch pedal is pressed, the fluid under pressure from the master cylinder reaches
w.E
the slave cylinder. The slave cylinder is mounted on the clutch itself. The fluid
asy
actuates slave cylinder push rod which further operates the clutch release fork to
disengage the clutch.
En
19. How does electro-magnetic clutch work?
gin
An electro-magnetic clutch consists of an engine flywheel provided with electric
winding. A driven plate lined with friction materials is provided. It is free to move on
eer
splines of the gearbox shaft. A pressure plate is applied for engaging or disengaging
ing
the clutch. The operation of this clutch takes place when the electric current is passed
through the electric winding placed on the flywheel. When the winding gets
.ne
energized, the pressure plate is attached by it. It results the engagement of clutch.
t
The clutch is disengaged when the current supplied to the winding is cut off. It
results the increase in armature attraction towards the flywheel. There is no longer
compact between pressure plate and intermediate plate. Since, the current from the
vehicles dynamo increases with increase in speed, the clutch engaging force will also
increase with the engine speed to provide a progressive clutch engagement.
20. How the vacuum operated clutch works during normal working condition?
The switch in the gear lever remains open and the solenoid valve remains in its
bottom. The atmospheric pressure acts on both the side of the piston of the vacuum
cylinders. Since, the vacuum cylinder is opened the atmosphere through vent.

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et


21. What do you mean byfluid flywheei? [Anna Univ. Apr'06j
The member which couples the driving member with driven member through a
media of fluid is known asfluidflywheel.
22. What is the/unction 0/ aflywheel? [Anna Univ. Dec'14J

It couples the driving member with driven member through a media of fluid.
23. What are the merits and demerits of using fluid flywheel? {Anna Univ. Dec'14J
Merits:
1. It gives a smoother power take up than the centrifugal type when the engine
is accelerated.
ww 2. The fluid in the coupling behaves as a cushioning agent between engine and
gearbox in order to absorb shocks during braking or coasting down on.
w.E
incline.
asy
3. No need of separate pedal or lever is required to operate.
4. The drivi,ng member acts as a flywheel on the crankshaft. Thus, it IS
En
smoothened out the torque variation.
Demerits:
gin
eer
1. There is a drag on the gear box-shaft even the slip is 100%.
2. It has the gear changing difficult with the ordinary crash type gearbox. So,
ing
the fluid flywheel is generally used with epicyclic gearbox which avoids this
clifficulty.
.ne
24. What is 4WD and A WD?
4WD refers a four-wheel drive car and AWD refer an all-wheel drive car.
t
{Anna Univ. Dec'14j
25. What is the necessity of transmlssion? {Anna Univ. May'llJ
More power is required to keep an automobile in. motion when compared to

power required for keeping it rolling after starting. It means, the automobile requires
more power at the starting while the engine may be developing less power. A
transmission system does to tum the engine crankshaft to four, .eight or twelve time
approximately for each wheel revolution. A reverse gear is also set for backing the
car.

26. State any four important purposes of transmission system.
1. It helps the engine to be disconnected from the driving wheels.
2. It helps the running engine to be connected to the driving wheel smoothly and
without shock.
4. It helps to reduce the engine speed in the ratio of 4 : 1 in case of passenger cars
and in a greater ratio in case of lorries.
27. What is known as selective transmission? [Anna Univ. Dec'13j
ww Selective transmission is a transmission In which the available forward and

reverse gears may be engaged in any order without passing progressively through the
w.E
different changes of gear.
28. List out the various resistance to motion.

1. Air resistanceasy
2. Gradient resistances
En
3. Miscellaneous resistance.
gin
29. Define tractive effort.
eer
The torque available on the wheel produces a driving force which is parallel to
the road known as tractive effort.
ing
30. Classify gearbox.
.ne
[Anna Univ. Dec'08 & May'I2j
1. Manual transmission
(a) Sliding mesh gearbox t
(b) Constant mesh gearbox
(c) Synchromesh gearbox
.
2. Epicyclic gearbox
3. Automatic gearbox
(a) Hydramatic gearbox
(b) Torque converter gearbox.

Transmission Systems •• p-
31. How vehicle is kept stationary while using sliding mesh gearbox?
When the engine is running and the clutch is engaged, the counter shaft is driven
by the cultch gear. The cultch gear rotates in opposite direction to the clutch shaft.
The low speed and high speed gears are fitted on the transmission main shaft or
gearbox shaft which does not rotate. At the same time, they are not engaged with
any driving gears. Therefore, there is no motion transmitted from clutch to propeller
shaft. Hence, the vehicle is stationary.
32. What is meant by 'double declutching' in constant mesh gear box?

[Anna Univ. Dec'09J
ww It is the process of depressing the clutch, moving into neural position, releasing
the clutch, matching the engine speed, depressing the clutch and engaging .he next
w.E
gear.
33. Why is double clutching technique used?

asy
Even though there is no measure to allow easy meshing of gears, "double
En
clutching" technique must be acquired for shifting gears properly.
gi
34. What are the advantages 0/ constant mesh gearbox over the sliding mesh type?
nee
1. Helical or double helical gear teeth can be used for gears instead of spur gears
except reverse gears. So, quicker gearing can be achieved.
rin
2. Synchronizing devices can be used for smooth engagement of gears.
g.n
3. Only damage occurs on dog clutch teeth and not to the teeth of the gear
wheels.
et
4. Once the dog clutches are engaged, there is no motion between their teeth but
the power is transmitted through the sliding action of the teeth of one wheel
on diose of the other when the gear teeth are engaged. To transmit the motion
properly, the teeth are suitably shaped.
35. What is a synchronizer? Why synchromesh device is usually not employed/or the
reverse gear? {Anna Univ. Dec'12J
A synchronizer is part of a synchromesh manual transmission which allows the
smooth engagement of gears. Synchronizers equalize th~ speed of the. shaft and gear
before they are engaged. The action of the synchronizer eliminates gear clashing and
allows for smooth changing of gears.

Reverse gear is not normally synchronized because the gear rotation is required
for synchronizer action and reverse is normally selected when the car is not moving.
36. Why synchroniser is required in the automotive transmission system?
[Anna Univ. Dec'13]
Synchronizer is used for smooth engagement of gears while the changing the
gears during vehicle running condition. The synchronizer helps to synchronize the
speeds of the two gears to be engaged without necessary of faster running gear to
slowdown.
37. What is thefunction of synchromesh unitin a gear box? [Anna Univ. Apr'05]
ww To simplify the operations of changing gears without the occurrence of clas~es

and their consequent damage, a synchromesh gearbox is used in different types of
w.E
motor vehicles.
asy
38. What is thejunction of a synchronizer in a gearbox? [Anna Univ. Apr'06]
The synchronizer helps to synchronize the speed of two gears to be engaged
En
without necessity of faster running gear to slow down.
gin
39. Mention the main features of synchromesh gearbox.
ee
1. The main shaft or output gears are freely rotated on bushes of the output shaft.
rin
They are internally placed by splined thrust washers. Generally, single or
g.
double helical gears are used in constant mesh with the long shaft gears.
net
2. When their speed is equalized or synchronized by their cones, the output gears
will be locked to their shaft by the dog clutch.
40. What are the advantages of epicyclic gearbox?

1. The planetary gears are in constant mesh. Hence, dog clutches or sliding gears
are not used.
2. External contracting hand brackets or multiplate clutches of relatively small
dimensions are used for changing the gears.
3. It is a more compact unit because the planetary gear operates within a ring gear
with its external surface ofcylindrical form.
4. It is distributed over several gear wheels instead of having the load on only one
pair of gears.

Transmission Systems "('11

41. Why epicyclic gears are used in overdrive units? [Anna Univ. Dec'07] & May'll]
In transmissions, the high gear position'produces a 1:1 ratio between clutch gear
and transmission output shaft. There is neither gear reduction nor gear increase
through the transmission. It is the direct drive. At intermediate and higher car
speeds, it is sometimes desirable to have the transmission output shaft turned faster
than the clutch gear and engine crankshaft. Therefore, some transmission systems
are designed with gears to provide an over drive ratio.
42. Write down the methods of operating automatic gearbox.

1. Hydramatic transmission, and
ww 2. Torque converter transmission.
43. What is hydramatic transmission?
w.E In this case, the transmission is done by fully automatic system. It has a
asy
combined four speed forward and reverse automatic geared transmissions with a
flywheel. Three sets of constant mesh helical planetary gears are connected in series
En
to p~byide in the geared transmission. The two sets of planetary gears are used to
gi
obtciin the four forward speeds in a hydramatic gear system. The impact of the
nee
automatic shifts is cushioned and also the fluid flywheel reduces the torque reactions
of the engine. Motor vehicles attached with hydramatic drive are not connected with
rin
clutch pedals. But the accelerator and brake ar.eused for the purpose of control.
g.n
44. How the vehicle is running in neutral gear using hydramatic transmission?
et
The front band and clutch and also rear clutch are released by controls provided
on a selector lever. Due to this action, the engine flywheel is completely disengaged
from the output shaft. It causes no power transmission.
45. How torque converter gearbox differs from fluid flywheel?

The only difference is that it has an additional stationary member called "stator
or reaction member".
46. What is the use of Torque converter? [Anna Univ. Dec'08j

The torque converter increases the torque in the ratio of about 2: 1 to 3: 1.
47. What are the main parts of single stage torque converter?
1. Impeller or the driving member: This driving member is connected to the

engine.

2. Turbine or the driven member: This driven member is connected tothe road
wheels through the transmission gears and the drive iine, and
3. Stator: It is connected to the frame through a free wheel.
48. What is afree wheel? What is the importance offree wheel in the transmission of
an automobile? {Anna Univ. Dec'I2j
A freewheel or overrunning clutch is a device in a transmission that disengages
the driveshaft from the driven shaft when the driven shaft rotates faster than the
driveshaft. It allows the drive shaft of a motor vehicle to continue turning when its
speed is greater than the engine shaft.
ww
49. What are the advantages of automatic transmission systems?
w.E
1. It is a simplified driving control.
2. It gives less physical and manual fatigue to the driver.
asy
3. There is no clutch pedal and gear lever and hence, it makes the simplification of
driver's compartment.
En
4. It provides smoother running under all conditions due to hydraulic coul?lingand
gin
automatic gear change.
ee
50. What do you know about over drive?
rin
{Anna Univ. May'09j
Overdrive is a device which is useu to step up the gear ratio in the car. It is
mounted in between transmission and propeller shaft.
51. Why overdrive is used in some vehicles? g. net

{Anna Univ. Dec'14j
Overdrive is used in cars for cruising on the highway or for increasing overall
top speed.
52. What are the advantages of overdrives? {Anna Univ. Nov'05 & May'IOj
a. It allows a lower engine speed to maintain the car at highway speed.
b. It does not require as much power to keep it moving. Therefore, the engine
can turn more slowly, produce less power and still maintain car speed.
c. This system saves fuel.
d. Wear on the engine and accessories are reduced.
53. Mention the functions of an overdrive. {Anna Univ. May'IOj

1. It energizes the solenoid as the car reaches cut in speed.
2. It disconnects the ignition circuit momentarily.

3. It opens the solenoid circuit when the kick down switch is closed if the driver
wants to come out of overdrive.
54. What is propeller shaft? Where it is located?

The propeller shaft is connected between transmission shaft called gearbox
output shaft and pinion shaft called input shaft of the differential at the wheel axle.
The propeller shaft is also called driveline shaft or drive shaft.
55. State the various/unctions of propeller shaft. {Anna Univ. May'08j

1. It.\~~I)~mitsrotary motion of the gearbox output shaft to the differential and
then through the axle shafts to the wheels.
ww 2. It transmits motion at an angle which is varying frequently.

3. It allows some changes in length between gearbox and rear axle.
w.E
56. What is thefunction of universal joint in a propeller shaft?{Anna Univ. Apr'05j
asy It is used to connect propeller shaft and gear box shaft and to provide between
propeller shaft and gear box during transmission of rotary motion.
57. Name the two type~ of propeller shafts.En

I. Solid or open type
2. Hollow or enclosed type.
gi nee
58. What is the use of slip joint in transmission system?
rin
g.n
{Anna Univ. Dec'09, May'll & -M,ay'15j
A slip joint is used between a propeller shaft and universal joint connecting the
et
propeller shaft to compensate the change in length and it helps to transmit power
from the engine to the rear axle at the same time.
59. Classify universal joints.

(a) Variable velocity joints,
(b) Constant velocity (C.V.) joints.
60. What are the types of variable velocityjoints?

(a) Cross or spider type,
(b) Ring type,
.3
(c) Ball and trunion type.

IUI," Automobile Engineering

61. What are the basic/unctions of the differential unit?
(1) Straight ahead travel
(2) Turning
(3) One wheel on a Muddy surface.
62. What are the/unctions of rear axle?

1. To transmit power from differential to wheels.
2. To carry weight of automobile.
63. What are the different types of loads acting on rear axle?
1. Side thrust
ww . ';,\\H..
2. Torque reaction
\'-'n "L '··'-YY\
w.E 3. Driving thrust

4. Weight of the body
asy
64. Name the types of Rear axle housings.
a) Split Type
En
b) Banjo Type
c) Carrier Type gin
65. What are banjo type and split type axle housings? eer
Banjo type: single piece housing in final drive.
ing
.ne
Split type: two pieces housing in final drive for easy maintenance.
66. What is 'Half Shafts'?
t
Half shaft is the type of drive axle which extends from the differential to the
hub of an independently suspended suspension system.
67. Name the types of rear axles used in various Indian vehicles. [Anna Univ. Nov'05]
1. Semi floating axle-fiat and jeep.
2. Three-quarter floating axle-ambassador.
3. Full floating axle-trucks, buses and other heavy vehicles.
68. What do you mean byfull floating housing?

In a full floating housing, there is'no load on the axle shaft. The whole load of
vehicle is on the axle housing.

69. What do you mean by three quarter floating housing?
In three-quarter floating rear axle, bearings are on the outer side of axle casing
between casing and wheel. In this case, a major part of vehicle weight is taken by
axle casing and not by an axle. It is the main-advantage of three-quarter floating type
over half floating type. Thus, axle breakdown is less in this case.
70. What do you mean by semi floating IIousing?

In a semi floating rear axle, the axle is at the centre of the axle casing and the
bearings are inside' the axle casing. The weight of vehicle is transmitted first to
suspension spring, then to axle casing, next to axle and finally to ground.
ww
71. What are the variousforces acting on the three-quarter floating axle?
The three-quarter floating axle sustains the following loads:
w.E1. Bending load due to side thrust when the vehicle is cornering, and
asy
2. Twisting caused due to driving and the braking thrusts.
72. Distinguish between full-floating rear axle and three-quarter floating rear axle.
En
Fult-floating rear Three-quarter floating
S.No.
1.
Description
Cost High
gi
axle
nee Medium
rear axle ,
2.
Vertical load
Nil rin
Yes, by a single bearing
taken
Present g.n
placed over the axle casing
et
3. Side load Nil
Driving torque
4. Yes Yes
to the wheels
5. Application In heavy vehicles More in cars
73. Distinguish between/ull-j1.oating rear axle and semi-j1oating rear axle.

Full-j1.oatingrear Semi-j1oating-rear axle
S.No. Description axle
Cost High Low
1.
Yes, taken by naif shaft
2. Vertical load taken Nil
bearings
Side load Nil Present

3.
Application In heavy vehicles In medium vehicles
4.

fiiI~lil Automobile Engineering j

Driving torque to
5. Yes Yes
the wheels
74. What are the variousforces acting on the semijloating axle?

In a semi floating axle, the various forces acting on the half shaft are as
follows.
I. Side thrusts when a vehicle negotiates a corner.
2. Shear force and bending movement due to weight of the vehicle.
3. Twisting caused due to driving and braking torques.
75. What is meant by multi-axle vehicle?
ww ~ .Il.,
A multi-axle vehicle is a vehicle which has more than two conventional axles.
Extra axles are usually added to weight restriction or to accommodate different
w.E vehicle designs such as articulation or rarely to implement trailer buses.
asy
76. What are the reasons/or multiple axles?
I. Extra axles may be provided on shorter buses and coaches to accommodate
En
extra equipment loads such as passenger lifts or comforts such as toilets
televisions, climate controls.
gin
eer
2. Adding axles to chassis designs is done for specific reasons such as weight or
-
legalities as having extra axles means extra costs for the operator in terms of
ing
tyre replacement and to an extent and higher fuel consumption.
.ne
3. In some buses, the rearmost axle is connected to the steering with the rear most
t
set steering in the opposite direction to the front axle. This steering arrangement
makes it possible for the longer triple axle buses to negotiate corners with
greater ease than other case.
77. What are the types 0/ rear axle drive?

1. Hotchkiss drive
2. Torque tube drive.
78. What is torque tube?

A torque tube is a housing in which propeller shaft e~closes. It is attached to
the drive axle housing. Its one portion is connected with gear box and other portion
is with the differential box.

Transmission Systems dliD

79. Distinguish between Hotchkiss drive anti torque tube drive.
S.No. Description Hotchkiss drive Torque tube drive
1. Number of universal It has two numbers. It has only one number.
joint
2. Slip joint in propeller It is needed. It is not needed.
shaft
3. Posture of Propeller It is open. It is enclosed within the
torque tube.
4. Effect on propeller shaft It can bend and the It cannot bend and no
ww
80. What do you understand by Hotchkiss drive?
length changes . change in length
{Anna Univ. May'lOJ
w.E The Hotchkiss drive is a system of power transmission.

form of power transmission for front-engine in rear-wheel
It was the dominant
drive layout cars.
asy
Hotchkiss drive is a shaft-drive system. All shaft-drive systems consist of a
En
driveshaft extending from the transmission in front to the differential in the rear. It
uses universal joints at both ends of the driveshaft which is not enclosed.
gi nee
81. Why two universal joints are requiredfor a Hotchkiss drive system?
A universal joint is used where two shafts are connected at an angle to transmit
torque. One universal joint is used to connect the transmission
rin main shaft and
propeller shaft and other universal joint is used to connect the other end of the
g.n
propelle. shaft and the differential pinion shaft. Thus, the connections between three
shafts are flexible and at an angle with each other. The universal joint permits the
torque transmission not only at an angle but also while this angle is changing
et
constantly.
82. What is the advantage of the Hotchkiss drive? {Anna Univ. May'llJ
I. Spline in Hotchkiss drive eliminates thrust transmitted back up the drive shaft
from wheels
2. The drive allows simple rear-axle positioning using parallel leaf spring ..
83. Mention few important causes of axle failures. {Anna Univ. May'14j
Following are some important causes of axle failure:
(i) Overloading of vehicle.
(ii) Entry of dust or abrasive particles in the axle.

IIIliZI Automobile Engineering

(iii) The lubrication is not maintained at the required level.
(iv) The replaced parts are not of the correct type.
(v) Usage of incorrect grade lubrication.

1. What are the purposes of transmission systems?

2. What is meant by clutch? List out the requirements. [Anna Univ. N(lv'OS & Nov '07]
ww Refer chapter 3.2 in page 3.2.

3. What are the features of a good quality clutch? Explain the working of multi plate
w.E
dutch with a neat sketch. [Anna Univ. May' J0]
asy
4. Classify clutches.
En
gin
5. Explain the function of clutch. Draw anyone type of clutch and explain in detail.
ee rin
[Anna Univ. Dec '08]
Refer chapter 3.2.2 in page 3.3 and chapter 3.3.1 in page 3.5.
6. Discuss about working principle of single plate clutch.
g. net
[Anna Univ. Apr 'OS,Apr '06 & May'JS]
7. Explain the working of friction clutches. What are the assumptions made in pressure
calculation? [Anna Univ. Dec' 14]

8. How semi- automatic clutch works? Explain.
9. Explain the working ofa diaphragm clutch with a neat sketch.

10. Write short notes on positive clutch and hydraulic clutch.
Refer chapter 3.3.7 in page 3.15 and chapter 3.3.8 in page 3.16.
II. Compare hydraulic, mechanical, electrical and vacuum methods of operating
clutches. Describe a hydraulically operated clutch in detail with the help of simple
diagrams. [Anna Univ. Dec '12]
Refer chapters 3.3.1 to 3.3.10 in pages 3.5 to 3.18 for comparison of

hydraulic, mechanical, electrical and vacuum methods of operating clutches.
Refer chapter 3.3.8 in page 3.16 for the description of hydraulically
operated clutch.
ww
12. Briefly explain the trouble shooting of clutch.
w.E Refer chapter 3.4 in page 3.19.
asy
13. Explain various types of resistance to motion.

14. What is tractive effort? En [Anna Univ. Dec '14]
gi
nee
15. Explain types of gear boxes in detail with neat sketches. [Anna Univ. May'14]
Refer chapter 3.6 in page 3.25. rin

16. Explain the sliding mesh gearbox with a suitable sketch. g.n
et
[Anna Univ. Apr '05, Apr '06 & May '09]
17. Discuss the construction and operation of a constant mesh gear box.
[Anna Univ. Nov05 & May' J 11
18. With a neat sketch, explain the working principle of synchromesh gear box.
[Anna Univ. Dec '09, May' J 0 & May' J 2]
19. Explain the working of Wilson epicyclic gear box. [Anna Univ. Dec '07]

20. Explain in detail the automatic transmission system. [Anna Univ. Dec' 14]

21. Describe the working of a hydramatic gearbox with a neat sketch.
22. Describe in detail various types of gear selector mechanisms used in automobiles.
Discuss also the advantages and disadvantages of each and state what the modem
trend is. [Anna Univ. Dec '12 & May '15]
ww
23. Explain the various trouble shootings that can be occurred in gearbox.
w.E Refer chapter 3.9 in page 3.43.
24. Describe the construction and working of an over drive with a neat sketch and list
asy
out its advantages. [Anna Univ. Dec' 13]
En
.
system. gi
25. Explain the working principle and application of a freewheel drive in transmission
nee [Anna Univ. May'10]
Refer chapter 3.10.3 in in page 3.52.

rin
26. Explain the working of a pawl action with its neat sketches.
Refer chapter 3.10.4 in page 3.51. g.n

27. Write short notes on electric controls with its neat sketches. et
28. Explain the trouble shooting of overdrive.
29. Explain the working principle of fluid flywheel with the help ofa sketch.
[Anna Univ. Nov '05 & Nov '08]
30. What is meant by a fluid coupling and torque converter? [Anna Univ. Apr '06]
Refer chapter 3.12 in page 3.57 for fluid coupling and chapter 3.13 in page
3.59 for torque converter.

Transmission Systems mil

31. What is torque converter? Explain its working principle with suitable diagram.
[Anna Univ. May '12, Dec '12 & May '15]
32. What is the difference between a fluid coupling and torque converter?
[Anna Univ. Apr '05]
33. Explain briefly the construction of the propeller shaft with neat sketch.
[Anna Univ. Dec '08, May' 10, May' 11 & Dec' 14]
ww ,I
34. Give the short notes on slip joint with a neat sketch.
w.E
[Anna Univ. Dec '08, May' 10 & May' 11]
asy
35. Describe in detail various universal joints usedin automobiles.
[Anna Univ. Dec '08, May' 10, May' 11 & Dec' 12]
En
Refer chapter 3.1" in page 3.66.
36. What are the needs for differential unit?

gin
eer
37. Explain the \':\1 .ous basic functions of the differential unit.
ing
.ne
38. Explain the principle and working of a differential with a neat sketch.
t
[Anna Untv. Nov '05, Apr '06, Dec '07, May'09, May '11, May '14, Nov '14& May '15]
39. Describe the working of a self-locking differential unit.
40. Discuss the principle of a differential with a neat sketch and state the mechanism for
power lock or non-slip. [Anna Univ. May' 10 & Dec' 13]
41. Explain the rear axle casing with neat sketches.

IIIIS Automobile Engineering

42. What are the different loads acting on a rear axle of a vehicle?

43. Explain the different types of rear axles with neat sketch.

44. Discuss the following with simple sketch of a torque tube drive.
[Anna Univ. May '09 & Dec '14]
45. Write short notes on the following:
ww (i) Hotchkiss drive

[Anna Univ. Dec '07 & Dec '09]
w.E (ii) Iransfer box. [Anna Univ. Dec '09]
asy Reier chapter 3.11 in page 3.55.
---------------- E ngi
END of Unit 3 -,----
-----------------------.------------
nee
rin
g.n
et

UNIT - 4
I
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
Steering geometry and types of steering gear box-
Power Steering, Types of Front Axle, Types of
Suspension Systems, Pneumatic and Hydraulic ing
Braking Systems, Antilock Braking System (ABS),
.ne
electronic brake force
Traction Control.
distribution (EBD) and
t

ww
w.E STEERING, BRAKES AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
4.1. STEERING SYSTEM asy

E ngi
Automobiles are controlled by a steering system. Steering system provides the directional
change for the movement of an automobile and it maintains in a position as per the driver's
nee
decision without much strain on him. The steering system allows the driver to guide the
vehicle along the road and tum left or right as desired. The wheels are changed from their
rin
straight ahead ·position for turning the vehicle to one side. It is obtained by mounting the
steering wheel assembly suitably on the axle.
g.n
et
The safety of any automobile mainly depends on the performance of the steering and
braking systems. Many of the accidents are happened due to the driver's negligence, improper
job of inspecting, repairing or maintaining the steering system. These problems can be
avoided by knowing thoroughly about steering system. So, the knowledge about this system is
very important to operate the vehicle in a safe mode.
Steering is done by moving the axes of rotation of front ...heels with respect to the
chassis frame. So, the inner wheel turns through a greater angle than outer one. If it is not so, a
greater wear will occur. Ea~h wheel rolls OIl: arc with-a steering having a common centre. For
ensuring a proper control of the automobile, the driver must be able to
(a) tum in different directions so thatit may not go astray.

(b) control the speed of the vehicle for moving according to requirements.
(c) slow down or stop when required whether slowly or suddenly.

By supplying more or less quantity of fuel, the accelerator controls the engine speed. The
speed of the vehicle is changed by a gearshift lever for obtaining different gear speed. For
stopping the vehicle, brakes are used. The.steering should be arranged in such a way that the
wheels roll without slipping or scuffing. So, the steering must be light and stable with a
certain degree of self-adjusting ability.
4.1.1. Requirements and Functions of the Steering System

Requirements of the steering system:
For ensuring proper, smooth operation and performance of the steering system, the
steering system of any vehicle should satisfy the following requirements.
ww '!
1. It multiples the turning efforts applied on the steering wheel by the driver.
w.E
2. The shocks of the road surface absorbed by wheels should not be transmitted to the
driver's hands.
asy
3. When the driver releases the steering wheel after completing the turn, the wheel
E
should achieve a straight ahead position immediately, called self-rightening effect.
ngi
4. It must keep the wheel at all time in rolling motion without rubbing on the road
5. This system should associate to control the speed.
6. It must be light and stable. nee
7. It must easily be operated with less maintenance.
rin
Functions of the steering system:
g.n
A good steering system must perform the following functions satisfactorily.
1. It provides wheels swinging to the left or right.

et
2. It provides vehicle turning as per the will of the driver.
3. It provides the directional stability.
4. It helps to control wear and tear oftyres.
5. It helps in achieving the self-rightening effect.
6. It converts the rotary movement of the steering wheel into an angular turn of front
wheels.
7 It multiples the effort of the driver by leverage to make Wheelseasy to turn.
8. It absorbs a major part of road shocks in such a way from being transmitted to hands
of the driver.

I Steering, Srakes and Suspension Systems

The above-mentioned functions are done into two portions such as
I. by providing steering gears at the end of the steering column, and
2. by providing linkage between steering gear and wheels.
4.1.2. Layout of Steering System or Components of Steering System

Various components of the steering system are shown in Figure 4.1.
ww
w.E Track rod
asy
E ngi
nee
Figure 4.1 Layout of steering system
rin
The following are the main components of steering system.
g.n
1. Steering wheel
2. Steering column or shaft.
e t
3. Steering gear
4. Drop arm or pitman arm
5. Bafljoints
6. Drag link
7. Steering arm
8. Stub axle
9. Left spindle and kingpin
10. Left tie rod arm
11. Track rod or tie-rod

1l1li Automobile Engineering

12. Right tie rod ann, spindle and kingpin
13. Steering stops.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
1. Steering wheel:
Figure 4.2 Arrangement of steering system components
.ne
t
It is the control wheel to steer a vehicle by the driver. It contains traffic indicator switch,
light switch, wiper switch etc.
2. Steering linkage:
The steering wheels are turned by the steering linkage. The steering linkage consists of
pitman arm, ball joints, drag link, steering arm, spindle, tie rod and kingpin assembly.
Different forms of steering linkages are shown in Figure 4.3.
(a) Pitman arm:

It is also called drop arm which converts the output torque from the steering gear into
force to the drag link. It is connected to the sector shaft of the steering gear by a split joint.
Either full serrations or partial splines are used for transmitting the torque from the sector
shaft to the pitman arm. The split arm is tightened around the sector shaft bv a clamping bolt.

Steering, Brakes and

It is done for differentiating the male and female serrations or splines. The end of the pitman
arm connected with the drag link has a tapered hole. The ball stud on the drag link is fixed
into this hole.
-8t--~I8-- -8':lA-~J8-(1) (2)
-8)={8-- -8CV78--
ww-8~8-- -8'g=78--
(3) (4)
w. Ea (5) (6)
(b) Ball joints:

syE
Figure 4.3 Variousforms of steering linkages
ngi
These joints are connected at both ends of the drag link and tie rod. It performs the
nee
angular displacement, rotational movement of the drag link and the tie rod produced by the
front wheel rotation and suspension articulation.
(e) Drag link: r ing

.ne
It is connected between pitman arm and steering arm. It is a single prece forged
component having a ball joint socket formed at the end in some other cases.
(d) Steering arm: t

It is also a forged component which is connected to the steering knuckle. During turning,
the drag link force is converted into a turning moment about the left kingpin. The steering arm
is connected to the spindle through a keyway, locking taper and nut. The arm is extended
either to the front or rear spindles according to package constraints. The end of the steering
arm connects with the drag link and a tapered hole receives the ball stud.
(e) Left spindle and kingpin:

The torque obtained by the steering arm rotates the left spindle, wheel and tyre about the
kingpin.

(f) Left tie rod arm:
The left tie rod arm is connected with the spindle in the same way as the steering arm. It
converts the available torque to turn the right wheel into force in the tie rod. The tie rod has a
tapered hole to receive the tie rod ball stud.
(g) Tie rod:

The tie rod is a tubular member. Both the left and right tie rod arms are connected by this
tie rod. The force is transmitted between these two components. The tie rod ends have female
threads. But the ball joint shafts have mating male threads. The threaded connections are held
together firmly by locking clamps after setting the correct length. The length of the tie rod is
an adjustable one to the specified amount.
ww In the direct cross type steering linkage. the pitman arm is directly connected to one tie
w.E
rod which in turn is connected to another tie rod. The other end of the tie rod is connected to
steering arms.
asy
(It) Right tie rod arm, spindle and kingpin:
En
It converts the force from tie rod into a moment to turn through the knuckle arm, the right
spindle wheel and the tyre about the kingpin. The right spindle and the kingpin assembly are
gin
merely similar assembly on the left side. But it has no steering arm connected to it.
(i) Steering stops:

eer
ing
Stops are used to limit the angular deflections of front wheels. It also avoids the rubbing
oftyres against the frame produced by wear and tear oftyres. These steering stops are used at
.ne
two different places. First, they are fixed' in the path of motion of the steering arm or drop
arm. Then, they are fixed in the path of motion of the steering knuckle.
3. Steering shaft: t
The steering shaft is fitted inside the hollow steering column. When the steering wheel is
turned, the steering shaft will also be rotated. Due to this, the motion is transmitted to the
steering box.
4. Steering gear:
The pitman arm is splined to the steering gear box rocker arm at one end and the other
end is connected to the drag Iink by a ball joint.

4.1.3. Principle of Operation of Steering System
Generally, the steering system has a worm drive in the steering gear box. The driving
worm is bolted to steering tube end. A cross shaft is rotated by the driven gear at right angle
to the steering tube. During turning of the steering wheel, this motion is transmitted through
a steering gear. So. the direction of motion is changed and obtained through the multiple
twisting forces with respect to gear ratio. The output shaft is revolved for moving the pitman
arm. Then the motion is transmitted to steering knuckles via drag link intermediate steering
arm hinged in a frame bracket.
The following functions are carried out when a steering wheel takes a right turn.
I.
ww
Both steering wheel and steering tube are rotated clockwise by rotating the roller shaft
through the steering gear.
2.
w.E
Due to this action. the bottom end moves forward for pushing the drag link.
3.
asy
The tie rods are forced to turn left direction by an intermediate steering arm. Thus, it
receives a push of the drag link.
4. E ngi
The right steering arm is pulled by the right tie rod to turn the right steering knuckle
and wheel to the right.
5. nee
The left steering arm is pushed by the left tie rod for turning the left steering knuckle
and wheel to the right.
rin
g.n
The same procedure is used but the reversed actions take place while taking a left turn.
4.1.4. Fundamentals of Steering Mechanism or Condition for True Rolling Motion

e
The main function of the steering system of a vehicle is to convert the rotary movement
t
of the steering wheel into angular turn of the wheels. To keep the straight-ahead motion of the
vehicle at high speed due to bumps and change the path of the vehicle with the minimum
amount of driver's effort, a mechanism known as steering mechanism is used. At the same
time, the relative motion of a vehicle wheel to the ground should be pure rolling.
During turning or moving the vehicle on a curved path, the wheels should follow a true
radius or definite radius with each of the radius originating from the same centre. The circle
based on the common centre is known as instantaneous centre. For perfect steering we must
always have an instantaneous centre about which all the wheels must rotate to avoid skidding
of wheels. For this purpose inner wheel has to turn more than the outer wheel.

The relationship of the wheels of a vehicle is shown in Figure 4.4. The various radii of
front and rear wheels about pivots are PC, PA, PF and PE. Here P is the common centre or
point of turning.
Il:.:..ioo-- a ---1-1
A
ww
w.E
a I- syE
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Figure 4.4 Construction of steering mechanism
turns through angle nee

Assuming that the outer steered wheel has to turn through angle ¢ and the inner steered
e for pure rolling and avoiding any lateral slip. Then the angles can be
r ing
calculated from the wheel base and track of the vehicle by using known value of required
turning circle.
Now EF=PE-PF .ne ... (4.1)
From~AEP, cot e= -
PE
EA
t
PE=EA cot $ ... (4.2)
Similarly, from ~CFP,
PF
cot8= -
Fe
PF= Fe cot e ... (4.3)
Substituting (4.2) and (4.3) in (4.1),
EF= EA cote -Fe cot e

Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems

ButEA=FC
.,.
EF= EA cote -EA cot e
Dividing throughout by EA.
-EF = cott/J- cotO =

Track
= -a = constant
EA Wheelbase b
cot t/J= Constant + cot 0
Steering is obtained by turning the axes of rotation of two front wheels relative to the
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chassis or body of the vehicle. The axis of the wheel on inside of the curve must be turned
through a larger angle than the axis of the wheel on outside of the curve to satisfy the
w.E
condition of concentric circular arcs as shown in Figure 4.4. Therefore, two front axles should
be operated by the steering system by satisfying the above equation for any value of radius of
curvature followed"bythe vehicle.
asy
E
4.1.5. Ackerman - Jeantaud Steering Linkage
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The Ackerman - Jeantaud steering linkage is shown in Figure 4.5. This linkage is based
on a four bar chain with two longer links (AC and KL) of unequal lengths with two shorter
links (AK and CL) of equal lengths.
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c g.n
K
,,
,
" ,_
_
A
a e t
......... .... -_ ..
M N P
x x
d
Figure 4.5 Ackermann steering mechanism
When the vehicle is running along a straight path, the longer links will become parallel
and each of shorter links will be inclined at an angle a. to the longitudinal axis of the vehicle.


The short link is turned to increase the angle a for steering the vehicle to the right. Now, the
long connecting link LK makes the short link AK to turn in reducing the angle a.
AK with angle ~ turns is less than the angle e of CL. It means, the left front axle turns
through a small angle than the right front axle.
The value of ~ obtained for a given value of e depends upon the ratio of (AK / AC) and
angle a. For known values of (AK / AC) and a, the values of e and ~ are obtained by either
,graphically or arithmetically. The difference between cot ~ and cot e for each pair of e and ~
values will increase slowly at first and then it will increase rapidly when e increases.
PM PN
ww But cot ~ - cot e = -- --
AM cs
w.E
Ackermann mechanism can only give a correct steering for one value of
Similarly, a corresponding value of 8 can be obtained when the vehicle is turning left. For
e, except e = o.
asy
small values of 8, the angle ~ will be too high for correct steering and it would be too low for
e
En
large values of 8. The errors occurred in values of ~ are negligible even is large in this
mechanism. But, the error in steering will produce wear on tyres. The distance of the point of
gin
intersection of arms AK and CL from the line AC is 0.7 of the wheel base obtained. This
eer
distance makes 8 to increase at correct steering. The movements of KL in the direction parallel
to the axle beam AC will be same if the slight inclination of the track rod is neglected. Let,
ing
this movement is Y. If L'K' is the correct steering position, the wheels are turning to the right
and r will be the cross arm radius. Therefore, for correct steering,
. x+ y
8) =-- .ne
S1l1 (a+
.
S1l1 (a-~)
r
x-y
= --
t
... (4.4)
... (4.5)
r
Adding (4.4) and (4.5),

. . x+ y x- y 2x
SIl1 (a+8) +SIl1 (a-~) =--+--= - (:.sin a=~)
r r r r
. x a-(d+x)
Now S1l1 a = - =_-'--_--'-
r r
where a = half the Ackermann angle.
So, the variable 8 and ~ are calculated from above equations for correct steering.
Therefore, the movement y parallel to the axle beam will result a greater angular movement.


4.1.6. Davis Steering Gear
Davis steering gear is an exact steering mechanism as shown in Figure 4.6. The slotted
links AK and BL are connected to left and right front wheels respectively. They are arranged
to turn on pivots at A and B respectively. The link KL is in front of the link AB at a distance h
from the link AB. The link KL is restricted to move in the direction length and parallel to AB
by the sliding constraints at M and N. The link KL is attached to slotted levers AK and BL by
a sliding and turning pair at each end. When the mechanism is in the mid position having
wheels at orientation WI and W2, the vehicle will move along a straight path. Steering is
obtained by moving the link KL to the right or left of its normal position.
ww Straight
w.E
c asy D
E ngi
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Figure 4.6 Davis steering gear mechanism
When the steering effected to the left, the wheels newly orients to WI' and W{ Then the
axes of the left and right wheels (WI' and W2') make an angle rin
e and <I> respectively. If the
g.n
intersection of three axes is at P, then the steering will be correct tor all positions of the
e
steering gear. The two arms AK and BL intersect at a distance H in front of AB. The slide
blocks are pivoted on these pins and moved with the turning of bell crank levers when the
steering wheel operates. When the vehicle is running straight, the gear is said to be in mid-t
position. The short arms AK and BL are inclined at an angle 90 + a to their stub axles AC and
BD respectively. The correct steering depends on the suitable selection of cross-arm angle a
and it is given by
b
tana=-
21
where b = AB = distance between the pivots of front axles

I = wheel base.
The range of(b / l) is 0.4 to 0.5, thus angle a lies on between 11.30 and 14.10.

lID Automobile Engineering

4.1.7. Steering Linkage for Vehicle with Independent Front Suspension
In case of a conventional rigid axle suspension, the main axle beam ensures the
movement of stub axle in the horizontal plane only. Therefore, there is no vertical deflection
of the suspension and hence, there is no change in effective track rod length. In the case of
independent suspension, the two stub axles can move up or down independent of each other
due to which distance of ball-joint ends of the two track rod arms continuously varies. On
account of a single track rod as in conventional system, the above-mentioned case cannot be
used.
ww
w.E r- TieRods
asy Relay Rod
E ngi
Steering Gear
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Steering Wheel
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g.n
Figure 4.7 Steering linkage for independent front suspension
e t
Figure 4.7 shows the construction details of steering linkage for independent front
suspension. Three piece track rod is used, the center portion being called relay rod is used,
which is connected at one end to an idler arm supported on body structure and the drop arm of
steering gear at the other end through ball joints. The relay rod is restricted to move in a
horizontal plane only. The movements in vertical plane are provided by the outer portions.
4.1.8. Steering Geometry
Since the steering linkage consists of different mechanisms such as support arms, tie rod,
pitman arm, drag link etc. connected together they form angles in relation to each other.
Steering geometry is the angular representation and obtaining relationship between these
linkages and front wheels. It is essential to know the name of various angles which is
produced in steering geometry.


The important angles pertaining to steering geometry are as follows.
e"-
1. Castor
2. Camber
3. Kingpin inclination
4. Toe-in
5. Toe-out.
(i) Camber:
When the front of the vehicle is viewed, the angle between centre line oftyre and vertical
ww
line is called camber. Figure 4.8 shows the camber angle. The camber is also named as wheel
rake. When the wheels are tilted inwards at the top, it is negative. It is positive when it tilts
w.E
outward at the top. The camber is referred in degrees. The front wheels are come to a vertical
position when the vehicle loads are with a positive camber. At that time, the camber should
not exceed to 2°.
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Wheel
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-~--- Wheel Camber Included angle
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Front axle rin
g.n
Figure 4.8 Camber
e t
Due to excessive positive camber, the outer tread section of tyres and shoulder will wear
faster. To avoid this type of wear, the camber angle should be kept equal at both front wheels.
The tyre life will be maximum when the camber angle in running condition is zero with
average load. Similarly, if the vehicle with equal camber on both wheels is running on road, it
will pull away the car towards the side of the road. To avoid this, high camber is slightly
provided to the right wheel than the left one in India. Similarly, high camber is slightly
provided on the left wheel in the case of left hand drive vehicles in Western countries.
The change in spring height also changes the camber. When the camber is zero, slight
irregularities on the road may occur to change the wheel load thereby changing the direction


of the camber effect. This phenomenon is called 'wander'. So, the exact amount of camber is
specified '.Jytaking the kingpin inclination into account.
Reason of camber angle provided in steering system:

Camber angle alters the handling qualities of a particular suspension design. Particularly,
a negative camber improves grip when cornering because it places the tyre at a better angle to
the road, transmitting the forces through the vertical plane of the tyre rather than through a
shear force across it.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Figure 4.9 Effect of positive camber
Off-road vehicles such as agricultural tractors generally use positive camber. In such
eer
vehicles, the positive camber angle helps to achieve a lower steering effort. For maximum
ing
straight-line acceleration, the greatest traction will be attained when the camber angle is zero
and the tread is flat on the road.
Effects of wheel camber: .ne

1. Bending stresses in the kingpin and stub axle are reduced.
2. Steering effort is drastically reduced.
t
3. Shock loads are not permitted to transmit to the steering wheel at high speeds.
4. It imparts the directional stability.
(ii) Castor:
Tilting the kingpin axis either forward or backward from the vertical line is known as
castor. The angle between the vertical line and kingpin centre line in the plane of the wheel
when it is viewed from the side is known as castor angle.
When the top of the kingpin is inclined in backward direction, the castor angle is
positive. The caster angle is negative, when the top of the kingpin is inclined in forward

Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems tl,.

direction. It ranges from 2° to 7° in modern vehicles. Excessive castor causes excessive
wobbling on front wheels.
' ingpin
, Front wheel
,
iI ,\
~
Vertical
ww
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Effects of castor:
Figure 4.10 Castor
asy
1. The positive castor gives the directional stability and it keeps the wheels to straight
E
ahead after completing its turns. Similarly, the negative castor provides easy steering.
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2. The excessive positive castor tends the vehicle rolling out. Similarly, the excessive
negative castor makes the wheel to toe-out.
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3. If caster angle on both wheels is same, both wheels will be equally balanced. If it is
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greater on one side, wheels are pulled towards the wheel having lesser castor angle.
4. Usually, about 30 of castor gives good results.
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(iii)J(ingpin inclination: e
The angle between vertical line and centre of the kingpin or steering axle when viewing
t
from the front of the vehicle is called kingpin inclination. It usually varies from 3.50 to 7.5°.
Effects of kingpin inclination:
1. Both kingpin inclination and castor give directional stability.
2. Particularly steering effort is reduced when the vehicle is stationary.
3. Tyre wear also is greatly reduced.
4. During turning of the wheel, this inclination raises the vehicle. So, the force is
exerted on wheels to straighten up automatically after completing its turn.


5. The kingpin inclination should be equal on both sides. If it is greater on one side, the
vehicle will be pulled to the other side having the greater angle.
(iv) Toe-in and Toe-out:

Usually, front wheels are slightly turned to the front side. It means, the distance (A)
between front ends is slightly less than distance (B) between back ends when it is viewed from
top as shown in Figure 4.11. Then the wheels are said to be toe-in. Similarly, the wheels are
said to be toe-out when the distance A is greater than B as shown in Figure 4.12. The amount
of toe-in does not exceed 3mm.
Front of vehicle
J~~~---- A ----~~
ww
w.E o Main axle o
asy
E ngi B
Figure 4.11 Toe-in

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Front of vehicle
A
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g.n
,) Main axle o
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B
Figure 4.12 Toe-out
Effects of toe - in:

The toe-in is given to ensure the parallel rolling of front wheels, stabilized steering and
no 'side slipping and less tyre wear.


An improper toe-in produces the following effects.
1. Tyre slip
2. Tyre Wear on outside of the tread
3. Tyre scrub bend
4. Poor steering stability.
Effect of toe-out:
The inner front wheel turns for larger angle than the outer wheel while turning as shown
in Figure 4.13. So, the wheels are made to toe-out on turns due to the difference in their
turning angles thereby avoiding tyre scrub. By keeping the proper relation between steering
ww
knuckle arms, tie-rods and drop arm, the toe-out occurs.
w.E
n
o=:
I ""
Outside
wheel "",
Front
_~~eel _-(/ Inside
wheel
a
i syE
,·,····,.l ""'"
j
i'" " """"
I ngi ............ ..
I I'
,
.••.•.• "'"
,
i I n e "'/:'"
()-i--. ----LQ--------------_~Le_!:h., rin
g.
Figure 4.13
In modern cars, the kingpin is replaced by ball joints. It is named as 'steering axis net
inclination'. It is also defined as the inclination of the ball joint-axis from vertical (Figure
4.14) to steering axis which is an imaginary line drawn through the lower and the upper
steering pivot points.
Figure 4.14 Steering axis angle

[mil Automobile Engineering

(v) Combined angle ami scrub radius:
Combined angle or included angle is the angle between vertical plane of the wheel centre
line and kingpin centre line, called steering axis.
Combined angle is the sum of camber plus kingpin inclination called steering axis
inclination. In a rear-wheel drive vehicle, the suspension cross member is pushed by the
tractive force of the vehicle and the body is made to move forward during drive. The road
resistance acts on the wheel at the contact point on the road. The distance between two points
is known as scrub radius. When the tyre centre line lies on the intersection of the steering
axis, this radius will be zero as shown in Figure 4.15.
ww Combined angle
~
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asy
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Figure 4.15 Combined angle
It will be negative when the tyre centre line lies inside the steering axis. It is always
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referred in mm. This radius is mainly depending on the steering axis inclination, the wheel
g.n
offset and suspension height. In the case of front wheel drive vehicles, the tractive force acts
Effect of combined angle: e

on front wheels at the contact point on the road. It is reversed in the case of rear-wheel drive.
t
Figure 4.16 shows the effect of combined angle variation on the scrub radius. If the scrub
radius is not equal to zero, a torque acted on the wheel turns away from the straight ahead
position.
Effect of scrub radius:
(i) When the scrub radius is negative, the wheel is caused to toe-in as shown in Figure
4. 16(a).
(ii) When the scrub radius is positive, the wheel is caused to toe-out shown in Figure
4.16c(c).

I Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems IDa ]

(iii) When the scrub radius becomes zero, the wheel is kept in straight position without
any toe-in or toe-out shown in Figure 4.16 (b). This position is known as centre point
steering. In case if the centre point steering is implemented, any small change in the
combined angle will cause to the point of intersection alternately above and below the
ground. Thus, toe-in or toe-out is caused. A large scrub radius will cause a greater
torque required to turn the wheel. It means, higher loads on the steering linkage and
suspension components act. It results a greater wear of steering linkage and unequal
braking on the front wheels.
Wheel Wheel
,I ,I
/
ww ,
w.E
t resistance
asy t t
Tractive I
force •
Road
(a)
E Tractive
force
(b)
Road
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resistance
Tractive I
force •
(c)
Road
resistance
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Figure 4.16 Effect of combined angle variation in rear wheel drive vehicle
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The scrub radius is a parameter to provide necessary road feel to the driver. The
recommended value of combined angle is from 9° to 10° and the scrub radius can be up to
about 12 mm. g.n
4.1.9. Wheel Alignment
e t
The wheel alignment is the positioning of front wheels and steering mechanisms. It
provides a good directional stability, easy steering, minimum tyre wear and good riding
qualities to vehicles. Excessi~e tyre wear, vibration, hard steering, shimmy etc. are produced
because of incorrect alignment of wheels.
The important factors are involved in wheel alignment as follows.
1. Castor
2. Camber
3. Toe-in

Imll Automobile Engineering I

4. Toe-out
5. Kingpin inclination.
Wheel alignment procedure:

To ensure the proper wheel alignment, camber, caster, toe-in and ki.ngpin inclination
should properly be set. They must be kept within the specified limit according to the car
manufacturer specification for easy and safe driving. The full weight of the car should be kept
on the ground during adjusting these parameters within the specified limit. The following
checking, inspection and adjustment are carried out while doing the wheel alignment.
(1) Wheel bearing adjustment should be checked and correction should be carried out if
ww
(2)
it is required to keep the parameters within the specified limit.
The kingpins and their bushingshould be checked and thoroughly inspected for
(3)
w.Eexcessive play.
w
Spring should be checked tor breaks or- sags.
(4) asy
Bending of the steering arms should be checked. Due to incorrect toe-out on turning
(5)
E
it results the wearing oftyres.
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Factors such as frame alignment, spring conditions, position of the rear axle.
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condition of the shock absorbers etc., should be checked.
A front wheel alignment depends upon the following factors.

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1. Running straight down a road
2. Entering and leaving a tum easily, and g.n
3. Resisting road shocks. e t
4.1.10. Steering Gears
The rotary motion of the steering wheel is converted into straight-line motion of the
linkage by the steering gear. There are two types of steering gears.
1. The pitman-arm type, and

2. The rack-and-pinion type.
Both types of gear are used in a manual steering system or a power-steering system. In
other words, the steering gear converts the turning motion of the steering wheel into to andfro

I Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems _

motions of the link rod of the steering linkage. Also, it gives the required leverage to provide
the ability to the driver to steer the vehicle without fatigue.
The steering gear assembly not only steers front wheels but it also reduces the steering
wheel turning effort by increasing the output torque. The reduction ratio is known as steering
gear ratio. It varies from 18 to 20:1. The steering effect is reduced by a large ratio. At the
same time, the steering wheel is turned more when it is moving around a curve.
4.1.11. Types of Steering Gear Box

Different types of steering gears are used on different vehicles. According.to the method
ww
of coupling the steering tube with the cross shaft, various types of steering gears are as
follows.
w.E
1. Cam and roller
2. Recirculating ball
3. Rack and pinion. asy
4. Cam and tum lever
5. Screw and nut
E ngi
6. Cam and peg
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7. Worm and roller
8. Worm and sector. rin
9. Worm and ball bearing g.n
(1) Cam anti roller type e t
The cam and roller steering boxes are efficient. The details of the cam and roller steering
gear are shown in Figure 4.17. The name itself refers to a cam meshed steering gears having"
cam and rollers. The cam is carried by the steering shaft connected with rollers. Then, a rocker
lever supports the double roller through ball bearings. The rocker lever is one part of the
pitman arm shaft. The drop arm spindle carries V-shaped roller. This spindle is carried by ball
bearings in the casing.
The roller carried by the pin has the provision for moving the roller into closer mesh with
the member. This member contains spiral grooves. The races support the roller carried on the
centre position of the pin. The centre portion of the pin is eccentric upto end portions. These
25. portions are already supported by the drop arm spindle. By moving the steering wheel and
steering shaft, the cam is rotated. Due to this rotation, the roller is constrained to follow the

,,,.
helix of the groove. When the cam rotates, the roller is followed by the cam and made the
rocker shaft to rotate. Thus, the drop arm is actuated as shown in Figure 4.17. To ensure the
constant depth of mesh and evenly distributing the load and wear on mating parts, the contour
of the cam is properly designed to match with our aim.
Steering shaft
:Y
ww
w.E
(2) Recirculating Ball Type
Figure 4.17 Cam ami roller steering gear
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A worm and a nut are placed at. the end of the steering shaft as shown in Figure 4.18.
I
E
Steel balls are loaded between two sets of grooves of worm and nut for recirculation. The
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balls are fed back to the nut connected by a half nut with the transfer tube. The nut has teeth
on its circumference. These teeth are meshed with a toothed wheel sector. The drop arm
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connected to this sector steers front wheels through the link rod and steering arms.
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g.n
e t
/
End plate
adjuster
Figure 4.18 Recirculating ball type steering gear
When the driver turns the steering wheel, the two steel ball races will roll in grooves and
make the nut to travel along the length of the worm. The motion from the nut is transmitted to
..
a wheel sector. The front wheels are displaced by the drop arm. Then the steel' balls are

I Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems ...

recirculated by the ball guides in worm grooves. These balls reduce the friction and increase
the efficiency of the mechanism to 90%. This type of steering gear system is mainly applied in
heavy commercial vehicles.
(3) Rack and pinion type:
,
Figure 4.19 demonstrates the rack and pinion steering system which consists of rack,
pinion, tie rods! ball joints, universal joint, rubber boot and spring pads. The pinion is
mounted at the end of the steering shaft.
A .universal joint is connected at the bottom end of the steering shaft to mount the
steering box centrally. This universal joint also provides more leg space. A rack is engaged
ww
with the pinion. The rack reciprocates sideways to give lateral movement to front wheels. The
tie rods are connected to this rack by ball joints enclosed in beiiow type rubber dust boots. The
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ball joints give rise and fall of wheels. Spring pads connected with the rack reduce the
backlash between gears to a minimum.
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Dust boot
Pinion
Housing
E ngi
Rack
/'
nee
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Figure 4.19 Rack and pinion type steering gear
g.n
The driver's effort is transmitted to the front wheel through the steering wheel to steering
e
shaft and finally to the steering knuckle. This type of steering gear is mainly used in cars
having independent front suspension. Both Hindustan ambassador and maruthi-800 mainly t
use of this mechanism.
(4) Cam anti lever type:

In this type, the cam is mounted at the lower end of the steering shaft. It is a variable
pitch worm. Ball bearings supbort the cam. A twin lever carrying studs meshes in the groove
of the cam. This arrangement provides minimum of friction when the contact is made betw.een
cam and a small stud. When the cam turns, the studs will also move in an arc.This movement
makes the pitman arm shaft and pitman arm to rock. The steering is achieved by the rocking
movement of drop arm. The cam is cylindrical in shape as shown in Figure 4.20. It provides
non-reversibility at the centre part of the cam.

,.. Casing
Automobile Engineering- J
Pitman arm shaft
ww Figure 4.20 Cam and lever type steering gear
w.E
(5) Worm and roller gear:
Worm and roller gears have two-toothed roller which are fastened to the cross shaft
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called roller shaft or sector shaft or Pitman shaft. The threads of the worm gear are meshed
with roller shaft at the end of a steering tube as shown in Figure 4.21.
E ngi
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g.n
et
Figure 4.21 Worm ami roller lyRe steering t:,ear
When the worm shaft is turned b~'the steering tube, the roller will also be moved in arc
for rotating the roller shaft thereby turning the pin connected to the shaft. The roller is
mounted on ball bearings or on anti-friction bearings. The control of both backlash and end
float of the rocker shaft is obtained by an adjusting screw. The bearings are designed to resist
both radial and end thrust, Then the steering gear is bolted to the frame. This type of gear
system is used on Ford car and American passenger cars.

Steering, Brakes and Suspension

(6) Screw and nut gear:
Systems
".f-
These types of steering boxes are commonly used. The details of the screw and nut
steering gear are shown in Figure 4.22. A screw and nut gear has a phosphor-bronze of steel
nut which is screwed on to a multi-start Acme thread formed on the inner column. The
rotation of the nut is prevented by a ball mounted in the rocker arm. A single ball race
provided at the top end of the rocker shaft carries the axial thrust of the column. A shaft
connects the screw with the steering wheel.
ww
w.E Nul
asy Nut
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Drop arm
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Figure 4.22 Screw ami nut gear
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The nut sliding in the housing supports the lower end. The nut at the top end adjusts the
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end float of the inner column. Therefore, as the screw is turned by rotating the steering wheel,
g.n
the nut provided on the screw will be moved axially up and down. This movement causes to
rotate the drop arm through two arm spindles. This spindle is mounted on ball bearings in
e t
casing. The drop arm is taken by this spindle at its outer end. The two arms of the spindle are
attached to the nut by bronze pads. These pads are placed and made to rotate in cylindrical
recesses provided on sides of the nut. Also, these pads have parallel grooves to receive the
arms of the spindle. The bronze pads cause the arms of the two armed spindles moving in
circular paths.
(7) Cam and peg:

The steering gear has a tapered peg in the rocker arm engaged with a special cam
prov.idedon the inner column as shown in Figure 4.23. The peg is moved along the groove for
rotating the rocker shaft by rotating the cam. Shims help to control the end float of the
column. An adjusting screw on the side cover is connected to govern the backlash and end
float of the rocker shaft. The rocker arm is rotated with high efficiency cam and peg gear
rotates by a peg in bearings.

I... Automobile Engineering
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Adjusting screw
eer
Figure 4.23 Cam and peg type steering gear
(8) Worm and ball bearing:

ing
In a worm and ball bearing, the motion transmission from the steering tube is involved
.ne
the pitman arm consisting of a worm and a ball nut. A worm is connected at the lower end of
t
the steering shaft whereas a ball nut is connected with worm. The worm also has mating spiral
grooves. Steel balls are circulated for obtaining frictionless drive between worm and nut
similar to recirculating ball type steering gear. Two sets of balls are connected with each set
independently. The ball nut is moved downward by rolling action of balls when the steering
shaft is turned left. The balls reached the outer surface of the nut enter the return guides. The
balls are circulated in the reverse direction due to movement of a ball nut. Pitman shaft sector
forged integral with the pitman engages the teeth with the teeth on the ball nut. The teeth of
theball bearing nut moving up or down the shaft will be moved on the sector teeth to force the
;()~SS snaft and rotate.
(9) ~J.r0T111anil sector:

Worm and sector are based on the principle of transmitting the motion from the steering
tube to the Pitman arm. This steering gear has a case hardened steel worm and sector. The
sector is located on bearings made of malleable iron or light alloy casting. The worm is
I Steering, Brakes and Suspension Syst~ms ~ .. ..,-

attached with the inner column and it forms a part of the rocker shaft. Figure 4.24 describes
this arrangement.
ww
w.E Figure 4.24 Worm and sector type steering gear
asy
The worm gear is manufactured with a larger backlash in the lock positions due to greater
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wear. The risk of seizure at full lock is reduced to compensate this wear by adjusting the box.
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The end float and backlash are also reduced. The box is connected to the level of the plug with
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normal gear oil for lubrication the steering gear. The worm at the end of the steering shaft
meshes with a sector mounted on a sector shaft. When the worm rotates, the steering wheel
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will rotate. Also, the sector will rotate the section shaft. So, the motion is transmitted to the
wheel through the linkage.
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4.1.12. Steering Ratio
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As the steering linkage gives a mechanical advantage or leverage, the front wheels will
turn through a small angle than cross or sector shaft. The number of degrees through which
the steering wheel is turned is divided into number of degrees for which front wheels turn. It
is known as overall steering ratio.
Steering ratio refers the number of turns on the steering wheel required to produce one
turn of the steering-gear cross-shaft. In other words, the ratio of the output force to the input
force applied is known as steering ratio. It is done by the pitman arm. This steering ratio
ranges from 11: I to 24: I in passenger cars having no power steering. This ratio varies from
15 to 20% higher than steering gear ratio in both manual steering and power steering. A
variable reduction ratio on steering gears is obtained by varying the pitch of the worm or cam.
It is higher for the straight-ahead range and lower for outer ranges.

.<l
Steering gear ratio is defined as the ratio between number of degrees of rotation of the
steering wheel and number of degrees through which the cross shaft is free to rotate at the
same time. High steering ratios are called slow steering because the steering wheel has to be
turned for many degrees to obtain a small steering effect. Low steering ratios is called fast or
quick steering because steering wheel has to be turned to obtain a large steering effect.
Vehicles connected with-the power steering have average steering gear ratios of20% less than
vehicles with manual steering.
Steering ratio is determined by following two factors.
I. Steering-linkage ratio, and

2. Gear ratio in the steering gear.
ww
The steering linkage ratio is determined by the relative length of the pitman arm and the
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steering arm. If the effective lengths of the pitman arm and the steering arm are equal, the
linkage has a ratio of 1:1. If the pitman arm is shorter than steering arm, the linkage ratio will
asy
be less than I: I. For example, the pitman arm is about twice as long as the steering arm. It
shows, for every degree the pitman arm swings, the wheels will pivot about 2°. Therefore, the
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steering-linkage ratio is about 1:2.
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In the case of a rack-and-pinion steering system, the steering ratio is largely determined
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by the diameter of the pinion gear. This steering ratio ranges from 14:1 to 24: 1 in passenger
cars without power steering.
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4.1.13. Turning Radius and Slip Angle
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The radius of the circle on which the outside front wheel travels when front wheels are
turned to their extreme outer position is called turning radius. This radius ranges from 5 m to
8 m in passenger cars. It is 45 feet for buses or trucks. So, the maximum rotation of steering
knuckles is more than 35° from straight ahead position. The turning radius is always
proportional to the wheelbase of a car.
When vehicle turns about a particular side, the vehicle wheels will move some angle to
sustain the.side thrust. The angle moment of wheels to resistance the force is called slip angle.
In other words, while making a turn, wheels are not always positioned in the direction of the
vehicle movement. Jt is due to the distortion of tyre tread. The angle between wheel
inclination and path followed by the wheel is known as slip angle. This angle may vary from
8° to 10°for dry and slippery pavement respectively.

I Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems

4.1.14. Understeering and Oversteering
The centrifugal force exerts on wheels during a tum. There are two conditions arrived
while making a tum as shown in Figure 4.25.
,, ,
,.: ,,;"
,"
ww Centre for rotation

" ,,'
." , ,
,.
Centre for rotation
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Figure 4.25 Understeer and oversteer
(i)
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When the slip angles at front wheels are greater than rear wheels shown in Figure
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4.25 (a), the radius of the tum increases. At this condition, the vehicle turns less than
the rotation given by the steering wheel. Otherwise, the vehicle will try to move
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away from its normal direction of motion. Therefore, the vehicle is kept on the right
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path. So, the vehicle is needed to steer for a little more than the th~oretical steer. It is
the condition of understeer.
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(ii) When the slip angles at front wheels are less than rear wheels as shown in Figure
e
4.25 (b), the radius of the tum decreases. At that time, the vehicle will tum more
than the rotation given by the steering wheel. Otherwise, the vehicle will try to movet
in from its normal direction of motion. Therefore, the vehicle is kept at the right
path. So, the vehicle is needed a little less steer than theoretical steer. It is the
condition of oversteer.
Among these two, understeer is less undesirable and the driver reacts naturally and
positively by steering in the desired direction. In the case of oversteer, the driver should
always be conscious of loosing the control so that a greater care is required. Due to , this
reason, the vehicles are designed in such way to obtain understeer conditions at normal speed.
Whenever (he driver wants to obtain higher speed, the situation will first change to
neutral steer and then to oversteer. The driver has only less time to carry out corrective action.
So, ci. sharp transition from understeer to oversteer is particularly dangerous. This explanation

of understeer and oversteer conditions are mainly applicable to vehicle moving in turnings
because it is equally valid when the vehicle is moving straight position.
ww (a) Understeer (b) Oversteer
w.E Figure 4.2$
a
The steering characteristics of the car always depend on the tyre grip or slip angle effects
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and their magnitudes, All wheels (both the front and rear wheels) of the vehicle are affected
b)' thi&angle.
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~.1.15.Centr~PQint St~@ri"Q
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When tile kingpin and the wheel centre line are parallel and 90° to the axle, the
arrangement has the following disadvantages.
r ing
a) The force acting at
of the .ne
the kingpin fer pulling the wheel should overcome the resistance
wheel during running. These forces acting together on the wheels will force to
b)
push outward or splay. The splaying effect is increased due to application of brake.
Large bending stresses are impcsed on the stub axles and kingpins due to the kingpin
t
causing the wheel to run through an are about the kingpin instead of its own vertical
centre line.
c) Heavy steering owing to the distance between kingpin and centre line of the wheel.
The wheel has to be moved in an arc about the pin instead of its own vertical centre
line.
To overcome these disadvantages, the wheel and kingpin are so arranged that the centre
line of the wheel meets the centre line of the kingpin at the road surface as shown in Figure
4.26. This condition is known as centre point steering.

'-
./ Vertical
Wheel centre \J I
line 1 I
I I
,I King pin
I'"centre line
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w.E Figure 4.26 Cenre point steering
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When front wheels follow this condition, me bending stress and splaying put couple will
be reduced. Swivel, heavy steering spray and very high stresses are reduced by tilting the
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wheels outwards at the top and the kingpin inwards at the top. It is done by bringing the wheel
and the kingpin centers closer together,
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The condition of centre point steering can be obtained by
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1. Camber: This is achieved by stub axle at an angle which allows the wheel centre
line to meet the kingpin centre line.
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2, Kingpin inclination: The kingpin swivel axis is inclined so that the centre line of
the kingpin meets the centre line of the wheel.
J. The use of dished wheels: Wheels that are dished towards the middle of the
e t
vehicle so that the wheel centre line is more in line with the kingpin centre line.
EVIiIn though the centre point steering appears to be idle, it also has the following
disadvantages.
~ 'Spread' effect of the tyre causes the wheel to 'scrub' as the wheel rotated on the
road surface and give 'heavy steering' and
~ Increased tyre wear occurs.


4.1.16. Cornering Force
When vehicle turns, a centrifugal force is acting on the vehicle which produces the thrust
on the vehicle. This force can be counteracted by the side thrust of vehicle wheels for some
angle with direction of motion of vehicle, called slip angle. The force produce to this is called
corneringpower orforce.
Side force sustai ned

Corneming power
Slip angle
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asy
En
gin
eer
ing
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Figure 4.27 Corneringforce and slip angle
The rate at which cornering force builds up is described by relaxation length. Slip angle
t
describes the deformation of the tire contact patch, and this deflection of the contact patch
deforms the tire in a fashion akin to a spring. As with deformation of a spring, deformation of
the tire contact patch generates a reaction force in the tire which is called the cornering force.
Integrating 'the force generated by every tread element along the contact patch length gives the
total cornering force. Although the term, "tread element" is used, the compliance in the tire
that-leads tothis effect is actually a combination of sidewall deflection and deflection of the
rubber within the contact patch. The exact ratio of sidewall compliance to tread compliance is
factor in tire construction and inflation pressure.

teering, Brakes and Suspension Systems

4.1.17. Reversible And Irreversible Steering
(i) Reversible Steering

When the deflection of road wheels is transmitted through the steering wheel to road
surface, the system is called reversible steering. If every imperfection of road surface causes
the steering to rotate, it causes much strain on the part of the driver to control the vehicle.
Therefore, this type of reversibility should be avoided. But some degree of reversibility
needed to keep the wheel straight after taking a curve.
(ii) Irreversible Steering

If no deflection to the steering the front road wheels are transferred, it is said to be
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irreversible steering. If the steering wheel is not returned easily, it will produce unwanted
stresses on the steering. So, some degree of irreversible is also required.
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4.1.18. Power Steering
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The front wheels are turned to the right or left as per the will of the driver through the
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mechanical advantage of the steering gear and the linkage. When a car is manually steered,
the driver has to apply all steering force.
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There are some disadvantages in manual steering.
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1. It is bigger and heavier in engines on cars.
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2. Low-pressure tyres should be used in case of cars. The larger steering ratio is
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required to steer these cars. For this, more turns of the steering wheel are
required to move to the desired distance.
e t
Larger tyres having heavier weight on vehicles make the car more difficult in parking.
So, the driver has to apply the greater physical strength for driving vehicles. To overcome this
difficulty, a power-assisted steering has been introduced as shown in Figure 4.28. It is done by
an external source.
Automobiles always do not have full power steering. They have only power-assisted
steering called power steering. The car cannot be steered when the engine stalls or the power-
steering system fails without mechanical connection between steering wheel and front wheels.
The car can manually be steered when the power assist is not available.
This power-steering system uses compressed air, electrical devices and hycraulic
pressure. Some re air-operated power steering. But, now-a-days, hydraulic oil pressure is
used in all cars an most trucks having power-steering systems.

I,. Automobile Engineering

The power steering is to improve the driving comfort. Most modem automobiles have
wide and low-pressure tyres with increased tyre-to-road surface contact area.
There are two types of power-steering systems used in automobiles. '
1. Integral type, and
2. ainkage type.
In an integral type, the power piston is integrated along with the steering gear whereas
the power piston is connected between frame of the vehicle and steering linkage in case of
linkage type. It is mainly used along with a vehicle built in trucks.
For road feel or vehicle steering response, power steering is used to reduce the steering
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wheel turning effort, to turn sharp corner easily, to negotiate winding roads and to move
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vehicles in a confined space and also to offer some resistance to make the driver feel and
retain.
a
The road feel helps the driver to sense and predetermine the approach of front wheels in
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slipping sidewgy point due to turns, winds etc. A greater effort is required by the driver to
exert the desired torque at the steering wheel in case of heavy vehicles and loaded commercial
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vehicles. It is to control the vehicle. Power assisted steering is used in all types of vehicles, i.e.
.. eavy cars and commercial vehicles, medium weight cars etc.
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Working of power steering:
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A simple hydraulic power assisted steering is illustrated in Figure 4.28. It consists of a
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fluid reservoir, hydraulic pump, hydraulic ram;'control valve, steering shaft, steering box and
steering wheel.
Ste!ering column
t
HP fluid
Return LP fluid Hydraulic control

valve
Pump
Hydraulic ram
Figure 4.28 Power steering

Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems IIDI

The engine driven by hydraulic pumps supply oil under pressure from the oil reservoir to
feed lines. A hydraulic control valve provided below the steering measures the input pressure
at the steering wheel. Then the pressure is converted into the hydraulic ram.
When the steering wheel is stationary, the oil will exert the same pressure on both sides
of the piston and retain the piston at rest. When the driver turns the steering wheel, the control
valve is moved by the steering arm. At that time, one of the ports closes while the other one
opens. A high-pressure (HP) oil enters one side thereby moving the piston. Then this
movement of the piston actuates steering linkage to move in the required direction.
(a) Neutral (Straight-ahead) position:
ww
Fluid is sent to the control valve from the pump. If the control valve is in the neutral
position, the whole fluid will be sent through the control valve into the relief port and back to
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the pump as shown in Figure 4.29. Due to this, the pressure is produced and the pressure on
the cylinder piston becomes equal on both sides. Due to this, the piston will not move in either
direction.
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Control valve
En - Pump
- -gine- t
e
- ring
+ Power cylinder
.
~r-----~--------------~~ r---------------~------~
c net
a::
Figure 4.29 Straight ahead position
(b) Tuning of vehicles:

When the steering main shaft is turned in either direction, the control valve will also be
moved thereby closing one of the fluid passages. The other passage is then opened widely by
producing a change in fluid' flow volum'e. Thus, the pressure is created. Then, the pressure
difference is developed between both sides of the piston which forces the piston in Jhe
direction of the lower pressure. Due to this, the fluid in the cylinder is forced back to the pump
through the control valve as shown in Figure 4.30.

, ..
for low speed and the vehicle for parking purposes while reversing.
This system is used in big cars and heavy commercial vehicles. It is very much suitable
Steering effort is
decreased by increasing the gear ratio of the steering gear. A large rotary motion of the
steering wheel is produced when the vehicle turns. Some .sort of a steering assist device is
necessary to keep the steering angle and small steering effort.
Control valve
Pump
-
- t
ww -
w.tE Power cylinder
asy
En
gin
Figure 4.30 Turning position
eer
.cequirements of power steering with suitable steering force:
ing
Although power steering is a mechanism used for reducing the steering effort, the effort
should be varied with driving conditions. Usually, more steering effort is required when the
.ne
vehicle stops or moves at low speed. At middle-range speeds, less steering effort is required
Many models have power steering with special devices on the pump and the gear housing to
ensure the proper steering effort. The following are some of the arrangement made for this
,
t
when the vehicle speed increases. Less steering effort is required during high-speed driving.
purpose.
((I) Vehicles speed-sensing type:

Vehicle speed is detected by a speed sensor and the fluid pressure acting on the piston
varies accordingly. The fluid pressure is increased to lighten the force required for steering
when the vehicle stops or moves at a low speed. At high speed, the pressure is reduced to
lower the amount of assist and thus, the appropriate steering wheel response is provided.


(b) Engine rpm sensing type:
,·t-
Most power steering pumps supply a constant volume of fluid to the gear housing
according to the speed (rpm) while the pump is operated. So, the flow volume of the fluid is
reduced above a certain speed with less pressure on the piston in case of a RPM sensing type.
Counter measures over Breakdown:

The driver should still steer the vehicle manually to make the termination of fluid flow
from pump to gear housing. There is fluid leakage caused by the loss of the fluid at zero
power steering. On that time, the steering effort required will be higher but hindrance to
steering will be zero.
ww
4.1.19. Trouble Shooting for Steering System
w.E
(i) Manual Steering troubles and their causes
asy 1. Hard steering

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes E ngi Remedies
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(a) Low or uneven tyre pressure.
nee
Inflate tyres to correct pressure.
(b) Steering gear adjusted too tight.

steering gear. rin
Disconnect drag link, check and adjust
(c) Steering linkage binding. g.n

Locate points of excessive friction,
(d) Incorrect or insufficient

free up and lubricate.
e
Lubricate with recommended lubricants. t
lubrication.
(e) Incorrect caster, camber, toe-in Measure each one. Adjust or repair to
or king-pin inclination. obtain correct values.
(f) Steering arms or knuckles or Replace bent or broken units.

suspension arms bent or broken.
(g) Front spring or springs weak Replace spring.

or sagging.
).
(h) Frame bent or broken. Check frame alignment and repair or
replace.


Replace bent units.
(i) Steering shaft or tubing bent.
U) Spherical ball joints too tight. Replace.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Excessive play or looseness in tile steering system
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(a) Steering linkage loose or worn. Locate points of excessive play.
Tighten connections or replace worn
ww parts.
w.E (b) Steering gear adjusted too loose

or worn.
Adjust steering gear or replace worn
parts.
asy
(c) Kingpins, steering knuckle Replace.
spherical joints worn. E

bushings and bearings or
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(d) Front-wheel bearings too loose
or worn. nee
Tighten or replace.
(e) Steering gear housing loose on Tighten.

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frame of cross member.
g.n
(f) Steering wheel loose on post.
(g) Steering gear flexible coupling

I
Tighten.
Tighten or replace.
e t
loose or worn.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------_.
3. Steering becomes erratic when tile brakes are applied
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(a) Brake lining worn or soaked Replace lining. Locate with oil, grease
or brake fluid. and remove causes of oil, grease or
brake fluid.
(b) Brakes poorly adjusted. Adjust brakes.

, Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems

(c) Insufficient or uneven caster. Measure caster and adjust to correct
(d) Steering knuckle bent Replace steering knuckle.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Car wanders can only be kept in a straight line with much steering
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(a) Steering knuckle and/or king Replace bent parts.
pin bent.
ww (b) Rear-axle housing shifted. Align rear axle housing. Repair cause of
shift.
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(c) Stabilizer inoperative. Repair stabilizer.
asy
(d) Kingpin and bushings or
spherical joint too tight.
Repair stabilizer.
(e) Upper or lower control armE ngi Free up or replace parts.
shaft binding.
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------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Front wheels shimmy rin

g.n
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Remedies
Causes
e
---------------------~--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(a) Wheels, tyres or brake drums Balance each complete assembly. t
out of balance.
(b) Wheels or tyres out of true. True up or replace.
(c) Shock absorbers inoperative. Refill, repair or replace. '_ .

_
(d) Toe-in incorrect. Measure and adjust to specification.
(e) Eccentric or bulged tyres. Replace tyres.
(f) Loose spring U-bolts. Tighten U-bolts.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

II!7'iII Automobile Engineering

6. Front wheel tramp. (Wheels move up and down together and separately)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
(a) Wheel or tyre not concentric. Replace one both.
7. Car pulls continuously to one side
Causes Remedies
ww (a) Rear wheels not tracking with

wheels.
Check rear-wheel front alignment.
w.E (b) Wheel bearings too tight. Adjust wheel bearings.
asy
(c) Upper and lower suspension
arm mounting bolts loose.
Tighten to correct torque.
E ngi
-------------------------------------------~----------------------------------------------------------------
8. Scuffed tyres
Causes nee
Remedies
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(a) Wrong toe-in.
g.n
Measure.and adjust to specifications.
(b) Uneven camber.
e
Measure and adjust to equal and correct
value. t
(c) Incorrect toe-out on turns. Replace steering knuckle arms or
steering knuckle if the arms are integral.
(d) Excessive speed on turns. Slow down on turns.
(e) Suspension arms bent or twisted. Replace arms.
9. Hard steering when parking
Causes Remedies
(a) Lose pump belt. Tighten to specifications.


(b) Low oil level. Fill reservoir. Repair any leaks.
(c) Low oil pressure. Check for kinks or foreign matter in
hoses and remove them. Locate loss of
pressure in pump, steering assembly, or
valve body. Repair or replace.
{a)-Pump lacks capacity. Check pump capacity. Repair or replace
if necessary.
10. Poor return of gear to center after turning
ww
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Causes
Control valve and/or actuator

Remedies
Free up, clean, or replace as lever
asy
sticking or binding. required.
En
gin
11. Momentary increase in effort when turning wheel rapidly
Causes
Air in system
ee Remedies
Bleed system. rin

12. Excessive wheel kick-back or loose steering
g. net
Causes Remedies
Air in system. Bleed system.
13. Steering wheel surges orjerks when turning
Causes Remedies
Loose pump belt. Tighten to specifications.

1l1li Automobile Engineering

14. Car pulls continuously to one side. Steering effort is very light in direction of pull and
heavy in opposite direction
Causes Remedies
Worn or damaged valve and/or Replace.

shaft assembly.
15. Pump is noisy
ww
___
i Causes Remedies
_
w.E (a) Worn pump.
(b) Damaged hose.

Tighten.
Replace.
asy
(c) Leaking seals at side cover, Replace.
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pitman shaft, housing etc.
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(ii) Power Steering troubles and their causes
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Troubles Causes
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I. Steering hard when parking (a) Pump belt loose. g.n
vehicle. (b) Oil level low.
(c) Oil pressure low.
e t
(d) Pump lacks capacity.
2. Steering gear does not return (a) Control valve sticky.

quickly to centre after (b) Actuator lever binding.
negotiating turn.
3. Temporary increase in turning (a) Air in the system.

effort when steering wheel (b) Pump belt loose.
turned rapidly. (c) Oil level low.
(d) Oil pressure low.
(e) Pump lacks capacity.

Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems el·

4. Steering wheel jerks while (a) Pump belt loose.
negotiating turn. (b) Oil pressure low.
5. Vehicle pulls to one side. Valveand/or shaft assembly damaged

or worn.
6. Noisy pump. (a) Pump worn.

(b) Air in the system.
(c) Pump belt loose.
(d) Oil level low.
(e) Hoses touching other parts of the
vehicle.
ww 7. External oil leaks. (a) Hose connection loose.
w.E (b) Damaged or worn hose.

(c) Leaky seals.
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8. Excessive looseness in the (a) Air in the system.
steering system.
E ngi
(b) Steering gear improperly adjusted.
(c) Worn steering linkage.
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(d) Kingpin or ball joints worn.
(e) Steering gear parts worn.
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(f) Steering gear mounting loose.
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(g) Front wheel bearings too loose or
worn.
e t
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.2. FRONT AXLE

The major unit on front part of the motor vehicle is front axle. It takes the weight of the
front portion of the automobile. It gives steering facility and absorbs shocks. The weight of
the front part of the vehicle is transmitted to the road surface through front wheels by the front
axle of a vehicle. It also houses the mechanism for steering the vehicle to absorb shocks due to
road surface variations.

,.. Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net
4.2.1. Functions of Front Axle

1. It turns the front wheel easily.

2. It provides a cushioning effect though a spring.
3. It takes the weight of front vehicle.
4. It provides steering action.
S. The spring transmits cushion effect to the vehicle.
6. It controls the ride through shock absorber.
7. It takes the braking system.
8. It transmits power to the front wheels in case of four wheel drive.
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9. It carries both the hub and wheels
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4.2.2. Construction and Components of Front Axle
asy
Axle beam is a major part of the front axle. It is used to transmit the vehicle weight to the
front wheel through the spring. A typical front axle shown in Figure 4.31 elaborates the front
En
axle components with steering linkage.
'S-
gin Steeringcolumn
ee
\
'-oroparm Kingpin
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g. net
Steeringarm
Figure 4.31 Front axle components with steering linkage
The ends of the axle beam are shaped in such way to assemble the stub axle. The ends of
tne axle beam are shaped either as a yoke or plain surface with drilled hole to hold a swivel
pin connecting the stub axle portion of the assembly. The wheels are connected on stub axles.
The inclined steering arms are located to track rod ends. The third steering arm is connected to

Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems _

the drag link. The steering linkage is connected by the drag link to the drop arm of the steering
box. The main axle beam is attached to stub axles by kingpins. The front road wheels are
connected on these stub axles.
The components of the front axle are axle beam, stub axle, swivel pin and track load.
1. Axle beam:
Axle beams are made by drop forging of steel having 0.4% carbon or 1-3% nickel steel.
The front axle beam is formed into l-section in the centre portion. The ends are made into
either circular or elliptical. l-section construction carries bending loads caused by the load of
the vehicle and torque by braking of wheels. The centre portion of the front axle is provided a
downward sweep to maintain the chassis height low.
ww
This axle beam is already hinged with stub axles. Springs are mounted on the axle beam
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at equidistance from its centre known as ~prmg pads or seats. In some other cases, these
springs may be boIted with the axle beam. It reduces the swing or sway of the vehicle while
turning the vehicle.
asy
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Section at AA
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Section at B8
Figure 4.32 Axle beam g.n

2. Kingpin or Swivel pin: e
The steering spindle and steering knuckle assemblies are pinned at the ends of axle beam
t
in order to permit wheels to be turned by (he steering gear. This pin is known as kingpin or
steering knuckle pin. It is also called swivel pins. The pins are made of good quality case
hardened steels used to secure the stub axle to the axle beam. It is exactly located and locked
by cotter pins in position.
3. Track rod:
The two stub axles arms of the front axle are connected with ends of a track rod through
knuckle or ball joints known as track rod ends. The connection is done by screws to ensure
adjustments. In the stub axle, left hand and right hand threads are formed at eaeh end. Toe-in
is increased by lengthening the rod and it is decreased by shortening the same.

1m:.J Automobile Engineering

4. Pu/l and push rod or drag link:
Pull and push rod also called drag link is connected between steering arm of the front
axle and drop arm of the steering assemble. But the cross-section is tubular. Spring loaded ball
sockets are provided at each end. One end is connected to the steering arm of the stub axle
whereas the other end is connected to the steering drop arm.
4.2.3. Types of Front Axles
There are two types of the front axles based on the rotation as follows.
1. Live front axle
ww 2. Dead front axle.
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asy (a) Straight axle
m< Stub axle
~~~
~~
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Steering pin attachment
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Kingpin
(b) Double drop axle
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~9kn"ckl'
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(c) Fully drop axle
I section
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Figure 4.33 Different types offront axle
Generally, the front axle is a dead axle. In heavy vehicles and most of cars, the front axle
is a live axle. These types of axle are used in modern cars and heavier vehicles. The front
axles are called as dead axles when they do not rotate but live axles transmit power to rear
wheels. A live front axle also transmits the driving power to front wheels having different
swiveling mechanisms. The dead front axle has enough rigidity and strength to transmit the
weight of the vehicle from swings to front wheels.


There are two types of the front axles based on the axle beam as follows.
I. Straight axle
2. Double drop axle
3. Fully drop axle.
Figure 433 illustrates these three types of front axle arrangements.
4.3. STUB AXLE

The steering wheels have to turn the front wheel. It is done by hinging the stub axle .vith
steering knuckle at the axle beam. The pin which forms the pivot of this hinge is called
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kingpin. The front wheels are mounted on stub axles by kingpins. The stub axles ere the
forging of 3% nickel steel and alloy steels having chromium and molybdenum. The stub axle
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turns on the kingpin. Phosphor bronze bushes are mounted into forked ends of the axle to
provide a bearing surface for the kingpin. Vertical loads are carried out by a steel washer or
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between lower fork and underside of the axle beam. The stub axle wheel revolves over
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two ball bearings which can be adjusted by means of an adjusting
provided to prevent the leakage of lubricant from the bearings.
nut. Oil seals are
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4.3.1. Types of Stub Axles
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Following are four types of stub axles which are shown in Figure 4.34.
1. Elliot
2. Reversed elliot
g. net
3. Lamoine
4. Reversed lamoine.
1. Elliot stub axle:

The Elliot stub axle is connected to the front axle by placing in the yoke end with a
kingpin and a cotter is used to join these two together shown in Figure 4.34 (a). The king pin
is usually fixed in the stub axle forging and its end turns in the forked end of the
axle beam.
2. Reversed Elliot stub axle:

In reversed Elliot type stub axle, the arrangement is reversed. The kingpin is fixed in the
axle beam. Its ends turn in the forks of the steering knuckle shown in Figure 4.34 (b).

/
Stub axle
(a)
Kingpin washer
./ (b)
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StUbru : :
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(c)
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3. Lamoille stub axle:

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Figure 4.34 Types of stub axles
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In lamoine type stub axle, a L-shaped spindle is used instead of yoke type hinge as shown
in Figure 4.34 (c).
4. Inverted lamoille stub axle: rin

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The construction is similar to the lamoine stub axle but the upside of the axle is
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inverted so that the wheel axle is below the axle beam as shown in Figure 4.34 (d). In
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modern vehicles, the front axles are straight. The centre of gravity of the vehicles decreases to
provide good stability and safety to high-speed vehicles.
4.4. SUSPENSION SYSTEM
The chassis of vehicle is connected to the front and rear wheels through the medium of
springs, shock absorbers and axles. All parts perform the function of protecting parts from
shocks are known as suspension system.
The automobile chassis is indirectly connected with axles by springs. It is done to prevent
the vehicle body from road shocks due to bounce, pitch, roll or sway. These road shocks
provide an uncomfortable ride and also additional stress to the automobile frame and body.

I Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems .,.

Suspension system has a spring and damper. The energy of road shock produced by the
spring oscillates. These oscillations are arrested by the damper known as shock absorber.
4.4.1. Components of Suspension System
1. Springs are used to neutralize the shocks from the road surface.
2. Dampers, called shock absorbers, are used to improve a riding comfort by limiting the
free oscillation of springs.
3. Stabilizer, called sway bar or anti-roll bar, is to prevent lateral swinging of the car.
4. A linkage system holds above components to control the longitudinal and lateral
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movements of wheels.
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4.4.2. Functions or Objectives of Suspension System
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1. To eliminate road shocks from transmission to vehicle components.
2. To obtain good road holding while driving, cornering and braking.
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3. To keep the proper steering geometry.
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4. To obtain a particular height to body structure.
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5. To resist the torque and braking reactions.
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8. To maintain the stability of the vehicle while traveling over rough round or when
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turning in order to minimize the rolling, pitching or vertical movement tendency.
9. To safeguard the occupants against road shocks and provide a riding comfort. net
10. To minimize the effects of stresses due to road shocks on the mechanism of the motor
vehicle and provide a cushioning effect.
11. To keep the body perfectly in level while travelling over rough uneven ground. I.e.
the up and down movements of wheels should be relative to the body.
12. To prevent the structure of the vehicle from shock loading and vibration due to
irregularities of the road surface without impairing its stability.
13. To obtain the requisite height to body structure.
14. To support the body on the axles and keep the proper geometrical relationship
between the body and wheels.

IIID Automobile Engineering

4.4.3. Requirements of Suspension System
1. There should be minimum deflection.

2. It should be of minimum weight.
3. It should have low maintenance and low operating cost.
4. It should have minimum tyre wear.
5. It should be of low initial cost.
4.4.4. Principles of Suspension System
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fhe principles of the suspension system are due to springing action of motor vehicles.
I. Supporting the weight of vehicle.

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Absorbing satisfactorily larger and smaller road impacts with the help of a single
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springing device.
3. The reduction of rolling or pitching of the body to a minimum design and
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attachment of springs.
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4.4.5. Sprung Weight and Unsprung Weight
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The body of vehicle is supported by springs. The weight of the body is supported by
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springs called sprung weight. Wheels, axles and other parts of the automobile which are not
supported by springs, called the unsprung weight.
g.
Unsprung weight is the weight of
everything between springs and road and a portion of weight of springs itself.
net
If greater is the sprung weight of an automobile, the better will be the riding comfort.
This tendency of the body reduces the jolt.
Sprung weight is the weight of vehicle minus unsprung weight
:. Sprung weight = Total weight of vehicle - unsprung weight.
Greater is the unsprung weight on a wheel, the greater will be the energy stored by the
unsprung weight due to road bump and greater will be the disturbances. This greater unsprung
weight increases tyre deflections but it reduces the vertica! velocity on road bump. Lesser
unsprung weight causes higher natural frequencies of the unsprung.
A lighter wheel moves on road irregularities without producing much reaction to the
cnassis frame, body and occupants. If the weight of wheel increases, its movement is highly
noticeable to vehicle occupants. When the unsprung weight on the wheel becomes equal to the

i Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems 'B·

sprung weight above the wheel, the sprung weight will move as much as unsprung weight. So,
the unsprung weight moves up and down over road irregularities. Therefore, the unsprung
weight is kept as low as possible due to the reduced unsprung weight thereby resulting a better
ride.
Sprung weight
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Unsprung weight
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EnFigure 4.35 Sprung and unsprung weight
Effects of unsprung weight:

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The unsprung weight of a wheel controls a trade-off between a wheel's bump and its
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vibration isolation. Bumps and surface imperfections in the road cause tyre compression
which induces the force on the unsprung weight. Then, the unsprung weight responds to this
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force with movement of its own. The amount of movement for short bumps is inversely
net
proportional to the weight. A lighter wheel which readily moves in response to road bumps
will have more constant grip when tracking over an imperfect road. Therefore, lighter wheels
are especially sought for high-performance applications. In contrast, a heavier wheel which
moves less will not absorb as much vibration.
"he irregularities of the road surface will transfer to the cabin through the geometry of
the suspension and hence, ride quality and road noise are deteriorated. For longer bumps, the
greater unsprung mass causes more energy to be absorbed by wheels and it makes the ride
worse. Pneumatic or elastic tyres help by providing some springing action for most of the
unsprung mass but the damping which can be included in tyres is limited due to fuel economy
and overheating. The shock absorbers damp the wheel bounce if any spring motion must be
less stiff than the optimum value. So, the wheels produce some vibrations after each bump
before comingto rest.

I.,. Automobile Engineering

High unsprung weight also exacerbates the wheel control issues under hard acceleration
or braking. If the vehicle does not have adequate wheel location in the vertical plane, the
vertical forces exerted by acceleration or hard braking combined with high unsprung mass can
lead to severe the wheel hop, compromising traction and steering control.
Similar to above case, there is a positive effect of unsprung mass. High frequency road
irregularities such as gravels in an asphalt or concrete road surface are isolated from the body
more completely because the tyres and springs act as separate filter stages with the unsprung
weight tending to uncouple them. Similarly, sound and vibration isolation are improved in
production automobiles by the use of rubber bushings between frame and suspension in the
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form of flexibility in the frame or body work and flexibility in seats.
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4.4.6. Basic Suspension Movements
A vehicle is always subjected for moving over road irregularities. The road will not be
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. 100% levelled. The road surface has pits and falls. The vehicle will go up and down due to
cross over bumps and pits in the road. It also passes through bends, curves and zig-zag path.
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The following basic movements are occurred when the vehicle is in motion.
(a) Bouncing
(b) Pitching nee
(c) Rolling
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(d) Yawing.
Yawing g.n
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Figure 4.36 Movements of vehicle

[SteWing, Brakes and Suspension Systems t....

(i) Bouncing
The vertical movement of the complete body is called bouncing. In other words, the
complete body of the vehicle moves up and down, it is called bounce or bouncing. It may be
either front end or rear end bounce. It occurs when the springs are soft.
~ - - --
ww Figure 4.3i Bouncing
(ii) Pitching w.E

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Rocking chair action or rotating action about a transverse axis through the vehicle
parallel to ground is known as pitching. Due to this. the front suspension will move out of
phase thereby resulting a rocking effect.
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Diagonal pitch is defined as the combined radius and pitching action of rolling and
pitching. Pitching arises in vehicles having softer springs than harder springs.
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~
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..
- - ....
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.::
,'------y '~,
, _-----1 "-
,"
0 \~ t
\\
;0-
L
------ ::==:__ ::.::
Figure 4.38 Pitcllillg
(iii) Rolling
The movement of the wheel about longitudinal axis produced by centrifugal force when
cornering is known as rolling. It results the body rolling in the lateral which means side-to-
side direction.
Anti-sway bars, stabilizers, pitch and roll control bars, mechanical leveling devices,
hydroelastic systems, etc., are employed in cars to control the suspension movements.

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(lv) Yawing
Figure 4.39 Rolling
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Yawing is the movement of the car's longitudinal centerline to the right and left in
relation to the car's center of gravity. On roads where pitching occurs, there will be a chance
to occur yawing,
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Figure 4.40 Yawing
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4.4.7. Types of Suspension Springs
Springs are main important parts of any suspension system which are classified as
follows.
1. Steel springs
a) Leaf springs
b) Tapered leaf springs
c) Coil springs
d) Torsion bar


2. Rubber springs
a) Compression springs
b) Compression-shear springs
c) Steel reinforced springs
d) Progressive spring
e) Face shear spring
3. Air springs
a) Bellow type springs
wwb) Piston type springs
4. Plastic springs.
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4.4.8. Leaf Spring Suspension
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Figure 4.41 shows the construction of the laminated lear spring suspension. It has a
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number of leaves of increasing lengths made of steel plates. The spring eye is mounted to the
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frame by a pin called shackle pin. The centre portion of the spring is attached to the front axle
by a V-bolt. One end of the spring is mounted on the frame with a simple pin. The other end is
mounted by a shackle with the frame.
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Figure 4.41 Lea/spring suspension


The stiffness or spring rate of the coil spring decides the capacity of the spring which is
defined as the force required for unit deflection. It is governed by the following factors.
~ The length of the spring: Shorter spring will have higher stiffness and vice versa.
~ The width of the leaf: Wider spring will have higher stiffness and vice versa.
~ The thickness of the leaf: Thicker leaf will have higher stiffness and vice versa.
~ The number of leaves: Greater the number of leaves higher the stiffness is.
To obtain a smooth ride, a low-rate stiffness spring is required. The low rate spring will
deflect a larger amount under a given load. Normal springs have a constant rate, and give a
deflection which is proportional to the load applied.
ww When a laminated leaf spring deflects, the leaves slide over each other and cause inter-
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plate friction. Although this has a beneficial damping effect, the hard ride, noise and wear
occurs. Hence, it is necessary to reduce this friction as much as possible.
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Older designs of spring had to be sprayed with penetrating oil, but the new designs have
the following features to eliminate the need of periodic attention.
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"» Synthetic rubber buttons are provided at the ends of the leaves
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Inter-leaf plates of low friction materials are incorporated
)io> Less number of leaves
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Types of leaf springs:
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Differenttypes of leaf springs based on its design are as follows.
1. Semi elliptical spring .ne
2. Quarter elliptical spring
3. Three quarter elliptical spring
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4. Full elliptical spring
5. Transverse spring
6. Platform type spring.
The construction details of various types of laminated leaf springs designs are given in
Figures 4.42 to 4.45 which are self-explanatory.


Frame Side Member
Shackle
Figure 4.42 Semi elliptical spring

Frame Side Member
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Eye
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Figure 4.43 Quarter elliptical spring
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Master leaf
Graduated g.n
~ Centre bolt
leaves
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Figure 4.44 Full-elliptical leaf spring
Frame Cross Member
Front Axle
Figure 4.45 Transverse spring

4.4.9. Helper Springs
Where there are fluctuations in the loads, helper springs are used in trucks and many
other vehicles. It is mounted above the mainspring as shown in Figure 4.46. It is arranged in
such a way that if the load is less, the main spring is operated. Both the main and helper
springs are operated if the load exceeds a certain value.
Frame Shackle
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Figure 4.46 He/per springs
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Helper springs are used along with the main leaf springs on many commercial vehicles. It
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is more suitable for a wide range of loading. Helper springs are mainly provided on rear
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suspension. When the load on the road wheel increases, ends of the helper spring isjust made
to touch the special brackets fitted to the side member thereby operating the helper spring.
Characteristics of he/per springs: t

1. Due to springs having enough rigidity to hold the axis in the proper position, they
are required. .
2. Controlling of own oscillation through inter-leaf friction is performed.
3. These springs have durability in heavy-duty applications.
4. Due to inter-leaf friction, it is difficult to absorb minute vibrations from the road
surface. So, leaf springs are more suitable for large commercial vehicles which can
carry heavy loads.


4.4.10. Coil Spring
A coil spring is a steel wire. The required length is coiled throughout. The coil springs
are used in both rear and front independent suspensions. The energy stored per unit volume is
approximately twice in the coil spring when compared to leaf spring. The coil spring carries
both shear and bending stresses but both torque reaction and side thrust cannot be carried out.
So, some special arrangements are made to position the axles relative to the frame. Both
driving reaction and braking torque reaction are also considered in arranging the coil spring. A
helper spring is additionally used, as shown in Figure 4.47, to give progressive stiffness
against the increasing load.
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• ~HeIPe,
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~ spring
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(a) Helical coil spring
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(b) Helper coil spring
Figure 4.47
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Coil springs are again classified into two types.
l. Tension, and
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2. Compression springs
Characteristics ofcoil spring:

I. The energy absorption rate per unit of weight is greater when compared to leaf
springs.
2. Soft springs can be coiled.
3. Due to no inter-leaf friction with leaf springs, no control of oscillation is necessary by
the spring itself but shock absorbers are needed.
4. Due to no resistance to lateral forces, linkage mechanisms to support the axle such as
suspension arm, lateral control rod, etc. are required.


4.4.11. Torsion Bar
A torsion bar is a steel bar operated by both twisting and shear stress. Two long steel bars
form springs. Torsion bar can be used with independent suspensions. It is a simple bar in
which one end is fitted to the frame whereas the other end is fitted to the end of a wheel arm.
The structure with a bearing supports the projection of the second end of the bar. The other
end of the wheel arm is attached with the spindle of the wheel using kingpin.
When the wheel strikes a bump, it will start to vibrate up and down thereby producing a
torque on the torsion bar called spring. Torsion bar spring is lighter in weight when
compared to leaf springs. It also occupies less space. Torsion tubes replace torsion bars in
many cases. The main disadvantage of the torsion bar spring is that it does not carry the
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braking or driving torque. Therefore. additional linkages are needed. Due to the absence of
friction force, the damping is required to absorb road shocks. The simple torsion bar is shown
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in Figure 4.48.
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Figure 4.48 Torsion bar
Bearing
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Advantages of torsion springs:
1. This spring needs less space.

2. It is lighter than leaf spring system.
3. This system provides very neat and compact design.
4. In some cases, torsion tubes are used instead of torsion bars.
Disadvantage of torsion springs:
It does not take the driving or braking torque. Therefore, inconvenient additional link
mechanisms are provided for this purpose.


4.4.12. Rubber Springs "ii-
As rubber can store more energy per unit mass than any other type of spring material,
considerable weight can be saved with rubber suspension. Rubber springs, if works on
compres-sion or shear, can be used as the main suspension spring, otherwise can be fitted
along with metal springs to improve the suspension characteristics. Large rubber 'bump' stops
used in many suspension layouts stiffens the suspension spring against maximum deflection:
Rubber springs absorb oscillations by the internal friction generation if they are stretched
by an external force. The advantages of rubber springs are as follows.
I. Springs can be made into any desired shape.
ww 2. Springs do not require to be lubricated.
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The spring is installed between the frame and the top link of the suspension system.
When the spring is connected to a point near the link pivot, deflection of the spring reduces to
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a minimum, without affecting the total wheel movement. This arrangement of spring provides
a rising-rate characteristic, which is 'soft' for small wheel movements but becomes harder as
the spring deflects.
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The energy released from the rubber spring after deflection is considerably less than that
imparted to it. This internal loss of energy is called hysteresis, which is an advantage, because
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lower-duty dampers may be used. Some rubber suspension systems have a tendency to 'settle
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down' or 'creep' during the initial stages of service, therefore allowance for this must be
provided.
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Different form of rubber springs based on the load carrying capacity and design are
shown in Figure 4.49.
(a) Compression spring (b) Compression shear spring

(c) Steel reinforced spring (d) Progressive spring
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(e) Face shear spring rin
(/) Torsional shear spring
Figure 4:49 Different forms of rubber springs g.n

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Rubber springs are not suitable ~orsupporting heavy loads. So, rubber springs are mainly
used as auxiliary springs or bushings, spacers, cushions, stoppers and other supports for the
suspension components.
Advantages of rubber springs:

1. Greater energy per unit weight than the steel can be stored. So, the springing system
can be made more compact.
2. The rubber has good vibration damping properties.
3. The absence of squeaking is always present in steel springs. Rubber springs do not.
4. The number of required bearings is low.
5. Rubber suspension system is having longer life.
6. Rubber is more reliable as it will not fail suddenly like metal springs.

Steering, Brakes and suspe~n'!:.s~;~on~s~y::s~te~m~s ~t~I~¥i!t!!-!!!!__]

4.4.13. Air Suspension System
. Air springs are used in air suspension systems. The installation and configuration of air
suspension systems varies for different makes and models but the underlying principle
remains the same. The metal spring (coil or leaf) is removed, and an air bag, also referred to
as an air spring, is inserted or fabricated to fit in the place of the factory spring. When air
pressure is supplied to the air bag, the suspension can be adjusted either up or down (lifted or
lowered).
Air spring is nothing but a flexible bellows, usually made from textile-reinforced rubber,
containing compressed air which is used to carry load on vehicles. The air pressure inflates the
bellows, and raises the chassis from the axle. Air springs have elasticity or "springiness"
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when it is compressed. It is used on many heavy-duty trucks, trailers and buses on the road
today.
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Characteristics of air springs:
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1. They are soft if the vehicle is not loaded but the stiffness increases when the load is
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increased by increasing the air pressure inside the chamber. So, it gives the optimum
riding comfort when the vehicle is lightly loaded and fully loaded conditions.
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2. The height of the vehicle is kept constant by varying the air pressure whenever the
load variation occurs.
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3. Air springs increase vehicle stability by absorbing road shock.
and overall ride quality.

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4. Air spring systems are designed to maximize safe load carrying capacity, stability
net
Three basic types of air springs are available as follows.
);> the double-convoluted,

);> the tapered-sleeve, and
);> the rolling-sleeve.
The double-convoluted design looks like a small tyres kept one over the other. These
type of air springs generally has more load capacity, a shorter stroke, and a more progressive
spring rate which is best suited for use on most front suspensions where the spring sits
considerably inboard of the suspension's load point. This has the effect of multiplying load-
capacity requirements while dividing travel requirements.


Tapered- and rolling-sleeve air springs are smaller in diameter with a longer stroke and a
more linear spring rate. They are best suited for most rear end applications because there has
more travel requirements and fewer load-capacity requirements.
Devices for controlling the air pressure and compressors for compressing air are required
in the air spring suspensions. These systems generally employ a small, electric or engine-
driven air compressors which sometimes fill an on-board air receiver tank which stores
compressed air for use in the future without delay. But the suspension system is more
complex. The electronically modulated air suspension is incorporated along with air spring in
modern vehicles.
Types of air suspension:

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The following are different types of air suspension systems based on the design of air
springs used.
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a) Bellow type air suspension
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b) Piston type air suspension
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c) Elongated bellows air suspension.
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(i) Bellow type air suspension (Spring):
This type of spring consists of rubber bellows. The bellows are made into circular
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sections having two convolutions for proper functioning as shown in Figure 4.50. So, a bellow
type air suspension replaces the coil spring.
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Frame member
Flexible bellows
Figure 4.50 Bellow type air spring


(ii) Piston type air suspension (Spring):
This spring has a metal air container in the form of an inverted drum. The drum is
connected to the frame. A sliding piston is connected to the lower wishbone. A flexible
diaphragm provides a seal. The diaphragm is tightly connected at its outer circumference to
the lip of the drum and at the centre to the piston as shown in Figure 4.51.
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Figure 4.51 Piston type air spring
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(iii)Elotlgated bellows air spring:
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Frame Member
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Air--~ Elongated
Bellows
Figure 4.52 Elongated bellows air spring


When this system of suspension is employed to the rear axle of the vehicle, then
elongated bellows are used. These bellows are of approximately rectangular in shape but they
are with semi-circular ends having generally two convolutions. These elbows are arranged
between rear axle and frame of the vehicle. To resist the torques and thrusts, the radius rods
are used at the rear axle.
Advantages of air suspension:

I. A variable space for wheel deflection is used for optimum utilization.
2. The change in headlamp alignment due to varying loads is completely eliminated.
3. The spring rate varies with loading and unloading thereby reducing dynamic
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4.4.14. Hydro Elastic Suspension
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This suspension is intended to improve the vehicle's resistance to pitch and the tendency
of the body to oscillate to and fro directions when the front springs are compressed and the
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rear springs are simultaneously expanded. The continuous forward and backward pitching
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motion provides a most uncomfortable ride which may become serious when the frequency of
vibration of front and rear springs is the same.
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The hydro elastic suspension layout on a vehicle uses interconnected rubber displacer
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units installed between frame and independent suspension linkage to control the wheel. The
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interconnection is carried out using two pipes as shown in Figure 4.53. One pipe links the left
hand side units together and the other pipe is on the right-hand side. The system is pressurized
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with an anti-freeze liquid after removing air. Each displacer unit contains a rubber spring, a
metal separating member which holds two rubber damper valves, rubber diaphragm attached
to the suspension linkage which holds the wheel and a metal body which is secured to the
frame of the vehicle. Figure 4.53 illustrates the arrangement of hydro elastic displacer unit.
• •
Figure 4.53 Action of hydro elastic units


Road irregularities normally cause the vehicle to pitch, roll and bounce. A sudden
upward movement of the front wheel causes the diaphragm to displace the liquid through the
damper. This action in turn forces the liquid along the pipe to the rear unit where it moves the
diaphragm and it raises the rear of the car to the level of the front. When the front wheel
descends, the liquid will return and the vehicle will come to its normal riding position. During
this sequence, the liquid has to pass the damper valve in each unit and the restriction to liquid
flow at valves and pipelines damp out the tendency of pitch oscillation.
ww
w.E ,.1,--- Rubber Element
Pot Member
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Passages (Holes)
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Rubber Flap Valve
Spring
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.......
Separating Member
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'-------Stem
Skirt g. net
Figure 4.54 Hydro elastic displacer unit
When a vehicle is cornering, the body of the vehicle tilts or rolls outwards due to
centrifugal force. This tilting action is apparent when 'soft' conventional springs are used. The
hydro elastic system is 'soft' during movement of a single wheel but if the two outside
suspension units are loaded during cornering, a stiffening of the hydro elastic system occurs.
Under this type of loading, the displacement of the fluid from one unit to the other unit
does not occur. Instead of deflecting the rubber springs due to the increased liquid pressure,
the springs provide a marked resistance to the tilt of the body. During bouncing of the vehicle,
four wheels deflect at the same time. To resist this motion, all hydro elastic displacer units
perform in similar way to react to roll.

4.4.15. Shock Absorber
Shock absorbers will not efficiently absorb road shocks if the suspension springs are
highly rigid. They will be continuously vibrated for a longer time if springs are sufficiently
flexible. To overcome this difficulty, a system having compromise between flexibility and
stiffness should be used.
Shock absorbers are used as a part of the suspension system. They provide more
resistance to the motion of the spring and road wheel in order to damp out vibrations.
Purpose of shock absorber:

(i) To control the vibrations on springs.
ww (ii) To provide comfortable ride.
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(iii) To act flexible and to be rigid enough.
(iv) To resist the unnecessary motion of the spring.
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Types of shock absorbers:
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I. Mechanical shock absorber (friction type)
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2. Hydraulic shock absorber.
Again the hydraulic shock absorbers are further divided into various types.
1. Van type
2. Piston type
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a. Single acting
b. Double acting
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3. Telescopic type.
Difference between the function of spring mid shock absorber:
S.No. Springs Shock absorbers
I. It is connected between wheels and It is connected between axle and lower

vehicle frame. end of the chassis frame.
2. It acts as a cushion load shock to The shock absorber provides resistance to

keep the vehicle body leveled up the motion of springs and road wheels for
over uneven surfaces and absorb damping out vibrations. It is done for
driving and braking torque loads or several complete oscillations thereby
stresses and also to resist the body resulting in discomfort to passengers.


tilting and rolling on comers and
bends.
3. In a motor vehicle suspension A smooth ride without any excessive and

system, springs are not used. It is repetitive rebounds and road shocks are
an only compromise between obtained using a relatively flexible or soft
flexibility and stiffness. If it is too spring and a shock absorber.
flexible, it will flex and rebound
repeatedly and excessively
providing a rough ride.
(i) ww
Telescopic Shock Absorber:
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Construction:
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The upper eye of the telescopic shock absorber is attached to the axle and the lower eye
is attached to the chassis frame as shown in Figure 4.55. A two way valve VI is connected to a
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rod. Another one two-way valve V2 is connected to the lower end of the cylinder. The fluid
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occupies in the space between above and below the valve VI and also the annular space
between cylinder and tube. A gland is provided on the head. Fluid scrapped (Jutby the rod is
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brought down into the annular space through the inclined passage.
Working:
ing
.ne
When the vehicle comes across a bump, the lower eye will move up. So, the fluid
follows from lower side of the valve VI to the upper side. Due to less volume of the space
t
above valve VI than the volume of the rod, the pressure is exerted on valve V2• Thus, the
damping force is produced by this pressure of the fluid. The fluid will flow from the upper
side of the valve VI tv lower side when the lower eye moves down and from lower side of
the valve V2 to its upper side.
When a car absorbs shocks from the road surface, the suspension springs will compress
and expand because the spring has the characteristic of continuing to oscillate for a long time
of oscillation to stop. So, a riding comfort will be poor even the damp oscillation is supplied.
Shock absorbers provide better road-holding characteristics and improved steering stability to
tyres.
The stronger is the damping force, the more will be the oscillations of the body. But, the
shock from the damping effect becomes greater than the strength of the stronger damping
force. The damping force varies with the speed of the piston.

Various types of shock absorbers are used dependent on the change in damping force.
ww
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Figure 4.55 Telescopic shock absorber ing
Advantages of telescopic shock absorber:
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t
I. Large amount of energy is dissipated due to large volume of fluid displaced without
causing a high temperature rise.
2. There is no wear development in the damper with the absence of connecting arm
pivots.
3. The applied force is increased when compared to indirect acting type. Low fluid
pressure due to fairly large piston area is occurred with reduced levers.
4. The leakage is very less due to lower pressure and absence of the rotating shaft
entering the reservoir.
5. Cost is less than springs.
6. No need of topping up is necessary in most of the telescopic dampers.


4.4.16. Types of Suspension System
Generally, the following two basic types of suspension system are given below.
(i) Front end suspension

(a) Independent front suspension
(b) Rigid axle front suspension
(ii) Rear end suspension

(a) Longitudinal leaf spring rear suspension
(b) Transverse leaf spring rear suspension
ww (c) Coil spring rear end suspension.·
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4.4.17. Independent Front Suspension
The independent front suspension was developed in the 1930's to improve vehicle ride
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control and riding comfort. In this type of suspension, each front wheel is mounted on its own
axle and independently supported by a coil or torsion bar or leaf spring. This allows the
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wheels to respond individually to road conditions. Now-a-days, all vehicles use this
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suspension system. Coil springs are commonly used in this suspension system. This
suspension system completely prevents the wheel wobble. A greater wheel movement is
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utilized without affecting the steering system. The steering conditions and qualities are
improved by a wider spacing of the front springs.
ing
Types of independent front suspensions:
1. Longitudinal suspension .ne
2. Transverse suspension
3. Sliding suspension
t
4. Mac Pherson Strut and link type suspension
5. Parallelogram type suspension or Wishbone type
6. Trailing link type suspension
7. Vertical guide suspension.
1. Longitudinal independent front suspension:

Helical spring is connected between two wishbones (arms in U shape) with the support of
frame member as shown in Figure 4.56. The arms are in the shape of U. The upper wishbone
is hinged at the inner end on a hydraulic damper. The outer end is hinged at stub axle carrier.

The lower wishbone has enough length for providing more constant track when wheels lift.
So. the braking torque resists the arms of the lower wishbone.
Shock
Upper wishbone
Stub axle
carrier
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wishbone
Rubber stop
axle
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Figure 4.56 Longitudinal independent front suspension
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2. Transverse independent front suspension:
ee
In this type, two trailing arms are connected one above the other transversely at the front
rin
portion of the vehicle. The stub axle assembly is connected with ends of arms. Radius rods are
independent front suspension system arrangement.

Leaf
g.
of 45° to the centre line of the vehicle used to support it. Figure 4.57 illustrates transverse
net
Support
Elevation
Figure 4.57 Transverse independent front suspension


3. Sliding type independent front suspension:
The stub axle moves up and down and it rotates in frame members. There is no change in
track, wheel attitude and wheel base throughout the rise and fall o~ the wheel. The line
diagram of the sliding type independent front suspension is shown in Figure 4.58.
ww
w.E Figure 4.58 Sliding type independent front suspension
asy
4. Mac Pherson strut and link type independent front suspension:
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It is used in an integral body construction due to wider spaced loading points. Instead of
the normal top link, a flexible mounting and a telescopic damper are used. Both rolling action
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and shocks absorption are readily obtained as shown in Figure 4.59.
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ing
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Figure 4.59 Strut and link suspension system
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5. Parallelogram independent front suspension or wishbone type:
The stub axle carrier connects an upper and lower link. The lower link is larger than the
upper but it may not be parallel. It keeps the same the track width when the wheels rise and
fall produced by the wheel scrubbing sideways. The various schematic arrangements of
parallelogram independent front suspension using coil, torsion and leaf springs are shown in
Figure 4.60.
The use of coil springs in the front axle suspension of cars is universal. It consists of
upper and lower wishbone arms pivoted to the frame member. The spring is placed between
lower wishbone and underside of the cross-member. The vehicle weight is transmitted from
body and cross-member to the coil spring through which it goes to the lower wishbone

11111 Automobile Engineering

member. A shock absorber is placed inside the coil spring and it is attached to the cross-
member and lower wishbone member.
Stub axle
corner
(b)
(a)
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asy (c)
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(d)
Figure 4.60 Parallelogram independent front suspension

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The wishbone anTIS are similar to a chicken wishbone or letter V in shape as shown in
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Figure 4.61. Due to V-shape, the wishbone not only positions wheels and it transmits the
ing
vehicle load to the springs but also they resist acceleration, braking and cornering (side)
forces.
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Upper Wishbone
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Lower Wishbone
Figure 4.61 Wishbone type independent suspension with coil springs

Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems Ina t

The upper arms are shorter in length than nes. It helps to keep the wheel track
constant thereby avoiding the tyre scrub thus minimiz-ingtyre wear. However, a small change
in the camber angle occurs with such an arrangement as shown in Figure 4.62.
The wishbone type is the most popular independent suspension system.
~
r '" ,
/-- Change in
I \! Camber Angle
it,1
I II ,I
1 ,I II
1,1 \<..
i >.
I !i !iii"
i ' I I :-_.tr---~ T;'
I
1--~LL_%
Iljii!i:W~~\
",1
1
!i
j,
//
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I' h-~'
I!
, 'I j'i:
:. ,cd.
I __ ~ - ~ )-
I: If I.· i ' .
1\'-1
II i! il·
b-----_,.__ _:~~
I -<;
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~.-
Ii
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Figure 4.62 Changes ill camber angle ill wishbone suspension
Advantages:
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I. Better cornering characteristics are obtained.
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2. The track length remains constant although a slight change in camber takes place.
It enhances tyre life. eer
Disadvantages: ing
I. The wheels on corners leaning outwards with the body results the undesired
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steering effects.
2. Variation in tracks length results the adverse tyre wear. t
6. Trailing link independent front suspension:
Trailing arm
Figure 4.63 Trailing arm independent suspension

The suspension system maintains constant track and wheel attitude with a slight change
in wheel base and caster angle. A coil spring is connected with the trailing arm which is


already attached to the shaft. But this shaft is carried by the wheel hub. When the wheel
moves up and down, it will wind and unwind the spring. The coil spring may be replaced by a
torsion bar. Figure 4.63 shows line diagram of this type of suspension system.
7. Vertical guide suspension:
In this type, the kingpin is directly connected to the cross member of the frame. It moves
up and down thereby compressing and expanding the coil springs as shown in Figure 4.64.
Upper spring
rod
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Figure 4.64 Vertical guide suspension
8. Swinging half axle suspension:
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ing
In this type of suspension system, wheels are mounted rigidly on half axles which are
pivoted at their ends to the chassis member at the middle of the car as shown in Figure 4.65.
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The main disadvantage of this system is lip and down movements of the wheel causing the
camber angle to vary.
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o 0
r---------------~, -----------~
Figure 4.65 Swinging half axle suspension

Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems e·;4

Advantages of independent front suspension system:
1. Unsprung weight is reduced with improved ride and better road holding while
turning and braking.
2. Instead of tilting the frame and body, it is kept horizontal and wheels are vertical
when encountered a road bump.
3. The wheels are sprung independently but springing movement of one wheel is not
transmitted to the other side.
4. A greater degree of vertical springing movement is provided.
5. In both wheels wobble and steering tramp are reduced.
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6. Greater resilience is provided with better springing action than most rigid axle
vehicles.
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7. The independent front suspension gives more space for engine accommodation.
8. Front springs are arranged for sufficient distance apart to satisfy understeer
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conditions and they are also preferable to over steer.
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9. Softer suspension provides the low spring rate which enables large wheel
movement,
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10. The caster angle is affected on beam axles by spring deflection while braking or
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accelerating thereby producing the axle to twist between stub axle and spring seats.
ing
I 1. The tendency of rotating wheels is reduced by the independent front suspension
when it turns about the kingpin due to gyroscopic action. Thus, the wheel wobbling
or shimmy is reduced.
.ne
Disadvantages:
1. The wheel cambering with body roll reduces the concerning power.
t
2. There is a slight chrnge in wheel track, causing tyre scrub during bouncing of one
wheel.
3. A more rigid chassis or sub-frame structure is required.
4. A more complicated suspension and steering linkage and pivot joints are necessary
so that the suspension becomes more expensive and it tends to wear more.
5. Effects of unbalanced-wheel-assembly are transmitted to the steering-wheel more
easily.
6. Steering-geometry alignment is more critical and it requires more frequent attention.

ilJD Automobile Engineering

4.4.18. ;1igid Axle Front Suspension
Rigid axle front suspension is also called as dependent front suspension. This type of
suspension uses a solid axle. This type of suspension has been universally used before
drawing the independent front wheel suspension. This design consists of one steel or
aluminium beam extending the width of the vehicle. This beam is held in place by leaf
springs. This design also uses kingpins and bushings to attach the wheels outboard of the axle.
Because of its load carrying ability, the solid axle is only used on heavy trucks, and off-road
vehicles. It is not suitable for use on modern passenger cars for three important reasons.
>- Transfer of Road Shock: There is transfer of road shock from one wheel to the other
due to the way the wheels are connected to the axle. This causes a rough ride and
ww could result in loss of traction.
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,. Unsprung Weight."Because the solid axle has a lot of unsprung weight, it needs more
spring and shock control to keep the tyres in contact with the road .
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.,. Wheel Alignment: The solid axle design makes no provisions for alignment.
Figure 4.66 illustrates a typical rigid axle front wheel suspension. It has either two
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longitudinal leaf springs or a transverse spring along with shock absorbers.
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Frame
Springs ing
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Axle
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Figure 4.66 Rigid axlefront wheel suspension employing longitudinalleafspring
In this type of suspension, the front wheel hub rotates on anti-friction bearings and
steering spindles already connected with steering knuckles. The steering spindle and steering
knuckle assemblies are pinned at axle ends to permit the wheels turning. This pin is called
kingpin or steering knuckle pin.

Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems lila

Where the forked portion is integral with the steering knuckle and fitted over the end of
the axle as shown in Figure 4.66, the construction is called a "Reverse Elliot." In an "Elliot"
type, the ends of the axle are forked to hold the steering knuckle extension between ends.
Front axles are called as "dead" axles which do not rotate. But, in contrast, rear axles are
called as "live" axles which transmit power to rear wheels.
4.4.19. Independent Rear Suspension

Any suspension that can be used on the front end of the'car can be used on the rear end.
The versions of the independent' front systems described in the previous section can be found
on the rear axles. But, in the rear end of the car, the steering Iinkage is absent. Therefore, rear
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independent suspensions can be simplified versions of front ones, although the basic
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principles remain the same.
As explained in the independent front axle suspension, here also the wheels are mounted
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in separate axles and sprung independently. Figure 4.67 illustrates a method of rear wheel
independent suspension. Universal couplings are used to keep the wheels vertical. Sliding
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coupling is necessary to keep the wheel track constant to avoid scrubbings oftyres.
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ing
Differential .ne
" Wheel unit
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Figure 4.67 Rear wheel independent suspension
Types of independent rear suspension:

1. Longitudinal leaf spring rear end suspension
2. Transverse leaf spring rear end suspension
3. Coil spring rear end suspension,
Both longitudinal leaf spring and coil spring suspensions are mainly used in vehicles but
transverse leaf spring suspensions are rarely used. In addition to above types, there are some
more types of such as

lid AutomobileEngineerini]
1. Parallel link system
2. Swinging arm type
3: Swinging half axles.
In parallel link system. wheels are attached with a backbone-type frame using two
wishbone shaped.links.
In swinging arm type, a spring or a torsion bar is used at the pivot. These axles are used
in most of vehicles. It has two axle tubes joined to the final drive housing which allows the
wheel to rise or fall. A universal joint is fixed to allow the change in drive axle at the centre of
each axle joint.
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1. Longitudinal leaf spring rear end suspensions:
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Laminated leaf spring, as shown in Figure 4.68 (a), is used as a suspension member in
this type of system. The front end of the longest leaf is bending into a circle to form the spring
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eye. The spring eye is attached to the spring hanger by a bolt. The spring hanger is fixed to the
vehicle frame rubber bushings inserted in the spring hanger support the bolt as shown in
Figure 4.68 (b).
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r gineer
ing
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(a)
Hanger
t
Auxiliary
Spring
Axle
(b)
Figure 4.68 Longitudinal lea! spring rear end suspension

Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems ,':1.

The rear end of the spring is also bending to form a spring eye. This spring eye is
attached to the car frame through a shackle. The shackle allows the change in the length of the
leaf spring as it bends. The centre portion of the spring is attached to the rear axle housing by
a pair of 'U' bolts. At the intermediate positions of the spring length, the rebound clips are
located. When the leaf spring is pushed either upward or downward by bumps, the distance
between two spring eyes changes. The tile shackle permits this change in length. The shackle
also includes rubber bushings. They absorb vibrations and prevent it from reaching the car
frame and body.
2. Transverse lea/ spring rear end suspension:

This system is quite simple in which a single transverse spring is used. Such springs are
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mounted in inverted positions parallel and above the rear axle. Each end is shackled to the rear
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axle as shown in Figure 4.69 (a).
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gin Rear
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Differential Case
Tubular Cross
ing
Member Hinged Link
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Transverse
Spring Assembly
(b)
Figure 4.69 Trans verse lea/spring rear end suspension
The transverse rear springs are always used in combination with torque tube drive.
Therefore, they do not carry the driving thrust and torque. Figure 4.69 (b) shows the another
arrangement of this type of spring in which each rear wheel is independently suspended by
one end of the transverse spring while the tubular cross member is attached to the high centre


portion. In this type, each rear wheel is driven by axle shaft by two universal joints at its ends
and differential unit. The differential unit is attached to the frame.
3. Coil spring rear end suspensions:

The coil springs, as shown in Figure 4.70, are seated in the pan shaped brackets attached
to the rear axle and they are compressed against similar spring seats incorporated into the
frame (or) body. There are two control arms (or) links attached between rear axle housing and
car frame. They permit upward (or) downward movement of the axle housing regarding the
car frame.
This type of suspension is always used along with a torque tube drive. Therefore, the coil
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springs are not subjected to driving thrust. The excessive roll of side way while rounding a
curve is prevented by a shock absorber mounted in rubber bushings. Energy stored in given
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weight of spring coil and torsion bar springs are superior to leaf springs.
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En
gin
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ing
Figure 4.70 Coil spring rear end suspension .ne
Disadvantages of the independent rear suspension:
1. The initial cost is high.
t
2. Greater maintenance is required.
3. Misalignment of steering geometry is obtained.
4. Wear of the components wear out easily and quickly.
4.4.20. Interconnected Suspension System

The interconnected suspension system also called Front and Rear Inter-Connected
(FRIC) suspension is a system which links the front and rear suspension of the car using
hydraulics and aims to give better stability and drivability for the driver called stable and
consistent aerodynamic platform.

Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems II:"

Ordinarily, shock absorbers control the wheel movement by passing hydraulic fluid
through valves between upper and lower reservoirs. The speed at which the fluid flows
through these valves limits the speed at which the suspension bounces t':' and down. Using a
separate one-way valve, it makes the limit different for "bound" and "renound." FRIC system
is understood to link the front and rear suspension hydraulically and it can be adjusted in a
similar way as brake balance. The 'FRTC device also connects the left and right suspensions
acting similar to an antiroll bar in order to keep a constant ride height and aerodynamic
balance.
In FRlC, the fluid is displaced not from one chamber to another but via pipes through a
ww
valve block and into the opposite hydraulic unit. However, the upper and lower chambers are
interconnected left to right make the system to react differently to inputs from the suspension.
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They are a resistance to roll or heave.
Cross-linked interconnected suspension system:

"Cross-linked"
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shock absorbers have the lower reservoir of one damper linked to the
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upper reservoir of another damper. When the car rolls in a corner, the outer hydraulic
elements will compress and the inner elements will rise. With the same effect, when the centre
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element is in pitch, the hydraulic fluid is transferred from one side to the other side to increase
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the spring effect in preventing the car rolling. The upper chamber on one side and the lower
chamber on the other side create high pressure. As these chambers are cross connected to the
ing
high pressure chamber on their opposite side, it creates the resistance between two systems to
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displace their fluid. It has the effect of increasing roll stiffness in cars. It prevents body roll
and stabilizing the car during turns.
Figure 4.71 Cross-linked interconnected suspension system


Parallel-linked interconnected suspension system:
"Parallel-linked" shock absorbers have upper and lower reservoirs connected to their
counterparts. When the car brakes (in heave), the weight shifts forwards and the front
suspension compresses and the rear rises. The pressure builds up on one side of the centre
element on the front suspension and this pressure in the hydraulic fluid is transferred to the
rear centre element. It increases the spring effect at the front and reduces it at the rear and
hence the car will not dive nose down under braking. When the car is in heave, both upper
chambers create high pressure. It creates the resistance between two systems to displace their
tluid. It has the effect of increasing the car's heave stiffness. The car's ride height will remain
more consistent for better control of the front wing and diffuser aero. It prevents dive
ww
and squat under braking and acceleration because both sides resist compression instead of
accepting it.
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asy ¢=:J
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c::::>
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I
.... r-
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Heave
-- n ing. ~
Front
Rear
net
Figure 4.72 Parallel-linked interconnected suspension system
4.4.21. Anti-Roll Bar (Stabilizer)

Stabilizer or a sway bar is used in all independent suspension to decrease the tendency of
the vehicle to roll or tip on either side when making a tum known as anti-roll bar.
It is in the form of torsion bar made of alloy steel. The torsion bar is attached to springs
by two short rods. Anti-roll bar is passed through rubber bti'shesin the frame. By connecting a
stabilizer bar between front suspension members, the roll stiffness is improved. It is supported
by two bearings (bushes) which are already connected to the frame.
. has a series of tubular rods which connect opposite wheels and suspension units on a
car to each other. These rods are connected by torsion springs. It reduces the body roll or


lateral motion during a vehicle's turning. The bar is a part of vehicle's <t' oiIiIo ....... I";~,,,
it is designed to increase the vehicle's lateral roll stiffness.
Working:
When the car moves on the road, one of the sides will move up and decrease the load on
spring produced by the nearer rod to move down. On the other hand, the load is increased by
moving the near rod up. So, the bar is twisted. Hence, the vehicle is not to rollout and it gives
the stability against lateral forces.
Lower wishbone
ww
w.E Busnes fitted
to frame
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Figure 4.73 Anti roll bar
rin
In normally constructed of tubular steel, the U-shaped stabilizer bar is often connected to
the frame of the vehicle at two points as well as to the suspension on both sides of the vehicle
as shown in Figure 4.73. When the wheels move in the same direction, the bar does not bend g.n
but if the wheels move in different directions, even slightly, it twists thereby causing extra
stiffness. This design is intended to reduce body lean during cornering which can affect the
et
tyre's grip on the road and-therefore, the stability of the vehicle's cornering ability increases.
The drawback of anti-roll bar is the connection of the stabiIizer bar w.th both sides of the
vehicle. Both wheels are essentially connected to each other, So, bumps from one wheel can
be transferred to the other wheel by causing side-to-side motion which can be uncomfortable.
This motion also affects the handling of the vehicle. Stiffer bar produces more shaking the
motion to the vehicle. In more extrefDe situations, the stabilizer can cause wheels on the
outside of a turn to lose its contact with the road thereby causing both handling problem and
safety issue.
)
Sometimes, higher-end vehicles come with active stabilizer systems which are controlled
by a computer and it can change the amount of stiffness of the system. They generally allow
for a small amount of roll so that cornering feels more natural but the computer can react to
'ID Automobile Engineering

different amount of torsion being placed on the bar and adjust accordingly. It is a fairly high-
end feature and it does not come standard on most vehicles but it greatly enhances the feel and
performance of the car since the vehicle will react to steering situations as they arise rather
than acting as a static system. It only reacts to forces placed on it.
Conditionsfor operating the anti-roll bar:

I. One wheel is lifted relative to other wheel, half the total anti-roll stiffness acts
downwards on the wheel and the reaction on the vehicle body tends to resist pody roll.
2. If both wheels lift by the same amount, the bar is not twisted and there is no transfer of
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3.
load to the vehicle body.
If the displacements of the wheels are mutually opposed, the full effect of the anti-roll
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stiffness is produced.
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4.4.22. Trouble Shooting in Springs and Suspension
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1.Front wheel low speed shimmy
Causes
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-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Remedies
1. Uneven tyre pressure. eer

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Inflate to correct pressure.
2. Loose ball joints or king-pin. Replace. ing

3. Front springs soft. Replace.
.ne
4. Irregular tyre tread.
5. Loose linkage.
Match treads.
Readjust and replace worn parts. t
6. Looseness ill steering gear. Replace worn parts.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Front wheel tramp
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Wheels unbalanced. Rebalance.
2. Excessive wheel run out. Replace.
3. Shock absorber defective. Replace.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Steering, Sreke•• nd Su.p.ns/on Systems

3. Rough ride
,,:.-
-_..__ _ -----_._---------------------------------------------------------------------------
CaUlllI Remedies
...._-_ __ _----_._---_ .._--------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Excessive tyre pressure. Reduce to the correct pressure.
2. Shock absorber defective. Replace.
3. Excessive friction in suspension. Lubricate parts.
--------_ ----_ -_ _-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Sway Oil turns
---------~
-----_
w
..__ ww
-
ClIuses
__ _
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Remedies
..--_ ..-..-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
_
.Ea
1. Stabiliser bar loose. Tighten as required.
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2. Sagging or weak springs.
3. Incorrect caster.
Replace.
Re-adjust.
.. ~
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--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Breakage of spring
nee
----_ .... .....-----------------------------:-------------------------------------------------------------------
_-_
Causes Remedies
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................. _---_.-.--_._._-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Over loading. Avoid. g.n
2. Loose centre bolt.
3. Loose U-bolt.
Tighten centre bolts.
Tighten U-bolt.
et
4. Defective shock absorber. Replace.
S. Tight spring shackle. Loosen as necessary.
-------------_._-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. Sagging spring
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
----_. ---------------------------------------------------------------------":"-------------------------------------
1. Leaf broken. Replace.
2. Weak spring. Replace.

1-..\ 3. Short coil spring.

Install shim or replace.
4. Defective shock absorber. Replace.
7. Noises in the suspension system
Causes Remedies
Commonly attributed to any loose. Examine the parts carefully.

Worn or unlubricated part such as Locate the cause and correct as
ww U-bolts, rebound clips, shackles,

shock absorber linkages etc.
required.
w.E 8. Rough ride
asy
Causes
En Remedies
1. Rusted or corroded leaves.

gin Lubricate the leaves.
2. Seized pins in the shackles.
eer Set right at once.
3. Defective shock absorber.
4. Worn lubricating pads.
Replace.
Replace. ing
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9. Suspension tooflexible t
Causes Remedi~s
1. Unrequired lubrication of spring. Clean springs thoroughly.

2. Weak springs. Replace.
3. Broken leaves. Replace.
4. Defective damper. Replace.
--------------------------~--------------.-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems 11:,-

10. Sagging spring
... ------------------------------------------------------------..---------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
l. Weak springs. Replace.
2. Broken leaves. Change new one.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11. Noise
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
wwCauses Remedies
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
w.E
I. Lack of lubrication.
2. Loose U-bolts.
Lubricate correctly.
Tighten it properly.
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3., Loose shackle pins. Tighten it.
4. Defective shock absorbers.
En Replace.
---------------------_ ..._-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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12. Vehicle sags to one side
nee
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
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1. Weak road springs. Replace. g.n
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Broken spring leaves.

3. Incorrect adjustment of coil
Replace.
. Adjust properly.
et
springs or torsion bars.
4. Defective suspension units. Repair or replace.
S. Defective shock absorbers. Replace.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
13. Harsh suspension or excessive road shocks transmitted to vehicle
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Spring leaves corroded causing (i) Clean and lubricate.
excessive friction. (ii) Replace.

IEM'. Automobll. Eniin~!~"n;__ J

2. Wear depressions in spring leaves. Replace springs. o'
3. Wrong fitting of extra-load leaves. Fit properly.

4. Seized shackle pins. (i) Free up, clean and lubricate.
(ii) Replace damaged parts.
5. Defective shock absorbers. Replace.
6. Suspension arm pivots seized. (i) Free up, clean and lubricate.
(ii) Replace detective pins and bushes.
7. Torsion bars incorrectly adjusted. Adjust properly.

Replace.
ww 8. Coil springs stiff.
_____________________________________________________________________ ••• ••••• "'"."W·.
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4.5. BRAKING SYSTEM
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The mechanism which is used to slow and stop the vehicle is known as braking system. It
En
is an important component of a vehicle. In other words. the total system starting from brake
pedal or lever to the brake shoe is known as braking system.
Principle of braking system: gin

eer
In this system, the kinetic energy is converted into heat energy due to friction between
ing
two mating surfaces of brake lining and brake drum. Then. the heat is dissipated into the
atmosphere.
Need for brakes: .ne

I.
2.
To stop or slow down the vehicle at the will of an operator.
To control the vehicle descending a hill.
t
3. To keep the vehicle in a desired position even at rest.
4. To park the vehicle and hold it in stationary position without the presence of driver.
4.5.1. Requirements of Braking System

I. It should have good anti-fade characteristics.
2. It should be consistent with safety.
3. It should not be skidding while applying brake.
4. It should have a better cooling system.
S. It should be strong enough to stop the vehicle within the minimum distance.


6. It should have less weight.
Systems e".
7. It should be reliable.
8. It should be easy to adjust having a proper maintenance.
9. It should produce less noise and vibration while applying brake.
10. It should work efticiently irrespective of road condition and quality.
11. The retardation must be uniform throughout its application.
12. The pedal effort must be within the convenient capacity of the driver.
13. It should have long life.
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4.5.2. Stopping Distance, Time and Braking Efficiency
Stopping distance:
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The distance required to stop the vehicle after applying brake is proportional to the
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square of speed at which brakes are applied. The stopping distance depends upon the
following factors.
En
1. Grip between the tyre and road surface,
2. Tyre tread condition,
3. Tyre inflation, and
gi nee
4. Nature of road surface.
rin
The stopping distance is calculated by
g.n
where
V2
d=-
2a
d = Stopping distance in meters
et
V= Velocity of the vehicle in mls
a = Deceleration in mls',
Stopping time:
It is the time required to stop the vehicle completely after applying brake.
The stopping time is computed by

V
t=-
a
where t = Stopping time in seconds

lu. Automobile Engineering

V= Velocity of the vehicle in mls
a =Deceleration in mls',
Braking efficiency:
To measure the efficiency of a braking system, specific methods are adapted. Braking
efficiency is defined as the rate at which the braking system brings a vehicle to rest from
certain road speed.
Table 4.2 Braking efficiency
S.No. Condition of Brake Braking efficiency (%)

1 Ideal
ww 1
i1 2 Perfect
100
90
w.E 3 Very Good 70
asy 4 Fair 60
5 Bad
En 30
gi
If the braking efficiency is less than 60%, it is indirectly indicating-the danger condition
nee
of the brake. So, the driver needs to do necessary corrective action.
•
The braking efficiency is calculated by the equation

rin
llHr
a
= zs: x 100
g g.n
where all,. = Braking retardation
g = acceleration due to gravity.
et
4.5.3. Theory of Braking Or Principle of Braking
While operating the braking system, the kinetic energy of moving vehicle. is converted
into heat energy.
. The brake is a friction creating device which ,causes the speed reduction of
the vehicle at a faster rate than the speed reduction obtained by changing gears and closing
dOWBthe accelerator.
Then the work done on the brake should be equal to the kinetic energy of moving vehicle
to stop the vehicle. This rate cannot be high enough to stop the vehicle instantaneously.


So, the kinetic energy is given by
K.E=--
wv2
2g
-4----, C.G
R - Vertical Reaction
V - Vehicle Speed
W - weight
FR - Frictional Resistance
C.G - Centre of Gravity
ww R R
w.E Figure 4.74 Theory of braking
asy
When the vehicle is stopped, the kinetic energy becomes zero. So, the work done on the
En
brake is the product of average frictional resistance (Fu) at the road wheel junction and the
distance (d) moved by the vehicle before halting.
Work done on brake = K.E gi nee

F, d=
II
WV2
2g
rin
where d is stopping distance or braking distance. g.n
et
Similarly, the work done on the brake can be calculated at any instant when the vehicle is
slowed down from velocity VI to V2 in a distance 'x'. Then brake work done is equal to the
loss in kinetic energy of the vehicle which is given by
4.5.4. Friction Resistance and Coefficient of Friction
The frictional resistance (Ft?) expressed between wheel and road surface is proportional
to the vertical reaction (R) and it is related by,
FR = pR
where p is the coefficient of friction between wheel tyre and road surface.

The maximum value of coefficient of friction can be unity for ideal case. In real case, it if
less than 1. This value depends upon the following factors.
1. road surface condition (dry, wet, slippery, muddy etc.)

2. tyre tread pattern
3. inflation pressure, and
4. material of road surface.
4.5.5. Types of Brakes

The automobile brakes are classified on the basis of following.
ww 1. According to the applications:

0) Service or running or foot brake
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(ii) Parking or emergency or hand brake.
asy
2. According to the number of wheels:
(i) Two wheel brakes
(ii) Four wheel brakes. En
3, According to the brake gear: gin
(i) Mechanical brake eer
(a) Hand brake
ing
(b) Foot brake.
(ii) Power brake: .ne
(a) With booster
(b) Without booster.
t
4. According to construction:
(i) Drum brake
(ii) Disc brake.
5. According to location
(i) Transmission brakes
(ii) Wheel brakes.
6. According to method of braking contact:

(i) Internal expanding brakes

(ii) External expanding brakes.
7. According to the power unit:

(i) Cylinder brake
(il) Diaphragm brake.
8. According to power transmission:

{i} Direet acting brake
(ll) Geared brake,
ww 9. According to method of applying brakefarce:

(i) Single acting brake
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(ii) Double acting brake.
J (). According to power employed:

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(i) Yael-HIm brakes
Ea, Atmospheric suspended

h. Vacuumsuspended ngi
(ii) Air Of pneumatic brakes
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(iii) Hydraulic brakes
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(iv) Hydrostatic brakes
(v) Electric brakes. g.n
et
It. brake drum is connected to the wheel and also a back plate is mounted on the axle
~asillg, Two brake shoes are connected on the back plate. Friction linings, called brake linings,
ar~ provideq 011 br&ke shoes as shown in Figure 4.75. One or two retractor springs are
~pnn!3~~~
to keep brake shoes away from the drum without applying brakes. The brake shoes
af@ tightly fixed af one end but the force F is applied at the other end by a brake actuating
m~ChllJ1ism.It forces the brake shoes towards the revolving drum. Therefore, the brake is
Ilppli~d. An aclj~st~r is linked to compensate the wear of friction lining. The relative braking
torque obtained at shoes varies with the pedal force according to the type of expander. It is
already connected or floating to lead or trail the shoes.

,- Automobile Engineering
ww
w.E Stationary plate
asy
Figure 4.75 Construction of a drum brake
Table 4.3-Main parts of drum brake and itsfunctions
En
Parts of drum brake
gin Functions
1. Brake pedal To operate the brake
eer
2. Links and Levers To provide mechanical connections.
ing
3. Brake drum It moves
circumference
with road
of which the
wheel and with
expanding .ne the inner
brake shoes
comes into contact to retard its speed or hold it from
moving.
t
4. Backplate (or) Torque To support all accessories.
plate
5. Anchor To support the brake shoes.
6. Cam It expands the brake shoes.
7. Brake shoes and lining They are radial plates having linings of frictional
material fixed at their back.
8. Brake shoe retracting It connects both the brake shoes at their loose ends and
spring helps them in contacting after the brakes are released.

Steering, Brakes and Systems

9. Adjuster To adjust the brake.
4.5.6.1. Types of Drum Brakes

There are two types of drum brakes as follows.
(i) External contacting brakes
.(ii) Internal expanding brakes

1. External contracting brake:
The main components of external contracting brakes are brake drum, bandwidth lining,
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operating lever, push'rod, return spring and adjusting lever.
w.E To operating
cable or rod
asy
En r:
Push
gi nee
rin
g.n
et
Figure 4.76 Construction of an external contracting brake
Working:
When the push rod is started to function by the hand through operating, then the lined
brake band fixed around the drum will be tightened in order to lock or slow down the rotating
drum as shown in Figure 4.76. The return spring brings the band back to the off position when
the brake is released. This system is pneumatically operated. The main disadvantages are
greater wear and tear. To park the vehicle in position, this type of brake is mainly used.

2. Internal expanding brake:

These internal expanding brakes have the following parts such as brake drum, stationary
plate, two brake shoes, anchor pins and retracting spring.
Working:
When the cam is turned, the shoes with brake linings will be moved beside the drum as
shown in Figure 4.75. The brake linings create friction between rotating drum and expanding
shoes. The force of the friction isjust opposite to the direction of drum rotation. Therefore, the
vehicle is stopped or slowed down. When the brake releases, the retracting spring is brought
shoes back to the off position. It is mainly used in modern vehicles. It is tightly connected to
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the steering knuckle in a front wheel brake.
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4.6.7. Disc Brakes
A disc brake is a type of brake that uses calipers to squeeze pairs of pads against a disc in
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order to create friction that retards the rotation of a shaft, such as a vehicle axle, either to
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reduce its rotational speed or to hold it stationary. The friction elements are shaped like pads
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and are squeezed inwards to clamp a rotating disc or wheel.
nee Inspection hole
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g.n
et
Figure 4.77 Components of disc brake
4.5.7.1. Components of Disc Brake

A disc brake assembly consists of a caliper, brake pads, and rotor as shown in
Figure 4.77.

The caliper is the nonrotating unit in the system and it may be mounted to the spindle or
splash shield to provide support. The brake caliper assembly includes the caliper housing, the
piston(s), the dust boot(s), the brake pads or shoes, and the bleeder screw. The caliper is fitted
with one or more pistons that are hydraulically actuated by the fluid pressure developed in the
system. When the brake pedal is applied, brake fluid flows into the caliper cylinder. The
piston is then forced outward by fluid pressure to apply the brake pads to the rotor. The piston
boot keeps road dirt and water off the caliper piston and wall of the cylinder. The boot and
seal fit into grooves cut in the caliper cylinder and piston. A bleeder screw allows air to be
removed from the hydraulic system.
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(ii)Disc brake pads:
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Disc brake pads consist of steel shoes to which the lining is riveted or bonded. Brake pad
linings are made of either asbestos (asbestos fiber filled) or semi-metallic (metal particle
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filled) friction material. Many new vehicles, especially those with front-wheel drive, use semi-
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metallic linings. Semi-metallic linings withstand higher operating temperatures without losing
ngi
their frictional properties. Anti-rattle clips are frequently used to keep the brake pads from
vibrating and rattling.
(iii) Brake disc: nee

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It is also called brake rotor. The brake disc uses friction from the brake pads to slow or
g.n
stop the vehicle. Made of cast iron, the rotor may be an integral part of the wheel hub.
However, on many front-wheel drive vehicles, the disc and hub are separate units. The brake
et
disc may be a ventilated rib or solid type. The ventilated rib disc is hollow that allows cooling
air to circulate inside the disc.
4.5.7.2. Types of Disc Brake

Disc brakes can be classified as follows.
1. Fixed caliper (or) swinging caliper type

2. Floating caliper type, and
3. Sliding caliper type.
Floating and sliding are the most common types. The fixed caliper may be found on older
vehicles.

Imm Automobile Engineering

1. Fixed caliper (lise brake:
The caliper is pivoted about a fulcrum pin but one of the friction pads is connected to the.
caliper shown in Figure 4.78. The other pad is pressed by the fluid pressure against the disc to
apply the brake. So, the caliper automatically makes to adjust its position by swinging about
the pin.
In this design, the caliper usually is made in two pieces and has two or more pistons in
use. The pistons accomplish the centering action of the fixed caliper, as they move in their
bores. If the lining should wear unevenly on one side of the caliper. the piston would take up
the excess clearance simply by moving further out of the bore. As the brakes are applied, fluid
pressure enters the caliper on one side and is routed to the other through an internal passage or
ww
by an external tube connected to the opposite half of the caliper. As pressure is increased, the
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pistons force the brake pads against the rotor evenly, therefore maintaining an equal
amount of pressure on both sides of the rotor.
asy Friction pad
E ngi
Piston
nee
rin
g.n
et
Caliper
Figure 4. 78 Fixed caliper disc brake
2. Floating caliper disc brake:

The floating caliper type disc brake is designed to move laterally on its mount. This
movement allows the caliper to maintain a centered position with respect to the rotor as
shown in Figure 4.79. This design also permits the braking force to be applied equally to both
sides of the rotor. The floating caliper usually is a one-piece solid construction and uses a
single piston to develop the braking force.

Steering, Brakes and
Hydraulic
pressure
Pad
Rotor disc
Steering kunckle
ww Figure 4. 79 Floating caliper disc brake
Operation of a floating caliper is as follows.
~ w.E
Fluid under pressure enters the piston cavity and forces the piston outward. As
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this happens the brake pad contacts the rotor.
~ .Additional pressure then forces the caliper assembly to move in the opposite
E ngi
direction of the piston, thereby forcing the brake pad on the opposite side to
contact the rotor.
nee
)- As pressure is built up behind the piston, it forces the brake pads to tighten
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against the rotor. This action develops additional braking force.
3. Sliding caliper disc bra_:

Friction pad g.n
et
Fluid under pressure
Figure 4.80 Sliding caliper disc brake

le",N Automobile EngineerIng

The sliding caliper type disc brake, as shown in Figure 4.80, is mounted in a slot in the
caliper adapter. It is a variation of the floating caliper, using a single piston and operating on
the same principle, whereby the piston applies pressure to one brake pad and the movable
caliper applies pressure to the other. This design has two major sections such as the sliding
caliper and the caliper adapter (anchor plate). Each has two angular machined surfaces. This
is where the sliding contacts come into play. The machined surfaces of the caliper housing
slide on the mated surfaces of the caliper adapter when the brakes are applied.
4. Clute" type disc brakes:

A pair of pressure plates with many segments made of friction material is wound for 3600
around friction surfaces. Then these plates are axially moved outwards two revolving disc
ww
surfaces made by inner faces of the drum. This type of brake is fully enclosed by the drum in
w
such a way to act as ribs. The heat is dissipated through these ribs. Out of all these benefits,
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the clutch type brakes are used in limited applications.
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Advantages and disadvantages of disc brakes:
Advantages:
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1. It provides better stability because of uniform pressure distribution over pads.
n
2. It allows less bearing load on the application of the brake.
eer
3. The disc pads are not affecteddue to higher temperature.
ing
4. Fading is less due to exposing of disk for allowing heat radiation.
. net
5. The construction is very simple and the brake pads can be easily replaced or serviced
readily.
6. There is no self-energizing effect.
7. The brakes get wetted because the disk brakes will recover the braking effect quicker
due to the centrifugal force throwing off the water.
8. Repair and maintenance are easy.
9. Friction surfaces are directly exposed to cooling air.
10. It has less weight than drum type.
Disadvantages:
1. Surface pressure (braking pressure) is larger due to limited area of braking. So, the
greater friction resistance and heat resistance are needed.

Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems ,.t,g

2. Due to absence of self-energizing effect, high hydraulic pressure is required to attain
sufficient braking effect.
3. The cost is high.
4. External aids are required to prevent damage to disk by sand and dirt.
5. Complete protection to the disc from the road is to be provided.
6. Higher temperature causes evaporation of brake fluid and deterioration of seals.
7. The pads wear off more quickly than the brake shoe linings of the drum type.
8. External servo mechanism is needed.
ww
9. Hand brakes can easily be fitted in drum brakes but it is not easy in drum brakes.
w
4.6.8. Comparison between Drum Brake and Disc Brake
.Ea
Table 4.4 Comparison between drum brake anti disc brake
S.No. syE
Description Drum Brake Disc Brake
I. Life of friction material

15,000km)ngi
It IS reasonable (about It is reasonable (about
25,000 km)
2. Visibility of wear from n

It is not possible.
eer It can be seen at a
outside
It is inferior.
ing
glance.
It is inferior.
3.
4:
Heat dissipation
Replacement of friction It is troublesome and time . \
net
It is easy and rapid.
i
material Consuming.
5. Weight It is heavy. It is lighter (by 25%)
6. Cooling It is too slow. It more efficient due to

exposure to
atmosphere.
7. Braking effect Generally, it is It is more consistent.

inconsistent.
8. Temperature effect Drum expands and tends to It is unaffected.

separate out from linings.

'M.Mi) Automobile Engineering

9. Water and dirt It accumulates. It is self -cleaning.
collection
10. Self-energizing action It exists. It is absent.
II. Brake pedal effort It is higher. It is proportional to

retarded.
12. Behavior of hydraulic Some pressure always There is no hydraulic

system in released state exists. pressure on the piston.
13. Resistance to folding It is fair. It is excellent.
ww14. Force needed to apply

brake
It is comparatively less. It is more.
15. w.E
Nature of wear Non uniform occurs. Uniform occurs.
16.
asy
Shape of friction lining It is curved in nature. It has straight linings.
4.5.9.H~raulic Brakes E ngi

nee
Today, most of the cars use hydraulic brake system on all wheels with additional hand
brake to stop the rear wheel movement. The liquid pressure supplies hydraulic brakes. The
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pedal force is transmitted to the brake shoe by definite quantity of liquid passing through a
g.n
force transmission system. Then the force applied to the pedal is multiplied and transmitted to
brake shoes by a suitable transmission system based upon Pascal's principle. It states that the
total pressure acting on the transmission system is equal to the sum of pressures acting in all
directions without any losses.
et
Hydraulic braking system consists of two main components which are master cylinder
and wheel cylinder. The master cylinder is attached to the wheel cylinder by tubes on each of
four wheels. The system has light liquid pressure which acts as a brake fluid. This brake fluid
is a mixture of glycerin and alcohol or castor oil, denatured alcohol and some additives.
Construction:
A wheel brake has a cylinder brake drum connected on the inner side of the wheel as
shown in Figure 4.81. Two brake shoes are connected inside the brake drums. The shoes are
fixed with heat and wear resisting brake lining on their surface. The brake pedal is fitted to the
master cylinder piston by a piston rod.

I Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems e,m., I

Working:
When the brake is applied, the driver depresses the pedal to force the piston into the
master cylinder. It will increase the pressure of the fluid in the master cylinder. So, the entry
hydraulic system pressure is increased. This pressure is transmitted equally to the wheel
cylinder on each of four brakes. Then, it forces the wheel cylinder piston outwards. Due to
this, the brake shoes are forced out against the brake drums. Hence, the brake is applied.
When the driver releases the brake pedal, the master cylinder piston is returned to its
original position by return spring. Thus, the fluid pressure in the entry system decreases to
original value. It allows retracting springs on wheel brakes to pull the brake shoes out of
ww
contact along with brake drums. Therefore, the wheel cylinder pistons also come back to their
original inward position. Thus, the brake is released.
w .Ea
Shoes
syE Brake pedal
ngi
n eer
ing
. net
Figure 4.81 Hydraulic brake system
4.6.9.1.Master Cylinder
The central unit in the hydraulic braking system is master cylinder. It produces the
required hydraulic pressure to operate the system. The pressure of the driver's foot on brakes
pedal is transmitted to the master cylinder piston through different linkage arrangements. So,
the master cylinder is considered as the heart of the hydraulic braking system.

I,'t,zij Automobile Englne.rlng . ]

Purposes of a master cylinder:
1. The required hydraulic pressure is built up to operate the system.
2. It maintains a constant volume of fluid in the system.
3. To bleed or force air out of the brake line and wheel cylinder, a pump is used.
Construction 0/ master cylinder:

Master cylinder is made of cast iron. It has brackets and holes for mounting. The two
main types of chambers are as follows.
(i) Fluid reservoir
ww (ii) Compression chamber.
w .Ea
syE
ngi
n eer --+-
Fluid
ing to wheel
cylinders
piston
valve
assembly . net
Figure 4.82 Construction 0/ a master cylinder
The main parts of a master cylinder, as shown in Figure 4.82, are as follows.
1. Brake fluid reservoir
2. Cylinder or compression chamber
3. Piston assembly
4. Check valve or control valve, and
5. Piston return spring.
1.Brake fluid reservoir:

It is an integral reservoir with master cylinder for storing additional fluid through a hole
at the top of the cylinder. It is done to compensate minute leakages and lining wear produced

by fluid movement. A vent cap is provided to allow expansion or contraction of the fluid
without forming pressure or vacuum. The fluid is contacted a rubber diaphragm to follow the
level up and down for removing dust, moisture etc.
2. Cylinder:
The main cylinder is a smooth walled structure containing piston, primary and secondary
rubber cups, coil spring and a check valve at the mouth of the cylinder. A reservoir is
connected with two holes intake port and compensating port.
3. Piston assembly:
A piston slides inside the cylinder. Leakage past over the piston is completely eliminated
ww
by a primary rubber cup pressing against the inner face of the piston. A secondary rubber cup
is connected at the outer piston end-to prevent the fluid from leaving the master cylinder. If
.
w
the rubber primary cup is connected with a number of small bleeder ports passing through the
.Ea
I
head of the inner piston, the cylinder is operated by a brake pedal through the push rod
connected to the brake pedal linkage. The dust boot keeps road dirt and water off the piston
and wall of the cylinder.
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4. Check valve and piston spring:
ngi . a
One end of cylinder is connected with the piston while the other end is connected with
,
n eer
check valve. The cylinder is held by a coil spring to a rubber seat with the one end pressing
against the check valve. A piston primary cup is pressed against the other end.
Working of master cylinder: ing

. net
When the brake pedal is released, the master cylinder piston will be moved forward to
force the liquid under pressure into the system. The relief port is arrested by sealing the
system. The liquid pressure is transmitted by moving the wheel to wheel cylinders. The brake
shoes are forced out by these pistons against brake drums.
When the brake pedal is depressed, the return spring quickly forces the master cylinder
piston back against the piston stop. A vacuum is produced in the cylinder in front of the
piston. So, the
, . primary cup is collapsed to allow the liquid to flow from the reservoir through
the filler port past the piston. When the pedal is in OFF condition, the liquid will flow from
the reservoir to the relief port through the master cylinder, supply lines and wheel cylinder as
shown in Figure 4.83. A complete column of liquid is always same between master cylinder
niston and wheel cyJinder pistons.

Piston A
(i) Of/ position of both brakes
ww (ii) Operating both brakes
w.E
asy
En
gi
(iii) Operating the rear brake only
nee
rin !'':
",,_..,.-....,.....,........;~~~
," ,
~
'"""""..._""O""C;'-""'_.._..;"_~ _ _;;::,,.__.....__....;::,..,_.__---'.....c;.-'--I
g.n
Damaged
(iv) Operating the front brake only et

Figure 4.83 Working of master cylinder
4.6.9.2.Wheel Cylinder
The following are the functions of wheel cylinder.
1. It actuates the shoes outward to contact the brake drum.

2. It converts the hydraulic pressure of very low value into a significant value of
mechanical force of higher value.


Construction of wheel cylinder:
The wheel cylinder, as shown in Figure 4.84, which is connected with the cast iron
housing are fitted into the individual wheels. An expander unit activates the brake shoes, Two
pistons are connected with brake shoes through piston rods. Two-cup washers are connected
at the inner side of the piston with a spring connected between them. Rubber boots and dust
covers are used to keep the cyl inder free from dust.
A bleeder valve is used for pumping out air and liquid during bleeding. The mechanism
is sealed by the rubber I.:Up to arrest any leakage of the brake tluid.
Working:
ww
The brake fluid goes into the master cylinder when the brake effort is applied. The built-
up pressure is sent to the space between two pistons in opposite direction to each other. Then,
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this outward movement is transmitted through links and piston rods by operating brake shoes.
.Ea
syE
ngi
n
Piston
eer
ing
. net
cover
Figure 4.84 Construction of wheel cylinder
4.6.9.3.Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydraulic Brakes
Advantages ofhydraulic brakes:

1, The system is mechanically simple in construction due to absence of brake rods, joints
etc.
2. This system provides equal braking effort at all four wheels when compared to a
mechanical braking system.
3. All wheel brakes are forced to act together without any consideration in individual

Ipm Automobile Engineering

adjustments.
4. It gives an increased braking effort.
5. It gives equal pressure at all four wheels.
6. It is a self-compensating system.
7. The wear rate is low because of self-lubrication of the system.
8. Similar to mechanical brakes, they do not go in straight lines using rod and cables
which makes braking linkage simple in design.
9. The brakes provide differential braking action between front and rear brakes using
wheels cylinders for the front and also rear wheels of different sizes.
ww
10. They give a high mechanical advantage without use of long levers.
w.E
Disadvantages of J,Yl/rOlllic brakes:
I. Complete braking system should be liable if any fault making pressure loss or the
asy
breakage of a pipe to one wheel occurs.
2. The brake shoes should be liable to get ruined when the brake fluid leaks out.
E
4.5.'.4. Brake FluId of Hydraulic Brake Systemngi
nee
Brake fluid is the blood of any hydraulic brake system. This brake fluid is the mixture of
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castor oil and alcohol. At that same time, it should not affect rubber parts, it should not freeze
and it should have higher boiling points and should not corrode the parts.
g.n
should be able to flow freely at extremely high temperatures (SOO°F) and at very low et
Modern brake fluid is specially prepared to perform a variety of functions. Brake fluid
temperatures (- 104°F). Brake fluid should also act as a lubricant to many parts where the
contact occurs. It is done to ensure smooth and even operation. In addition, the brake fluid
should be non-corrosive and free from rust in brake lines, various assemblies afld eomponents,
It should also resist evaporation, Modern brake fluid-should be compatible with rubber to
avoid damage to CliPS and seal to the system. Sulncient swell is needed to form a good seal.
At the same time, the swell will not be high. Brake tluid has the identification letters of SAE
and pOT. These letters refer the nature, blend anu performance characteristic of particular
brand of brake fluid.


Characteristics of hydraulic brake fluid:
1" It should remain fluid at low temperature.
2. It should not corrode or rust metallic parts in the brake system.
3. It should not vapourize at high temperature encountered in actual service.
4. It should act as a lubricant to moving parts inside the system.
S. It should mix satisfactorily with other makes of hydraulic brake fluids.
6. It should retain all its characteristics 'for a maximum long period.
7. It should not soften the rubber parts used in the hydraulic brake system.
ww8. It should be non~compressible.
w.E
4.5.9.6.Bleeding of Hydraulic Brakes
When any part of hydraulic line is replaced, air will be trapped into the system. Due to
asy
compressed air, the effort of brake pedal becomes waste in applying brakes. Unless air from
En
the system i~completely removed, the brakes will not function properly. The process of
removing air from the brake system is called bleeding.
gi
Back Platf)
nee
r ing
.ne
t
Figure 4.85 lJIefiJdingof brakes
Bleeding is started from the first wheel cylinder from master cylinder. The nearest wheel
cylinder is bled at the end but it is not reentered into brake lines. A bleeding tube is fitted at
the bleeder valve on wheel cylinder. The other end of bleeding tube is immersed in the glass
jar' having brake fluid. The brake pedal is operated till the pressure development will be 3 or 4
times. So, the pedal comes up. Now, the brake pedal is pressed and bleeder valve is


unscrewed. When the bleeder valve opens, the fluid will come out and enter into the glass jar.
Then, air bubbles will come along with fluid in the jar.
Now, the brake pedal will come down to the footboard. So, it is released and pressed
down again. This process is repeated again and again till the whole air is drained from the
wheel cylinder. The bleeder valve will be screwed on when the pedal is pressed. Fluid is sent
from glass jar to the master cylinder not to allow air entering into the system when the fluid in
the master cylinder reduces.
The main steps involved in bleeding operation are as follows.
(a) The reservoir should be full.
ww (b) One end of the rubber tube should be connected to bleeder valve while the other
w.E rube is dipped in a fluid contained in the container.

(c) The bleeder valve should be opened and pedal pumped slowly until the air
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bubble cease to appear.
(d) The same procedure should be repeated for all wheel cylinders.
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(e) The reservoir should be topped up.
4.5.10. Mechanical Brakes gi nee

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Floating
ing
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Thinner lining t
lining
Turning moment
Fixed anchor
Figure 4.86 Construction of a mechanical brake
Figure 4.86 illustrates the operation of mechanical brake. The pressure is applied by a
separate foot pedal or hand pull. It is widely used in parking brakes. Brake is applied through

Steering, Blakes and Suspension Systems "iD

cables, cams and linkages etc. The brake shoe is operated by the cam against the revolving
brake drum to stop or slow down the motion of the car.
Now, the cam is actuated by a mechanical linkage. If the pull is applied, the linkage will
be moved by brake shoes for making in contact with the brake drum. The brake lining is
connected to brake shoes by rivets. It increases the co-efficient of friction which eliminates
the metal contact to prevent wear on metallic shoes. The parking brake is connected to the
drive shaft which is operated by a cable within a conduit leading to a hand lever.
Multiplication of the leverage at the brake hand cam or lever is obtained through leverage at
the brake hand lever.
ww
4.5.10.1. Fixed Expander Brake
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The system consists of a cam or toggle fixed on the back plate. In Figure 4.87 (a), the
upper ends of the shoes are placed on the cam while the lower ends are hinged with the anchor
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pins. When the cam is slightly rotated by means of pedal and levers and linkages, it expands
both shoes against the brake drum to slow down or to stop it. Similarly, in toggle operated
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lever, the toggle is fixed on the back plate and it is free to rotate on the pin. In Figure 4.87 (b),
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brake shoes are hinged to the toggle by means of two connecting rods provided at each end of
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the toggle. When the toggle is actuated by means of pedal, it results the expansion of brake
shoes against the drum to slow down or to stall it. When the pedal is released, then the
retracting spring returns the toggle or cam to the off position.
r ing
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Brake Lining Toggle Layer
Brake Drum t
(a) Cam operated (b) Toggle lever operated
Figure 4.87 Fixed expander brakes

Ipm Automobile Engineering

4.5.10.2.Leading and Trailing Shoes
The shoes which drag along with the drum create more thrust or friction against the brake
drum called leading shoes. On the other hand, the shoe which tends to move away from the
drum while braking is called trailing shoe.
Brake
Drum
Friction Unlng
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Trailing Shoe Leading ShOe
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Figure 4.88 Leading and trailing shoes
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When the brakes are applied, the force observed on the leading shoe is more than the
trailing shoe because the tip of the trailing shoe is thrown off the drum. These unequal forces
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on two shoes create uneven wears on brake linings. In contrast, if the direction of rotation of
the drum is reversed, then the leading shoe acts as a trailing shoe and the trailing shoe acts as a
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leading shoe. Therefore, in modem systems, this unevenness of forces has been altered by
providing either leading shoes or trailing shoes.
4.5.10.3.Floating Anchor Brake

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The system consists of a fixed cam and both shoes are linked together at the floating
anchor as shown in Figure 4.89. Both shoes have a common anchor pin fixed on the back
plate. When the braking force is applied on the primary shoe (leading shoe), it tends to rotate
with the brake drum and it increases braking force on the secondary shoe (traiIing shoe).
In this system, both shoes are of self-emerging type to increase the braking torque. This
system is highly sensitive with the coefficient of friction variation. Therefore, a proper care
should be taken in the selection of fittings to brake linings.


Directionof
Brake Rotation
Drum ~ Fixe~Anohor
Friction Friction
Lining Linin;
Primary
Shoe Secondary
Shoe
o....--=""";:-7"''--T'-- Force Appliedto
ww Secondry Shoe
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Figure 4.89 Floating anchor brakes
4.5.10.4. Floating-Cam Brake

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This system consists of a floating cam instead of fixed on the back plate to apply 'equal
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forces on both shoes and a greater braking torque is produced by a given effort. However, the
lining wear on the leading shoe is more than the trailing shoe. Therefore, thicker lining is
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fitted on the leading shoe as shown in Figure 4.90. The anchor remains fixed in the system.
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FixedCam
TrailingShoe
Thinner
t
Lining
Turning Moment!
Fixed Anchor
Figure 4.90 Floating-cam brakes


4.5.10.5.Brakes with Two Leading Shoes
The system consists of two fixed cams which expand to the individual shoe. The ends of
shoes are hinged to the anchor pins fixed on the back plate as shown in Figure 4.91. In this
system, both shoes act as leading shoes. Therefore, an increased braking torque for the same
actuating force is obtained. Both shoes drag along with the brake drum and they create equal
amount of friction. Therefore, the lining wear is also equal on the shoes.
Fixed Cam
Fixed Anchor
- Braek Drum
ww Leading Shoe Leading Shoe
Turning Moment
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Turning Moment
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Fixed Anchor -_-
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Fixed Cam
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Figure 4.91 Brakes with two leading shoes
ing
4.5.10.6. Brakes with Two Tn,iling Shoes
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becomes a two-trailing-shoe brake. This system needs an increased actuating force for the t
If the direction of the drum rotation is reversed, then the two-leading-shoe arrangement
corresponding braking torque. The coefficient of friction of lining effects is less in this
arrangement due to less braking torque.Therefore, the lining wear is also less in this system.
In most modern systems for providing the powerful braking on front wheels, the leading
shoes are used at the front and trailing shoes at rear wheels. This arrangement results the
increase in adhesion of front tyres and reduced in adhesion at the rear.
4.5.10.7. Mechanical Brake Linkages

It is a mechanism of rods and levers in between the brake pedal or hand lever and
actuating levers to multiply the braking effect. The rods and levers are arranged to


accommodate both upward and downward motions of wheels. The brakes are always applied
,.It,
in pairs because the single brake would skid the vehicle to one side.
4,5.11. Air Assisted Hydraulic Braking System

This system of brake is mainly used in Tata vehicles. Compressed air is used to boost up
braking. Only 50% of pressure on the pedal is sufficient to obtain the desired effort.
Therefore, the efficiency of the braking is better when compared to a simple hydraulic system.
This compressed air is used along with hydraulic oil for braking. The main parts of pneumatic
braking system are as follows.
ww 1. Compressor
2. Air Governor
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3. Booster
4. Air Reservoir
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5. Hydraulic Master cylinder
6. Wheel cylinder.
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Air compressor receives power from the engine for driving it. First, fresh air is admitted
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to the cylinder and then it is compressed. Then the compressed air is sent to the reservoir.
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Governor controls the air in the reservoir. When the pressure in the reservoir attains 5.3 kg,
ing
this governor will not allow the air to go to the tank because additional pressure may cause the
bursting of tank. An air bottle is also connected with the governor.
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The main parts of brake booster are air control unit, other piston and cylinder. When the
pedal releases, a rod will press the lever. Then, a valve is opened and pressurised air is
entered. Next, the piston is moved by the pressure. So, the push rod is moved in the hydraulic
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master cylinder quickly thereby ensuring effective braking. The piston rod used in this brake
system is hollow with two holes for controlling the compressed air. The push rod still holds
the brakes but more pressure is required when any failure occurs in producing compressed air.
If any leakage in the booster occurs, it should be immediately repaired.
4.5.12. Pneumatic Brakin~ System

The air is sucked by the compressor from atmosphere through the filter and it is
compressed air as shown in Figure 4.92. During compression, both pressure and temperature
increase. Then, the compressed air is passed to the reservoir through an unloaded valve by
lifting at a pre-determined reservoir pressure. Due to this, the compressor load is released. The

Ism Automobile Engineering

air is allowed to flow to various accessories and diaphragm units at each wheel. It flows
through the brake valve from the reservoir. The control of brake valve is effected the intensity
of braking according to requirements.
Compressor
To
accessories
Brake
chamber
ww
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Figure 4.92 Layout of pneumatic braking system
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Heavy vehicles of buses and trucks need a heavy effort at brakes thereby producing
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compressed. The main parts are air filter, unloaded valve, air tank, brake valve and brake
chamber. The line pressure is regulated by the unloaded valve. This unloaded valve is
connected to one side of the air tank.
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Table 4.5 Main parts of an air brake ami itsfunctions
Parts of air brake Functions

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1. Air compressor It builds up air pressure in reservoir.
2. Unloader valve It is mounted in the air pressure system between the

compressor and reservoir.
3. Air reservoir It stores compressed air at the specified pressure to apply

brake.
4. Brake valve It is the usually valve operated by the brake pedal.

lSteering, Brakea and Suspension Systems "'kl I

5. Brake chamber It converts the energy of the compressed air into mechanical
force and motion required to operate the vehicle brakes.
When the line pressure attains the upper limit, this valve gets opened to allow air to the
atmosphere. Brake valve is connected to the driver's pedal which controls the air pressure
acting on four brake chambers. When the driver releases the brake pedal, force is exerted on
the graduated spring and piston. The exhaust valve seat will also move downward when the
piston moves downwards to contact the exhaust valve and seals the exhaust opening in the
piston stem. By continuous downward movement of piston, the inlet valve is forced. At that
time, air pressure from the air tank forces through the inlet valve and to brake chambers for
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applying the brake through delivery ports.
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When the driver releases the pedal fully, the graduated spring is compressed and strike by
the piston shoulder in the body. So, the inlet valve is fully opened and full air tank pressure is
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admitted to pass through brake valve into the brake chamber.
When the driver releases the pedal, the exhaust valve gets opened to allow full air
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pressure in brake chambers. So, the brake on the vehicle is fully released.
Advantages of pneumatic brakes:

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1. It is more effective when compared to other brakes.
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2. The air brake parts are easily located where the chassis design making is simple.
3. The compressed air can be used for tyre inflation wipers, horn and other accessories.
4. It employs only air as the working medium which is easily available.
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5. It is easy to store air at high pressure.
6. It provides heavy braking effect used in heavy vehicles and trucks.
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7. It provides better control.
8. It reduces the stopping distance.
9. It mainly allows less wear and tear of parts.
10. It has flexible hose connection.
4.5.12.1.Comparison between Pneumatic and Hydraulic Braking Systems
S.No. Hydraulic brake Pneumatic brake
l. Force applied on the brake pedal is In pneumatic brakes, the brake shoes

lma i
transmitted to brake shoe through a are operated by means of air
confined brakefluid. pressure.
.
Advantages Disadvantages
-
2. Mechanical linkages, joints etc. are Construction of each component is
eliminated so as to have simple complicated.
construction.
3. Equal braking effort at all points to Unequal braking effort at all points to
all four wheels. all four wheels.
4. Self-lubricating. Non self-lubricating.
ww 5.
. ..
High mechanical advantage i.e. Lower mechanical advantage.
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less effort required to operate
brake.
6.
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Differential braking action can be Differential braking action for
permitted by using wheel cylinders different cylinders is not possible.
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of different sizes for front & rear
wheels.
Disadvantages
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Advantages
7.
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Fails the whole system when there These are very powerful as compared
system. brakes. g.n

is leakage or damage to any part of to the mechanical or hydraulic
8. This system IS et
used to apply Its location and working is very easy
brakes intermittently and simple.
4.5.13. Transmission Or Propeller Shaft Parking Brake
Transmission brakes are of external-contracting type, internal-expanding type or disc

type. All brakes are operated to lock the transmission of main shaft or the propeller shaft
when the mechanical brake is applied. The rear wheels are prevented from turning to avoid
the rotation of the propeller main shaft through axle shafts, differential, rear-axle gears and
universals. The internal-expanding type is similar to a mechanical type. The drum is
connected to the propeller or transmission shaft to replace the wheel.


In case of an external-contracting
"'1'
brake type, the drum is connected to the end of the
transmission main shaft using fasteners. The lined brake band is fitted around the drum. Due
to this, the cable moves the push rod and operating lever. So, the band tightens sufficiently to
lock the drum. The band is released by the return spring when the lever releases. The
adjusting lever adjusts the initial tightness of the drum to compensate for band lining wear.
This type of brake is used to control planetary gear operation in the case of Hydramatic and
Torque Converter transmissions.
4.5.14. Servo Brake Systems
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The additional mechanism which is connected to reduce the driver's effort during
applying brakes is known as servomechanism. When the weight of the vehicle increases, more
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braking effort is required to stop the vehicle. After reaching the desired limit, it is difficult to
apply the effort required conveniently by an ordinary driver. This limit is almost three tones of
performed beyond this limit. asy

the weight of the vehicle. The use of the servo action or self-energization of brakes is
Mechanical servo mechanism: E ngi

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Initially, mechanical servos were used. After some time, the vacuum operated servos are
used. Disc A is always rotating when the vehicle is in motion as shown in Figure 4.93.
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Another disc B is. pressed against disc A in ordinary single plate clutch. A lever C is connected
with the shaft of 13. Then rod D is connected to brake linkage.
D g.n
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A
n ~--r---~~~ To
brakes
Figure 4.93 Mechanical servo
When disc A rotates, disc B is pressed on to disc A with a force F and a driving torque
will act on B causing to rotate in the same direction. The disc B will rotate slightly under the


action of this torque by pulling the rod D and applying brakes. The rod D exerts a torque equal
due to pull. This torque is opposite to the driving torque between discs. At this condition, the
movement is arrested and slip is produced between discs. The above mentioned mechanical
servo can be slightly modified for obtaining servo action in both directions.
ww i.,.'~"
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asy To
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........
c:+------. brakes
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Figure 4.94 Mechanical servo (modified)
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The modified mechanical servo transmits force only in tension. When the disc B is
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rotated in clockwise direction, only chain X will transmit the force. Due to this, the arm of
'
bell crank lever is pulled up as shown in 4.94. .It results the application of brakes. When the
et
disc B rotates in anticlockwise direction, the chain X will not transmit any force and the arm
of the lever will be pulled up by chain Y. Therefore, the brake is applied.
4.5.15. Power-Assisted Braking System

Generally, a braking in automobiles magnifies a small force applied to the brake pedal
into a proportionately larger force applied to slow or stop the vehicle called power brake.
Most all modern vehicles use power assisted brakes. The power brake is a modern braking
tool for cars to make braking safer and easier.
Power brakes are of two types as follows.

(i) Vacuum assisted hydraulic brakes
(ii) Pneumatic brakes.


"fD
4.5.15.1. Vacuum Assisted Hydraulic Brake
Construction:
When the vacuum produced in the manifold of the engine or a separately power driven
exhauster is used to assist the braking effort, the system is known a" vacuum assisted
hydraulic brakes. Figure 4.95 shows a simplified sketch of this system.
ww ffi~'t--- ~To
....
brakes
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Brake ngi Non-return
('}(}~--'-v'alve
Fluid
Vacuum
reservoir n
rlnlet ee
---------
-- -- --.--
manifold r ing
Master
cylinder .ne
Figure 4.95 Vacuum servo brake
The system has a vacuum reservoir placed on the inlet manifold of the engine through a
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non-return valve. Again, a vacuum reservoir is connected with the servo cylinder on both
sides of the piston. The connection is obtained through the control unit on the left side about
the right side connection obtained directly. Then the piston is again connected to the piston of
the boost cylinder or the brake linkage. Two valves are connected with the control unit. The
lower valve is controlled by connection between reservoir and right side of the servo cylinder
piston. However, the upper valve controls the connection between atmosphere and left-side of
the servo cylinder piston. The other side of the piston of the contro.ltllnit is operated .by the
pedal effort through a master cylinder.

11.:ei Automobile Engineering

Working:
When the brake pedal is in off condition, the lower valve is opened and the upper valve is
closed. So, the air from atmosphere is stopped thereby forming a vacuum from reservoir
which acts on both sides ofthe servo cylinder.
When the brake pedal is pressed, the brake fluid is forced to push the piston in the control
unit. So, the lower valve is closed and the upper valve of the control unit is opened. At that
time, the left side of the servo cylinder piston is left to atmospheric pressure. Then, the right
side on the cylinder is vacuum. Now, this vacuum moves the servo piston to right. It results
the movement of power transmission through the mechanical or hydraulic system to wheel
cylinders to apply brakes. Therefore, the driver effort is used to control the position of valves.
ww There are two types of vacuum servo brakes. Both are having a piston or a diaphragm
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operating in 1 cylinder with suitable linkage for brake applications. In the former type, both
sides of the piston are left to atmosphere when brakes are in the depressed position. In t'ie '
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latter type, both sides of the piston are subjected to engine vacuum in brakes in the released
position.
4.5.16. Brake Valve E ngi

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A brake pedal is connected to the driver pedal and it controls air pressure action on the
individual brake chamber. The brake valve has a hollow piston of spring loaded type with
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ports and air bleed hole. A double beat valve connects the air reservoir to the hollow piston.
The either end of this valve is extended as inlet and exhaust valve.
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When the driver applies the brake, the force IS
et
transmitted to this brake valve though
linkage arrangement. [t makes the hollow piston to get lowered down against the designed
spring to get compressed. This downward movement of the piston along with the double beat
valve makes the inlet valve to open and the exhaust valve to close. This opening of the inlet
valve allows the compressed air from the reservoir to enter into the individual chamber.
Simultaneously, the compressed air is also allowed to flow through the bleed hole to the
underside of the piston in the chamber. It balances the mechanical force applied on the piston
by the driver. Once, the pressure in the chamber exceeds beyond the limit, the hollow piston
gets lifted up to open the exhaust valve. [t makes the air to escape through the exhaust port till
the pressure on either side of the piston gets equalized. At this point, the movement of the
double beat valve closes the inlet valve. If the driver wishes tc increase the braking intensity,
he has to press the pedal further. The increased force on the hollow piston makes it moves
:.hwn, opening the valve further and admitting more air under pressure.

SJsering, Brakes and Suspension Systems

Applied force
through linkage
Grouting spring Exhaust port
ww
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Exhaust valve
To stop light
switch asy
_-+-- --+-_Air to brake
chamber
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gin
eer
Air from reservoir
Figure 4.96 Brake valve

ing
4.5.17. Brake Adjustments .ne
The following are the types of brake adjustment instruments.
1. Micram adjuster, and
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2. Taper screw adjuster.
4.5.17.1.Micram A.1juster
The mechanism has two scroll members connected one for each brake shoe. Each scroll
member is located between brake shoes. Simultaneously, the member is connected to the
actuating plunger. This system is very effective and compact. The scroll member is connected
with toothed cam and turned by a screwdriver as shown in Figure 4.97. The position of the
adjustment is locked by providing the tooth of a cam. This system is mainly used in hydraulic
brakes.

.~
Bracket
Adjustment Toothed
screw cam
Brake shoe
ww
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asyFigure 4.97 Micram adjuster
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4.5.17.2. Taper Screw Adjuster
Brake
gi Anchor pin
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lining
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Brake
t
shoe
Adjusting
screw
Figure 4.98 Taper screw adjustment

In this screw adjuster system, a screw adjusts the shoes known as star adjusting screw.
The upper ends of the shoes are pinned with the projections made on the anchor pin as shown

Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems Ilfi'

in Figure 4.98. The lower ends are fitted by the star adjusting screw. The expander unit is
connected just below the anchor pin and shoes are kept by return springs. One more helical
spring is connected at the lower side for holding shoes at ends of the adjusting screw.
Whenever brakes are adjusted, the adjusting screw will be turned by using a lever or
screwdriver through the window connected in the back plate. So, the shoes are expanded
outwards. Hence, the clearance between linings and drum is reduced. A screw type adjuster is
used in mechanical and hydraulic system of brakes.
4.6.17.3.Girllng Mechanical Brake Adjuster

The girting mechanical brake adjuster is in the form of a conical end SCft)W. The conical
ww
end is connected between two tappets as shown in Figure 4.99. The tappet has slots at its end.
The shoe ends are fixed on this slot. When the screw rotates. the conical enJ will move down.
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Therefore, the tappets move outward, Due to this, the connected shoe ends also moves
outward.
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Figure 4.99 Girting brake adjuster
Advantages of girling brakes:

1. It is easily adjustable without jacking up the vehicle.
2. It minimizes the driver effort.

3. It uses a mechanical compensator.
4. It provides a self-centering effort.
5. Less traction distance is sufficient for applying the brake.


4.5.18. Brake Compensation
When brakes fade, two things are happened. First, the pads are heated up to the point and
then the friction generated is reduced. It can be caused by resins or other ingredients breaking
down. Second, the temperature can cause the brake fluid to boil. When the fluid boils, it is
changed to vapour form. The fluid vapour is compressible. Both conditions will lead a spongy
brake pedal.
Brake fade compensation IS more than a bunch of algorithms which estimate the
temperature in the· brake system by using the applied time, brake pressure,
acceleration/deceleration etc. When the computer determines the pads or fluid have exceeded
ww
a certain threshold, it will close some valves and turn on an ABS pump during braking. It
expands the pressures at wheels and prevents the pedal from going to the floor.
4.5.19. Retarder w.E

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A retarder is a device used to expand or replace some of the functions of primary
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friction-based braking systems, usually on heavy vehicles.
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Friction-based braking systems are susceptible to brake fade when they are extensively
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used for continuous periods which are dangerous if the braking performance drops below the
required stopping distance of the vehicle or if a truck or bus is descending a long decline.
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Because of this reason, such heavy vehicles are frequently fitted with a supplementary system
which is not friction-based.
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et
Retarders are not restricted to road motor vehicles -bUtthey may also be used in railway
systems. Retarder serves to slow vehicles or maintains a steady speed on declines and helps to
prevent the vehicle running awc::ry by accelerating down the decline. At the same time, they do
not bring the vehicles to a standstill when their effectiveness decreases. Mainly, they provide
an additional assistance to slow vehicles with the final braking done by a conventional friction
braking system.
4.5.19.1.Hydraulic Retarder
Hydraulic retarders use the viscous drag forces between dynamic and static vanes in a
fluid-filled chamber to achieve retardation. Many hydraulic retarders use standard
transmission fluid such as gear oil, a separate oil and water.
A simple retarder uses vanes attached to a transmission driveshaft between clutch and
road wheels. They can also be separately driven through gears off a driveshaft. The vanes are

I Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems "fl'

enclosed in a static chamber with small clearance to chamber wall similar to an automatic
transmission.
When retardation is required, fluid (oil or water) is pumped into the chamber and the
viscous drag induced will slow the vehicle. The working fluid will be heated and circulated
through a cooling system. The degree of retardation can be varied by adjusting the fill level of
the chamber.
Hydraulic retarders are extremely quiet, often inaudible over the sound of a running
engine and especially quiet in operation compared to engine brakes.
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4.5.18.2. Electric Retarder
The electric retarder uses electromagnetic induction to provide a retardation force. An
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electric retardation unit can be placed on an axle, transmission or driveline and it consists of a
rotor attached to the axle, transmission or driveline and a stator securely attached to the
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vehicle chassis. There are no contact surfaces between rotor and stator due to no working
fluid.
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When the retardation is required, the electrical windings in the stator takes power from
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the vehicle battery to produce a magnetic field through which the rotor moves. It induces eddy
current in the rotor and produces an opposing magnetic field to the stator. The opposing
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magnetic field slows the rotor. The rotor incorporates internal vanes to provide its own air
ing
cooling. Therefore, no load is placed on the vehicle's engine cooling system. The operation of
the system is extremely quiet.
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A hybrid vehicle uses the electrical retardation to assist the mechanical brakes while
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recycling the energy. The electric traction motor acts as a generator to charge the battery. The
power stored in the battery is used to accelerate the vehicle.
4.5.20. Antilock Braking Systems (ABS)
Stopping safely is one of the most important functions a motor vehicle. Failure of the
brake system will invariably lead to a property damage, personal injury or even death.
Consequently, a great deal of consideration has been given to improve the brake system in
trucks and passenger cars over last nine decades.
One of the latest improvements is an antilock brake system which prevents a vehicle's
brakes from locking up and skidding during hard stops on wet or icy roads.

11m) Automobile Engineering

The problem of skidding reveals the overwhelming weakness of all motor vehicle
braking systems. They depend strongly on the coefficient of static friction between tyre and
road. If the tyre momentarily loses its adhesion to the road while brakes are applied, the
friction of brakes will be against drums or rotors which lock the wheel solidly and the tyre
begins skidding across the road. In this condition, the braking force of the wheel is depend on
the sliding friction between tyre and road which is much less than static friction. Under wet or
icy conditions, the sliding friction is reduced even further thereby resulting significantly the
longer stopping distance.
In addition, when the front wheels are in this condition, they cannot be used to steer the
vehicle irrespective of the angle of front wheels and,the vehicle continues to skid whatever be
ww
the direction of its momentum until either the driver releases brakes or the vehicle collides
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with solid. Antilock Braking Systems (ABS) is a form of electronic braking which helps a
driver to control the vehicle under heavy braking by preventing wheels from locking up.
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4.5.20.1.Need of ASS in Automobile
E ngi
Braking systems take the force applied to the foot pedal by the driver and transfer the
force through a mechanical system to brakes on the wheel. The mechanism works by
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increasing the input force through a servo to the master cylinder which converts the force into
pressure applied by brakes. The master cylinder has two pressure chambers. Both are
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responsible for the braking pressure on two of wheels and to provide an extra level of safety.
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During failure, the wheels may stop rotating before the car comes to a halt. This process
et
is known as locking up. Locking up refers the braking force on the wheel not being transferred
efficiently to stop the vehicle due to tyre sliding upon the road.
It leads to longer stopping distance than the wheel because there is a reduced gnp
between car and road which' in turn leads to an increased chance of losing control of the
vehicle and
, skidding.
On vehicles without ABS, the best method to regain the control of the vehicle is to press
brakes by taking your foot off the pedal and reapply it. It allows the tyres to regain traction
upon the road rather than skid over the surface. ABS works similar to traction control but it is
in an effective manner. Electric sensors monitor the speed of the wheel as it rotates and detect
if it is about to lock up under braking. When it happens, the brakes are automatically released
and then rapidly reapplied. It occurs several times as fast as possible to prevent a skid and to
ensure a vehicle steered by the driver to avoid a collision.

[Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems

Rear axle service I
am
Spring brake actuator Modulator values
o
-
~
a>
:J
0.
E
0 a>
Exciter
0 "S
0 "'0 ASS Electronic
2":-
~ a>
:;::
0
::E Control Unit
0
c:
eC (ECU)
ww
10
Cl
til
co
is 0
o
w.E 0
'c
U
~
0
a> •• ~
s:
.8
';: asy
m
a>
c:
'a' \ c
a>
IFl
"'0
a>
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IFl c: Service brake a>
0. a> UJ valve 0.
E ztil IFl
li
gin
..!!! IFl
c: '6
0 s: ~ ~
~ a>
~ ~!I "E
..!!!
a>
Quick release
valve
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j! ~ + c:::
ing
~
g
c
<
iO~
~
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/
Figure 4.100 Components of ABS t
4.5.20.2. Components of ABS
Modern antilock braking systems has the following features,
I, Wheel speed sensors (pickup and exciter)

2. Electronic Control Unit (ECU)
3. Hydraulic modulator valves
4. Pump motor and accumulator.
Figure 4.101 describes the structure and arrangement of these components of modern
antilock braking system.


1. Wheel speed sensors (WSS):
Wheel Speed Sensors (WSS) consist of a magnetic pickup and a toothed sensor ring which
may be mounted in steering knuckles, wheel hubs, brake backing plates, transmission tail
shaft or differential housing. On some applications, the sensor is an integral part of the wheel
bearing and hub assembly.
Permanent
magnet Toothed wheel
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Figure 4.101 Wheel speed sensor
En
The wheel speed sensor pickup has a magnetic core surrounded by coil windings. As the
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wheel turns, teeth on the sensor ring move through the pickup magnetic field. It reverses the
polarity of the magnetic field and induces an AC voltage in pickup windings. The number of
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voltage pulses per second is induced in the pickup change in direct proportion to the wheel
ing
speed. So, when the speed increases, the frequency and amplitude of the wheel speed sensor
are going up.
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t
Magnetic
pick-up
sensor
Toothed sensor ring
Figure 4.102 Typical speed sensor assembly

WSS signal is sent to the antilock brake control module where AC signal is converted
into a digital signal and then it is processed. The control module counts pulses to monitor the
changes in wheel speed.
1. Electronic Control Unit (ECU):

ABS electronic control unit is a microprocessor which functions similar to the engine
control computer. ECU processes all ABS information and signal functions. It receives and
interprets voltage pulses generated by the sensor pickup as the exciter teeth pass-by and it uses
this information to determine the following parameters.
);. impending wheel lock-up, and
ww )- when/how to activate ABS modulator valves.
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The key inputs for ABS electronic control unit come from the wheel speed sensors and a
brake pedal switch. The switch signals are passed to the control unit when brakes are being
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applied. It causes the signals to go from a standby mode to an active mode.
During braking, ECU uses voltage pulses from each wheel speed sensor to determine
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wheel speed change. If ECU determines the pulse rate of sensed wheels by indicating
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imminent lock-up, ABS modulator valves modify brake air pressure as needed.
J. Hydraulic modulator valve:

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ABS modulator valves regulate the fluid pressure to brakes during ABS action. If no
ing
commands are received from.ECU, the modulator valve allows fluid to flow freely and it has
no effect on the brake pressure. ECU commands the modulator valve to either
.ne
);0
,
change the fluid pressure to the brake chamber or
hold the ex.iateg pressure. t
The hydraulic modulator or actuator unit contains ABS solenoid valves for each brake
circuit. The exact number of valves per circuit depends on ABS system. Some have a pair of
on-off solenoid valves for each brake circuit while others use a single valve that can operate
more than one position.
The modulator valve has to control more fluid flow. Therefore, it includes two larger
diaphragm valves which are controlled by solenoids. It usually has three ports such as supply
port, delivery port and exhaust port.
o The supply port receives air from a quick release or relay valve


);> The delivery port sends air to the brake chambers
);> The exhaust port vents air from the brake chamber(s).
When an ECU controlling a separate modulator valve detects impending wheel lockup, it
will activate solenoids to close the supply port and open the exhaust port. When sufficient air
is vented to prevent wheel lockup, the exhaust valve will close and ECU will either
);> keep the supply port closed to maintain existing pressure or

)l> open the supply port to allow brake application pressure to increase and
repeat the cycle.
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4. Pump motor ami accumulator:
A high pressure electric pump is used in some ABS systems to generate power assist for
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normal braking as well as the reuse of brake pressure during ABS braking. Some systems, it is
used only for the reuse of pressure during ABS braking.
asy
The pump motor is energized through a relay that is switched on and off by ABS
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electronic control unit. The fluid pressure which is generated by the pump is stored in the
accumulator. The accumulator consists of a pressure storage chamber filled with nitrogen gas
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where the hydraulic modulator is a part of the master cylinder assembly.
I
I
eer
When the pump fails, there is enough reserve pressure in the accumulator for 10 to 20
power-assisted stops. Next, there is 110 power assist. The brakes still work but with increased
effort. ing
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On ABS systems, a conventional master cylinder and vacuum booster are for power
t
assist and a small accumulator or pair of accumulators may be used as temporary holding
reservoirs for brake fluid during hold-release-reapply cycle.
4.5.20.3.Working Principle of ABS
Wheel speed sensors are placed on each wheel for controlling the speed. Each speed
sensor has a toothed wheel such as a gear which rotates at the same speed as the vehicle wheel
or axle. It is a permanent magnet wrapped with a coil of wire called pick-up coil. As each
tooth rotates past the permanent magnet, it will cause the ~agnetic field to concentrate and
increase slightly. Then, it induces a small pulse of current in the coil of wire.
The pulsed output from the wheel speed sensors goes to an ECU which monitors each
I
wheel speed relative to the speed of other wheels. As long as the brakes are not being applied
and all monitored wheels are rotating roughly at the same speed, the system takes no action.


,.&,
However, the brakes are being applied and one or more of the monitored wheels suddenly
begin to reduce the speed at high rate than other controllers and then they activate the antilock
system.
In an automobile, brakes are actuated by hydraulic pressure. In ASS, electrically
operated solenoid valves are used to hold, release and reapply the hydraulic pressure to
brakes.
ASS controller operates solenoid valves built into high pressure side of the master brake
cylinder. These valves are normally open and do not interfere with braking. When the
controller senses a wheel locking up while braking, it .will first activate a solenoid to close a
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valve in the affected wheel brake line to prevent the pressure from increasing further. If the
locked wheel continues to lose its speed, the controller activates a second solenoid which
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bleeds pressure off the affected brake line for effective releasing of the brake irrespective of
the driver effort. As soon as the wheel regains traction and its speed increases, the solenoids
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are de-activated and normal braking resumes.
E
If conditions are that the wheel starts to skid again, the brake wilt promptly begin to lock
ngi
up and ASS will take over. This cycle is repeated 12 to 15 times per second until either the
road condition changes or the driver releases brakes. The driver will be able to detect this
nee
rapid cycling as a vibration felt through the brake pedal but it will not have to take any action.
ASS will minimize the skid and will allow the driver to maintain a directional control of the
vehicle. Figure 4. I03 describes the steps in ASS. rin
2. Piston pushes
g.n
brake fluid
3. Brakefluidsqueezes
brakepadsonto
et
brakedisc
c"C
~8 6. Fluid is beld off into
~ 5l { accumulator I reservoir
l3 8. This releases
Zl I/) pad pressure L-_'&--I
80._~
a. ;;; 7. Fluid is pumped back '---+- detects when
51 ';; to reapply pressure. 5. Control unit activates the wheel is about
~a accumulator and pump
to lock - the driver
I-::J
has pushed too hard
Figure 4.103 Steps in antilock braking systems

4.5.20.4.Types of Anti·Lock Brakes
Anti-lock braking systems use different schemes depending on the type of brakes in use.
It is usually referred by the number of channels. It means the number of valves which are
individually controlled and number of speed sensors.
1. Four-channel.four-sensor ABS:
There is a speed sensor and a separate valve for all four wheels. The controller monitors
each wheel individually to make sure whether it is achieving maximum braking force or not.
Each wheel speed sensor would give its input into a separate control circuit.
2. Three-channel, three-sensor ABS:
wwIt is commonly found on pickup trucks with four-wheel ABS. It has a speed sensor and
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valve for each of front wheels and one sensor for both rear wheels. The speed sensor for the
rear wheels is located in the rear axle.
asy
This system provides individual control to front wheels. So, they can achieve maximum
braking force. However, the rear wheels are monitored together and both have to start to lock
E ngi
up before ABS will activate on rear wheels. The sensor reads the combined or average speed
of both rear wheels. It is possible for one of rear wheels locking up during a stop and reducing
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the brake effectiveness. This type of setup saves the cost of an additional sensor and it reduces
the complexity of the system by allowing both rear wheels to be controlled simultaneously.
3. Olle:.eh(lltllel,one-sensor ABS: rin

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This system is commonly found on pickup trucks with rear-wheel ABS. It has one valve
et
to cotwol· both rear wheels and one speed sensor located in,·ttle rear axle. This system is
operated similar to the rear end of a three-channel system. The rear wheels are monitored
together and both have to start to lock up before ABS kicks in. In this system, it is also
possible that one of rear wheels will lock and reduce the brake effectiveness because the rear-
wheel antilock systems have only a single channel and they are much less complex and less
costl,.llfl three and four-channels four-wheel counterparts.
4.5.20.6.Advantages and Disadvantages of ABS
Advantages of ABS:
" ABS guarantees stable braking characteristics on aU road surfaces, hence avoids
overturning of the vehicle.

Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems eDt,

);.> ABS reduces friction on wheels and road, thus increases efficiency of tires (up to
30%).
);.> Although ABS will not decrease a vehicle's stopping distance compared to an
identical non-ABS vehicle, it ensures the shortest distance in which a vehicle can be
brought to rest.
);.> ABS is particularly effective in wet or icy roads upon which a vehicle is much more
likely to skid.
);.> Steering control is effective, i.e., vehicle can be steered smoothly while braking. Thus
minimizes the accidents.
);.>
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A driver without experience can drive ABS vehicle effectively, than an experienced
driver on the non-ABS vehicle.
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Disadvantages of ABS:
);.>
);.>
a
Initial cost for ABS vehicle is high as require significantly
traditional braking system.
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more parts than a
Maintenance issues arise as the whole braking system is controlled by engine control
unit.
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);.>
);.>
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On concrete roads, the ABS vehicle stopping distance might be needed more.
It is easy to cause a problem in an ABS system by messing around with the brakes.
Problems include disorientation
r ing
of the ABS system, where a compensating
sensor causes the vehicle to shudder, make loud noise or generally brake worse.
brake
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4.5.21. Electronic Brake Force Distribution (EBD)
EBD (Electronic Brake Force Distribution) is a technology that enables the braking force
t
of a vehicle to be increased or applied automatically depending on road conditions, speed of
the vehicle, weight of vehicle, etc.
EBD is based on the principle of the weight being supported by wheels of your car not
evenly distributed. An EBD system can not only detect how much weight is being supported
by each wheel but it varies the amount of braking power sent to each wheel on an instant-by-
instant basis.
EBD functions as a subsystem of the ABS system to control the effective adhesion
utilization by rear wheels. The pressure of rear wheels are approximately calculated to the
ideal brake force distribution in a partial braking operation. To obtain EBD, the conventional
brake design is modified in the direction of rear axle over-braking and the components of

II'I'Im Auto,!,oblle Engineering, J

ABS are used. EBD can apply more or less braking pressure to each wheel in order to
maximize the stopping power while maintaining the vehicular control. In some systems, BBlt
distributes more braking pressure at rear brakes during initial brake application before the
effects of weight transfer become noticeable. EBD helps to reduce the strain on the hydraulic
brake force valve in the vehicle.
ww
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a syE
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r
Figure 4.104 Vehicle load withou: and witll EBDing
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In a regular braking system, when the brake pedal is applied, the brake fluid flows from
master cylinder to wheel cylinders. When the fluid enters inside the wheel cylinder, the
t
pressure of the fluid will force two pistons to push out to result the brake shoes or pads being
pushed out. This push or pressure is in direct proportion to the push by pistons which causes
shoes or pads to rub against the drum or caliper. This reaction creates friction and decreases
turning of wheels.
EBD monitors electronically through sensors such as the conditions of the road, feel of
pressure on the brake pedal and vehicle weight to determine when to apply pressure to the
wheel cylinders. The sensors are designed to monitor the movement of wheels and determine
based on weight which wheels need the maximum force applied.
Since the front end has the most weight on a vehicle, EBD system recognizes and
electronically controls back brakes so when the driver applies the brakes, the back brakes do
not lock up causing a skid. EBD is a ·gooa-system for drivers because it can increase the

I Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems mafM.

vehicle's ability to stop under any conditions. But, it is only effective if the ECU works along
with sensors to make up the system. If one of those sensors fails, a dangerous mesh may
happen.
4.5.22. Traction Control

In recent few years, some selected automobile manufacturers have introduced the
systems with addition of traction and tracking control during both acceleration and braking.
Anti-lock braking system (ABS) releases the brakes momentarily when the wheel speed
sensors gives a signal to lock wheels during braking but the traction control applies the brakes
momentarily to one of drive wheels when the wheel speed sensors indicates a wheel rotating
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faster than others during acceleration.
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4.5.22.1. Function of a Traction Control
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A Traction Control System (TCS) also known as Anti-Slip Regulation (ASR) is typically
a secondary function of ABS. The primary function of the traction control system is to
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maintain the traction and stability of the vehicle regardless of the road surface condition. It is
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achieved by reducing the drive torque applied to rear wheels or pulsing the rear wheel brakes
to eliminate the wheel slip depending on the version of traction control installed.
eer
The electronics for traction control operation are incorporated in ABS control module
ing
and share many of same ABS sensors. The module decides the speed of the vehicle through a
calculated average of the four wheel speed sensor inputs.
When the traction-control system determines one wheel spinning more quickly than .ne
others, it automatically pumps the brake fluid to the particular wheel to reduce its speed and
lessen wheel slip. If one of the driven wheels tends to spin, traction control is activated. The
t
traction control system reduces the drive torque supplied by the engine. If necessary, brakes
are applied to individual wheels in order to regulate the slip of driven wheels as quickly as
possible to the optimum level.
A critical slip ratio of greater than 5% between wheels will cause the traction control
regulation to start. This slip ratio is established when the control module detects a wheel speed
difference of2 MPH or higher.
4.5.22.2. Components of rcs Systems

Main.components are an electronic control unit (ECU), one or more hydraulic modulator
assemblies, one or more wheel speed sensors and a wiring harness.
Actuator
Wheel Speed ~
~ Solenoids
Sensor
__.. Actuator pump
motor
Battery
~
ABSrrCS
__.. Slip Indicator
TRACOFF light
~ Electronic
ww Switch
ControlUnit
--+
TRAC
w.E Stop Light

~
OFF light
ABS warning
a Switch
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~
light
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Throttle Electronic
n~I
eer Injectors
I
position sensor
~
controlmodule
~ ing
Shift solenoid
valves
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1. Wheel sensors:
Figure 4.105 Layout of traction control
t
Wheel sensors are the key components of both ABS and TCS systems. In order to
determine the vehicle wheel speed, a Wheel Speed Sensor (WSS) is placed on each wheel.
As the teeth pass by the pickup core, a sinusoidal pulse train is generated with a
frequency proportional to' the speed of the wheel. This generated frequency is directly
proportional to wheel revolutions/time and an analog of the wheel ground speed.
Scaling arithmetic in ECU microprocessor software is used to convert the input

frequency analog to ground speed (mph or kph). They are compared to determine the
individual wheel slip.
2. Pumps, valves, accumulators and motors:

I Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems mD

TCS hydraulic control units (HCUs) contain pumps, valves, accumulators and motors
which perform ECU commanded functions for the system operation. Most HCUs are
relatively insulated from crash damage but few are located in the frontal crush zone such as
front wheel speed sensors.
3. TCSECUs:
ECU of ABS is shared by traction control system. Most TCS ECUs are relatively
insulated from crash damage. During crash damage to a wheel sensor, it will cause a snapshot
frame. In most cases, individual wheel braking is enough to control the wheel slip.
In some traction-control systems, a special type of traction control reduces engine power
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to slipping wheels. On a few of these vehicles, drivers may sense a pulsation of the gas pedal
when the system is reducing the engine power similar to a brake pedal pulsates and when the
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antilock braking system is working.
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4.6.23. Trouble Shooting in Brakes
En
1. Pedal can be moved to strike floorboard without producing brake action
Causes
gin Remedies
I. Low level oftluid in master eer

Fill reservoir with brake fluid.
cylinder reservoir.
ing
2. Leak in hydraulic system.
and bleed system. .ne
Locate and repair leak and also refill
3. Normal wear of linings. Adjust brakes. See minor brake

adjustment. If brakes cannot be
t
adjusted, the lining must be replaced
and the drums must be checked.
4. Brake shoes not properly Adjust brake shoes.
adjusted.
5. Defective master cylinder. Rebuild with new parts or replace.
6. Air in system. Bleed system. Seek cause of air
entrance.

Ims Automobile Engineering

2. One wheel drags
Causes Remedies
1. Weak or broken brake shoe Replace spring.

return spring.
2. Brake adjusted too tight. Re-adjust to proper clearance.

3. Wheel cylinder piston and/or Replace cup and/or piston.
cup stuck.
ww
4. Loose or worn wheel or axle
bearing.
Tighten or replace.
w.E
S. Clogged or kmked line. Replace.
a
6. Brake shoes binding.
7. Brake drum out-of-round. syE

Free up shoes.
Turn down in lathe or replace.
8. Loose backing plate.

ngi Tighten or replace.
nee
J. Car pulls to one side on application of the brakes
Causes Remediesr ing

.ne
1. Grease, oil, or brake fluid soaked
linking.
Replace lining. Clean brake drum.
Seek source of grease, oil or brake
fluid.
t
....
"I
Loose wheel.bearings. Tighten or replace.
3. Low tyre pressure, Inflate tyre to correct pressure,
4. Loose backing plate, spring Tighten.

If-bolts, steering etc.
S. Primary and secondary shoes Place shoes in correct reversed.

positions.
6. Line on opposite side restricted. Replace line.


7. Drums out of round.
Systems
Tum down in lathe or replace. "'D
8. Poor brake adjustment. Adjust brake. Include anchor pin
adjustment.
9. Unequal camber. Adjust camber to correct value on both

wheels.
1O. Faulty wheel cylinder. Replace.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Springy or spongy brake pedal
----------------------------------------------------------~------------------------------------------------------
ww Causes Remedies
---------------------------------------~-------------------------------------------------------------------------
w.E 1. Air in lines.

2. Poor shoe adjustment.
Bleed lines. Seek cause of air entrance.
Adjust shoe to correct clearance.
asy
3. Brake drum out of round. Turn down drum or replace.
E
------.---------~----~-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ngi
5. Excessive pedal pressure required to lIpply brakes
Causes nee
-----------.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~--------
Remedies
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~-----
rin
I. Oil-soaked or improper linings.
2. Poor shoe adjustments.
Replace linings.
Adjust shoes. g.n
3. Partial lining contact due to
improper anchor pin adjustment.
Adjust anchor pin or pins to produce
correct toe and heel clearances.
e t
4. Warped brake shoes. Replace or regrind and shim lining.
S. Pedal and/or shoes binding. Free up. Lubricate where necessary.
6. Brake line restricted. Free up or replace.

__________________ 6. ------------------------------------------------------------
6. Brakes chatter or squeak Oil application

-------------------------------------------------_ .._-------------------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. Linings not well cemented or Reline shoes.
riveted to shoes.

I"''' 2. Loose backing plate or shoe support. Tighten.

3. Front suspension loose. Tighten or repair.

4. Oily linings. Replace linings.
5. Poor brake adjustment. Adjust brakes.
6. Dirt embedded in lining. Clean linings with wire brush or replace
them.
7. Brake drum out of round, Re-bore or replace drum.
scored or cracked.
ww 8. Shoes scraping backing plate. Clean and lubricate contact surfaces.

--------------------~~~------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
w.E 7. Power brake cylinder does not boost pedal pressure
Causes asy
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Remedies
En
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Vacuum check valve stuck.
2. Vacuum pipe bent, broken, or gin Free up or replace.
Replace. Tighten all connections.

obstructed.
eer
3. Air inlet blocked.
ing
Check air cleaner. Clean or replace.
4. Air valve sticking on power piston.
.ne
Disassemble the power piston. Free
valve or replace.
.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
,
8. Power unit does not release properly (hydraulic system is in good condition)
t
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.----------.-- ----. ~ I
Causes Remedies
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Binding push rod. Free lip or replace.
2. Internal friction in power unit. Disassemble unit. Lock for weak or

broken springs, dry rubber cups and
O-ring seals.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9. Brake pedal suddenly requires longer travel to apply brakes, brake warning light goes on
Causes Remedies
Leak in front or rear hydraulic Locate cause of leak and make

system (double master cylinder necessary repairs. Reset warning light
design). switch.
, 10. One brake drags
ww Causes Remedies
w.El. Shoes out of adjustment. Adjust.
asy
2. Clogged brake line. Clear or replace line.
E
3. Wheel cylinder defective.
4. Weak or broken return spring

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Repair or replace.
Replace.
S. Loose wheel bearing.

nee
Adjust bearing.
11. All brakes drag rin

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Causes
1. Incorrect linkage adjustment.

Remedies
Adjust.
e t
2. Trouble in master cylinder. Repair or replace.
3. Mineral oil in system. Replace damaged rubber parts, use

only recommended brake fluid.
12. Brakes too sensitives
Causes Remedies
1. Shoes out of adjustment. Adjust.

,",1iI 2. Wrong linings.

Automobile
Install correct linings.
Engineering
.3. Brake linings greasy. Replace, check oil seals avoid over
lubrication.
4. Drums scored. Tum or grind drums.
5. Backing plate loose. Tighten.
6. Power-brake assembly Overhaul or replace.

malfunctioning.
7. Brake linings soaked with oil. Replace linings and oil seals, avoid over
ww lubrication.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
w.E 13. Noisy brakes
Causes' asy
--------------------------------------~.--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Remedies
1. Linings worn. E
-----------------------------------------------------------------.-----------------------------------------------
ngi Replace.
2. Shoes warped.
3. Shoes rivets loose.
nee
Replace.
Replace shoe or lining,
4. Drums worn or rough. rin

Turn or grind drums.
5. Loose parts. Tighten. g.n

e t
---------------7-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
14. Air in system
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. Defective master cylinder. Repair or replace.
2. Loose connections, damaged tube. Tighten connections, replace tube.
3. Brake fluid lost. See item 15 below.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


15. Loss of brakefluid
----------------------------------------------------------------------_ .._----------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.----
I. Master cylinder leaks. Repair or replace.
2. Wheel cylinder leaks. Repair or replace.

3. Loose connections, damaged tube. Tighten connections and replace
tube.
(Note: After repair, add brake fluid and bleed system)
ww
--------------------------------------------------~--------------------------------------------------------------
16. Brakes do not self-adjust
w.E
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
asy
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Adjustment screw stuck. Free and clean up.
E
2. Adjustment lever does not
engage star wheel ngi Repair, free up or replace adjuster.
3. Adjuster incorrectly installed.

nee
Install correctly.
rin
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
17. Warning light comes on wile" braking
g.n
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes
1. One section has failed.

Remedies
e
Check both sections for braking action.
t
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Repair defective section.

2. Pressure differential valve defective. Replace.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
. 18. Excessive pedal travel
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Causes Remedies
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Excessive dish run-out. Check, run out if excessive.
2. Air leak or insufficient fluid. Install new disk check.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

19. Brakes heat up during driving andfall to release
Causes Remedies
1. Power-brake malfunction. Check and correct power unit.
2. Sticking pedal linkage. Free up sticking pedal linkage.

3. Operator riding brake pedal. Instruct owner how to drive disk brakes.
4. Frozen or seized piston. Disassemble cliper, install new piston,

seal boots.
ww 5. Residual press,:!revalve in Remove valve from cylinder.
w.E master cylinder.
asy
E ngi
1. What are the requirements of steering system?
I. It multiples the turning efforts applied on the steering wheel by the driver.
nee
2. The shocks of the road surface absorbed by wheels should not be transmitted to
the driver's hands.
rin
g.n
3. When the driver releases the steering wheel after completing the tum, the wheel
should achieve a straight ahead position immediately, called self-rightening
effect.
e t
4. It must keep the wheel at all time in rolling motion without rubbing on the road.
2. How does a steering-wheel take a right turn?

I. Both the steering wheel and steering tube are rotated clockwise by rotating the
roller shaft through 'he steering gear.
2. Due to this action, the bottom end moves forward for pushing the drag link.
3. The tie rods are forced to left side by an intermediate steering arm. Thus, it
receives a push of the drag link.
4. The right steering arm is pulled by the right tie rod to turn the right steering
knuckle and wheel to right side.
S. The left steering arm is pushed by the left tie rod for turning the left steering
knuckle and wheel to right side.


3. List out the components of steering system.
] . Steering linkage
(a) Pitman arm (b) Balljoints
(c) Drag link (d) Steeringjarm
(e) Left spindle and kingpin (f) Left tie rod arm
(g) Tie rod (h) Right tie rod arm, spindle and kingpin
(i) Steering stops
2. Steering shaft
3. Steering gear.
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4. Define instantaneous centre of a vehicle.
w.E
During turning or moving the vehicle on a curved path, the wheels should follow
a true radius or definite radius with each of the radius originating from its centre. The
asy
circles should be based on the common centre known as instantaneous centre to avoid
skidding of wheels.
En
5. How is steering geometry defined?
gin
Steering geometry is the angular representation and obtaining relationship
between front wheels.
ee
6. What is Ackermann steering principle?
rin [Anna Univ. May'09J
g.
This linkage is based on a four bar chain with two longer links of unequal lengths
net
with two shorter links of equal lengths. The mechanism is simple. When the vehicle is
running along a straight path, the longer links will become parallel and each of the
shorter links will be inclined at an angle exto the longitudinal axis of the vehicle.
7. Define camber, castor and toe-in witlt sketches.

[Alina Univ. Nov'05, Apr'06 & May'14J
Camber:
When the front of the vehicle is viewed, the angle between centre line of the tyre
and vertical line is called camber.
Castor:
Tilting the kingpin axis either forward or backward from the vertical line is
j known as castor.
Toe-in:
The wheels are said to be toe in when the distance A is lesser than B.

III'm Automobile Engineering
Wheel
r----WheeICamber
• ' Kingpin
,
.
I ,
Front axle '3..
Vertical i \
ww (a) Camber
Front of vehicle
----~~~l
(a) Castor
w.E )~.~---- A
asy o Main axle o

E ngi
nee
B
(c)Toe-in
rin
Figure 4.106 Camber, Castor and Toe-in
g.n
8. Define the terms toe-out.
e
{Anna Univ. May'14}
The wheels are said to be toe out when the distance A is greater than B
Figure 4.106 (c).
t In
9. Write down any two effects of toe-in and toe-out.

Effects of toe-in:
1. Tyre slip :
2. Tyre Wear on outside of the tread
3. Tyre scrub bend
4. Poor steering stability.
Effect of toe-out:
It avoids tyre scrub.


10. Why is camber angle provided in steering system? [Anna Univ. Dec'13]
Camber angle alters the handling qualities of a particular suspension design.
Particularly, a negative camber improves the grip when cornering because it places
the tyre at better angle to the road, transmitting the forces through the vertical plane of
the tyre rather than through a shear force across it. Off-road vehicles such as
agricultural tractors generally use positive camber. In such vehicles, the positive
camber angle helps to achieve a lower steering effort. For maximum straight-line
acceleration, the greatest traction will be attained when the camber angle is zero and
the tread is flat on the road.
11. What is meant by wander?
ww The change of spring height also changes the camber. When the camber is zero,
slight irregularities on the road may occur to change the wheel load thereby changing
w.E
the direction of the camber effect. This phenomenon is called 'wander'.
asy
12. Note down the effects of castor.
When the top of the kingpin will be backward, the castor angle is positive. The
En
caster angle is negative when the top of the kingpin will be in forward.
gin
13. What is kingpin inclination?
ee
The angle between vertical line and centre of the kingpin or steering axle when
rin
viewing is carried out from the front of the vehicle is called kingpin inclination.
14. Mention tile effects of kingpin inclination.

g.
1. Both kingpin inclination and castor give the directional stability.
net
2. Particularly steering effort is reduced when the vehicle is stationary.
3. Tyre wear also is greatly reduced.
4. During turning of the Wheel,this inclination raises the vehicle. By this, a force
is exerted on wheels to straighten up automatically after completing its turn.
I .. ....
5. The kingpin inclination should be 'equal on both sides. If it is greater on one
side, the vehicle will be pulled to the side having the greater angle.
, I .-
15. What are the effects of combined angle and scrub radius?
Effects of combined angle:

If the scrub radius is not equal to zero, a torque acted on wheel turns away from
straight ahead position.


Effect of scrub radius:
(a) When the scrub radius is negative, the wheel is caused to toe-in.
(b) When the scrub radius is positive, the wheel is caused to toe-out.
(c) A large scrub radius will cause a greater torque required to turn the wheel. So,
higher loads on the steering linkage and suspension components act. It results
a greater wear of steering linkage and unequal braking on the front wheels.
16. What is meant by centre point steering?

When the scrub radius becomes zero, the wheel is kept in a straight position
without any toe-in or toe-out This position is known as centre point steering.
ww
17. Name tile types of steering gears.
w.E 1. The pitman-arm type, and

2. The rack-and-pinion type.
asy
18. List out tile different types of steering gear system. {Anna Univ. Dec '14)
1. Worm and roller
2. Worm and sector
E ngi
3. Cam and roller
nee
4. Cam and peg
5. Cam and turn lever rin
6. Screw and nut g.n
7. Recirculating ball
8. Worm and ball bearing
e t
9. Rack and pinion.
19. Define overall steering ratio.

The number of degrees through which the steering wheel is turned is divided into
number of degrees when the front wheels turn. It is known as overall steering ratio.
20. How is steering ratio determined?

The steering gear assembly not only steers the front wheels but also it reduces
the steering wheel turning effort by increasing the output torque. The reduction ratio
is known as steering gear ratio.


In other words, the ratio of the output force to the input force applied is known as
steering ratio.
21. What is meant by the term turning radius?

The radius of the circle on which the outside front wheel travels when the front
wheels turn to their extreme outer position is called turning radius.
22. Define slip angle.

The angle between wheel inclination and path followed by the wheel is known as
slip angle.
ww
23. How are oversteer and understeer defined witlt respect to slip angle?
When the slip angles of front wheels are greater than rear wheels, it is the
w.E
condition of understeer;
asy
When the slip angles of front wheels are less than rear wheels, it is the condition
of oversteer.
En
24. Wluu are the disadvantages of manual steering over power steering?
gin
1. It is smaller and simpler in engines on cars.
eer
2. High-pressure tyres should be used in case of cars. The smaller steering ratio is
required to steer these cars. So, it needs less turns of the steering wheel to move
to the desired distance.
ing
25. Specify the methods of power steering.
.ne
1. Integral type, and
2. Linkage type. t
26. State the functions of thefront axle.
1. It takes the weight of the front of the vehicle.
2. It provides a better steering action.
3. A spring transmits cushion effect to the vehicle.
4. It controls the ride through shock absorber.
5. It takes the braking system.
6. It transmits power to front wheels in case of four wheel drive.
7. It carries both hub and wheels.

lam . i1 Automobile Engineering

27. What is steering knuckle pin?
The centre portion of the front axle is provided a downward sweep to maintain
the chassis height low. The steering spindle and steering knuckle assemblies are
pinned at ends of axle in order to permit the wheels to be turned by the steering gear.
This pin is known as kingpin or steering knuckle pin.
28. Draw tit least any two types 0/ stub axles. [Alina Univ. May'12/
Kingpin
Front
ww
w.E
Stub axle
:I:
I.-_---'.+..:._
. .....J Thrust
(a)
asy
Figure 4.107(a) Elliot stub axle Figure 4.107 (b) Reversed Elliot
washer
29. List out the types 0//rollt

I. Live front axle.
E axle.
ngi [Anna Univ. Apr'06 & May'15/
2. Dead front axle. nee

30. Name the types of stub axles.
rin [Anna Univ. May'l1/
1. Elliot
g.n
2. Reversed elliot
3. Lamoine
4. Reversed lamoine.
e t
31. Define suspension system.
The chassis of vehicle is connected to the front and rear wheels through the
medium of springs, shock absorbers and axles. All parts perform the function of
protecting the parts from shocks are known as suspension system,
32. Describe the various components of suspension system with its functions briefly.
I. Springs neutralize the shocks from the road surface.
2. Dampers are called shock abs ..bers to improve a riding comfort by limiting the
free oscillation of springs.
3. Stabilizer is called sway bar or am. 'rJllbar to prevent lateral swaying of the car.

Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems rrm

4. A linkage system holds above components to control the longitudinal and lateral
movements of wheels.
33. Wluu tire the functions of suspension system?
I. To eliminate road shocks from transmission to vehicle components.
2. To maintain stability of the vehicle in pitching or rolling while in motion.
3. To safeguard occupants from road shocks.
4. To obtain good road holding while driving, cornering and braking.
5. To keep proper steering geometry
6. To obtain particular height to body structure.
ww 7. To resist torque and braking reactions.
w.E8. To keep the body of the motor vehicle on even keel while traveling over
rough round or when turning in order to minimize rolling, pitching or vertical
asy
movement tendency.
E
34. Wtuu are the requirements of suspension system?
ngi
1. It should have minimum deflection.
2. It should be of low initial cost.
3. It should be of minimum weight. nee
rin
4. It should have low maintenance and low operating cost.
5. It should have minimum tyre wear.
g.n
35. How sprung am/unsprung
sprung and unsprung weights. e
weights are defined? Write down the relation between
t
The body of vehicle is supported by springs. The weight of the body is supported
by springs called sprung weight.
Unsprung Weight is the weight of everything between springs and road in a
portion of weight of springs itself.
:. Sprung weight = Total weight of vehicle - unsprung weight.
36. What are the effects of unsprung weight?

The unsprung weight of a wheel controls a trade-off between a wheel's bump and
its vibration isolation. Bumps and surface imperfections in the road cause tyre
compression which induces a force on the unsprung weight. The unsprung weight

lam ..Automobile Engineering, J

responds to this force with movement of its own. For short bumps, the arnoun
movement is inversely proportional to the weight. A lighter wheel which readily
moves in response to road bumps will have more grip and more constant grip when
tracking over an imperfect road. Due to this, lighter wheels are sought especially for
high-performance applications. In contrast, a heavier wheel which moves less will not
absorb as much vibration. The irregularities of the road surface will transfer to the
cabin through the geometry of the suspension. Therefore, ride quality and road noise
are deteriorated. For longer bumps, wheels follow a greater unsprung mass which
causes more energy to be absorbed by the wheels and it makes the ride worse.
37. What are the different types of movements occurred when the vehicle is in motion?
ww (a) Bouncing
w.E (b) Pitching

(c) Rolling
a (d) Yawing.
syE
38. Define 'bouncing' and 'pitching'.
ngi
The vertical movement of a complete body is called bouncing. In other words,
nee
the complete body of the vehicle moves up and down, then it is called bounce or
bouncing.
r ing
Rocking chair action or rotating action about a transverse axis through the
vehicle parallel to ground is known as pitching.
39. Define 'Rolling'. .ne

The movement of the wheel about longitudinal axis produced by centrifugal t
force when cornering is known as rolling. It results a body rolling in the lateral
direction which means side-to-side direction.
40. Define 'Yawing'.
Yawing is the movement of the car's longitudinal centerline to the right and left
in relation to the car's center of gravity. On roads, where pitching occurs, there will be
a chance to occur yawing.
41. What are different types of spring system used in suspension of automobiles?
1. Steel springs
a) Leaf springs


b) Tapered leaf springs
c) Coil springs
d) Torsion bar
2. Rubber springs
a) Compression springs
e) Face shear spring
ww 3. Air springs
w.E a) Bellow type springs

b) Piston type springs
asy
4. Plastic springs
E
42. Mention the various types of leaf springs used in automobiles.
1. Semi elliptical spring
ngi
2. Quarter elliptical spring
3. Three quarter elliptical spring
nee
4. Transverse spring rin
5. Full elliptical spring g.n
6. Platform type spring.
43. How are leaf springs lubricated?

e t
Leaf springs are lubricated by feeding lubricants form a centre grease nipple
through grooved oil ways or by spraying oil on the leaves.
44. Define master leaf.

The longest leaf is called master leaf
45. Define shackle pin.

The spring eye is mounted to the frame by a pin known as shackle pin.
46. Write short notes on helper springs.

Where fluctuations are in their loads, helper springs are used in trucks and many
other vehicles. It is mounted inside the main spring. If the load is less, the main spring

Irnm Automobile Engineering

is operated. Both the main and helper springs are operated when the load exceeds a
certain value. Helper springs are mainly provided on rear suspension. When the load
increases on the road wheel, the helper spring isjust made to touch ends of the helper
spring.
47. Write down the characteristics of helper springs.
1. Due to the springs having enough rigidity to hold the axis in the proper position,
they are required.
2. Controlling of own oscillation through inter-leaf friction is performed.
3. These springs have durability in heavy-duty applications.
ww 4. Due to inter-leaf friction, it is very difficult to absorb minute vibrations from

the road surface. Hence, leaf springs are more suitable for large commercial
w.E
vehicles which can carry heavy loads regarding high durability.
asy
48. What is the purpose of the coil spring in rear end suspension?
The coil spring controls the suspension travel and it provides wide height control.
En
49. Write down the characteristics of coil spring.
gin
I. The energy absorption rate per unit of weight is greater when compared to
leaf springs.
2. Soft springs can be coiled. eer
ing
3. Due to no inter-leaf friction with leaf springs, no control of oscillation is
necessary by the spring itself but shock absorbers are necessary.
.ne
t
4. Due to no resistance to lateral forces, linkage mechanisms to support the axle
such as suspension arm, lateral control rod, etc. are required.
50. What is meant by torsion bar?

A torsion bar is a steel bar which is operated by both twisting and absorbing
shear stress only.
51. State the advantages of a torsion bar.

I. It is lighter as compared to leaf spring.
2. It occupies less space.
52. State the advantages and disadvantages of a torsion bar. [Anna Univ. Dec'12j
Advantages:
1. This spring needs less space.

Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems "lOt'

2. It is lighter than leaf spring system.
3. This system provides very neat and compact design.
4. In some cases, the torsion tubes are used instead of torsion bars.
Disadvantages:
I. It does not take the braking or driving trust so that addition linkages have to
be provided.
2. The absence of friction force, the damping necessity is used to control the
vibrations produced due to road shocks.
53. Define cornering force and cornering power. {Anna Univ. Dec'12J
ww All vehicles experience cornering force every time they tum. Cornering force or
w.E
side force is lateral (i.e., parallel to the road surface) force prcduced by a vehicle tyre
during cornering. Cornering force is generated by tyre slip which is proportional to
a
slip angle at low slip angles. Slip angle describes the deformation of the tyre contact
syE
patch and this deflection of the contact patch deforms the tyre in a fashion akin to a
spring.
ngi
Tyre cornering power can be defined by the relationship between tyre lateral
nee
forces and tyre slip. It depends on factors such as steering input and road conditions as
well as vehicle conditions such as vehicle loading, tyre tread wear, tyre damage and
tyre inflation pressure.
r ing
54. Name tile different types of rubber springs.
a) Compression springs .ne
t
e) Face shear spring.
55. How does rubber spring absorb shocks during running of the vehicle?
Rubber springs absorb vibrations by the internal friction generation if they are
stretched by an external force.
56. State tile advantagesof rubbersprings.

I. Greater energy per unit weight than the steel can be stored. So, the springing
systems are made more compact.

'U",I Automobile Engineering

2. The rublYerhas ~80d vibration damping properties.
3. The absence of squeaking is always present in steel springs.
4. The number of required bearings is low for the rubber suspension system
having longer life.
5. Rubber is more reliable, So, a rubber suspension cannot suddenly fail similar to
metal springs.
57. Define air springs.

The springs which have elasticity or "springiness" when it is compressed are
known as 'air springs '.
ww
58. Classify air suspension system.
w.E
a. Bellow type air suspension
b. Piston type air suspension
asy
c. Elongated bellows air spring.
E
59. Write down the advantages of air suspension system.
ngi
1. A variable space for wheel deflection is used for the optimum use.
nee
2. Change in head lamp alignment due to varying loads is completely eliminated.
rin
3. The spring rate varies with loading and unloading thereby reducing dynamic
loading.
60. Write down the characteristics of air springs. g.n

et
1. They are softer if the vehicle is not loaded. Simultaneously, the spring constant
increases when the load is increased by increasing the air pressure inside the
chamber. So, it gives optimum riding comfort when the vehicle is lightly loaded
and fully loaded conditions.
2. The height of the vehicle is kept constant though the load variation by varying
the air pressure.
61. Write a short on hydro elastic suspension.

The hydro elastic suspension system intends to improve the vehicle's resistance
to pitch, the tendency of the body to oscillate in a to and fro direction when the front
springs are compressed and rear springs are simultaneously expanded. The continuous
forward and backward pitching motion provides a most uncomfortable ride which

Systems
may become serious when the frequency of vibration of fr~ml and rear springs is
same.
62. What are the advantages of independent suspension systemi:

1. Unsprung weight is reduced with improved ride and better road holding while
turning and braking.
2. Instead of tilling the frame and body, it is kept horizontal and wheels are
vertical when encountered a road bump.
3. The wheels are sprung independently but springing movement of one wheel is
not transmitted to the other side.
ww 4. Both the wheel wobbling and steering tramp are reduced.

5. Greater resilience is provided with better springing action than most rigid axle
w.E vehicles.
a
6. The independent
accommodation.
syE
63. Classify suspension system.
front suspension gives more space for engine
(i) Front end suspension ngi

a. Independent front suspension
nee
b. Rigid axle front suspension
(ii) Rear end suspension r ing
a. Longitudinal leaf spring rear suspension
.ne
b. Transverse leaf spring rear suspension
c. Coil spring rear end suspension t
64. Classify independent from suspension system.
1. Longitudinal suspension
2. Transverse suspension
3. Sliding suspension
4. Parallelogram type suspension
5. Strut and link type suspension
6. Trailing link type suspension
7. Vertical guide suspension.

Automobile Engineering ,
65. What are the advantages offront wheel independent suspension?
1. Since the independent suspension has less unsprung mass, road-wheels follow
the contour of the road irregularities up to higher speeds than for the heavy
rigid-axle-beam suspension.
2. An anti-roll bar if it is used along with the independent suspension provides
the necessary resisting stiffness to oppose body roll during cornering.
Therefore, softer springs can be employed for normal vertical loads.
3. The engine and chassis structure can be lowered so also the centre of the car
in order to move the engine forward to provide more room for passengers.
ww 4. Independent suspension usually lowers the roll centre. So, the body rolls
before the wheels break away from the road providing a warning to the driver.
w.E
66. What are the advantages of Mac Pherson strut type oJ suspension?
asy
1. It provides an increased road safety.
En
2. It improves ride comfort and light and self-stabilizing steering.
67. What are the advantages of Wishbone type.suspension?

gin
I. Better cornering characteristics are obtained.
eer
2. The track length remains constant although a slight change in camber takes place
which is better for tyre life.
ing
68. What are the disadvantages of Wishbone type suspension?
.ne
I. The wheels on comers lean outwards with the body resulting in undesired
steering effects.
2. Variation in tracks length resulting in adverse tyre wear.
t
69. Classify independent rear suspension system.
I. Longitudinal leaf spring rear end suspension
2. Transverse leaf spring rear end suspension
3. Coil spring rear end suspension.
70. What is the disadvantage of having rigid axle suspension? [Anna Univ. May'14}
I. Running comfort is poor due to unsprung weight.
2. Vibrations and oscillations occur rather easily since movements of left and
right wheels mutually influence one another.


71. What are the purposes of shock absorbers?
,.,N.
(i) To control the vibrations on springs.
(ii) To provide comfortable ride.
(iii) To act flexible and to be rigid enough.
(iv) To resist the unnecessary motion of the spring.
72. What are the main/unctions of the shock absorber?

1. To control the quick bouncing of the wheel.
2. To control the slow bouncing of the body in the suspension spring.
ww 3. To keep all the four wheels on the road during a tum at high speed.
73. Classify shock absorbers.
w.E 1. Mechanical shock absorber (Friction type)

2. Hydraulic shock absorber
a syE
Again the Hydraulic shock absorbers are further divided into:
(i) Van type
(ii) Piston type ngi
a. Single acting
nee
b. Double acting
(iii) Telescopic type. r ing
74. Mention the advantages of telescopic shock absorber.
.ne
1.
t
Large amount of energy is dissipated due to large volume of fluid displaced
without causing a high temperature rise.
2. There is no wear development in the damper with the absence of connecting
arm pivots.
3. The applied force is increased when compared to indirect acting type. Low
fluid pressure due to fairly large piston area is occurred with reduced levers.
4. The leakage is less due to low pressure and absence of the rotating shaft
entering the reservoir.
75. Give a brief note 011 damper. [Anna Univ. May'08j

Shock absorbers or dampers will not absorb road shocks efficiently if the
suspension springs are highly rigid. They will be continuously vibrated for a longer

'I'Mi Automobile Engineering

time if springs,are sufficiently flexible. To overcome this difficulty, a system having
compromise between flexibility and stiffness should be used.
Shock absorbers are used as a part of the suspension system. They provide
more resistance to the motion of the spring and road wheel in order to damp out
vibrations.
76. What are the different types of damper used in shock absorber?
{Anna Univ. May'12)
(i) Pneumatic damper
(ii) Hydraulic damper
ww (iii) Mechanical spring type damper.
w.E
77. Write down any two differences between springs and shock absorbers with respect
to itsfunctions.
S. No.
asy
Springs Shock absorbers
1.
E
It is connected between wheels
and vehicle frame.
ngi
It is connected between axle and
lower end of the chassis frame.
2.
nee
It acts as a cushion load shock, The shock absorber provides
to keep the vehicle body levelled resistance to the motion of the
up over uneven surfaces and
rin
springs and road wheels for
absorb driving and
g.n
braking damping out vibrations. It is
torque loads or stresses and also done for several complete
to resist the body tilting and
rolling on corners and bends.
et
oscillations thereb~ resulting in
discomfort to the passengers.
78. Define "anti-roll bar". {Anna Univ. May'll)

Stabilizer or a sway bar is used in all independent suspension to decrease the
tendency of the vehicle to roll or tip on either side when making a turn known as
anti-roll bar.
79. What is aframe stabilizer?

Aframe stabilizer is a device designed to resist any tendency of vehicles to dip
on either sides and resist centrifugal force which is the cause of slipping on curve.

-------- -- - -
: Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems

80. Define braking system.
"'dI _I
The mechanism which is used to slow and stop the vehicle is known as bra,
system. In other words, the total system starting from brake pedal or lever to
brake shoe is known as braking system.
81. What does stopping distance mean?

The distance required to stop a vehicle is known as stopping distance. The
distance required to stop a vehicle is proportional to the square of speed at which
brakes are applied.
82. What are the factors affecting the stopping distance?
ww The stopping distance depends on the:
w.E I. grip between the tyre and road surface.

2. tyre tread condition.
asy
3. tyre inflation.
83. Define stopping time. E

4. nature of road surface.
ngi
nee
It is the duration of brake applied to a complete stop.
84. Define braking efficiency.

rin
It is defined as the rate at which the braking system brings a vehicle to 'rest .
from a certain road speed known as braking efficiency.
g.n
85. State the need for brakes.
1. To stop or slow down the vehicle at the will of the operator-
e t
2. To control the vehicle descending a hill
3. To keep the vehicle in a desired position even in rest.
86. What is theprinciple of braking system?

In this system, the kinetic energy is converted into heat energy due to friction
between two mating surfaces of brake lining and brake ,~rum. Then, the heat
dissipated into the atmosphere.
87. What are the requirements of braking system?

"T.
I. It should have good anti-fade characteristics.
2. It should be consistent with safety.

le'MiI
3. It should not be skidding while applying brake.
4. It should have a better cooling system.
S. It should be strong enough to stop the vehicle with in a minimum distance.
6. It should have less weight.
7. It should be reliable.
8. It should be easy to adjust for a proper maintenance.
88. What causes vapour lock in a braking system? [Anna Univ. Dec'13J
The condition that causes vapour locking in a brake system is overheating of
the fluid due to frequent brake application. Although brake fluids are designed to
ww work at extreme temperatures above 2S0°C but still as the age of brake fluids goes
w.E on increasing, it starts loosing its properties and hence, under high pressure and
temperatures vapours are developed by applying brakes.
asy
89. List tile different types 0/ brakes available. [Anna Univ. Nov'08J
E
1. According to the applications
ngi
(i) Service or running or foot brake
nee
(ii) Parking or emergency or hand brake
2. According to the number of wheels

(i) Two wheel brakes rin
(ii) Four wheel brakes.
g.n
3. According to the brake gear
(i) Mechanical brake
e t
1. Hand brake
2. Foot brake
(ii) Power brake
1. Booster
2. Non-booster
4. According to construction
(i) Drum brake
(ii) Disc brake.

Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems t"i'

90. Compare disc and drum brakes. [Anna Univ. Dec'14]
S.No. Description Drum brake Disc brake
1. Life of friction material. It is reasonable It is reasonable (about

(about 15,000 km). 25,000 km).
2. Visibility of wear from It is not possible. It can be seen at a

outside. glance.
3. Heat dissipation. It is inferior. It is inferior.
4. Replacement of friction It is troublesome and It is easy and rapid.
ww material. time consuming.
It is heavy. It is lighter (by 25%)

w.E
5. Weight.
91. What are different mechanisms of brake actuation?
asy
(a) Mechanical brakes
(b) Hydraulic brakes
(c) Electric brakes E ngi
(d) Vacuum brakes
(e) Air brakes. nee
92. What are the factor affecting the coefficient offriction? rin
g.n
The value of Jl can be unity but it is practically less than unity. It depends on
the following factor.
1. Condition of road - dry, wet, muddy, snowy etc.

e t
2. Type oftyre trade
3. Tyre inflation- correct, over, under.
93. What isfading of brakes?

Fading of brakes means that the friction is decreased between brake drum and
brake lining due to regular use of brake.
94. What is brakes compensation? {Anna Univ. May'12J

When brakes fade two things happen. First, the pads are heated up to the point
and the friction generated is reduced. It can be caused by resins or other ingredients
breakinz down. Second. the temoeratures can cause the brake fluid to boil. When the

,ell4:J Automobile Engineering

fluid boils, it will change to oil vapour. Oil vapour is compressible. Both conditions
may cause a spongy brake pedal.
Brake fade compensation is more than a bunch of algorithms which estimate

the temperature in the brake system by using the applied time, brake pressures,
acceleration/deceleration etc. When the computer determines the pads or fluid have
exceeded a certain threshold, it will close some valves and turn on ABS pump when
the drive hits the pedal. It expands the pressures at wheels and prevents the pedal
from going to the floor.
95. List tire various types of drum brake.
ww I. External contracting brakes

2. Internal expanding brakes.
w.E
96. State tirepurposes of a master cylinder.
a I" The required hydraulic pressure is built up to operate the system.
syE
2. It maintains a constant volume of fluid in the system.
ngi
3. To bleed or force air out of the brake line and wheel cylinder, a pump i~ used.
97. List out the various parts of a master cylinder.

I. Brake fluid reservoir
nee
2.
3.
Cylinder or compression chamber
Piston assembly r ing
4. Check valve or control valve
.ne
s. Piston return spring.
98. What are tire characteristics of hydraulic brakefluid?

t
I. It should remain fluid at low temperature.
2. It should not corrode or rust metallic parts in the brake system.
3. It should not vapourize at high temperature encountered in actual service.
4. It should act as a lubricant to the moving parts inside the system.
S. It should mix satisfactorily with other makes of hydraulic brake fluids.
6. It should retain all its characteristics for a maximum long period.
7. It should not soften the,rubber'parts'used in the hydraulic brake system.
8. It should be non-compressible.


99. Mention anyfour advantages of hydraulic brakes.
1. The system is mechanically very simple in construction due to the absence of
brake roads, joints etc.
2. This system gives equal braking effort at all four wheels when compared to
mechanical braking system.
3. All wheel brakes are forced to act together without any consideration In
individual adjustments.
4. It gives an increased braking effort.
S. It gives equal pressures at all points.
ww 6. It is a self-compensating system.
I.
w.E
100. Note down the advantages of air brakes.
It is more powerful when compared to other brakes.
2.
asy
The air brake parts are easily located where the chassis design making is
En
simple.
The compressed air can be used for tyre inflation wipers, hom and other
gin
3.
accessories.
ee
101. What are the special types of spot type disc brake?
I. Fixed caliper (or) Swinging caliper type
rin
2. Floating caliper, and
3. Sliding caliper type.
g. net
102. Distinguish between disc brake with drum brake.
S.No. Description Drum brake Disc brake
l. Heat dissipation Better Inferior
2. Braking effect Consistent Inconsistent
3. Nature of wear Uniform Non uniform
4. Weight Lighter Bulky
5. Water and dirt collection Self-cleaning Accumulates
6. Shape of friction lining Straight shape Curved shape

IIIiii Automobile Engineering

103. What are the advantages of grdling brakes?
1. They can easily be adjusted without jacking up the vehicle.
2. The driver effort can be minimized.
3. It uses a mechanical compensator.
4. It provides a self-centering effort.
104. What is meant by bleeding of brakes?

1. The process of removing air bubbles present in the braking system is called
bleeding.
ww 2. When any part of hydraulic line is replaced, air will be trapped into the
system. Due to compressed air, the effort of brake pedal goes waste in
w.E applying brakes. Unless air from the system is completely removed, the
brakes will not function properly.
asy
105. What is the minor and major adjustment of brakes?
E
1. Minor adjustment refers the adjustment of brake shoes to compensate lining
ngi
wear without removing the wheel.
nee
2. Major adjustment is installation of new shoes or relining the old shoes.
106. Define servo brakes.

rin
Mechanism which assists the driver's effort for applying brakes is called servo
g.n
mechanism. Servo means self-energization. Servo Brakes generally used when the
vehicle load is above 3 tonnes.
107. What is the purpose of brake shoe adjustor? e t

The purpose of adjustor is to compensate the wear of brake leather due to
regular use of vehicle.
108. What are the advantages disc brake systems?

I. Better stability because of uniform pressure distribution over pads.
2. Less bearing load on the application of the brake.
3. Higher temperature does not affect disc pads.
4. Simple design of brake adjuster.
109. What are the disadvantages disc brake systems?

I. It is costlier than drum brakes.

..

2. Complete protection to the disc from the road is to be provided.
,
3. Higher temperature causes evaporation of brake fluid and deterioration of
seals.
4. The pads wear off more quickly than the brake shoe linings of the
drum type.
110. What is tire locking of witeel during braking?
When the braking force is more than force of adhesion, then the wheel is
stopped and started slipping on the road. The stopping of wheel by braking is called
locking.
ww
111. Whichfactors generally effect braking?
I. Radius of brake drum and diameter of wheel.
w.E2. Area of brake lining and amount of pressure applied.
asy
3. Coefficient of friction.
112. Writefew advantages of hydraulic system of braking.
E ngi
1. There is less friction in hydraulic system of braking because there are fewer
joints as compared to mechanical brakes.
2. System is self-lubricating.
nee
3. In hydraulic system equal pressure is in every circuit.
rin
4. System is more flexible than mechanical system.
113. What are the disadvantages hydraulic brake systems? g.n

e t
I. Complete braking system is liable to be affected if any fault causing pressure
loss or breakage of a pipe to one wheel occurs.
2. The brake shoes are liable to get ruined if the brake fluid leaks out.
114. What is a leading shoe?

A leading shoe is the tip dragged along the drum even when there is no brake
force. Due to this reason, leading shoe fades more than trailing shoe.
115. What are the merits of air brakes?

I. It is more effective and heavy effort at brakes.
2. It employs only air as the working medium which is easily available.
3. It is easy to store air at high pressure.

It• ., Automobile Engineering

4. It provides heavy braking effect and used in heavy vehicles and trucks.
116. What is the function of brake valve?
Function of the brake valve is to control the intensity of the braking system in
air brakes. It is operated by either a foot treadle or push rods linkage.
117. Define power brake.
A brake on an automobile which magnifies a small force applied to the brake
pedal into a proportionately larger force applied to slow or stop the vehicle is called
power brake.
118. Mention some of the power-assisted braking system.
ww 1. Vacuum assisted hydraulic brakes
w.E
2. Compressed air brakes or pneumatic brake.
119. What are the troubles shooting in brake system?
a syE
1. Loss of efficiency in braking:
(a) Brake lining does not work properly if oil is entered into brake drum.
ngi
(b) Due to defective master cylinder, it needs overhauling.
nee
(c) If air enters into braking system, the braking does not work properly.
(d) Brake lining is fade due to regular use or worn out friction lining.
2. Brakes overheating: r ing

.ne
Overheating of brakes occur while we drive a vehicle ascending down the hill
or due to faulty binding material used for brakes binding.
120. What is the need of anti/ock braking system? t

{Anna Un;v. May'09}
The problem of skidding reveals the overwhelming weakness of all motor
vehicle braking systems. They depend strongly on the coefficient of static friction
between tyre and road. If the tyre momentarily loses its adhesion to the road while
brakes are applied, the friction of brakes will be against drums or rotors which lock
the wheel solidly and the tyre begins skidding across the road.
In addition, when the front wheels are in this condition, they cannot be used to
steer the vehicle irrespective of the angle of front wheels and the vehicle continues
to skid whatever be the direction of its momentum until either the driver releases
brakes or the vehicle collides with solid. Antilock Braking Systems (ABS) is a form

of electronic braking which helps a driver to control the vehicle under heavy braking
by preventing wheels from locking up.
121. List down the components of ABS system.

1. Wheel speed sensors (pickup and exciter)
2. Electronic Control Unit (ECU)
3. Hydraulic modulator valves
4. Pump motor and accumulator.
122. State the function electronic conlTol unit in ABS.
ww ABS electronic control unit is a microprocessor that functions such as an

engine control computer. ECU processes all ABS information and signal functions.
w.E
It receives and interprets voltage pulses generated by the sensor pickup as the
exciter teeth pass by and it uses this information.
asy
123. What is thefunction of hydraulic modulator valve?
En
ABS modulator valves regulate the fluid pressure to the brakes during ABS
action. When not receiving commands from ECU, the modulator valve allows fluid
gin
to flow freely and it has no effect on the brake pressure.
ee
124. What are the types of anti-lock brakes?
1. Four-channel, four-sensor ABS
rin
2. Three-channel, three-sensor ABS
3. One-channel, one-sensor ABS.
g. net
125. State the advantage..~of ABS.
Although ABS will not decrease a vehicle's stopping distance compared to an
identical vehicle without ABS, the shortest distance in which a vehicle can be
brought to rest is achieved. It is particularly effective in doing this on surfaces which
are wet or icy upon which a vehicle is much more likely to skid.
The main benefit of ABS is the control that a driver has over the vehicle's
steering. In an emergency, the driver of a vehicle equipped with ABS will have a
better chance of steering around the obstacle is due to the reduced risk of skidding.'
126. What is meant by traction control? {Anna Univ. May'15j

The control system which maintains the traction and stability of the vehicle
regardless of the road surface condition is known as traction control.

.E'
1. What are the requirements and functions of steering system?
2. Explain the steering principle, its need, functions in detail with proper sketches and
mention the parts of steering system, [Anna Univ. May' 14]
Refer chapters 4.1, 4.1.1 & 4.1.2 in pages 4.1, 4.2 & 4.3 respectively.
3. Draw the layout of steering system and explain in detail.
ww
4. List down the various components of a steering system. [An~a Univ. Nov '05]
5.
w.E
Derive that cot tP = constant + cos 8.

asy
6. En
Explain Davis steering gear mechanism.
gin
7.
ee
What is meant by steering geometry and explain anyone type of steering gear box.
rin
[Anna Univ. May '08 & Dec '08]
page 4.21 for type of steering gear box.

g.
Refer chapter 4.1.8 in page 4.12 for steering geometry and chapter 4.1.11 in
net
8. What are the different types of steering gears used in an automobile?
9. Explain the working of cam and lever type steering gear with a neat sketch.
Refer page 4.23.
10. Sketch a recirculating ball type steering gear and explain its working principle.
[Anna Univ. Nov '07 & May' 12]
Refer page 4.22.
11. Explain the rack and pinion steering system of an automobile. [Anna Univ. Apr '05]
Refer page 4.23.

Steering, Srakes and Suspension Systems t'tlOj

12. Describe the phenomena of under steering and over steering.
13. Sketch and explain a typical power steering gear box and compare it with ordinary
steering system. [Anna Univ. May '09 & May' 11]
14. Write short note on
(i) Steering gear mechanisms
ww (ii) Steering geometry
w.E Refer chapter 4.1.8 in page 4.13.

(iii) Power steering.
asy
E ngi
15. Mention the various trouble shooting for steering system.
16. Write short notes on wheel alignment. nee

Refer chapter 4.1.9 in page 4.19. rin
17. Explain the four parameters of wheel alignment with neat sketches. g.n
Refer chapter 4.1.19in page 4.19.
[Anna
eUniv. Dec'14J
t
18. Illustrate the types of front axle. [Anna Univ. May '08 & Dec '08]
19. What are the objectives of suspension system?
20. Explain the elements, types and stages ofa suspension system. [Anna Univ. Dec'J3]
21. Give short note on leaf spring suspension system. [Anna Univ. May '08]

'.-
'-4 Automobile Engineering

22. Explain the various suspension systems available and discuss anyone type.
[Anna Univ. Dec '08]
23. Describe the construction of helper springs. Compare its advantages over coil springs.
24. With an aid of neat sketch, explain the working principle of pneumatic suspension
system. [Anna Univ. May '15]
ww
25. With a neat diagram explain the construction and operation of a shock absorber.
~Anna Univ. Apr '06]
w.E
26. Explain the operation of a telescopic type shock absorber with a sketch.
asy [Anna Univ. Nov '05 & May '09]
En
Refer page 4.69.
gin
27. Explain independent suspension system with neat sketches.

[Anna Univ. May'14]
ee rin
28. List out the advantages offront independent suspension system.
Refer page 4.77.

g.
[Anna Univ. Apr '05 & Nov '07]
29. What is an interconnected suspension system? Discuss the mam constructionalnet

features of any such system and also its working. [Anna Univ. Dec' 12]
Refer charter 4.4.20 in page 4.82.

30. What is antiroll bar? Explain.
31. Obtain the trouble shooting for springs and suspension system.
Refer chapter 4.24.22in page 4.86.
32. Write a short note on stopping distance, time and braking efficiency.

Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems 'Wi

33. Explain about the theory of braking system.
34. Classify brakes.
35. Explain the working of disc brake system. [Anna Univ. Apr '05]
36. What are the significances of brake fluid?
ww
37. With the aid of a diagram explain the function of the main parts of the master
cylinder.
w.E
[Anna Univ. May '12]
asy
38. Explain the process bleeding of hydraulic brakes.
En
gin
39. Describe the construction and working of mechanical brakes with its sketch.
ee
rin
40. Explain the operation of hydraulic braking system with neat sketch.
Refer chapter 4.5.9 in page 4.104. g.

[Anna Univ. Nov'05, Apr '06 & May '08]
net
41. With neat sketch explain the working principle of pneumatic braking system.
[Anna Univ. May' 11]
42. Compare and contrast pneumatic and hydraulic braking systems.

43. Explain the construction and working of vacuum servo braking system.
[Anna Univ. Nov'07]
44. Discuss the need of ABS in automobiles.

lam
45. Explain briefly the each component of ABS.
46. What is the working principle of antilock braking system? Explain with neat sketch.
[Anna Univ. Dec '08, Dec' 12 & May' 15]
Refer chapters 4.5.20.3 in pages 4.134.
47. Discuss the various types of ABS with its features.
Refer chapters 4.5.20.4 in pages 4.136.
48. Explain how wheel skidding is caused and describe the principles of various
ww techniques employed to prevent skidding. [Anna Univ. Dec' 12]
w.E
Refer page 4.129 for causes of wheel skidding.
Refer chapters 4.5.20 & 4.5.22 in pages 4.129 & 4.139 for various techniques
asy
employed to prevent skidding which includes ABS & Traction control systems.
En
49. Mention various trouble shooting for brakes.
gin
____________________
----------------_.
e--------------------
eri END of Unit 4 --------------------------
ng.
net

UNIT - 5 I
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
Use of Natural Gas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas, Bio-
diesel, Bio-ethanol, Gasohol and Hydrogen in
Automobiles - Engine modifications required - ing
Performance, Combustion and .ne
Emission
Characteristics of SI and CI engines with these
alternate fuels - Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, Fuel
t
Cell.

I Alternative Energy Sources l:1li I
ww
w.E ALTERNATIVE' ENERGY SOURCES
asy
5.1. INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES
En
Alternative fuels are important because of their potential ability to improve both
gin
environment and reduce India dependence on imported petroleum. The fuels identified include
eer
two alcohols: ethanol and methanol. Three fuels are gases at normal temperature and
pressures, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas and hydrogen. In addition, electricity is
also used as one of alternating fuels.
ing
.ne
The currently used fuels are hydrocarbons such as petrol, diesel, coal etc. These fuels are
t
for another 75 years. In order to escape from the forth-coming danger, there is a need of
searching alternate fuels to meet our minimum energy needs. Fuels such as hydrogen, fuel
cells, natural gas hydrates, gasohol and bio-diesel can be utilized in future for another 800
years.
Reasons for wing Alternate Fuels in Ie Engines:
.
During 21sl century, crude oil and petroleum products will become scarce and costly to
find and produce. At the same time, there will likely be an increase in number of automobiles
and other Ie engines. Although fuel economy of engines is greatly improved from the past
and it will probably continue to be improved, numbers alone dictate that there will be a great
demand for fuel in coming decades. Gasoline will become scarce and costly. This is the main
reason for looking for alternate fuel technology.

I.. Automobile Engineering 1
Another reason of motivating the development of alternate fuels for IC engine is the
concern over emission problems of gasoline engines. Alternate fuels can be combineJ with
other air-polluting systems. The large number of automobiles is a major contributor to the air
pollution in the world.
A third reason for alternate fuel development in India and the other industrialized
countries is the fact that a large percentage of crude oil must be imported from other countries
which control the large number of oil fields. It creates the nation dependency on the foreign
currency and makes the foreign trade deficit.
5"2. ALTERNATIVE FUELS

ww Before proceeding with a detailed description of the composition and physical
w.E
characteristics of fuels, a brief overview of each fuel is covered below for better
understanding about alternate fuels.
asy
In many parts of the world, natural gas is found dissolved in aquifers under normal
En
hydrostatic pressure which is primarily in the form of methane (CH4). The amount of gas
dissolved increases substantially with depth. At depth up to 4000 m, 0.5 to 1.5 cubic meter of
gin
gas is dissolved per meter of water in aquifers. The level increases from 7 to 20 at the depth of
eer
7000 to 8000 m. It is expected to occur nearly in all-sedimentary basins. When used as a
transportation fuel, natural gas must be at least 88% of methane with the balance being higher
ing
weight hydrocarbons. Natural gas has lower energy density than conventional fuels but it
.ne
achieves a comparable range in most vehicles with large fuel storage devices. However, these
devices add weight and reduce cargo or passenger capacity. Some transportation and energy
t
experts consider natural gas to be a renewable resource because of its abundant availability;
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is the dominant form of the fuel used. Liquefied Natural Gas
(LNG) is less common.
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) consists mainly of propane, propylene, butane and
butylene in various mixtures. It is produced as a by-product of natural gas processing and
petroleum refining. Propane or LPG is used in all major end-use sectors as a heating fuel,
engine fuel, cooking fuel and chemical feedstock. The components of LPG are gases at
normal temperature and pressure. With moderate pressure (100 to 300 psi), they condense to
liquids and make them easy to store and transport. LPG has many of the storage and
transportation advantages of liquids along with fuel advantages of gases.
Biodiesel is a clean burning alternative fuel produced from domestic, renewable

resources such as soybean oil or recycled grease. It can be used in compression-ignition

I Alternative Energy Sources 011 I

(diesel) engines with few or no modifications. Biodiesel is simple to use, biodegradable,
nontoxic and essentially free of sulphur and aromatics. Although biodiesel contains no
petroleum, it can be blended in any proportion with petroleum diesel. B20 (20% biodiesell80
% petroleum diesel) is the most common blend and it has significant environmental benefits
with a minimum increase in cost of fleet operations and other consumers.
Ethanol is a renewable, domestically produced resource derived primarily from corn
(although ethanol can be produced from any resource containing starch, sugar or cellulosic
material). The fuel can be blended with gasoline, diesel or used as pure fuel. Ethanol has a low
energy density than gasoline or diesel but it can achieve a comparable range with large size of
fuel tank. The common form of fuel is E85 in which an 85% blend with 15% gasoline (petrol)
ww
is also called Gasohol. In E95, 95% ethanol and 5% diesel blend can be used as a diesel
replacement. Ethanol is also used as an additive to gasoline (approximately 10%) and it is
w.E
being tested as an additive to diesel.
asy
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe but it is rarely found in its
uncombined form on earth. When combusted (oxidized), it creates only water vapour and heat
En
as by-products. The exhaust is free from carbon dioxide. While no transportation distribution
gin
system currently exists for hydrogen transportation use, the ability to create the fuel from a
variety of resources including natural gas and its clean-burning properties makes it to a
eer
desirable alternative fuel and worthy of consideration.
ing
Hydrogen has a very low density in its liquefied form. Its density is one tenth of gasoline.
It possesses no ignition problem owing to wide 'range of A:F ratio possible.
.ne
Though some automakers are testing hydrogen-burning cars, they are not currently
t
feasible or economical. The greatest potential use for hydrogen as a transportation fuel is in
fuel cells. A vehicle produces power from electricity when hydrogen and oxygen are
combined. A fuel cell is two to three times more efficient than an internal combustion engine.
As Juie Verne predicted "Water would be one day as a fuel furnishing in-exhaustible
sourer>of energy". It is coming true in the form of Hydrogen. Hydrogen is user friendly and
eco-friendly fuel.
These fuels can serve us in future. Capability of utilizing these fuels can have a life of
another 800 years.

1l1li Automobile Engineering I

5.3. PROPERTIES OF ALTERNATE FUELS
Although a large number of fuel properties influence engine performance, subsets of

these properties are reviewed to highlight differences among the petroleum-based and
alternative fuels in this section.
1. Energy density:
Conventional gasoline (petrol), oxygenated and reformulated gasoline and diesel which
are liquids have higher energy densities. Ethanol and methanol also are liquids at atmospheric
pressure and ambient temperature. So, they are stored and handled similar to gasoline though
they have less energy density. Methanol has about half the energy .content of gasoline on a
ww
volume basis while ethanol has about two-thirds of energy density.
LPG while a gas at normal temperature and pressure is stored in a liquid form under the
w.E
pressure in the range from 100psi to 300 psi. While butane has higher energydensityper m3
than propane, both propane and butane nave lower energy content per m3 than diesel or petrol.
asy
Natural gas is stored in the vehicle fuel tanks under pressure as a compressed gas. Even
En
under fairly high pressure, both mass density and energy density of a gas are considerably less
gin
than liquid. The energy density disadvantage of CNG is partially resolved with LNG because
LNG is simply natural gas which has been liquefied. LNG tanks might be pressurized around
ee
30 psi and hold the liquid at a temperature of -260° F. Sometimes, two to four times more
LNG than CNG which can be stored onboard.
rin
fourth the energy per unit volume of natural gas at the same pressure.
g.
Hydrogen is less dense than natural gas. For example, hydrogen contains only about one-
net
Electricity for an electric vehicle is commonly stored in a battery. Today's electric
vehicles use lead acid batteries which contain the specific energy of 30.6 watt-hours per
kilogram. It is about 1I400th of the energy density of gasoline. As a result, a large number of
storage batteries are needed to achieve an acceptable performance. The number of batteries
increases the vehicle weight and takes additional space.
2. Volatility:
Volatility indicates a fuel's ability to vapourize under different temperature and pressure.
It is the property that most affects startup the engine performance and it is of particular
interest for SI engines while high volatility is desirable in cold weather. It can cause loss of
power or vapour lock in warmer weather. High volatility can also' lead to increased
evaporative emissions. Thus, volatility is controlled for both engine performance and
emissions.

I Alternative Energy Sources a::a:a

Volatility is not an issue with hydrogen, CNG or LPG. As gases, they do not need to
vapourize before burning, making cold-start enrichment or further blending for cold-start
reasons unnecessary.
The alcohols are less volatile than gasoline when used. in clean form or 85% alcohol
blends. The vapour pressure for ethanol is 16 kPa and 32 kPa for methanol. Also, it varies for
gasoline between 55 kPa and 103 kPa. Ethanol and methanol are insufficiently volatile for
cold-engine starts in spark ignition engines even at moderate temperature. Because of low
volatility, the most important performance issues for alcohol fuels are cold start problem and
misfiring during warm-up.
ww
3. Octane number:
Octane number is a measure a fuel's tendency to knock in a SI engine. Knocking occurs
w.E
when the gasoline-air vapour mixture prematurely self-ignites as the mixture is compressed
during the upward movement of the piston. The self-ignition occurs before the cylinder
asy
reaches the top of its stroke thereby causing the cylinder to push against the crank shaft. It
creates a knock which not only works against the motive power of the engine but also puts a
En
strain on mechanical parts. Generally, the higher is the octane number, the higher will be the
gin
compression ratio which can be tolerated without knocking. Engines with higher compression
ratio have more power and higher efficiencies.
eer
The octane number does not cover the full range of factors influencing knock in engines,
ing
particularly for gaseous fuels such as CNG an,dhydrogen. While all of alternative fuels have
.ne
better octane ratings than gasoline, natural gas and hydrogen exhibit the strongest antiknock
characteristics. More quantities of other constituents in natural gas -such as propane increase
t
the tendency of this fuel to knock while the inert elements such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen
decrease the tendency.
Natural gas can be used in engines with compression ratio as high as 15:1. Hydrogen has
a road octane number greater than natural gas. However, it increases the compression ratio in
hydrogen-fueled engines which can be limited because of a tendency to ignite prematurely
prior to spark ignition.
While not as good as natural gas or hydrogen, LPG has excellent antiknock
characteristics. It has a road octane number of 104 allowing dedicated propane vehicles to
take the advantage of engines with slightly higher compression ratio than gasoline.
Both clean ethanol and methanol have road octane number of 100 which is closer to
LPG's octane number. Compression ratio for alcohol fuels might be raised to 13:1.

I .. Automobile Engineering I
4. Cetane number:
The combustion and ignition characteristics of CI engine fuels are expressed in th_eform
of cetane number. Fuels with high cetane numbers have low auto-ignition temperature and
short ignition delay times. Since a high octane number means a low cetane number, none of
alternative fuels have cetane values high enough to be used alone in unmodified CI engines,
However, engine designers are developing modified CI engines for heavy-duty use which
include an ignition device and it changes to accommodate the lack of cetane value in these
fuels.
5. Heat of vapourization:
ww
Heat of vapourization affects both engine power and efficiency. It is the amount of heat
absorbed by fuel as it evaporates from a liquid state which occurs when the fuel is mixed with
w.E
air prior to combustion. High heat of vaporization leads to improved cooling ability. The
higher cooling during the intake stroke of a SI engine results a denser air/fuel mixture. A
asy
denser mixture has two effects. They are (l) allowing for greater power and (2) permitting a
greater compression ratio which improves both power and efficiency. However, although a
En
high heat of vapourization improves power and efficiency, it also adds to cold start problems
gin
when there is less heat in the air or in the engine to vapourize the fuel prior to spark ignition.
eer
The alcohol fuels have higher heat of vapourization than gasoline or diesel. For
methanol, a typical power increase about 10 % from increased air/fuel mixture density has
ing
been observed in unmodified automotive engines using methanol instead of gasoline.
6. Flame speed:
.ne
t
The speed at which a flame front propagates through a fuel/air mixture can affect engine
performance and emissions. High flame speed allows the complete combustion and potentially
lean fuel mixtures. While liquid fuels have similar flame speed. methanol is thought to have a
higher flame speed than gasoline. However, natural gas has a slow flame speed than other
fuels which impairs the spark-engine efficiency unless the spark timing is advanced to
compensate. Hydrogen has the highest flame speed of alternative fuels which reduces burning
time and heat losses from the cylinder. It improves the thermal efficiency over fuels with
lower flame speed.
7. Flame temperature and luminosity:

The alcohol fuels distinguish themselves in this area. For alcohol fuels, the flame
temperature is lower than gasoline and luminosity is S0 low that less thermal energy is lost
through conduction or radiation. Low flame temperature also helps to reduce the formation of

Alternative Energy Sources

nitrogen oxide. However, low luminosity is a safety issue because the flame is essentially
invisible. Hydrogen also is virtually invisible when burning.
8. Auto-ignition temperature:
Auto-ignition temperature is a temperature at which the fuel will self-ignite. Self-ignition
is a concern in the environment where the fuel might escape and come into contact with hot
engine parts. As a safety feature, high auto-ignition temperatures are desirable. Hydrogen has
the highest auto-ignition temperature about 1,065°F followed by natural gas, propane,
methanol and ethanol. Gasoline and diesel have the lowest auto-ignition temperatures at
495°F and 600°F respectively. Based on this measure, all alternative fuels have an advantage
over gasoline. While both natural gas and hydrogen have high auto-ignition temperature, they
ww
require different amount of energy to ignite mixtures of fuel and air. Since the natural gas
fuel/air mixtures are difficult to ignite, natural-gas-fueled engines must use high-energy spark
w.E
plugs. Hydrogen fuel/air mixtures need less energy to ignite. For stoichiometric fuel/air ratio,
hydrogen requires one-tenth of the energy to ignite than hydrocarbon fuels.
9. Flashpoint: asy
En
The flashpoint is the lowest temperature at which combustible mixtures of fuel vapour
gin
and air form above the fuel. In the presence of a spark, such mixtures will ignite. A high
flashpoint is desirable from a safety standpoint but none of alternative fuels has an advantage
eer
in this area. All fuels but diesel has flashpoint at ambient or lower than the ambient
ing
temperature. However, the alcohol fuels have higher flashpoint than gasoline.
10. Flammability:
.ne
Flammability limits the range of fuel/air mixtures that ignite. From a safety perspective, a
t
wide range is less desirable than a narrow range. Among hydrocarbon fuels, meth~nol has the
widest flammability limits (7.3% to 36%) followed by ethanol. In partially filled or empty
storage tanks, alcohol fuels are to produce more combustible mixture above fuel than other
alternative hydrocarbon fuels.
Gasoline tank vapors are too rich in fuel to ignite and the addition of gasoline to the
alcohol fuels reduces the flammability limits ofM-85 and E-85 compared to M-IOOand E-95,
respectively. Relative to gasoline, the safety concerns associated with the wide flammability
limits of alcohols are offset by safety advantages of alcohol fuels relatively high lower-
flammability limit, higher flashpoint temperature, higher auto-ignition temperature and lower
vapor pressure than gasoline. For example, the high lower-flammability limit of methanol
keeps it from igniting in air at concentration below about 6% while gasoline will ignite at
concentration as low as 1.4%. Hydrogen has the widest flammability limit of all alternative

fuels ranging from 4.1% to 74%. When coupled with small amount of energy neede~ to ignite
fuel-air mixtures, the wide flammability limit present is a safety concern for hydrogen relative
to other fuels.
5.4. USE OF NATURAL GAS IN AUTOMOBILES
Natural gas is a fossil fuel such as petroleum and coal. Natural gas is called fossil fuel
because most scientists believe that it was formed from remains of ancient sea plants and
animals. When the plants and tiny sea animals died, they sank at the bottom of oceans where
they were buried by sediment and sand is turned into sedimentary rock. The layers of plants
and animal matter and sedimentary rock continued to build until the pressure and heat from
ww
the earth turned remains into petroleum and natural gas.
w.E
Natural gas is trapped in more underground rocks such as sponge traps water in pockets.
Natural gas is really a mixture of gases. The main ingredient is methane (CH4). People use
asy
natural gas mostly for heating. Natural gas should not be confused with gasoline which is
made from petroleum.
En
Natural gas represents more than one fifth of total energy consumption in the world. It
gin
has been the fastest growing fossil fuel since 1970's. Due to economical and ecological
advantages that it presents as well as its safety qualities (e.g. reduced flammable range),
eer
natural gas is an increasingly attractive source of energy in many countries. At present, natural
ing
gas is the second energy source after oil. According to Energy Information Administration,
natural gas is accounted for 23% of world energy production in 1999. It has excellent
perspectives for future demand.
.ne
t
Natural gas presents a competitive advantage over other energy sources. It is seen as
economically more efficient because only 10% of the natural gas produced is wasted before it
gets to final consumption. In addition, technological advances are constantly improving their
efficiencies in extraction, transportation and storage techniques as well as in equipment which
uses natural gas.
Although resources of natural gas are finite and natural gas is a non-renewable source of
energy, these resources are plentiful all over the world. Natural gas reserves are continuously
increasing as new exploration and extraction techniques which allow wider and deeper
drilling.
Natural gas is considered as an environment friendly clean fuel, offering important

environmental benefits when compared to other fossil fuels. The superior environmental


qualities over coal or oil are that emissions of sulphur dioxide are negligible or the level of
nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide emissions are less. It helps to reduce the problems of acid
rain, ozone layer or greenhouse gases. Natural gas is used for heating, cooling and several
other industry uses while it is increasingly becoming the favoured fuel for power generation.
Many automakers around the world are developing vehicles to run on natural gas. Cars,
vans, buses and small trucks generally use natural gas which has been compressed called
compressed natural gas or eNG and stored at high-pressure cylinders.
5.4.1. History of Natural Gas
ww
The ancient people of Greece, Persia and India discovered natural gas many centuries
ago. The people were mystified by burning springs created when natural gas seeped from
w.E
cracks in the ground and it was ignited by lightening. They sometimes built temples around
these eternal flames and worshipped the fire.
asy
The discovery of natural gas dates from ancient times in Middle East. Thousands of years
En
ago, natural gas seeps ignited when lightning and created "burning springs". In Persia, Greece
or India, people built temples around these "eternal flames" for their religious practice.
gin
However, they did not recognize the energy value of natural gas. It was done in China around
eer
.900 BC. About 2,500 years ago, the Chinese recognized that natural gas could be put to work.
The Chinese drilled the first known natural gas well in 211 BC. The Chinese piped the gas
ing
from shallow wells and burnt it under large pans to evaporate sea water to make salt.
.ne
In Europe, natural gas was unknown until it was discovered in Great Britain in 1659
although it was not commercialised until about 1790. In 1821 in United States, residents
observed gas bubbles rising to the SUi
t
face from a creek. William Hart, considered as
America's "father of natural gas", dug the first natural gas well in North America.
Throughout 19th century, natural gas was used almost exclusively as a source of light and
its use remained localized because of lack of transport structures. Also making the transport
facility was difficult to transport large quantities of natural gas through long distances. There
was an important change in 1890 with the invention of leak proof pipeline coupling. However,
existing techniques did not allow for gas going further than 160 km and it was mostly flared of
left in the earth. Transportation of natural gas to long distance became practical in 1920s as a
result of technological advances in pipelines. It was only after World War II that the use of
natural gas grew rapidly because of the development of pipeline network and storage system.

IiIliII Automobile Engineerin!(]

In early days of oil exploration, natural gas was often an unwelcome by-product as
natural gas reservoirs were tapped in drilling process and workers were forced to stop drilling
to let the gas vent freely into air. Now, particularly after the oil shortages of seventies, natural
gas has become an important source of energy in the world.
The gas industry has been highly regulated for many years mainly as it was regarded as"
natural monopoly. In last 30 years, there has been a move away from price regulation and
towards liberalization of natural gas markets. These movements have resulted a greater
competition in the market and a dynamic and innovative natural gas industry. In addition,
natural gas can be better explored, extracted and transported to consumers. Innovations also
help to improve the natural gas applications and create new ones. Natural gas is increasingly
ww
used for power generation.
w.E
5.4.2. Properties I Characteristics of Natural Gas
asy
Natural gas is colourless, odourless, tasteless, shapeless and lighter than air. It is gaseous
at any temperature over -161° C. When it is at its natural state, it is not possible to see or
En
smell natural gas. For safety reasons, Mercaptan (i.e. a chemical odorant that smells a little
gin
such as rotten eggs) is added to natural gas so that it can be smelled ifthere is a gas leak.
Natural gas is a mixture of light hydrocarbons including methane, ethane, propane,

eer
butanes and pentanes. Other compounds found in natural gas including CO2, helium,
ing
hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen. However, the composition of natural gas is never constant
and the primary component of natural gas is methane:(typically, at least 90%) which has a
.ne
simple hydrocarbon structure composed of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms (CH4).
t
Methane is highly flammable and it easily and completely burns while it emits little air
pollution. Natural gas is neither c?rrosive nor toxic. Its ignition temperature is high and it has
a narrow flammability rar:ge, making it an inherently safe fossil fuel compared to other fueJ
sources. In addition, because of its specific gravity of 0.60 which is lower than air (1.00),
natural gas rises if escaping. Thus, it dissipates from the site of any leak.
When natural gas is cooled to a temperature of approximately -260°F at atmospheric

pressure, it condenses to a liquid called Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG). One volume of this
liquid takes up about 1/600th of the volume of natural gas. LNG weighs less than one-half of
water which is actually about 45%. LNG is odourless, colourless, non-corrosive and non-
toxic. While vapourizing, it burns only in concentration of 5% to 15% when mixed with air.
Neither LNG nor its vapour can explode in an unconfined environment. Since LNG takes less
volume and weight, natural gas is liquefied for ease of storing and transporting.

I Alternative Energy Sources dill I

Natural gas is considered as a clean fuel because of its environment friendly properties. A
commercialised natural gas is practically sulphur free and thus, it produces virtually no
sulphur dioxide (S02)' Natural gas emits lower level of nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions than
oil or coal and emissions of carbon dioxide (C02) are less than other fossil fuels.
5.4.3. Various Forms of Natural Gas
1. Methane:
Natural gas is primarily methane (CH4). It makes natural gas as a friendly fuel for the
environment. Methane as a hydrocarbon is considered non-reactive. It means, hydrocarbon
emissions of natural gas do not react with sunlight to create smog. When natural gas is used as
ww
an engine fuel, the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has established a standard
w.E
minimum methane content of95%.
Advantages of methane asfuels in automobiles:

(i)
asy
It has very low emissions of ozone-forming hydrocarbons, toxics and carbon
(ii)
monoxide.
En
It can be made from a variety of feed stocks including renewable.
gin
(iii) It is excellent fuel especially for fleet vehicles.
Disadvantages of methane asfuels in automobiles:

eer
(i) Vehicle cost is higher.
ing
(ii) Vehicle range is lower.
(iii) It has less convenient refueling. .ne
2. Ethanol:
Ethanol called "grain alcohol" is the primary automotive fuel in Brazil and
t
ethanol/gasoline blend is known as "gasohol" which has been used in the United States for
many years. Pure ethanol fuel offers the excellent performance and low hydrocarbon and toxic
emissions. It can be produced domestically from corn or other crops as well as from cellulose
materials such as wood or paper wastes which potentially minimizes the accumulation of
greenhouse gases since these "renewable" feedstock draw carbon dioxide in atmosphere as
they grow. With current technology and price structures, ethanol is more expensive than
gasoline. New technologies offer the hope of significantly reduced cost.
Advantages of ethanol asfuels in automobiles:

(i) It is excellent automotive fuel.

Iata Automobile Engineering I

(ii) It has very low emissions of ozone-forming hydrocarbons and toxics.
(iii) It can be made from renewable sources.
(iv) It can be domestically produced.
Disadvantages of ethanol asfuels in automobiles:

(i) Fuel cost is high.
(ii) Vehicle range is somewhat lower.
3. Methanol:
Methanol called "wood alcohol" is a high-performance liquid fuel which emits low level
toxic and ozone-forming compounds. It can be produced at price comparable to gasoline from
ww
natural gas and it can also be produced from coal and wood. All major auto manufacturers
w.E
have produced cars which run on "M85" which has a blend of 85% methanol and 15%
gasoline. Cars that bum pure methanol (MI00) offer much greater air quality and efficiency.
asy
Many auto manufacturers have developed the advanced MI00 prototypes. Methanol has been
the fuel of choice for racecars because of its superior performance and fire safety
characteristics.
En
Advantages of methanol asfuels in automobiles:
gin
(i) It is excellent automotive fuel.
eer
(iii It has very low emissions of ozone-forming hydrocarbons and toxics.
ing
(iii) It can be made from a variety of feedstock including renewable.
Disadvantage of methanol asfuels in automobiles:

.ne
(i) Vehicle range is less.
4. Propane:
t
Propane or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a by-product of petroleum refining and
natural gas production. It bums completely than gasoline but it is limited in supply. Propane-
fueled vehicles are already common in many parts of the world.
Advantages of propane asfuels in automobiles:

(i) It is cheaper than gasoline today.
(ii) It is widely available clean fuel today.
(iii) Emissions are less in ozone forming hydrocarbons and toxics.
(iv) It is excellent fuel especially for fleet vehicles.

I Alternative Energy S('urces

Disadvantages of propane asfuels in automobiles: ".
(i) Cost will rise with demand.
(ii) It has limited supply.
(iii) No energy security or trade balance benefits occur.
5. Reformulated and oxygenated gasoline:
The petroleum industry is beginning to market gasoline formulations which emit less
hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and toxics than conventional gasoline. These
new gasoline's can be introduced without a major modification to existing vehicles or the fuel
distribution system. The clean air act requires some gasoline modifications to reduce carbon
ww
monoxide emissions beginning in 1992 and use of reformulated gasoline in certain polluted
cities beginning in 1995.
w.E
Advantages of reformulated gasoline asfuels in automobiles:
(i)
asy
It can be used in all cars without changing vehicles or fuel distribution system.
(ii) It produces lower emissions of ozone forming hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides.
En
Disadvantages of reformulated gasoline asfuels in automobiles:
(i) Fuel cost is high. gin
eer
(ii) Few energy security or trade balance benefits and toxics occur.
5.4.4. Natural Gas Production ing

.ne
Natural gas can be hard to find since it is trapped in porous rocks deep underground.
t
Scientists use many methods to find natural gas deposits. They may look at surface rocks to
find clues about underground formations. They may set off small explosions or drop heavy
weights on the surface to record the sound waves as they bounce back from rock layers
underground. Natural gas can be found in pockets by itself or petroleum deposits. Natural gas
wells average 1500 m deep. After natural gas comes out from the ground, it is sent to a plant
where it is cleaned to remove impurities and separated into its various parts.
Gas streams produced from reservoirs contain natural gas and other materials. It should
be processed to separate the gas' from petroleum liquid and to remove contaminants. First, the
gas is separated from free liquid such as crude oil, hydrocarbon condensate, water and
entrained solids. The separated gas is further processed to meet the specified requirements.
...
The combination of processes in a typical gas plant is shown in Figure' 5.1. A dehydration
plant controls water content. A gas processing plant removes certain hydrocarbon components

IWIi Automobile Engineering I

to hydrocarbon dew-point specifications and a gas sweetening plant removes hydrogen sulfide
and other sulphur compounds (when present).
Sui hur
Residue gas
Production
well gas Gas I--_~I Dehydration & NGL
Separation
Sweetening liquid recovery
ww Condensate
Stebilization I-----..:....:..:..:..:...:..:..:..::..:.:..:...::.__-----+l
w.E Figure 5.1 Production of natural gas
asy
5.4.5. Natural Gas Vehicles (NGVs)
En
Light-duty vehicles designed to run on natural gas include cars, minivans and vans
gin
mainly for fleets. Natural gas engines are also being designed and used for buses and other
eer
heavy-duty vehicles. A natural gas vehicle contains a high-strength fuel tank, fuel lock
filter/shutoff valve, regulator, air-fuel mixer and a .microprocessor for air/fuel ratio control. A
ing
dual-fueled system retains the gasoline fuel system components and a mechanism is installed
to change between systems. The extra weight of carrying two fuel systems detracts from the
efficiency of dual-hard fueled systems. .ne
(i) Fuel storage:
A eNG vehicle stores gaseous fuel at a pressure of 165 bar to 250 bar. Even at a
t
pressure of 250 bar, a unit volume of eNG has less than one-fourth of the energy content of
gasoline which means a much greater storage requirement for the vehicle.
A cylinder for the storage of pressurized gas certified by any recognized authority is
required on all eNG vehicles. A typical cylinder is certified to withstand 700 bar and it is
about 10 inches in diameter and 4 feet long. While eNG tanks are filled to the certification
pressure of the refueling system (165 bar; 200 bar; or 250 bar), the equilibrium pressure tends
to be IOta 20% lesser. Thus, it reduces the driving range further. The original gasoline tank
is retained in most converted dual-fueled eNG vehicles.

I Alternative Energy Sources ".

CNG tanks are larger and fuel-plus-tank weight is higher than liquid fuel/tank
alternatives. However, research efforts are directed at developing lighter tanks. Cheaper and
lighter natural gas cylinders for school buses, light and heavy-duty trucks have been
developed. One new cylinder has a cold-drawn aluminum liner which is thinner and lighter
than the steel or extruded aluminum typically used. The end of the liner is covered with a low-
cost fiberglass which protects the cylinder.
Most of the prior discussion on CNG applies to Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG). However,
the energy density and associated vehicle tank tradeoffs are different from CNG. LNG tanks
might be pressurized around 2 bar and hold the liquid at a temperature of -260° F. Between
ww
two and three times, the natural gas can be stored as liquid onboard than compressed state.
(ii) Engine systems:
w.E
Engine modifications allow more efficient use of natural gas which increases the
compression ratio, different spark plug type, placement of hard seat inserts under exhaust
asy
valves and modification of the intake manifold to eliminate "heating" features for gasoline use
En
during warm up. Most conversions today are done on newer vehicles containing fuel-injection
gasoline engines which are constructed with many of modifications.
gi nee
Natural gas has higher octane value than gasoline with generally good performance
characteristics. As a gas, it has few cold-start problems. Its octane value allows for the use of
rin
higher engine compression ratio than gasoline. Higher compression ratio allows high power
g.n
and fuel efficiency. The efficiency and power gains achievable from higher compression ratio
help to offset the power loss relative to gasoline caused by the low energy density of natural
gas.
et
Differences in density of natural gas and air keep these two gases from forming a
homogeneous mixture when first combined. Fluctuations in the air/fuel mixture can result an
engine misfire. Time and turbulence are needed inside the engine to create the uniform
mixture.
The characteristics of natural gas indicate that an engine is designed to improve

efficiency and lower carbon monoxide emissions would be a high-compression and lean-bum
engine. Other characteristics make the optimization challenging. For example, lean-bum
engines can encourage the formation of NOx because excess oxygen is present and high flame
temperature of natural gas increases the peak combustion temperature. Non-methane
hydrocarbon emissions are low relative to gasoline since natural gas is predominantly
methane. However, total hydrocarbon emissions from natural gas engines can be high because

Iljl. Automobile Engineering I

methane is slow to react than other hydrocarbons. Also, the slow flame speed of natural gas in
lean-fuel mixtures may prevent the complete combustion during power stroke.
Several ~?untries have Natural Gas Vehicles (NGVs). The top ten countries in terms of
NGV population are given in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 NGVs in the world*
S.No. Country NG vehicles Refueling stations As on
1 Iran 3,000,000 1,960 December 2012
2 Pakistan 2,900,000 3,330 December 2012
ww 3 Argentina 2,140,000 1,902 October 2012
4
w.E
Brazil 1,739,676 1,701 December 2012
6
China
India asy1,577,000
1,250,000
2,784
724
December 2012
December 2012
7 Italy 746,470En 959 June 2012
8 Ukraine 390,000 gin

324 May 2012
9 Colombia 380,000 eer

690
\
December 2012
10 Thailand 358,000 470

ing
December 2012
*Source: NGV Global. http://www.iangv.org!current-ngv-stats/

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t
World NGV commercialisation activities- have taken place for different reasons in
different countries since their initial introduction is in Italy in the mid ofl930's. Each country'.
has a different set of market conditions, economics, gas availability/supply, technology
development which cause NGV commercialisation to progress at different rates.
In India, narural gas vehicles can be commercially viable only in cities where natural gas
pipelines exist or would be laid in future. Cost of establishing fresh gas grids are quite high
and it may not be feasible to dispense CNG for automotive purposes in most cities in near
future. The review of NGVs programmes in different countries reveals that NGVs have been
commercially successful proposition in countries which have adequate indigenous resources
of natural gas, a well-developed gas grid and a long established usage of gas as domestic /
commercial fuel.

I Alternative Energy Sources

5.4.6. Natural Gas Consumption Pattern In Different Countries ".
Natural gas and its proportionate of use in an economy are indirectly related to the
development of NGVs. Natural gas consumption by sector in above mentioned countries is
shown in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 NG consumption by sector
Country Power! Industrial Commercial!

% Residential! Others %
Argentina 64 36
ww Italy
Pakistan
58.6
76.1
41.3
23.9
w.E USA 55.9 44.1
asy India 97 3
Venezuela
En
40 60
Egypt
China
85.2
89
gi nee
14.8
11
South Korea 52.4 47.6

rin
g.n
5.4.7. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) and Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
et
The interest in natural gas as an alternative fuel stems mainly from its clean burning
qualities, its domestic resource base and its commercial availability to end users. Because of
the gaseous nature of this fuel, it must be stored onboard vehicle either in compressed gaseous
state (CNG) or in liquefied state (LNG). Natural gas is liquefied at reduced temperature and
contained in this state in insulated pressurized tanks. It is easily transported through pipelines
and cost is same or slightly less than gasoline. In Australia, CNG is compressed to around
20MPa for onboard storage.
Compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles emit low level toxics and ozone-forming
hydrocarbons. But CNG fuel must be stored under pressure in heavy tanks and the cost of
.commodating these tanks must be considered. There are significant tradeoffs for CNG
vehicles among emissions, vehicle power, efficiency and range.

Several vehicles are available today such as Honda Civic CGX, Toyota Camry and Ford
Crown Victoria which are operated on compressed natural gas. Some run on natural gas only
and others can run on natural gas and gasoline, called bi-fuel vehicles.
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas in its liquid form. When natural gas is cooled
to -259°F (-161°C), it becomes a clean, colorless and odorless liquid. LNG is generally
refrigerated to -ISO°C for liquefaction and it requires vacuum-insulated cryogenic tanks to
maintain it in liquid form for storage. LNG is neither corrosive nor toxic. Natural gas is
primarily methane with low concentration of other hydrocarbons, water, carbon dioxide.
nitrogen, oxygen and some sulphur compounds. During the process known as liquefaction,
natural gas is cooled below its boiling point and most of these compounds are removed. The
ww
remaining natural gas is primarily methane with only less amount of other hydrocarbons.
w.E
Liquefying natural gas results the purest form of methane when heated back to a gas.
For heavy-duty applications requiring long-range capability and large volumes of on-
asy
board fuel storage, LNG provides all benefits of clean burning natural gas in liquid form.
LNG vehicles are essentially natural gas vehicles which store methane as liquid. LNG
En
vehicles include a heat exchanger installed between fuel tank and engine to warm the liquid
and convert the fuel back to a gaseous state.
5.4.8. Advantages and Disadvantages of LNG

gi nee
Advantages of liquefied natural gas: rin
g.n
LNG has very low particle emissions because of its low carbon to hydrogen ratio.
2
3
et
There are negligible evaporative emissions which require no relevant control.
Due to its low carbon-to-hydrogen ratio, it produces less carbon dioxide per volume
of fuel than diesel.
4 It has low cold-start emissions due to its gaseous state.
5 It has extended flammability limits which allow stable combustion at lean mixtures.
6 It has a lower adiabatic flame temperature than diesel which leads to lower NOx
emissions.
7 It has much higher ignition temperature than diesel, making it more difficult to auto-
ignite and thus, it is safe.
S It contains non-toxic components. The liquefaction process removes impurities.
9 LNG is pure methane which is a non-toxic gas.
10 It is lighter than air and thus, it is safer than spilled diesel.

I Alternative Energy Sources .. I

11 Engines fueled with LNG in heavy-duty vehicles offer more quiet operation than
equivalent diesel engines making them more attractive for the use in urban areas.
12 It has nearly zero sulphur levels and thus, it is negligible sulphate emissions.
13 NG pricing is stable and predictable which removes uncertainty to business caused by
fuel price fluctuations.
16. NG use does not give rise to issue with groundwater contamination such as those
experienced through diesel/petrol spillage or leakage from underwater storage.
Disadvantages of liquefied natural gas:

There is a considerable extra infrastructure involved in gas liquefaction.
2 ww
It requires dedicated catalysts with high loading of active catalytic components to
3 w.E
maximize methane oxidation.
Its driving range is limited because its energy content per volume is relatively low.
4
asy
It requires special refueling stations and handling of a cryogenic liquid and making it
suitable only for fleet operations.
5 En
The energy required to liquefy NG leads to increased greenhouse gas emissions in
6
comparison to eNG.
gi nee
Exhaust emissions of methane are relatively high compared with low sulphur diesel.
7 Refueling is considered to be the 'least-safe' moment of its use.
rin
S
g.n
It can give rise to backfire in the inlet manifold if the ignition system fails in use.
5.5. USE OF LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG) IN AUTOMOBILES
Most people pronounce Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) as "propane" because LPG is
et
mostly made up of propane. Actually, LPG is made of a mixture of propane and other similar
(.
types of hydrocarbon gases. Different batches of LPG have slightly different amount of
various kinde;of hydrocarbon molecules. These hydrocarbons are gases at room temperature
but turn to liquid when they are compressed. LPG is stored in special tanks which keep it
under pressure. Therefore, it stays as liquid. The pressure of these tanks is usually about
14bar.
LPG is the name given to the mixture of petroleum gases released during the extraction
of crude oil and natural gas during refining the crude oil. It consists of a mixture of
hydrocarbons including major components of propane and butane and minor components are
normal-butane, iso-butane, pentane, ethane, propene and butene together with small quantities

Imil Automobile Engineering I

of additives including sulphur to give it an odour for safety reasons. Propane (C3HS)and
butane (C4HIO) are the main components but different mixing ratios are used in different
countries which reflect the local market prices, production facilities and climatic conditions.
LPG is a gas which can be stored in a liquid state under low pressure due to its low vapour
tension.
The percentage of passenger cars running worldwide on LPG is currently I% which

includes some 2.5 millions in Europe. Countries with the most developed LPG markets are
Italy, Poland, Netherlands, Czech Republic and France in Europe, South Korea Japan,
Australia, and USA and involve passenger cars, taxis, LDVs and HDVs. The varying LPG
composition between countries not only dictates the Octane number but it also affects exhaust
ww
emissions, mainly CO. A higher butane number leads to lower NOx levels while a higher
propane number reduces CO levels.
w.E
There are various types of vehicle running on LPG: converted (retrofitted) gasoline
asy
engines for passenger cars and light duty vehicles (LDVs) operating as dual-fuel systems as
well as dedicated LPG engines. Some are converted diesel engines operating in the
En
compression-ignition mode with diesel pilot injection. Most of LPG heavy duty vehicles
gi
(HDVs) engines are converted into diesel engines operating in the spark-ignition mode with
nee
modified cylinder head and combustion chamber. The last two types are intended for medium
and heavy-duty applications and employ dedicated and retrofitted engines.
rin
LPG fueled engines can pollute less than gasoline and diesel engines. LPG usually costs
g.n
less than gasoline for the same amount of energy. In some countries, LPG is used as a vehicle
et
fuel than in California. In Netherlands, over 10% of the motor fuel used is LPG.
5.5.1. Properties I Characteristics of LPG
1. Physical Properties:
The important typical properties and characteristics of LPG currently marketed are as
follows:
Property (Units / Conditions) Value

Relative molar mass 44.1
Carbon content (mass %) 82
Hydrogen content (mass %) 18

I Alternative Energy Sources Ifl.l

Oxygen content (mass %) 0
Specific Gravity of Liquid at IS0C 0.S4 - 0.S7'
Sp. Volume of Gas at lSoC, 760 mm Hg. (lit/g of gas) 0.44
Relative density (@ISoC/ 1 bar) 0.5
Boiling temperature (OC/1 bar) -42
Auto-ignition temperature eC) 480
Octane number (RON) 112
ww Octane number (MON) 99.S
w.E
Methane number
Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio (mass)

3S
IS.7
asy
Flammability limits 0.42 to 2.0
E
Theoretical Maximum Flame Temperature in air (0C)
ngi
Theoretical Max. Flame Temperature in Oxygen (0C)
2000
28S0
" -
Vapour pressure @ 38°C (kPa) nee 1300

.
Freezing temperature (0C)

rin -187
Flash point temperature (0C)

g.n
-104
Minimum Ignition Temperature (0C)
Sp. heat (kJ/kg-K) @ 1 bar.& ISOC liquid phase

890
2.48
et
gas phase 1.67
Lower heating/calorific value (MJ/kg) 46
Gross Calorific Value of LPG (keal/kg) 11,400
Viscosity (MPa-s at IS°C) liquid phase 11.10-5

gas phase 80.10-7
Sulphur concentration (ppm, mass) <SO
Specific CO2 formation (g/MJ) 64.7

1- Automobile Engineering I
The following characteristics are very important.
2. Vapourpressure:
The pressure inside a closed container in which LPG is stored will be equal to the vapour
pressure of the liquid and gaseous LPG in the container and it corresponds to its temperature.
Vapour pressure is a characteristic of a liquid which depends upon its temperature. If the
temperature of liquid LPG inside a container remains constant, the pressure inside the
container when full and when nearly empty will be practically the same.
3. Boiling point:
The boiling point of LPG ranges from - 42°C to - 5°C.
ww
4. Density / specific gravity:
w.E
LPG in gaseous state is around twice as heavy as air. Any leakage of LPG tends to settle
down at the floor level. Ground level ventilation to djsperse leaking gas prevents the
asy
accumulation and it is therefore more important. Liquid LPG is almost half as heavy as water
and when it expands generates 246 volumes of gaseous LPG.
5. Toxicity:
En
gi
LPG contains no toxic components such as carbon monoxide and it is therefore non-
nee
poisonous. If leakage of a large amount of LPG occurs in a closed space, difficulty in
breathing and asphyxiation due to lack of oxygen can be caused. LPG is slightly anesthetic
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when high concentrations are breathed in sufficient quantities over a period of time and the
result would be an upset stomach and headache which are warning symptoms.
g.n
6. Limits of inflammability:
et
Fuel gases will burn only when mixed with air in certain proportions. The minimum and
maximum concentrations of a fuel gas in gas/air mixture between lower and upper limits of
inflammability. The limits of inflammability of LPG are narrower than other fuel gases and
making LPG relatively safe in use.
7. Odour:
LPG is naturally odourless. LPG is distinctively odourised to give the warning in case of
leakage. Its smell is detectable in air at concentration down to 1/5 of the lower explosive limit.
In other words, it can be smelt long before it becomes dangerous enough to catch fire.
8. Calorific value:
The amount of heat available from a given quantity of fuel is determined by the calorific
value of the fuel. The calorific value of LPG is very high and it is uniform.

--- -_ .. _-- ----

9. Other important properties:
~ LPG reaches lower limit of flammability quicker as compared to other gases.
~ "Auto - refrigeration" occurs when liquefied LPG evaporates into gaseous LPG.
~ Pressure of air in lines / vessels / cylinders will cause built up of high pressure.
~ Liquefied LPG can cause "Cold Bums".
~ Explosion can occur in case of ignition of accumulated LPG - air mixtures.
~ LPG can be ignited by static electric charges, tiny sparks, etc.
~ Pressure inside a cylinder drops marginally with use.
ww
5.5.2. LPG Equipment
1.LPGfuei tank:
w.E
LPG tanks are constructed of heavy gauge steel in compliance with the boiler and
asy
pressure vessel code of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) to withstand
a pressure of 70 bar. Normal working pressure within the tank varies depending on the
En
ambient temperature and the quantity of fuel in the tank. A common operating pressure is in
gi
the range of9-12 bar. Propane tanks limit the liquid level to 80% of the total tank volume by
nee
using an auto-stop fill valve. Tanks are equipped with a pressure relief valve which can
release propane vapours to the atmosphere to prevent the tank rupture under abnormally high-
rin
pressure condition. Each tank also includes a manual shut-off valve. The propane fuel tank is
installed along with a fueling port, fuel lines and pressure safety valves. A filter removes
particles and contaminants which may present in the propane. g.n
2. Vapourizer: et
LPG system draws fuel from the bottom of the tank and it sends the liquid propane to the
vapourizer. The vapourizer converts the liquid to gas. The primary heat source for this
vapourization is engine coolant flowing through specially designed water jackets cast into the
vapourizer body. Many vapourizers include an internal pressure regulator to control the
pressure of the fuel sent to the engine.
3. Fuel metering:
Early propane systems used a mixer operated as a conventional venturi device in a
manner quite similar to a gasoline carburetor. Vapourized propane is drawn through a fixed
orifice in response to engine air flow. As intake air enters the engine, a venturi effect is
created through the mixer. This slight pressure drop is acted on a spring-loaded diaphragm in


proportion with air flow. The result is a simple fairly accurate flow meter which controls the
volume of fuel to the engine as a function of air flow.
Changes in altitude, ambient weather conditions and even temperature cause significant
variations in the fuel mixture which cannot be compensated for using a mixer. Electronically
controlled closed-loop fuel injection provides a much more precise method of metering the
fuel. Based on sensor inputs, the electronic control module (ECM) determines the engine
operating conditions and then, it modifies the injector pulse width to maintain a stochiometric
mixture.
5.5.3. LPG Fuel I Engine Interaction
ww
Due to limited LPG refuelling infrastructure, the automotive manufacturers who were
w.E
keen to promote the 'world car' concept had no other option but to opt for bi-fuel LPG spark-
ignition engines which are capable of running everywhere with gasoline, LPG or both. It was
asy
the trend in the passenger car and light-duty vehicle market.
On the other hand, for the medium and heavy-duty LPG markets, the options are to
En
convert diesel engines into bi-fuel diesel/LPG versions with diesel acting as auto-ignition
gi
improver or to convert them into spark-ignition engines by burning LPG in either
nee
stoichiometric or lean burn mode. Direct-injection gasoline engines represent the best hope for
improving the fuel efficiency of spark-ignition engines to achieve the efficiency of indirect-
rin
injection diesel engines but it is not in direct-injection diesels which is at least 10-15% higher
probably beyond the reach.
g.n
5.5.4. Current State of LPG Engine I Vehicle Technology
et
Over years, a number of (i.e. first mechanical and then electronically-controlled) fuel
preparation LPG bi-fuel systems were developed with increasing degree of sophistication
ranging from carburettors to single and multi-point injections. The microprocessor-controlled
LPG injection systems operate with a pressure difference in contrast to carburettor-based
systems and these systems are self-adjusting with a closed-loop. They are known as third
generation LPG equipment. It can be operated continuous, simultaneous and sequential fuel
injection pattern.
The most advanced multi-point fuel injection systems use an accurate gas metering unit
(orifice meter) combined with two-stage pressure regulators to supply the same amount of fuel
to each cvlinder through injectors positioned close to inlet valves. They are microprocessor-
controlled through information received from the engine speed, manifold absolute pressure


and lambda sensors as well as from temperature readings of the air, water and
necessitates a dedicated engine management system in order to allow the operation of gas
preparation system in both bi-fuel and single-fuel gasoline engine conversions.
Over years, liquid LPG injection systems have been developed which offer better
accuracy in fuel metering as well as improved reliability but their main advantage for bi-fuel
engine conversions is their compatibility with gasoline injection in terms of a common control
strategy. However, there is still a need for separate electronic control units although certain
functions are per,formed by only one microprocessor.
;
In heavy-dutyapplications, diesel engine conversions are very much popular, less in bi-
.t' .
ww
fuel (diesel/LPG) compression ignition versions and increasingly more in single-fuel (LPG)
spark-ignition ones. In bi-fuel diesel conversions, a second LPG fuel injection system is added
w.E
to the engine and the correct mixture of diesel/LPG is burnt following auto-ignition of a small
quantity of diesel fuel. The amount of diesel fuel replaced by LPG is about 25-40%. So, it
asy
simply represents a convenient approach for countries with less stringent emission standards
than Europe.
En
The more radical approach is the conversion of the diesel engine to run with LPG in a
gi
spark-ignition mode which requires major modifications to the cylinder head and piston to
nee
accommodate LPG's higher octane rating, ignition and combustion characteristics as well as
rin
different fuel metering requirements. These engines tend to be turbocharged and it can operate
with either homogeneous or lean LPG/air mixtures depending on the desired engine power
g.n
output. However, a variable geometry turbocharging is needed in this case to limit the inlet
et
boost pressure through control of the turbine inlet flow rate which adds to the total cost of the
system. Therefore, the existing trend is for HDV LPG dedicated engines to dominate the
market.
5.5.5. LPG Vehicles
The total number of vehicles in the world operating on LPG was around 5.6 million in
year 1999. The major countries using LPG as an automotive fuel are Italy, Netherlands,
Poland, USA, Canada, Mexico, Australia, New Zealand, Algeria, Turkey, Iran, South Korea,
and Japan. Among these countries, the largest number of LPG vehicles over 1.2 million are in
Italy. China is one of the recent entrants in this area with around 50,000 vehicles in the year
1999.

_ Automobile Engineering I
In India, LPG is the main domestic fuel in urban areas. The indigenous availability of
LPG is expected to fall much short of the household demand alone. LPG to be competitive as
an auto fuel in India would need Government support by way of substantially lower taxation.
1. Passenger cars:
Most of gaseous fueled passenger car engines are petrol engines retrofitted with eNG /
LPG kits. Earlier, cars were fitted with simple carburetor system for inducting gaseous fuel
such as eNG or LPG and they were designated asfirst generation kit. Subsequently, in order
to make the engine operated on stoichiometric air fuel ratio, this design was modified and kit
was classified as second generation kit. ~or meeting the stringent emission norms, further
improvements were made in kits by incorporating multi-point fuel injection system and the kit
ww
was designated as third generation kit. In'70s and early ,80s, gaseous fuel cars had
w.E
substantially low exhaust emission level than gasoline cars. However, the introduction of
advanced design petrol cars in recent years with substantially lower emission levels is created
asy
new comparison levels between petrol and gaseou,sfuels.
With respect to emissions, the advanced technology gasoline vehicles with three-way
E ngi
catalysts are so clean that the fuel itself (that is, whether liquid or gas) plays a relatively minor
role especially for regulated emissions. Under these circumstances, converting an advanced
nee
petrol vehicle to gaseous fuel could even increase rather than decrease emissions.
2. Two/three wheelers:
rin
g.n
Earlier two and three wheelers operating in India were mostly powered by 2 stroke petrol
engines. The inherent design of 2 stroke engine is responsible for higher hydrocarbon
emissions. Further, the combustion of lubricant along with the fuel is responsible for
particulate emissions from such vehicles. However, their NOx emissions are low. et
3. Buses:
At present, there is no gas engine having the same kind of power output, fuel economy
and reliability similar to a modern diesel engine. Therefore, gas engines for bus applications
are mostly based on converted. diesel engines. The conversion to gaseous fuel engines (eNG
or LPG) for heavy duty application involves changeover to SI operation. The engine
manufacturers use either stoichiometric or lean burn combustion.
In diesel buses, the conversion techniques presently being used in India are not proven
technologies. For conversion, the existing diesel engine is modified to run on eNG by
replacing piston, cylinder head, cooling system, intake manifold, incorporation 'of ignition
system and converting into SI engine. It is not a reliable system and there are complaints of

I Alternative Energy Sources ..

engine overheating, spark plug fouling, engine head leaking, etc. CNG engines in India are not
original gas engines but it is converted from diesel engines using the diesel engine block. A
diesel engine converted to a eNG engine has different speed-torque characteristics which lead
to the problem of failure in clutch plate, overheating, loss in power etc. More experience and
continuous improvements will lead to improved level of technology in this area.
4. Outcome of conversion of old vehicles to LPG vehicle:
~ In the case of old model petrol passenger cars, a change-over to gaseous fuels in most
cases results the reduction in CO emissions. However, NOx in some cases may go up.
Particulates are low in both cases.
~
ww In the case of old generation diesel cars and three-wheelers, conversion!
retrofitment/replacement of the engine to four-stroke engine on petrol or gaseous fuel
w.E
give benefits in terms of reduced particulate matter emissions.
~ In the case of diesel buses, a change over to eNG results the benefits in terms of
asy
particulate matter emissions with a disadvantage on CO and other emissions.
)iI>
E
In the case of old generation two stroke petrol three-wheelers, a change-over to four-
ngi
stroke engine provides particulate emission benefits, both with petrol and gaseous
nee
fuels but there may be a penalty on CO and NOx emissions.
~
rin
Road performance of alternative fuel vehicles depends on the use of standard kits of
right quality. While adulteration in liquid fuels affects emission performance,
g.n
use/fitment of sub-standard conversion kits adversely affects the emission
performance in alternative fuel vehicles.
5.5.6. Advantages and Disadvantages of LPG

et
Advantages of LPG:
1. It has very low sulphur level giving a rise to insignificant sulphate emissions.
2. It has low cold start emissions due to its gaseous state at ambient pressure and
temperature.
3. It has relatively high octane number with propane having the best antiknock
properties relative to other components.
4. It has lower peak pressure during combustion which generally reduces noise and
improves durability. Noise levels can be less.than 50% of equivalent diesel engines.
5. It can be stored as liquid under very low pressures (~5bar) and ambient temperature.

Im:- Automobile Engineering I

6. Its refuelling process in LPG tanks IS relatively fast (-3minutes) i.e. similar to
gasoline.
7. LPG fuel systems are sealed and evaporative losses are negligible.
8. It is easily transportable and offers 'stand-alone' storage capability with simple and
self-contained LPG dispensing facility with minimum support infrastructure.
9. LPG vehicles do not require special catalysts.
10. It contains negligible toxic components.
11. With proper design and positioning of the port fuel injector, volumetric efficiency and
power losses are too low. Turbo-charging may not be necessary.
ww
12. Its high Octane.number provides room for increasing the compression ratio and fuel,
efficiency of dedicated engines.
w.E
l3. LPG has lower particulate emissions and low noise level relative to diesels thereby
making it more attractive in urban areas.
asy
14. Its low emissions have low greenhouse gas effect and low NOx precursors.
En
15. It has higher calorific value than gasoline on a mass basis.
Disadvantages of LPG:
gi nee
I. Although LPG has a relatively high energy content per mass, its energy content per
rin
unit volume is low because LPG tanks take more space and weigh more than gasoline
tanks.
2. It is heavier than air which requires appropriate handling. g.n
et
3. Its vapour flammability limits in air (2-10% by volume) are wider than gasoline
which makes LPG ignitable more easily.
4. It has a high expansion coefficient which necessitates only partial filling of the tank
not more than 80% of its capacity.
5. The filling system of the LPG tanks is not uniform across the country. So, it demands
different adaptors to connect service pump and vehicle.
6. It can give rise to backfiring in the inlet manifold unless a multi-point fuel injection
system is used.
7. LPG in liquid form can cause cold bums to the skin in case of inappropriate use.


5.S. USE OF BIO-DIESEL IN AUTOMOBILES
Biodiesel is a fuel derived from vegetable oil or animal fats. It can be used as an additive
to or entirely replace conventional petroleum diesel fuel. The majority of biodiesel is made
from soybean or canola oils but it is also made from waste stream sources such as used
cooking oils or animal fats.
In most cases, biodiesel is mixed with conventional diesel because of high cost of
biodiesel, engine compatibility issues and cold weather operating concerns are
considered. Common blends are B20 or 20% biodiesel and B2 or 2% biodiesel. The
environmental benefits of using biodiesel scales with the percentage of biodiesel contains in
the blend.
•
ww
BIOQ: 100% biodiesel offers the most overall environmental benefits. Use of BI00
w.E
may require engine or fuel system component modification and it can cause operating
problems especially in cold weather.
• asy
B20: 20% biodiesel offers about one fifth of the environmental benefits ofBI00 but it
•
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can be more broadly applied to existing engines with little or no modification.
ngi
B2: 2% biodiesel offers little environmental or petroleum dependence benefit and it
nee
could be potentially used an environmental marketing tool.
rin
Using biodiesel in a conventional diesel engine substantially reduces emissions of
unburnt hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, sulfates, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nitrated
g.n
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and particulate matter. These reductions increase when the
et
amount of biodiesel blended into diesel fuel increases; The best emission reductions are seen
with BI00.
The use of biodiesel decreases the solid carbon fraction of particulate matter (since the
oxygen in biodiesel enables more complete combustion to CO2) and it reduces the sulphate
fraction (biodiesel contains less than 15 ppm sulphur) while the soluble or hydrocarbon,
fraction stays the same or increases. Therefore, biodiesel works well with emission control
technologies such as diesel oxidation catalysts.
Emissions of nitrogen oxides increase with the concentration of biodiesel in the fuel and
the increase is roughly 2% for B20. Some biodiesel produces more nitrogen oxides than others
and some additives have shown a promise reduction in the increase of nitrogen oxides. More
R&D is needed to resolve this issue.

'am
5.6.1. Properties of Biodiesel
Automobile Engineering I
Biodiesel's Physical Characteristics

Specific gravity 0.87 to 0.89
Kinematic viscosity @ 40°C 3.7 to 5.8
Cetane number 46 to 70
Higher heating value (Btu/lb) 16,928 to 17,996
Lower heating value (Btu/lb) 15,700 to 16,735
ww Sulphur, wt% 0.0 to 0.0024
w.E Flash Point (closed cup) °C
Cloud point °C
130.0
-lltol6
asy Pour point °C -15 to 13
Iodine number En 60 to 135
5.6.2. Biodiesel Production

gi nee
rin
Biodiesel fuel can be made from new or used vegetable oils and animal fats which are
g.n
nontoxic, biodegradable and renewable resources. Fats and oils are chemically reacted with an
alcohol (methanol is the usual choice) to produce chemical compounds known as fatty acid
et
methyl esters. Biodiesel is the name given to these esters when they are intended for use as
fuel. Glycerol (used in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics among other markets) is produced as a
co-product.
There are three basic routes to ester production from oils and fats.
);> Base catalyzed transesterification of the oil with alcohol.

);> Direct acid catalyzed esterification of the oil with methanol.
);> Conversion of the oil to fatty acids and then to Alkyl esters with acid catalysis.
The majority of the alkyl esters produced today is done with the base catalyzed reactor
because it is the most economic for several reasons.
);> Low temperature (150°F) and pressure (20 psi) processing.
);> High conversion (98%) with minimal side reactions and reaction time.

Alternative Energy!>ources
)i> Direct conversion to methyl ester with no intermediate steps.
)i> Exotic materials of construction are not necessary.
Biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils by converting the triglyceride oils to methyl (or
ethyl) esters with a process known as transesterification. In transesterification process,
alcohol reacts with the oil to release three "ester chains" from the glycerin backbone of each
triglyceride. The reaction requires heat and a strong base catalyst (e.g. sodium or potassium
hydroxide which has already been mixed with the methanol) to achieve complete conversion
of the vegetable oil into the separated esters and glycerin.
The methanol is charged in excess to assist in quick conversion and recovered for reuse.
ww
The glycerin can be further purified for sale to the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.
The mono-alkyl esters become biodiesel with one-eighth the viscosity of the original
w.E
vegetable oil. Each ester chain, usually 18 carbons in length for soy esters retains two oxygen
atoms forming the "ester" and giving the product its unique combustion qualities as an
a syE
oxygenated vegetable based fuel. Biodiesel is nearly 10% oxygen by weight. The general
process of producing biodiesel is shown in Figure 5.2.
ngi Recycled Greases
Vegetable oils
nee Sulphuric acid +
metanol
rin
Methanol + KOH ----)~l
g.n
Crude biodiesel
et
Glycerin Biodiesel
Figure 5.2 Production of Biodiesel
5.6.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Biodiesel

Advantages of Biodiesel
~ Special pumps or high pressure equipment for fueling is not needed because little
fossil energy is required to move biodiesel.

I.. Automobile Engineering I

);> It can be used in conventional diesel engines. So, special vehicles or engines to run
biodiesel do not need to be purchased.
);> Clean biodiesel (l00% biodiesel) reduces carbon dioxide emissions by more than
75% over petroleum diesel. Using a blend of 20% biodiesel reduces carbon dioxide
emissions by 15%. It reduces the global warming.
);> Use of biodiesel in a conventional diesel engine will result a substantial reduction of
unburnt hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particulate matter. Biodiesel reduces
emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) by approximately 50 % and carbon dioxide by
78.8 % on a net lifecycle basis.
ww
);> Since biodiesel is made entirely from vegetable oil, it does not contain any sulphur,
w.E
);>
aromatic hydrocarbons, metals or crude oil residues.
The lack of toxic and carcinogenic aromatics (benzene, toluene and xylene) in
);>
a biodiesel reduces impact on human health and the environment.
syE
The high cetane rating of biodiesel (ranging from 46 to 70) is another measure of the
ngi
additive's ability to improve the combustion efficiency.
i>
nee
As an oxygenated vegetable hydrocarbon, biodiesel itself burns cleanly but it also
improves the efficiency of combustion by blending with petroleum fuel.
);>
rin
Since biodiesel can be used in conventional diesel engines, the renewable fuel can
g.n
directly replace petroleum products by reducing the country's dependence on
imported oil.
);>
\
et
Biodiesel offers safety benefits over petroleum diesel because it is much less
combustible with a flash point greater than 150°C when compared to 77°C for
petroleum diesel. It is safe to handle, store and transport.
Disadvantages of Biodiesel:
);> The flash point of biodiesel (> ISO "C) is significantly higher than diesel (64°C) or
gasoline (-45°C). The gel point of biodiesel varies depending on the proportion of
different types of esters contained. In practice, it often requires the heating of storage
tanks especially in cooler climates.
);> Pure biodiesel (B I ooj can be used in any petroleum diesel engine, though it is more
commonly used in lower concentrations. Some areas have mandated ultra-low sulphur
petro-diesel which reduces the natural viscosity and lubricity of the fuel due to the
removal of sulphur and certain other materials.
Alternative Energy Sourc

5.7. USE OF BIO-ETHA
s
OL IN AUTOMOBILES
,..
Ethanol fuel is ethyl alcohol (or simply alcohol) which is found as the similar type of
alcohol in alcoholic beverages. It is most often used as a motor fuel mainly as a bio-fuel
additive for gasoline. Bio-ethanol is one of form of renewable energy. It can be produced from
agricultural feed-stocks. It can be made from very common crops such as sugar cane, potato,
manioc and corn. Cellulosic ethanol offers more advantages because cellulose fibers, a major
and universal component in plant cells walls can be used to produce ethanol. According to the
International Energy Agency, cellulosic ethanol will allow ethanol fuels to play an important
role in future.
ww
The current manufacturing cost of ethanol and biodiesel in India is about Rs. 38/litre,
which is much lesser than petrol and diesel price. It puts bio-fuels in a favourable position for
w.E
meeting India's energy needs especially as the cost of petroleum is expected to continue its
upward trend. In addition to provide energy security and a decreased dependence on oil
asy
imports, bio-fuels offer several significant benefits such as reduced emission of pollutants and
greenhouse gases and increased employment in the agricultural sector.
En
Ethanol currently produced in India by the fermentation of sugarcane molasses is an
gi
excellent bio-fuel and it can be blended with petrol. Domestic ethanol production in 2015 will
nee
be closer to 2.1 billion liters compared to 2 billion liters in CY 2014, due to an incremental
r
rise in sugarcane production. With a normal production rate of 2.1 billion liters a year, India is
ing
the world's fourth largest producer of ethanol after Brazil, the United States and China. The
.ne
government of Indi (Gal) approved India's National Biofuel Policy on December 24, 2009.
The policy encourages use of renewable fuel as an alternative to petroleum and proposes to
supplement India's fuel supply with a 20 percent biofuel (bioethanol and biodiesel) mandate
t
by end of 12th Five-Year Plan (2017). In a bid to renew its focus and implement tire Ethanol
Blending Program (EBP), on November 22, 2012, the Cabinet Committee of Economic
Affairs (CCEA) recommended a five-percent ethanol blending mandate. The GOI's current
target of five-percent blending.of ethanol in gasoline has been partially successful in years of
surplus sugar production and unfilled when sugar production declines. Presently, the
contracted ethanol supply for calendar year 2014 is sufficient to meet 2.7-percent blending
target. The new Indian administration. is considering an increase in Gal's ethanol blending
mandate from the current level of five percent to 10 percent in CY 2015. Government-owned
petroleum companies are expected to procure 550 million liters of ethanol in CY 2014,
indicating that ethanol would make up about 2.1 percent ofTndia's fuel market.
37

Ethanol has a research octane number of 120, much higher than petrol which is between
87 and 98. Thus, ethanol blending increases the octane number without having to add a
carcinogenic substance such as benzene or a health-risk posing chemical such as methyl
tertiary butyl ether (MTBE). The energy content of ethanol is only 26.9 Ml/kg compared to
44.0 Ml/kg for petrol. The fuel economy (km/litre) of a petrol-powered engine would be
38.9% higher than an ethanol-powered engine. In actuality, this difference is 30 % since
ethanol engines can run more efficiently because of higher octane rating. For a 10 % ethanol
blend, the fuel economy advantage of a petrol engine is only 3 %. The flammability limit of
ethanol (19 % in air) is higher than petrol (7.6 %) and likewise the auto-ignition temperature
of ethanol is higher than petrol (366 versus 300°C). Thus, ethanol is safer than petrol due to
ww
the low risk of catching fire. Ethanol's higher latent heat of vapourization and greater
propensity to absorb moisture may lead to engine starting and corrosion problems but none of
w
these problems have manifested in millions of hours of running automobile engines in Brazil.
.Ea
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5.7.1. Sources of Bio-ethanol (Alcohol)
As already stated, ethanol is a renewable energy source because the energy is generated
ngi
by using a resource of sunlight which is available abundantly without depletion.
nee
Bio-ethanol is generally produced by the conversion of carbon based feedstock.
Agricultural feed stocks are considered as renewable sources due to energy obtained from the
rin
sun using photosynthesis. Ethanol can be produced from a variety of feed stocks such as sugar
g.n
cane, bagasse, miscanthus, sugar beet, sorghum, grain, switchgrass, barley, hemp, kenaf,
potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava, sunflower, fruit, molasses, corn, stover, grain, wheat, straw,
cotton, other biomass, as well as many types of cellulose waste and harvestings.et
Ethanol can be produced from petroleum product. It is made by the catalytic hydration of
ethylene with sulfuric acid as the catalyst. It can also be produced from ethylene or acetylene
from calcium carbide, coal, oil gas and other sources. The petroleum derived ethanol called
synthetic ethanol is chemically identical to bio-ethanol but it can be differentiated only by
radiocarbon dating.
An alternative process to produce bio-ethanol is also under the research done by Algenol
from algae. Ethanol is produced by fermentation process of grow algae with the use of
!
sunlight.
Currently, the production of ethanol from corn uses only a small part of the .com plant.
The corn kernels are taken from the corn plant but only the starches have 50% of the dry
kernel mass. This kernel mass is converte<\ into ethanol. Another two types of ethanol

I Alternative Energy Sources .W

production process are under development. In the first type, enzymes are used and the plant
cellulose is converted into ethanol by yeast fermentation. In the second type, the pyrolysis is
converted the whole plant to either a liquid bio-oil or a syngas. For these two types also,
grasses, wood or agricultural waste material such as straw can be used.
6.7.2. ~io-Ethanol (Alcohol) Production

Ethanol is a product of fermentation. Fermentation is a sequence of reactions which
release energy from organic molecules in the absence of oxygen. In fermentation process,
energy is obtained when sugar is changed to ethanol and carbon dioxide. Changing com to
ww .
ethanol by fermentation takes place in many steps. Starch in com must be broken into simple
sugars before the fermentation process can occur. In earlier times, it was done by chewing the
w.E
corn. It allowed the salivary enzymes to naturally break down the starch. Today, it is achieved
by cooking corn and adding enzymes alpha amylase and gluco amylase. These enzymes
a
function as catalysts to speed up the chemical reaction.
syE
Once a simple sugar is obtained, yeast will be added. Yeast is a single-celled fungus that
ngi
feeds on the sugar and causes the fermentation. As the fungus feeds on the sugar, it produces
alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide. In fermentation, the ethanol retains much of the energy
nee
that was originally in sugar which explains why ethanol is an excellent fuel. Ethanol is
rin
produced from com by using one of two standard processes such as wet milling process or dry
milling process. Dry milling plants cost less to build and produce higher yields of ethanol (2.7
gallons per bushel of corn) but the value of the co-products is less.
g.n
1. Dry Milling Process:
et
Most of the ethanol plants in the country utilize a dry milling process. The major steps of
dry milling are outlined below and it is illustrated in Figure 5.3.
(a) Milling:
After the corn (or other grain or biomass) is cleaned, first it passes through hammer mills
which grind it into a fine powder.
(b) Liquefaction:
The meal is then mixed with water and an enzyme (alpha amylase) and it passes through
cookers where the starch is liquefied. A pH of 7 is maintained by adding sulphuric acid or
sodium hydroxide. Heat is applied to enable the liquefaction process. Cookers with a high
temperature stage (120°-150° C) and a lower temperature holding period (95° C) are used. The
high temperatures reduce bacteria levels in the mash.

Automobile
ww
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a syE
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Distilledgrains
& Solubles
Syrub
nee
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Figure 5.3 Production of ethanol by dry milling process
(c) Sa«/Iarijication:
g.n
starch molecules to fermentable sugars (dextrose).
(d) Fermentation:
et
The mash from cookers is cooled and the enzyme gluco amylase is added to convert
YettSt is added to the mash to ferment sugars to ethanol and carbon dioxide. Using a
continuous process, the fermenting mash flows through several fermenters until the mash is
fully fermented and leaves the tank. In a batch fermentation process, the mash stays in one
fermenter for 48 hours.
(e) Dimllation:
The fermented mash called "beer" contains 10 % alcohol as well as all non-fermentable
solids from the corn and yeast cells. The mash is then pumped to continuous flow and multi-
column' distillation system where the alcohol is removed from solids and water. The alcohol
leaves the top of the final column with the range of 96 % strength and the residue mash called
stillage is transferred from the base of the column to the co-product processing area.

(f) Dehydration:
The alcohol then passes through a dehydration system where the remaining water is
removed. Most plants use a molecular sieve to capture the last bit of water in the ethanol. The
alcohol at this stage is called anhydrous ethanol (pure ethanol, without water).
(g) Denaturing:
Ethanol is used as fuel and it is then denatured with a small amount (2-5%) of some
product such as gasoline to make it unfit for human consumption.
2. Wet Milling Process:

The wet-milling operation is more elaborate because the grain must be separated into its
ww
components. The major steps of wet milling process are outlined below and it is illustrated in
Figure 5.4. After milling, the corn is heated in a solution of water and sulphur dioxide for 24
w.E
to 48 hours to loosen germs and hull fiber. The germ is then removed from the kernel and corn
asy
oil is extracted from the germ. The remaining germ meal is added to hulls and fiber to form
corn gluten feed. A high-protein portion of the kernel called gluten is separated and it
En
becomes corn gluten meal which is used for animal feed. In wet milling, only the starch is
fermented unlike dry milling when the entire mash is fermented.
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Once the alcohol fuel is made, it will have to be stored. The same precaution is used
which is used for gasoline storage. Alcohol is hygroscopic (absorbs moisture). So, the small
vents are made in the storage tank.
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6.7.3. Performance of Ethanol·Based Engine
.ne
Ethanol is most commonly used to power automobiles even if it is used to power other
t
vehicles such as farm tractors, boats and airplanes. Ethanol (E 100) consumption in an engine
is approximately 51% higher than gasoline since the energy per unit volume of ethanol is 34%
lower than gasoline. The higher compression ratio in an ethanol engine provides increased
power output and better fuel economy than lower compression ratio. Usually, ethanol engines
give slightly better power and torque output than gasoline-powered engines.
An engine powered by alcohol if converted correctly will have performance equivalent if

not greater than the same power plant burning gasoline because of alcohol having a higher
"octane" rating and it can stand much greater compression ratio. Even without changing the
compression ratio, an alcohol-powered engine with fairly low compression still holds its own
against its gasoline-burning counterpart. Also, if the timing is advanced safely short of the

"knock" limit, the torque range is broadened considerably thereby allowing the vehicle to pull
under load exceptionally well.
Steep Water
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.ne
t
FUEL
Livestock &
Poultry feeds
Figure 5.4 Production of ethanol by wet milling process


5.7.4. Engine Cold Start during Winter
,'p-
High ethanol blends have a problem to achieve enough vapour pressure for the fuel to
evaporate and spark the ignition during cold weather. When the vapour pressure is below
45kPa starting a cold engine becomes difficult. To avoid this problem at temperatures below
II°C and to reduce ethanol higher emissions during cold weather, both US and European
markets, E85 is used as the maximum blend in flexible fuel vehicles and they are optimized to
run at such a blend. Sometimes, E70 is also used with the maximum blend in some of US
states.
5.7.5. Fuel Economy
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Theoretically, all fuel-driven vehicles have a fuel economy which is directly proportional
w.E
to the fuel's energy content. The fuel economy of an engine is directly proportional to how
rich is the air/fuel mixture and it is dependent on how large the main jet is the carburetor.
asy
Alcohol requires a richer air/fuel mix than gasoline (9-to-1 as opposed to 15-to-l) but this
difference is not reflected proportionately with respect to economy and it is partially due to
En
alcohol having a higher "octane" rating. So, it can be utilized more efficiently. An increase in
gi
engine compression ratio will improve alcohol mileage considerably. In practice, many other
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variables will play and affect the performance of a particular fuel in an engine.
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~
140
.ne
t
::::J
VI
VI
~
a.,....
0l0l
....
.~ ::
~0e:.0 120
Ol Q)
c: ::::J
10 u..
Ol 'L::
:2: <E
::::J
----. Ethanol
~a.,
-- Gasoline
0:,
,,
,
20
......
.__ Percent excess fuel lean Percent excess fuel rich -~)o~
Figure 5.5 Ethanol Vs Gasoline on engine performance

1- Engineering I
Automobile
~~--~~------------------------~--~.
5.7.6. Ethanol Fuel Mixtures
To avoid engine stall due to slugs of water in the fuel lines interrupting fuel flow, the fuel
used in automobiles should be a single phase. The fraction of water that an ethanol-gasoline
fuel can contain without phase separation increases with the percentage of ethanol. For
example, E30 can have up to 2% water. About 71% ethanol is more in fuel and the remainder
can be a proportion of water or gasoline and phase separation will not occur. But the fuel
mileage decreases with increased water content.
5.7.7. Properties/Characteristics of Ethanol/ Alcohol
(a) Ethanol/Alcohol is on the average about 16 points higher on the research octane
ww scale than premium gasoline. So, alcohols have higher octane rating than the gasoline.
w.E
(b) Alcohols contain only 63% of the energy but gasoline has more because of the
presence of oxygen in the alcohol's structure. Hence, heating value is less.
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(c) Alcohols are highly volatile than gasoline.
En
(d) Alcohols have a higher flash point than gasoline and hence, it is much safer
automotive fuel.
gi
(e) Latent heat of vapourization of alcohols is more than gasoline. Hence, the engine
should be operated at a much lower temperature.
nee
r
(f) When gasoline is burned in an engine, it produces carbon monoxide and other
ing
poisonous fumes as it contains lead, sulfur and other noxious materials. Alcohol, on
the other hand, burns completely.
.ne
t
(g) Alcohol requires a richer air/fuel mix than gasoline (9: 1 as opposed to 15:1) due to the
fact that alcohol has a higher "octane" rating and it can be utilized more efficiently.
5.7.8. Advantages and Disadvantages of Ethanol/ Alcohol
Advantages of using ethanol or alcohol as afuel:

I. It can be obtained from a number of sources both natural and manufactured.
2. It is high octane fuel with anti-knock index numbers (octane number) of over 100.
High octane numbers result at least in part from the high flame speed of alcohol.
Engines using high-octane fuel can run more efficiently by using higher compression
ratio.
3. Generally, it produces less overall emissions when compared to gasoline.

I Alternative Energy Sources .. I

4. When burned, it forms more moles of exhaust which gives higher pressure and more
power in the expansion stroke.
5. It has high evaporative cooling which results a cooler intake process and compression
stroke. It raises the volumetric efficiency of the engine and reduces the required work
input in the compression stroke.
6. It has low sulfur content in the fuel.
7. Ethanol reduces the country's dependence on imported oil in lowering the trade
deficit and ensuring a dependable source of fuel should foreign suppliers be
interrupted.
ww
8. Farmers see an increased demand for grain which helps to stabilize the prices.
9. The quality of the environment improves. Carbon monoxide emissions are reduced
w.E
(more than 25 %) and lead and other carcinogens (cancer causing agents) are removed
from gasoline.
asy
10. Car owners benefit from mcreased octane in gasoline which reduces engine "knock",
En
Ethanol-blended fuels also absorb moisture and clean the fuel system.
gi
11. Ethanol blends such as E-IO unleaded can be used in virtually all gas engines without
any engine or mechanical revisions.
nee
tank during cold weather. r
12. Ethanol guards against gas line freeze by absorbing moisture which may get in the
ing
.ne
13. Ethanol is low in reactivity and high in oxygen content in making It an effective tool
in reducing ozone pollution.
t
14. Ethanol is a safe replacement for toxic octane enhancers in gasoline such as benzene,
toluene and xylene.
15. Ethanol reduces greenhorse gas emissions because it is produced from renewable
agricultural feed stocks.
Disadvantages of using ethanol or alcohol as afuel:

1. Low energy content of the fuel which means almost twice as much alcohol as gasoline
must be burned to give the same energy input to the engine. Hence more storage
capacity of fuel tank is required.
2. Even with the lower energy content of alcohol, engine power for a given displacement
would be the same because of low air-fuel ratio needed by alcohol.

IDElI Automobile Engineering I

3. Engines run on ethanol may give starting problems when the air is cool.
4. Alcohol contains oxygen and thus,.it requires less air for stoichiometric combustion.
More fuel can be burned with the same amount of air.
5. More aldehydes are present in exhaust. If as much alcohol fuel was consumed as
gasoline, aldehyde emissions would be a serious exhaust pollution problem.
6. Alcohol is much more corrosive than gasoline on copper, brass, aluminum, rubber,
and many plastics. It puts some restrictions on the design and manufacturing of
engines to be used with this fuel. It should also be considered when alcohol fuels are
used in engine systems. Methanol is corrosive on metals. It can be remedied by using
ww nickel in engine alloys.
7. Poor cold weather starting characteristics due to low vapour pressure and evaporation.
w.E
Often a small amount of gasoline is added to alcohol fuel which greatly improves
cold-weather starting.
asy
8. Poor ignition characteristics in general.
En .
9. Alcohols have almost invisible flames which are considered as dangerous when
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handling fuel. Again, a small amount of gasoline removes this danger.
eer
10. Danger of storage tank flammability due to low vapour pressure. Air can leak into
storage tanks and create a combustible mixture.
ing
11. Low flame temperatures generate less NOx but the resulting low exhaust temperature
.ne
take longer to heat the catalytic converter to an efficient operating temperature.
12. Many people find the strong odor of alcohol very offensive. Headaches and dizziness
have been experienced when refueling an automobile. t
13. Vapour lock in fuel delivery systems may happen frequently.
14. The downstream processing for ethanol recovery is costly as it requires a lot of
energy.
5.8. USE OF GASOHOL IN AUTOMOBILES
Gasohol is a mixture of 10% ethanol (ethyl alcohol) and 90% unleaded gasoline.
Although automobiles could be designed to operate on alcohol alone for the foreseeable
future, the most economic use of ethanol is as an octane booster in gasoline. So, gasohol is a
much cleaner fuel than gasoline itself. Gasohol can be used without modifying the,carburetor

I /~/temative Energy Sources mil I

or fuel injector, ignition timing or fuel lines of an automobile. This fuel has higher octane
value and anti-knock properties than gasoline and burns slowly and completely results the
reduced emissions of some pollutants but it also vapourizes more readily and potentially
aggravating ozone pollution in warm weather.
Ethanol is an alternative energy source. It is an alcohol made by fermenting corn or other
similar biomass material as explained earlier. There are three primary ways that ethanol can
be used as a transportation fuel.
I. As a blend of 10 % ethanol with 90 % unleaded gasoline called "E':::') 0 Unleaded";
2. As a component of reformulated gasoline, both directly and as ethyl tertiary butyl
ww ether (ETBE) or
3. As a primary fuel with 85 parts of ethanol blended with 15 parts of unleaded gasoline
w.E
called "E-85."
asy
Gasohol, a gasoline extender is made from a mixture of gasoline (90%) and ethanol
(10%) often obtained by fermenting agricultural crops or crop wastes) or gasoline (97%) and
En
methanol or wood alcohol (3%). Ethanol-based gasohol is expensive and energy intensive to
gi
produce and it can damage rubber seals and diaphragms and certain finishes if the ethanol is
nee
present in higher concentrations. Methanol-based gasohol is also expensive to produce and it
is toxic and corrosive and its emissions produce cancer-causing formaldehyde.
5.8.1. Potential of Gasohol in India r ing

.ne
India is the second largest producer of sugarcane in the world with a production level of
280 Million tonnes per annum. Brazil is the number one producer and it produces 320 Million
tonnes of sugarcane in a year. India stands in the fourth place in the world in Ethanol
production with a production about 2.1 billion litres per annum. Brazil which produces 16.1
t
billion litres per year stands I"t the top. The installed capacity in India is 2.7 Billion litres per
annum in 278 distilleries. Therefore, only 50% of our capacity in ethanol production is
utilized. Another significant feature relates to the use of Sugarcane produced in India. Only
60% of sugarcane produced is processed for producing white sugar in 416 sugar mills located
in different regions of India. 30% of sugarcane is used for making Gur and Khandasari
sweeteners widely used in rural areas of India. The remaining 10% are used as seed.
Ethanol or Ethyl Alcohol production in India is mainly from Molasses waste products
from sugar mills. On a worldwide basis, out of the total annual production of 33.3, Billion
litres of Ethanol 68% is used as an automotive fuel, 21% is utilized for industrial purposes and

'mil Automobile Engineering'

the remaining 11% is used for beverages. In India, the entire production of Ethanol is used for
industrial purposes and producing beverages. The utilizing Ethanol as a fuel in the
transportation sector is yet to be decided.
The interest shown in the use of Ethanol as an automotive fuel in India has been rather
sporadic in nature and it was largely related to crisis management situations. Very early
reported work was carried out in Indian Institute of Science (HSc), Bangalore in 1950s soon
after the Second World War. Substantial interest was shown in this area during the end of 70's
and the beginning of 80's on account of steep rise in crude prices. Almost all National Level
Technical Institutions and Technical Universities embarked on Research and Development
work pertaining to the use of Ethanol in gasoline and diesel engines used in Agricultural and
ww
Transportation sectors.
w.E
The research conducted in Anna University, Chennai on fleet tests using two models of
SI Engine driven cars available during 1979-1984. These vehicles were converted to run either
asy
on 100% Ethanol (denatured Alcohol) or with a mixture of 90% gasoline and 10% ethanol
(gasohol). CI engines (Diesels) were run on dual fuel mode using a carburettor. It was
En
possible to operate passenger buses on dual fuel mode with 45% diesel replacement under
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dual fuel operation. The investigations enabled the collection of valuable data on optimal
nee
modifications necessary for converting an existing SI engines for neat ethanol operation. Long
duration trials yielded a valuable data on material compatibility and lubricating oil
requirements for ethanol operation.
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Emission measurements showed a considerable reduction in conventional pollutants such
.ne
as CO, HC, and NOx during ethanol operation. However, there was an increase in Aldehyde
emission levels. The interest in such investigations dwindled as there was neither clear-cut
t
Government policy nor a direction for the use of Ethanol as a fuel in the transportation sector.
In this view, Automotive and Sugar Industries did not support such developmental works.
Nevertheless the data obtained and the experience gained has been well documented and it can
be used for future investigations.
The use of a gasohol (mixture of gasoline and ethanol) such as E85 in different
proportions in automobiles is likely to become very popular in future. There is a trend to
develop Flexible Fuel Vehicles (FFVs) which can be operated on different ratio of Ethanol
and Gasoline. It is desirable to discuss about the features of FFVs and look at the possibility
of developing such vehicles in India.
Another possible source of alcohol production in the country is the surplus food grain
which is rotting in the godowns (warehouses) of Food Corporation of India. The rotten grain

I Alternative Energy Sources ~ I

can be converted to sugars and fermented to alcohol by the semi-utilized production capacity
of the distillery industry. Pollution control cost of grain-based alcohol is relatively much low
as compared to molasses based-alcohol.
Ethanol (alcohol) is an established bio-fuel for transport and industry sectors in several
countries notably in Brazil and USA. India with its favourable agro-climatic conditions for
sugarcane and sweet sorghum production has tremendous potential to develop this source of
bio-energy which can save its foreign exchange spent largely for the import of petroleum.
5.8.2. Gasohol Fueled vehicles
ww
In 1990s, variable fuel vehicles are introduced and operated. These vehicles are capable
of operating on unleaded fuel with ethanol mixtures up to 85 % without having to make any
w.E
engine adjustments. These vehicles were introduced in 1992 arid they have been used
extensively in federal and state fleets and some city governments. They became commercially
available shortly thereafter. asy
En
E-85 v~hicles have been designed for versatility. The key component in a variable fuel
gi
vehicle is a sensor that determines percentage of ethanol in the fuel. With the help of a
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computer, the vehicle automatically adjusts for best performance and emissions. Chrysler
began offering E-85 minivans in the 1998 model year and Ford continues to offer the Taurus
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and added Windstar and Ranger to E-85 flexible fuel vehicles in 1999 model year. Ford,
GMC, Chevrolet and Daimler-Chrysler are now offering E-85 variable fuel vehicles.
.ne
5.8.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Gasohol
Advantages of using gasohol as afuel: t

1. Gasohol can burn more completely and thus increasing the potential combustion
energy which will produce the most power.
2. Its high octane numbers result in running the engine more efficiently by using higher
compression ratio.
3. Generally, it produces less overall emissions wherr compared to gasoline and hence
reduces greenhouse gas emissions.
4. It has high evaporative cooling which results a cooler intake process and compression
stroke. It raises the volumetric efficiency of the engine and reduces the required work
input in ttre compfession stroke.


5. It has low sulfur content in the fuel.
6. Gasohol reduces the country's dependence on imported oil.
7. It can improve the agricultural economies by providing farmers with a stable income
for particular crops such as maize and sugar beets.
8. Burning gasohol is cleaner and less harmful to the environment than burning straight
gasoline.
9. Car owners benefit from increased octane in gasoline which reduces engine "knock".
Ethanol-blended fuels also absorb moisture and clean the fuel system.
ww
10. It can be used in virtually all gas engines without any engine or mechanical revisions.
w.E
Disadvantagesof usinggasoholas afuel:
I. Gasohol increases the emissions of aldehydes which are reactive and it will probably
bring smog problems.
asy
En
2. Despite the new emissions are less reactive and will not contribute significantly to
photochemical smog, it will also increases evaporative emissions.
gi nee
3. It may increase the emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx) as well. The degree to which
emissions increase are depending on the vehicle and emission control technology
used.
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4. Even with the lower energy content of alcohol, engine power for a given displacement
would be the same because of low air-fuel ratio needed by alcohol. .ne
5. Gasohol is more corrosive than gasoline on engine components such as carburettor.
Hence special metals are required in design.
t
5.9. USE OF HYDROGEN FUELS IN AUTOMOBILES
5.9.1. Sources of Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the lightest element which may someday replace heavier compounds as a
source of energy for transportation and many other applicatior:s. Although low-cost
technology to allow this odorless, colorless, diffuse gas to be collected, hydrogen's potential
to be a clean energy source has some hope about a future "hydrogen economy" which would
not rely on fossil fuels.

I Alternative Energy Sources Dill I

Finding sources of hydrogen fuel is harder than the people think. Although hydrogen is
the most abundant material in the Universe, very little of it exists in free form in the
atmosphere. It must be extracted from other compounds.
As a fuel, the hydrogen is used in the form of gas. Since hydrogen does not exist on Earth
as a gas, it must be separated from other compounds. It is considered as a s~condary source of
energy because another form of energy is needed to produce the hydrogen fuel. The primary
sources of energy to produce-hydrogen are natural gas, water, coal or oil. These sources go
through different types of processes that allow hydrogen fuel to be made. Natural gas and
methanol provide much of the raw material for hydrogen today. Another major source is water
(H20). The hydrogen and oxygen in water can be dissociated with an electric current in a
ww
process called electrolysis.
w.E
5.9.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of using Hydrogen as Fuel
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Advantages of using hydrogen asfuel:
E
1. Hydrogen combustion produces only water as a by-product. Hydrogen generates energy
ngi
without releasing greenhouse gasses or pollutant particles.
nee
2. The only pollution-free source of hydrogen is water which is also the most abundantly
available. A simple process called electrolysis can liberate hydrogen from water.
rin
3. Hydrogen has higher energy density than petroleum-based fuels. It means, it supplies
more energy per volume than gasoline, diesel or kerosene.
g.n
internal combustion engine.
Disadvantages of using hydrogen asfuel:

et
4. Hydrogen has the potential to run a fuel-cell engine with greater efficiency over an
I. Heavy, bulky fuel storage, both in vehicle and at the service station. Hydrogen can be
stored either as a cryogenic liquid or as a compressed gas. If stored as a liquid, it would
have to be kept under pressure at very low temperature. It would require a thermally
super-insulated fuel tank. Storing in a gas phase would require a heavy pressure vessel
with limited capacity.
2. It is difficult to refuel.
3. It produces poor engine volumetric efficiency. Any time, a gaseous fuel is used in an
engine the fuel will displace some of the inlet air and it will result poor volumetric
efficiency.

4. -Fuel cost would be high at present-day technology and availability.
5. NOx emissions are high because of high flame temperature.
6. It may detonate.
5.9.3. Hydrogen as a Fuel

Hydrogen has the highest energy content per unit weight of any known fuel 120.7 kJ/g. It
burns cleanly. When hydrogen is burnt with oxygen, only byproducts are heat and water.
When burnt with air which is 79% nitrogen (on a volumetric basis), some oxides of nitrogen
ww
are formed.
Hydrogen in its liquid form has been used as a fuel in space vehicles for years. Hydrogen
w.E
has high combustion energy per kg relative to other fuels which means hydrogen is more
efficient on a weight basis than fuels currently used in air or ground transportation. This
asy
weight factor makes hydrogen an attractive fuel.
Hydrogen is both flammable

E and buoyant. It is flammable
ngi
over a wider range of
concentrations than either gasoline or natural gas but due to its buoyancy, it dissipates more
rapidly than either of these fuels in a spill. Hydrogen gas like other gases used today should be
used in areas which can be ventilated.
nee
rin
Hydrogen can be used safely when .guidelines for its proper handling and storage are
observed. Individuals who work with hydrogen systems are trained
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in hydrogen's
handling and used by observing precautions such as preventing hydrogen leaks, taking proper
safe
action if leaks occur, eliminating

eliminating sources of ignition, et
the opportunity for leaked hydrogen to accumulate and
Hydrogen fuel is unique. It is clean. Its primary combustion by-product is clean water
vapour. Hydrogen is versatile- It can be used in applications requiring electricity or gas and it
can link the fossil-based energy supply today with the renewable energy tomorrow.
As the cost of hydrogen comes down and its availability increases, interest in its use as fl
fuel will intensify. Therefore, public awareness of hydrogen safety is essential.
5.9.4. Hydrogen Properties

Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless, tasteless and non-poisonous gas under normal
conditions on Earth. It typically exists as a diatomic molecule i.e. each molecule has two
atoms of hydrogen. So, pure hydrogen is commonly expressed as "H2". Hydrogen is the most

I Alternative Energy Sources UP-

abundant element in the universe accounting for 90% of the universe by weight. However, it
is not commonly found in its pure form since it readily combines with other elements. It is
also the lightest element having a density of 0.08988 grams per liter at standard pressure.
Hydrogen has several important chemical properties that affect its use as a fuel.
• It readily combines with oxygen to form water which is absolutely necessary for the
life on this planet.
• It has high energy content per weight (nearly 3 times as much 'as gasoline) but the
energy density per volume is quite low at standard temperature and pressure.
Volumetric energy density can be increased by storing the hydrogen under increased
ww
pressure or storing it at extremely low temperature as liquid. Hydrogen can also be
adsorbed into metal hydrides.
• w.E
Hydrogen is highly flammable. It only takes a small amount of energy to ignite it and
asy
make it bum. It also has a wide flammability range, it means, it can burn when it
makes up to 74% of the air by volume.
• E ngi
Hydrogen bums with a pale-blue almost-invisible flame in making hydrogen fires
difficult to see.
• nee
The combustion of hydrogen does not produce carbon dioxide (C02), particulate or
rin
sulphur emissions. It can produce nitrous oxide (NOx) emissions under some
conditions.
• g.n
Hydrogen can be produced from renewable resources such as by reforming ethanol
and by the electrolysis of water.
et
5.9.5. Production of Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the simplest and most abundant element in the universe which holds great
promise as a fuel. Two methods are generally used to produce hydrogen gas such as '
electrolysis and synthesis gas production.
Electrolysis uses electrical energy to separate hydrogen and oxygen atoms in water
molecules. The electrical energy can come from any electricity source including renewable
fuels and solar energy. Some scientists envision a future in which large arrays of solar panels
will provide this electric current. So, electrolysis is unlikely to become the predominant
method for producing large quantities' of hydrogen. Non-electric ways ofproducing hydrogen
such as biomass gasification may require less primary energy and will potentially cost less.

I... Automobile Engineering I

The predominant method of producing synthesis gas (a combination of carbon monoxide
and hydrogen) is steam reforming of natural gas. In a steam reformer, methane or another
hydrocarbon is passed over a catalyst along with steam. The process takes place under high
temperature and pressure using a special receptacle. The reaction converts the methane and
water to CO and hydrogen.
Another mechanism for producing energy using hydrogen gas is the fuel cell. A fuel cell
uses hydrogen to produce an electric current. A fuel cell has a battery. It has electrodes,
electrolyte and positive and negative terminals. But it produces electric current continuously
rather than recharging and storing the chemical energy.
ww About 95% of the hydrogen, reforming natural gas is used today. Remaining is high-
purity hydrogen from water electrolysis by using electricity mainly generated by burning
w.E
fossil fuels. Some of the specific technologies are used to produce hydrogen include.
•
asy
Steam reforming converts methane (and other hydrocarbons in natural gas) into
hydrogen and carbon monoxide by reaction with steam over a nickel catalyst.
• E ngi
Electrolysis uses electrical current to split water into hydrogen at the cathode (+)
and oxygen at the anode (-).
• nee
Steam electrolysis (a variation on conventional electrolysis) uses heat instead of
rin
electricity to provide some of the energy needed to split water in making the
process more energy efficient.
• g.n
Thermochemical water splitting uses chemicals and heat in multiple steps to split
•
water into its component parts.
Photo-electrochemical systems use semi-conducting

et
materials such as
photovoltaics to split water using only sunlight.
• Photo-biological systems use microorganisms to split water using sunlight.
• Biological systems use microbes to break down a variety of biomass feed stocks
into hydrogen.
• Thermal water splitting uses a very high temperature approximately IOOO°C to

split water.
• Gasification uses heat to break down biomass or coal into a gas from which pure
hydrogen can be generated.

I Alternative Energy Sources -

Once hydrogen is produced, it must be transported to its point of use. Its low volumetric
energy density makes it challenging to transport and deliver. Today, hydrogen is stored and
transported as a compressed gas or cryogenic liquid.
5.9.6. Hydrogen from Natural Gas
1. Natural gas steam reforming:

The production of hydrogen from natural gas is an integral part of the strategy to
introduce hydrogen into the transportation and utility energy sectors by reducing the cost of
conventional and developing innovative hydrogen production processes that rely on cheap
ww
fossil feedstock, Today, nearly all hydrogen productions are based on fossil raw materials.
Worldwide, 48% of hydrogen is produced from natural gas, 30% from oil (mostly consumed
w.E
in refineries), 18% from coal and the remaining 4% via water electrolysis.
Modification of the conventional steam methane reforminw(SMR) process to incorporate
asy
an adsorbent in the reformer to remove CO2 from the product stream may offer a number of
advantages over conventional processes.
En
gin
Upsetting the reaction equilibrium in this way drives the reaction to produce additional
hydrogen at low temperature than conventional SMR reactors. Although it is still in the
eer
research stage, the cost of hydrogen from this modified process is expected to be 25%-30%
low primarily because of reduced capital and operating cost, In addition, the adsorption of
ing
CO2 in the reforming stage results a high-purity CO2 stream from the adsorbent regeneration
step. It has interesting implications in a carbon-constramed world.
.ne
2. Ion Transport Membranes:
t
Although steam reforming of natural gas to produce hydrogen is a mature technology, it
is operating at or near its theoretical limits and it is still much too expensive for producing
hydrogen for future automobiles and other applications.
Advanced Ion Transport Membranes (ITM) may simplify the process of producing
hydrogen from natural gas and separating it by combining these processes·into a single step to
low cost and increase efficiencies. ITM systems combine the separation of air to produce
oxygen and the subsequent use of that oxygen in a process called partial oxidation to generate
synthesis gas. The process takes place in a single step.
The technology uses non-porous ceramic membranes fabricated from multi-component
metallic oxides which conduct both electrons and oxygen ions at temperature greater than
700°C.


Steam and
Natural gas
Air
ITM Ceramic
membrane
Oxygen passes
through
membrane
ww
w.E Synthesis gas
Nitrogen-rich
depleted air
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Figure 5. 6 Preparation of hydrogen from natural gas
E ngi
During operation, oxygen from a hot air stream is reduced by catalysts at one surface of
the membrane to create oxygen ions. The oxygen ions flow through the membrane under a
nee
chemical gradient to the opposite membrane surface where they partially oxidize a pre-
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reformed hot mixture of steam and natural gas to form synthesis gas, a mixture of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen. The ratio of hydrogen to carbon monoxide is partly dependent on the
amount of steam used.
g.n
et
The synthesis gas then proceeds to a water-gas shift reactor':where additional steam is
added to convert the steam and carbon monoxide into more hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
This mixture of hydrogen, carbon dioxide and trace amounts of carbon monoxide are then
separated to produce a hydrogen product stream and a concentrated carbon dioxide stream
which can be captured and eventually sequestered.
The current technology used to separate hydrogen from synthesis gas is by Pressure
Swing Adsorption (PSA). However, advanced membrane technologies which are under
development have the potential to reduce the cost of this process step.
5.9.7. Thermochemical Processes

Thermochemical hydrogen production technologies use heat and chemical reactions to
convert hydrocarbon feed stocks to hydrogen. Steam methane reforming, partial oxidation of
methane and biomass gasification and pyrolysis can be used to produce hydrogen.

I Altematlve Energy Sources

1. Steam methane reforming:
In this process, high-temperature steam' is used to extract hydrogen from natural gas. It is
the most common method of producing hydrogen and 95 % of the hydrogen in use today is
produced by this process.
2. Partial oxidation/ceramic membrane reactor:
Scientists are developing a ceramic membrane reactor for simultaneous separation of
oxygen from air and partial oxidation of methane. If successful, this process could result the
improved production of hydrogen and synthesis gas when compared to conventional
reformers.
ww
3. Other thermal processes:
w.E
They include gasifying or burning biomass (i.e., biological material such as plants or
agricultural waste) to produce hydrogen.
a syE
5.9.8. Other Methods of Producing Hydrogen
1. Biomass gasification and pyrolysis:

ngi
The thermal processing techniques for plant material (biomass) and fossil fuels are
nee
similar to a number of downstream unit operations being essentially same for both feed
r
stocks. Using agricultural residues ana wastes or biomass specifically grown for energy uses,
ing
hydrogen can be produced via pyrolysis-or gasification process. Biomass pyrolysis produces a
.ne
liquid product (bio-oil) such as petroleum which contains a wide spectrum of components that
can be separated into valuable chemicals and fuels.
Dissimilar to petroleum, bio-oil contains a significant number of highly reactive

oxygenated components derived mainly from constitutive carbohydrates and lignin. These
t
components can be transformed into products including hydrogen. Co-product strategies are
designed to produce high value chemicals such as phenolic resins in conjunction with
hydrogen.
2. Electrolytic processes:
Electrolytic hydrogen production processes the use of electrical energy to split water into
hydrogen and oxygen.
Electrolysis: In electrolysis, electricity is used to separate water (H20) into hydrogen
(H2) and oxygen (02), The electricity can come from fossil fuels such as coal or from
renewable sources such as nuclear, solar or hydroelectric power.

IUD Automobile Engineering I

3. Water electrolysis:
Until 1950s, water electrolyzers were in widespread use for hydrogen (or oxygen)
production. Currently, electrolysis provides only a small percentage of the world's hydrogen,
most of which is supplied to applications requiring small volumes of high purity hydrogen (or
oxygen such as for breathing atmospheres for submarines). There is significant renewed
interest in the use of electrolyzers to produce hydrogen as a fuel for automotive applications
with a number of refueling stations installed around the world. In addition, research continues
in the integration of intermittent renewable resources (PV and wind) with electrolyzers for
producing hydrogen to be used as a fuel or energy storage.
ww
4. Reversiblefuel cells / electrolyzers:
Operating the Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell "in reverse" as an electrolyzer
w.E
is possible but optimum operating conditions are for the power production mode and for the
hydrogen production mode, they are significantly different. Design issues for the reversible
asy
fuel cell system include thermal management, humidification and catalyst type and loading.
5. Photolytic processes:
E ngi
Photolytic hydrogen production technologies use the energy from sunlight to split water
into hydrogen and oxygen. Emerging direct water-splitting technologies include photo-
biological and photo-electrochemical systems. nee
rin
Photolytic methods: Photolysis is a chemical change caused by light. Two photolytic
processes are being explored.
g.n
(a) Photo-biological methods where microbes produce hydrogen when exposed to
light, and et
(b) Photo-electrolysis where special metals are exposed to light and submersed in
water which generates enough electricity to generate hydrogen by splitting the
water.
a. Photo-biological method:
Certain photosynthetic microbes produce hydrogen in their metabolic activities using
light energy. By employing catalysts and engineered systems, hydrogen production efficiency
could reach 24%. Photo-biological technology holds a great promise because oxygen is
produced along with the hydrogen. The technology must overcome the limitation of oxygen
sensitivity of the hydrogen-evolving enzyme systems. Researchers are addressing this issue by
screening for naturally occurring organisms which are more tolerant of oxygen and by
creating new genetic forms of the organisms that can sustain hydrogen production in the


presence of oxygen. A new system is also being developed which uses a metabolic switch
'i.
(sulphur deprivation) to cycle algal cells between photosynthetic growth phase and hydrogen
production phase.
Unlike cyano-bacteria or algae, photosynthetic bacteria do not oxidize the water. They
do, however, evolve hydrogen from biomass (previously generated from sunlight, water and
carbon dioxide). These bacteria use several different enzymatic mechanisms with near-term
commercial potential for biological hydrogen production from biomass.
b. Photo-electrolysis method:
Multifunction cell technology developed by PV industry is being used for photo-
electrochemical (PEC) light harvesting systems that generate sufficient voltage to split water
ww
and they are stable in a water/electrolyte environment. Theoretical efficiency for tandem
w.E
junction systems is 42%, practical systems could achieve 18%-24% efficiency, low-cost
multi-junction amorphous silicon (a-Si) systems could achieve 7%-12% efficiency. It is one of
asy
the advantages of a direct conversion hydrogen generation system. It is not only eliminating
most of the costs of the electrolyzer but it also has the possibility of increasing the overall
E
efficiency of the process. Research results the development of PEC water splitting systems
ngi
which have shown a solar-to-hydrogen efficiency of 12.4% lower heating value (LHV) using
nee
concentrated light. Low-cost Si tandem designs with appropriate stability and performance are
also being developed. An outdoor test of Si cells resulted a solar-to-hydrogen efficiency of
7.8% LHV under natural sunlight.
rin
5.9.9. Methods of using Hydrogen in CI Engines g.n
et
The following are the two methods by which hydrogen can be used in CI engines:
Method 1:
Hydrogen is introduced with air and using spray of diesel to ignite the mixture i.e. by the
dualfuelmode, The limiting conditions are when the diesel quantity is too small to produce
effective ignition i.e, failure of ignition and when the hydrogen-air mixture is so rich that the
combustion becomes unacceptably violent. In between these limits, a wide range of diesel to
hydrogen proportions can be tolerated.
Method 2:
In this method, hydrogen is directly injected into the cylinder at the end of compression
and the gas spray is made to impinge on a hot glow plug in the combustion chamber i.e. by
surface ignition since the self-ignition temperature of hydrogen is very high. It is also possible

to feed a very lean hydrogen-air mixture during intake into an engine and then it injects the
bulk of hydrogen towards the end of compression stroke.
5.9.10. Challenges for Hydrogen Fuel
Technology validation addresses the following key challenges to pave the way for
commercialization of fuel cell and hydrogen infrastructure technologies.
1. Fuel cell cost and durability:
Statistical data for fuel cell vehicles which are operated under controlled and real-world
conditions are very limited and often proprietary. Vehicle drivability, operation and
ww
survivability in extreme climates and emissions have not yet been proven. The development
and testing of complete integrated fuel cell power systems are required to benchmark and
w.E
validate for optimal component development.
2. Hydrogen storage:
a syE
Statistical cost, durability, fast-fill, discharge performance and structural integrity data of
hydrogen storage systems will be needed to proceed with technology commercialization.
ngi
Current technology does not provide a reasonable cost and volume for transportation or
nee
stationary applications. An understanding of composite tank operating cycle life and failure
due to accident or neglect are lacking. Cycle life of hydride storage systems need to be
evaluated in real-world circumstances.
3. Hydrogen production and delivery:

r ing
.ne
The high cost of hydrogen production, low availability of the hydrogen production
t
systems, the challenge of providing safe production and delivery systems is early penetration
barriers. There are few data on the cost, efficiencies and availabilities of integrated coal-to-
hydrogen/power plants with sequestration options. Data on high-temperature production of
hydrogen from nuclear power are limited. Similarly, there is little operational, durability and
efficiency information for renewable hydrogen production systems. Hydrogen delivery
options need to be determined and assessed as a part of system demonstrations for every
potential production technology. A validation of integrated systems is required to optimize
component development.
4. Public acceptance:
The hydrogen economy will be a revolutionary change from the world today. Education
of general public, training personnel in handling and maintenance of hydrogen system

I Alternative Energy Sources i:iiMJ

components, adoption of codes and standards, development of certified procedures and
training manuals for fuel cells and safety will foster hydrogen's acceptance as a fuel.
5.9.11. Hydrogen Fueled Vehicles

There have only been a small number of prototype hydrogen vehicles made. Most of
them have been experimental vehicles made by car manufacturers. Nearly, all of these
prototype cars were equipped with internal combustion engines which are similar to gasoline.
Figure 5.7 shows a hydrogen powered bus.
ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
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Figure 5.7 Hydrogen powered bus
5.10. ENGINE MODIFICATIONS REQUIRED FOR ALTERNATE FUELS

r ing
5.10.1. Need for Engine Modification .ne
t
Impending possible energy crisis in future, rising costs and toxic emissions associated
with conventional petroleum fuels have originated people to search out and investigate the
possibility of utilization of alternate clean arid non-polluting gaseous fuels for internal
combustion engines. Due to increasing number of cars and decreasing of oil resources, the use
of alternative fuels will be inevitable in future. The alternative fuels used in gasoline and
diesel engines are becoming the interest today to use in conventional engines. The adequacy
of fuel supply, process efficiency, ease of transport, safety of storage and modifications are
required in the distribution/refueling network in the vehicle and fuel compatibility with
vehicle engine.
Two categories of fuels are explored such as alcoholic fuels and gaseous fuels. Alcohols
,
could be produced from renewable resources and they produce less exhaust pollutants.
Gaseous fuels offer cleaner combustion due to improved fuel-air mixture preparation than

I~ Automobile Engineering I
conventional liquid fuels. Specifically, the fuels are biodiesel used in a compression ignition
engine and bio-ethanol used in a spark ignition engine.
In addition, CNG (compressed natural gas) is a gaseous form of natural gas by providing
some substantial benefits compared to gasoline and diesel fuels. They offer the advantages
such as less fuel costs, high octane and clean exhaust emissions.
The use of alternative fuels may be achieved either by modifying conventional fuels
slightly in blending non-edible oils or by converting an existing engine to operate on either
original fuel or alternative fuel "dual fueling" or a specially designed engine for the new fuel
will offer better performance.
ww
The fuel usage of CNG is carried out in three ways such as dual fuel, bi-fuel and
dedicated/mono Fuel.
1. Dual fuel engine:

w.E
asy
If both diesel and natural gas are introduced into engine cylinders during compression, it
is called dual fuel engine. It is the direct development of a conventional engine.
2. Bi..Juel engine:
E ngi
The engine was developed from conventional petrol engines where the fuel system has
nee
been modified to operate either petrol or gas. When natural gas refueling is not available,
normal running on petrol is possible.
3. Dedicated/single fuel: rin

"
g.n
It is a specially designed engine to operate only natural gas under optimum level.
6,10.2. Engine Modification for Bio-Ethanol (Alcohol) and Gasohol

et
'The addition of an ethanol E 10 blend to petrol wiII increase the octane number of the
petrol fuel hy two points. Therefore, bio-ethanol is termed as an "octane enhancer". An
.-ethanclE 10 blend of fuel will normally have an oxygen content of 3.5%. The oxygen present
in.ethanol affects the air to fuel ratio. The air / fuel ratio of ethanol is 12.7:1 which is slightly
less than the 14,.6: 1 air / Wei ratio used for conventional fuels.
1. Fuel filters:
It is necessary to change vehicle's fuel filter more often as ethanol blends can loosen
solid deposits in fuel tanks and fuel lines.


2. Cold starting:
'iii.
Ethanol blends have high latent heat of evaporation than pure petrol thereby having poor
cold start ability in winter. Hence, some vehicles have small petrol tank fitted containing pure
petrol for starting the vehicle in cold weather.
3. Mechanical modifications required/or bioethanol as afuel in SI engine:
Generally, the modifications might be carried out in the following elements of engine
irrespective of type of engines such as changes to cylinder walls, cylinder heads, valves and
valve seats, pistons, piston rings, intake manifolds and carburetors, nickel plating of steel fuel
lines, fuel tanks to prevent ethanol E20 corrosion and high fuel flow rate injectors to
ww
compensate oxygenate qualities of ethanol.
When gasoline containing more than 25% ethanol is used in SI engines, some
w.E
modification must be made to the engine. Before mechanical modifications are undertaken on
an engine, a choice must be made to the ease of reversibility of the engine change and the
asy
availability of alcohol fuel for all anticipated vehicle lise, cost of the engine modifications, and
expertise required in making the engine modification.
(a) Reversible modifications: E ngi

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These modifications can be done with the relative ease to permit operation on convention
fuels. These modifications include as follows:
1. Changing the spark timing.

rin
2. Changing the vacuum advance.
g.n
3. Modifying the carburetion for increased fuel flow.
e
4. Heating the air-fuel mixture to ensure the vapourization of the alcohol, and t
5. Using various methods to enhance the cold starting ability of the engine.
(i) Spark timing:

The spark timing of an engine must be advanced to run on ethanol. It is done to provide
ethanol with enough time to complete combustion since ethanol burns slower than gasoline.
(ii) Vacuum advance:

The vacuum advance affects the fuel economy of the engine operating on ethanol. So, the
vacuum advance is set to give an additional 10°of advance over idle ignition time.

IDD Automobile Engineering I

(iii) Carburettor modification:
Generally, engines require more volume of fuel when operated on ethanol as compared to
operation on gasoline. The correct stoichiometric air-fuel mixture for ethanol is 9:1 while the
correct mixture for gasoline is 14.7: 1. It is due to the difference in energy content per volume
because ethanol has low energy content per volume than gasoline. The fuel-flow increase is
achieved by modifying the carburetor. The general procedure for the fuel flow increase is to
enlarge the carburettor fuel jet diameter 1.5 times. It can be done by drilling out the original to
replace the jet.
(iv) Preheating air-fuel mixture:
ww
The air-ethanol fuel mixture requires 2.5 times more heat for vapourization th~ gasoline.
Therefore, some additional heat may be desirable for the air fuel mixture before it enters the
cylinder.
w.E
(v) Cold start modification:
asy
One of main problems in using ethanol engine is low temperature. This problem arises
E
due to the requirement of more heat for vapourization of ethanol than gasoline. The cold-start
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problem with ethanol can be overcome in several different ways. It can be overcome by the
use of additives.
(b) Irreversible modifications: nee

rin
Modifications are hard to remove. They also are usually more expensive, require more
g.n
expertise and can be very hazardous when the engine fails. The possible modifications are:
1. Cam shaft change,
2. Increasing the engine compression ratio and
3. Using turbochargers or superchargers.
et
(i) Camshaft change:
The cam shaft is changed in such a way to provide more RPM torque, easier starting and
better fuel economy.
(ii) Increasing in compression ratio:

The compression ratio is increased to increase the octane rating of ethanol to produce
more power. The increased compression ratio is from 7: 2: I to 11:1.
(iii) Using turbochargers or superchargers:

The turbochargers and superchargers are used in order to increase the fuel admit pressure
during suction stroke of the engine.


4. Mechanical modificationsrequiredfor bioethanolas afuel ill CI Engine:
The efficiency of ethanol used CI engines will not be beneficial than SI engines. The
following modifications may be carried out for the possible production of efficiency given
below.
1. Converting diesel engine to a high compression spark ignition engine.
2. Modifying the diesel to tolerate straight ethanol injection.
3. Changing carburetor for the use of ethanol, and
4. Using dual injection of ethanol and diesel fuel.
ww
5.10.3 Engine Modification for Biodiesel
w.E
Almost all modern diesel engines will run on biodiesel by providing significant
efficiency positively. The biodiesel is of high enough quality. In general, biodiesel engines
need less engine modification than bioethanol.
(i) Rubber seals: asy
E ngi
Older vehicles rubber seals used in fuel lines may require the replacement by non-rubber
products because the biodiesel reacts with rubber. If a low blend is used (5% biodiesel), then
nee
the concentration ofbiodiesel is not high enough to cause this problem.
(ii) Coldstarting:
rin
g.n
Cold starting can be a problem sometimes when using high blends. It is due to biodiesel
thickening more during cold weather than fossil diesel. The proper arrangements should be
reduce the viscosity. This effect will not be a problem with lower blends. e
incorporated either by having a fuel heating system or using biodegradable additives which
t
(iii) Oil changing:
Engines running on biodiesel tend to require more frequent oil changes. It will be the
case for blends above 20%.
(lv)Engine timing:
For higher blends, the engine performance will be improved with a slight change to
engine timing of 2° or 3° for 100% blend. The use of advanced injection timing and increased
injection pressure has been known to reduce NOx emissions.
(v) Engine modiflcations:

Before installing an engine of greater capacity than one originally supplied, a statement
of requirements should be obtained. The following factors will be considered:
[am Automobile Engineering I

1. Weight of the vehicle
2. Power and torque output in relation to braking
3. Strength of the vehicle
4. Effect on steering and suspension components
S. The effect on vehicle handling.
5.11. PERFORMANCE OF SI AND CI ENGINES WITH ALTERNATE FUELS

Ihe performance of alternate fuels can be tested by using various blended fuels of
conventional petrol and diesel. For example, the performance of Compressed Natural Gas
ww
(CNG), blended ethanol and methanol gasoline fuels used in SI engines and the performance
w.E
ofbiodiesel and soya bean oil as alternate fuels in CI engine are reported.
asy
5.11.1. Performance of a 4·Stroke SI Engine Using CNG
The experiments are carried out at full load conditions of an engine with variable speed
E ngi
operation to compute the performance parameters. The particulars of various components
pertaining to the test facility are single cylinder petrol engine, eddy current dynamometer,
nee
exhaust gas analyzer, fuel temperature control device, CNG mass flow meter, petrol mass
flow meters, fuel consumption device, data acquisition system, CNG conversion kit and CNG
storage cylinder.
rin
g.n
The test engine is converted from a petrol engine to CNG mode and modified with a
et
suitable bi-fuelling system. The performance test is carried out for both fuels (CNG and
petrol) at engine speed ranging from 1500-5500 rpm. All tests are carried out at full load
conditions.
The volumetric efficiency of CNG fuelled engine is less than petrol engine as CNG
engine occupies more volume of inlet air as shown in Figure 5.8. The engine torque and brake
power of CNG fuelled engine are considerably lower than a petrol engine. It is due to lower
volumetric efficiency of CNG fuelled engine as shown in Figure 5.9 and Figure 5.10.
The brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) is inversely proportional to engine air/fuel
ratio for CNG fuelled engine and petrol fuelled engine with respect to engine speed as shown
in Figure 5.11. Figure 5.12 shows that brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is less for
CNG engine than petrol engine for the given engine speed range of 1500 to 5500 rpm.

I Alternative Energy Sources mal

~ YO
0
..... - ....... -- __
.S 85
>--.
u _,
::: 80
.~
u
E 75
II) -CNG
·c 70
o
-
<U
E 65
:::l
- - Petrol
0 60
;>-
1500 2500 3500 4500
Engine Speed in Rpm
ww Figure 5.8 Variation of volumetric efficiency versus engine speed
w.E 'J..)
9
a Z
...
c I
8.5
8 syE
.5
()
:::l
r::r
7.5
7 ngi -CNG
- - Petrol
r3
....
6.5
6 nee
1500 2500 3500
Engine Speedin Rpm
4500
r 5500
ing
.ne
7
Figure 5.9 Variation of Torque versus engine speed
t
6 -- ....
~ 5
..:.c::
.5 4
....
() -eNG
::: 3
0-
0 - - Petrol
2
1500 2500 3500 4500 5500

Engine Speed in Rpm
Figure 5.10 Variation of power versus engine speed


- ",
l~
17 , ,- ,..... ~,
16
~ -'
co 15
.5
,
0.. 14 -eNG
t.:J
~ 13 - - Petrol
co 12
II
1500 2500 3500 4500 5500
EngineSpeedin Rpm
ww Figure 5.11 Variation of BMEP versus engine speed
w.E, , _ 3M
34 ~
-as _-....
..=
30
26 '- .... ,
_, ~
~
yE
~
~
.._
oIl 22 -eNG
.S 18
U
t.t...
Vl
14 ngi - - Petrol
co 10
1500 2500 3500 nee
4500 5500
Engine Speed in Rpm
r ing
Figure 5.12 Variation of BSFC versus engine speed
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5.11.2.Performance of 51 Engine Fuelled with Methane, Methanol, Hydrogen,
Propane and Ethanol Gasoline Fuels
t
The power, torque, brake mean effective pressure, brake specific fuel consumption,
methane, methanol, hydrogen, propane and ethanol gasoline fuels at various engine speed are
tested.
The power and torque developed by the engine depend on an engine's in-cylinder mixture
conditions. Therefore, the, volumetric efficiency plays a major role among other engine
parameters. The liquid fuels produce a cooling effect on intake charge as they have the latent
heat of vapourization during vapourizing. Therefore, the density of intake mixture is increased
by enhancing the engine volumetric efficiency but it is not for gaseous fuels. Alternatively,
gaseous fuels have the effect on decreasing volumetric efficiency due to large volume of fuel
in inlet mixture. Therefore, the decrease in volumetric efficiency happens when the engine is

fuelled by gaseous fuels as shown in Figure 5.13. For example, the engine has the minimum
volumetric efficiency when fuelled with hydrogen and methane. The other fuels are liquid at
ambient temperature. So, these fuels cool faster due to the largest latent heat of vapourization.
-Gasoline
-- -Methane
----- Methanol
--Hydrogen
-Propane
ww -0- -Ethanol
w.E Engine Speed in Rpm
0/ different fuels
asy
Figure 5.13 Volumetric efficiency with engine speed
The engine produces less power when operating on methane and hydrogen as shown in
E
Figure 5.14 which is due to low volumetric efficiency of methane and hydrogen fueled engine.
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The engine power is more for gasoline than other/fuels because the engine is designed for
gasoline.
nee
rin
iVV
g.n
c,
80
c::: -G~oline
....
"
:....
0
>
0..
"...
.;;,,:
~
60
40
---Methane
-----Methanol
-llydrogen
e t
o::l --Propane
-0- -Ethanol
20
1500 2500 3500 4500 5500
Engine Speed in Rpm
Figure 5.14 Variation of brake power versus engine speedfor dlfferent fuels
For naturally aspirated spark ignition engines, the maximum pressure values are in the
range 850 kPa to 1050 kPa at the engine speed for maximum torque. At the maximum power,
BMEP values are 10% to 15% lower as shown in Figure 5.15. The reduction in BMEP with
the methane fuel is throughout the speed range due to longer ignition delay and lower flame
speed of methane. As the combustion starts earlier with respect to TDe, there is a greater

amount of negative work done on the piston before TDC compared to gasoline. The remaining
BMEP is lost due to the displacement of air by gaseous fuels.
... 10
.E 9
c: -Gasoline
0-
UJ
8 ---Methane
:::;'E 7
co -----Methanol
6 -Hydrogen
5 -Propane
4 -0 -Ethanol
ww 1500 2500 3500

EngineSpeed in Rpm
4500 5500
w.E Figure 5.15 Variation oj BMEP versus engine speedJor differentJuels
asy
The brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) of methanol is the highest, as shown in
Figure 5.16, followed by ethanol due to the lower heating values of methanol and ethanol and
E ngi
followed by lesser values of their stoichiometric air/fuel ratio. Simultaneously, .BSFC of
methane is less than gasoline because methane has higher heating value than gasoline.
nee
Therefore, the specified amount of heat can be released with less amount of fuel. Due to the
highest heating value and highest stoichiometric air/fuel ratio of hydrogen, the engine
develops less BSFC with hydrogen.
rin
....
700
g.n
,..600
~ 500
.~400
.--.
-
__
. --a.... . __ '-e-"'
__ .-Q -Gasoline
- --Methane
e t
----- Methanol
~300~==~~~~~~~~_~ __
~_
t/) "00
-Hydrogen
CO -
100
o
+---------------
-1----...------,-----.--------,
-Propane
-O-Ethanol
1500 2500 3500 4500 5500
Engine Speed in Rpm
Figure 5.16 Variation oj BSFC versus engine speedJor different fuels


5.11.3. Performance of Compression Ignition (CI) Engine Fuelled with Biodlesel
,j'. J
The performance test of bio-hydro carbon fuels is carried on the engine similar to
conventional engines. An electrical dynamometer is loaded when the engine reaches the
operating temperature. After attaining the equilibrium state, the speed, fuel consumption and
manometer head are noted. For example, the same test is conducted for various blends of 825
(25%biodiesel) and B50 (50% biodiesel). The emission values are also recorded.
•.
0 35
c"
w- ~ 30
0:: 25 -Diesel
ww 20 - - -B .25
····-850
15
.Ea
I()-1-----.- ----,------..,------,
.2
syE 3
Brake power (kW)
4 s
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Figure 5.17 Variation of BTE versus brake power
nee
At full load conditions, 850 provides higher brake thermal efficiency (BTE) than B25
rin
and pure diesel fuel as shown in Figure 5.17. At the same time, the brake thermal efficiency of
the biodiesel blend 825 is lower than pure diesel-at full load conditions because the brake
g.
thermal efficiency depends on the combustion quality of the fuel. Therefore, 850 gives better
blend to operate Ie engines to produce good results. net
,_ 0.7
.J::.
~ 0,(>
.u.
en 0.5
.;.t!.
-Diesel
,:: 0.4
u - - - =_"=_-:..:'1- ....... - - - B 25
~ 0.3
-----850
0.2
0.1
2 3 4 5
Brake power (kW)
Figure 5.18 Variation of BSFC versus brake power

1_ AutomobileEngin~ring I
The specific fuel consumption (SFC) mainly depends on the mass flow rate of hydrogen.
The mass flow rate of hydrogen is low for biodiesel whereas for diesel and it is slightly high.
Therefore, it leads to increase in specific fuel consumption. At low load condition, the specific
fuel consumption of fuel blend B25 is lower than diesel as shown in Figure 5.18. At full load
condition, the specific fuel consumption of the fuel blend B25 and B50 is higher than diesel
fuel. At the same time, the specific fuel consumption decreases with increase in injection
pressure.
5.11.4. Performance of Soyabean Oil as an Alternate Fuel for CI Engine
ww
The engine is tested. for 100% diesel and 50-50% soya blended diesel. At higher
compression ratio, the temperature and pressure of air at the beginning of injection are higher.
w.E
100% diesel oil has the lowest BSFC than blended diesel due to the difference in specific
gravities and heating values. Therefore, the engine responds to load by increasing the fuel
a
flow for the lower energy value fuels. Hence, BSFC of soyabean oil is increased considerably
syE
than 100% diesel as shown in Figure 5.19.
0.9
,,
ngi
.E 0.8
~ 0.7
..:.::
'20 0.6
,,
,, nee
..:.::
.s
u
0.5
0.4
w...
,
,,
" ... .. ..__
r ing
-Soya oil
---Diesel
~ 0.3
0.2 -----
.ne
0.1
o 0.5 1.5 2
Brake power (kW)
2.5 3 3.; t
Figure 5.19 Variation 0/ BSFC versus brake power
The brake thermal efficiency (BTE) decreases as the proportion of soyabean oil increases
in the soyabean oil -diesel oil blends as shown in Figure 5.20. The wall temperature of the
combustion chamber increases with the compression ratio increase thereby reducing its
volumetric efficiency. The decrease in volumetric efficiency and the effect of ignition delay
are the main reasons for the deterioration of fuel combustion resulting the increase in fuel
consumption and reducing BTE.

30
25 ,
,,
20 ,,
..= ,,"
,,
c"
15 -Soya oil
.S ,"
!::: 10 ---Diesel
i!l
S
0
0 0.5 1.5 1.5 3 3.5
Brake power (kW)
ww Figure 5.20 Variation of BTE versus brake power
w.E
5.12. COMBUSTION "OF 51 AND CI ENGINES WITH ALTERNATE FUELS
The start of combustion before Top Dead Centre (TOC) when running on pure diesel fuel
asy
is delayed for dual-fuel operation. Since the fuel metering system continues to inject fuel
En
throughout the delay period in dual-fuel systems large quantities of premixed fuel would be
involved when ignition finally occurs. Only a small quantity of pilot fuel reacts with O2 before
auto-ignition of the mixture. gin
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The high frequency pressure fluctuations occur during knocking by decaying its
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amplitude with time. These pressure fluctuations produce the sharp metallic noise called
pilot fuel. This ratio is selected on the basis of load and speed of the engine. g.
knock. The degree of knock depends on the ratio of the alternative fuel (natural gas) to the
net
Usually, the ignition occurs at different points in both SI and CI engines when the
alternate fuel is used after the delay period unlike pilot fuel engine. Both ignition and
combustion processes take place in two stages. The first combustion will take place for pilot
or main fuel during auto-ignition followed by a finite time interval and then the second
combustion will start. This finite time is sufficient for the heat transfer to end gas to take place
which enhances the end gas pressure, temperature and reaction rate. These processes are
powered by the combustion chamber design and the level of turbulence in the cylinder.
The increase in speed increases the ignition delay when running on pure diesel fuel. The
pressure rise is due to ignition of pilot fuel which influences the heat release during
combustion. This pressure rise can be viewed by the oscilloscope screen which is less than
maximum peak as shown in Figure 5.21 and Figure 5.22.

--Diesel
---B25%
••~•• B50%
-200 -150 -100 -50 o 50 100 150 200

Crank angle (deg.)
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a syE -Diesel
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40 r80
ing
Crank angle (deg.)
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Figure 5.22 Variation of heat release versus crank angle
5.13. EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF SI AND CI ENGINES WITH ALTERNATE

t
FUELS
The emissions of both SI and CI engines are carbon monoxide, un-burnt hydrocarbons,
nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide in exhaust gas. The variation of exhaust gas temperature is
with load for various blends and diesel. The exhaust gas temperature increases with increase
in brake power for all blends.
(a) Carbon Monoxide Emission

It is the amount of carbon monoxide (CO) content in exhaust gases emitting from
burning of different fuel types. CO concentration in exhaust mostly depends on air/fuel ratio.

I Alternative Energy Sources _

A rich mixture causes more CO in exhaust gases. The closer is to stoichiometric point, less
will be the amount of CO. Carbon to hydrogen ratio of fuel is another parameter in which
formation of CO is affected. In lean mixtures, there is another additional source of CO caused
by the flame interaction with walls, oil films and deposits. Hydrogen produces no CO because
there are no carbon atoms in hydrogen molecules but there is a lubricant oil film on cylinder
walls that interact with the flame and it produces a little amount of CO even with hydrogen
fuelled engine.
(b) Un-burnt hydrocarbon emission

It is the measurement of un-burnt hydrocarbon (HC) in exhaust gases. The temperature
caused by combustion is very high inside the cylinder. As the piston expends, some amount of
ww
oil is evaporated by heat. Simultaneously, the evaporated oil and incompletely burned oil
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contribute to HC emission.
(c) Nitric oxide (NOx) emission
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NOx formation take place at high temperature and increase of NOx is caused by higher
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combustion temperature of hydrogen and methane. There are two main reasons for this
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increase in temperature. First, gaseous fuels do not have the cooling effect which will cause a
higher :nitial temperature for in-cylinder charge. Next, more spark advance is required for
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methane due to the low flame speed of methane which rises a peak of combustion temperature
and pressure.
(d) Nitrogen Dioxide Emissions rin

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The emission ofN02 gradually increases with increase in brake load on all fuel types.
(e) Carbon Dioxide Emissions

e t
The CO2 emission for all blended fuels is less as compared to diesel at all loads. The
rising trend of CO2 emission with load is due to high fuel entry as the load increases.
Biofuels contain lower carbon content as compared to diesel and hence, the CO2 emission is
comparatively low.
5.14. ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Battery-powered vehicles give off virtually no pollution and offer one of the best options
for reducing motor vehicle emissions in polluted cities. The driving range of today's electric
cars is limited by the amount of power and the battery can provide. Current batteries take
hours to recharge and the cost of electric vehicles is high. Recent developments in electric
vehicle technology show much promise for future.

lma Automobile Engineering I

5.14.1. History of Electric Vehicles
Electric vehicles (EVs) have been around for a very long time. In early 1900s, there were
more electric vehicles than gasoline-powered cars. The vehicle pictured in Figure 5.23 is a
Rauch and Lang Electric Sedan which was built around 1922.
Gasoline was very expensive during those days. It also was hard to start a gasoline
engine because it had to turn and turn and turn a crank in front of the car to get it to start. They
did not have a key to start the car such as now. Gasoline vehicles were also noisy and put out
a lot of smoke. The cars either had no mufflers or mufflers did not do a good job. So, electric
vehicles were a big hit. At one time, there were 50,000 electric vehicles on roads and streets of
ww
the United States. But electric vehicles soon faded away such as the horse-driven carriage.
Ways of cheaply making gasoline were discovered. A new invention called an electric starter
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was made. It started the car with a key instead of a crank. A gasoline car could go much
farther than an electric one. So, gasoline-powered vehicles soon became the main method of
a
transporting people.
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Figure 5.23 Rauch and Lang Electric Sedan .ne
Automobile companies are making cars cleaner and cleaner. Ten cars built today to t
produce the same amount of pollution that it would get from just one car built 15 years ago.
Oil companies are creating cleaner fuels such as a new gasoline called reformulated gasoline.
But electric vehicles are back on the road.
5.14.2. Working of Electric Vehicles
Electric vehicles (EVs) do not burn gasoline in an engine. They use electricity stored on
the car in batteries. Sometimes, 12 or 24 batteries or more are needed to power the car such as
a remote-controlled and model electric car. EVs have an electric motor which turns wheels
and a battery to run.

I Alternative Energy Sources iHM

Electricity, the same energy that lights lamps and runs TV is stored in batteries on an EV.
In an EV, batteries and other energy storage devices are used to store the electricity that
powers the electric motor in the vehicle. Figure 5.24 shows the typical arrangement of
batteries and electric motor in an electric car. The batteries can be lead acid batteries or Ni-cad
(nickel-cadmium). EV batteries must be replenished by plugging in the vehicle to a power
source.
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w.E
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electricity
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Figure 5.24 Electric vehicles
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Better batteries which hold more energy and last longer are being developed. In 2001, by
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'the time today's fifth graders are ready to drive, electric vehicles are able to go 150 to 200
miles before recharging.
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Some EVs have on-board chargers whereas others plug into a charger located outside the
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vehicle but both must use electricity which comes from the power grid to replenish the
emission vehicle and its motor produces no exhaust 01 emissions. e

battery. Although electricity production may contribute to air pollution, an EV is a zero
t
5.14.3. Electric Vehicles
Electric Vehicles (EVs) come in a variety of shapes and sizes. They can be light-duty
delivery vehicles or heavy-duty trams and buses because the range of an EV (approximately
80 miles) is limited by weight, design and type of battery used. EVs are particularly well
suited to short-distance and high-use applications.
One of the first modem EVs was the General Motors Impact. GM changed its name and
started selling GM "EV1" in 1997. This sleek looking car even sets a World Record of more
than 180 miles per hour. EV I is very aerodynamic. It means that air slides around the body of

''''liM Automobile I
Engineering
the car very easily. Less air resistance or drag is required less energy to power the car at
freeway speeds. EV I is as aerodynamic as somejet fighter aircraft.
Some EVs such as Toyota RAV-4 EV are made by major auto companies. Other electric
vehicles built today are made by small car companies or by people who build them in their
own garages as a hobby. Some people build cars from kits and make them look such as
gasoline roadsters or such as sports cars.
Other people convert regular cars into electric vehicles. They pull out the motor and gas
tank and put an electric motor and batteries into the car. Beginning in 1999, nearly all of the
major auto companies such as Ford, General Motors, Toyota, Chrysler and Honda offered at
ww
least one model electric car. The numbers has dropped in 2002 with many auto companies
working on hybrid vehicles which are the combination of small internal combustion engine
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and an electric motor.
There are other types of electric vehicles. Many cities use electric-powered buses,
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trolleys, subways or light-rail. Even most trains are electric. Other places will use electric
buses with batteries because they do not want wires over roads.
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Other people are using electric-powered bicycles. The motor is mounted above the rear
wheel and under the seat. The bag which is hanging from the middle holds the battery. The
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bike can go 20 miles per hour and it can travel 20 miles before needing a recharge. For people
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who have disabilities, an electric-powered bike might allow them to be free to act as outdoors.
5.14.4. Maintenance ccnstderattons

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et
Service requirements for EVs are few than gasoline-powered vehicles. EVs d~ not
require tune-ups, oil changes, timing belts, water pumps, radiators, fuel injectors or tailpipes.
They require battery maintenance,
Electric batteries have a limited number of charging cycles (the number of times a battery
can be charged and discharged). and it will typically need to be replaced within 3-6 years.
Different types of batteries (such as lead-acid, nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion) are
available depending on the manufacturer and vehicle.
Auto suppliers will assist fleets with maintenance training for EVs. Some colleges also
offer the training for EV (and other alternative fuel vehicle) mechanics.

I Alternative Energy Sources 'ftW

5.14.5. Benefits of Electric Vehicles
EVs are zero emission vehicles. It means, they produce no tailpipe or evaporative
emissions that contribute to air pollution and global warming (although electricity production
is not pollution-free).
The cost of electricity per kilowatt-hour usually compares favorably to gasoline but it
varies depending on location. More than 95% of the electricity used to charge EVs originates
from domestic resources. So, driving an EV reduces the nation's dependence on imported oil.
As mentioned previously, EV s require less service because they do not need oil and they
have no timing belts, water pumps, radiators, fuel injectors or tailpipes. Advantages of electric
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vehicles are summarised below:
1. There is no pollution due to emission. i.e., zero emission.

2.
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It ensures smooth operation. i.e., vibration and noise is less.
3.
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Cost of operation is less.
Less maintenance is required.
5.
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It is easy to start the vehicle.
6.
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It takes up less space on the road. So, they help to reduce traffic congestion.
5.14.6. Limitations ee
of Electric Vehicles
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g.
Most EVstoday can only go about 100 miles before you need to plug and recharge their
batteries. They are not such as the energizer that keeps on going. But, 50 to 100 miles is
plenty for most people who only drive for a short distance to and from work, to and
school or to do some shopping such as Ford.
net from
Some EVs with special batteries can go for a longer distance. The car that is made by a
company in Massachusetts called Solectria. It is called "Sunrise." In 1995, a Solectria Sunrise
set a world record for going 238 miles on one charge.
Electric vehicles are more expensive to buy than gasoline cars but when more and more
EVs are made the price of EVs should drop to the same cost as gasoline cars. Summary of
limitations of electric vehicles is given below:
1. It has less initial torque.

-
2. It is more expensive.
3. Frequent recharging of battery is needed and also battery charging needs more time.

'4'1- 4. The performance is poor.

Automobile Engineering I·
5. Less variety of vehicles is available in the market.
5.15. HYBRID VEHICLES
The word hybrid means, something is mixed together from two things. Usually, it refers
to plants 0" animals that are breed from different dissimilar parents. Hybrid electric vehicles
(HEVs) typically combine the internal combustion engine of a conventional vehicle with the
battery and electric motor of an electric vehicle.
The combination offers low emissions, power, range and convenient fueling of
conventional (gasoline and diesel) vehicles and they never need to be plugged in. The inherent
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flexibility ofHEVs makes them well suited for fleet and personal transportation.
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5.15.1. Working Principle of Hybrid Vehicles
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Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) are powered by two energy sources such as an energy
conversion unit (combustion engine or fuel cell) and an energy storage device (batteries or
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ultra-capacitors) as shown in Figure 5.25. The energy conversion unit may be powered by
gasoline, methanol, compressed natural gas, hydrogen or other alternative fuels. Hybrid
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electric vehicles have the potential to be two to three times more fuel-efficient than
conventional vehicles.
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Inverter Battery pack
Figure 5.25 Hybrid vehicles
HEVs can have a parallel design, a series design or a combination of these two. In a
parallel design, the energy conversion unit and electric propulsion system are connected
directly to vehicle's wheels. The primary engine is used for highway driving. The electric
motor provides the added power during hill climbing, acceleration and other periods of high


demand. In a series design, the primary engine is connected to a generator which produces the
electricity. The electricity charges the batteries which drive an electric motor which powers
wheels. HEYs can also be built to use the series configuration at low speed and the parallel
configuration for highway driving and acceleration.
In contrast to electric vehicles, batteries in HEYs do not need to be plugged into
recharge. Instead, they are recharged using a regenerative braking or by using an on-board
generator.
5.15.2. Parallel HEV Design
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A hybrid electric vehicle (HEY) with a parallel configuration has a direct mechanical
connection between hybrid power unit and wheels as in a conventional vehicle but it also has
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an electric motor which drives wheels as shown in Figure 5.26. For example, a parallel vehicle
could use power produced by an internal combustion engine for highway driving while using
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both engine and electric motor power for accelerating.
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- ---~
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Driver Power
Electric Power
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Engine 0000
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Motor/Generator
Drive Wheels
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Reduction
gear
Figure 5.26 Parallel HEV design

Some benefits of a parallel configuration are as follows:
1. A smaller engine provides more efficient operation and therefore, better fuel economy
is without sacrificing acceleration power. The vehicle has more power because both
engine and motor supply power simultaneously.
2. Most parallel vehicles do not need a separate generator because the motor regenerates
batteries.

3. Power does not need to be redirected through batteries and it can therefore be more
efficient.
5.15.3. Series HEV Design

A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) with a series configuration uses the heat engine or fuel
cell with a generator to produce electricity for the battery pack and electric motor as shown in
Figure 5.27. Series HEVs have no mechanical connection between hybrid power unit and
wheels. All motive power is transferred from chemical energy to mechanical energy and from
mechanical energy to electrical energy and then back to mechanical energy to drive wheels.
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----~
Driver Power
Electric Power
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Inverter
Engine 0000 ngi Motor
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Drive Wheels
Reduction
gear
Figure 5.27 Series HEV design et

There are some benefits of a series configuration as follows:
1. The engine never idles which reduces vehicle emissions.

2. The engine can be continuously operated in its most efficient region.
3. The engine drives a generator to run at optimum performance.
4. The design allows for a variety of options when mounting engine and vehicle
components.
5. Some series hybrids do not need a transmission.
The disadvantage is that series HEVs require larger and therefore, heavier battery packs
than parallel vehicles. In addition, the engine works hard to maintain the battery charge

because the system is not operating in parallel. There is also inefficiency of converting the
chemical energy to mechanical to electrical energy and back to mechanical energy.
5.15.4. Hybrid Electric Vehicle Components
A hybrid electric vehicle (HEY) is an optimized mix of various components. A typical

hybrid configuration is shown in Figure 5.28.
The following components are primarily used in hybrid vehicles:
I. Electric traction motors/controllers.
ww 2. Electric energy storage systems such as batteries and ultra-capacitors.

3. Hybrid power units such as spark ignition engines, compression ignition direct
w.Einjection (diesel) engines, gas turbines and fuel cells.

4. Fuel systems for hybrid power units.
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5. Transmissions.
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To help in reducing emissions and improve vehicle efficiencies, the following systems
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and components are being improved through research and development:
1. Emission control systems.

2. Energy management and systems control.
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3. Thermal management of components. rin
4. Lightweight and aerodynamic body/chassis.
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5. Low rolling resistance (including body design and tires).
6. Reduction of accessory loads.
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Figure 5.28 Configuration of hybrid vehicle

IUD Automobile Engineering I

1. Hybrid electric vehicle motors/controllers:
Motors are energy suppliers of HEY drive systems. In HEY, an electric traction motor
converts the electrical energy from the energy storage unit to mechanical energy which drives
wheels of the vehicle. Unlike a traditional vehicle, where the engine must "ramp up" before
the full torque can be provided and an electric motor provides full torque at low speed. This
characteristic gives the vehicle excellent "off the line" acceleration.
2. Hybrid electric vehicle batteries:
Battery is an essential component of HEYs. Although a few production of HEYs with
advanced batteries has been introduced in the market, no current battery technology has
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demonstrated an economically acceptable combination of power, energy efficiency and life
cycle for high-volume production vehicles. The various types of batteries used in hybrid
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vehicles are explained below.
(i) Lead-Acid batteries:

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Lead-acid batteries can be designed to be high power, inexpensive, safe and reliable. A
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recycling infrastructure is in place for them. But low specific energy, poor cold temperature
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performance and short calendar and cycle life are still impediments to their use. Advanced
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high-power lead-acid batteries are being developed for HEY applications.
(ii) Nickel-cadmium batteries:
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Although nickel-cadmium batteries used in many electronic consumer products have
high specific energy and better life cycle than lead-acid batteries, they do not deliver sufficient
power and they are not being considered for HEY applications.
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(iii) Nickel-metal hydride batteries:
Nickel-metal hydride batteries used routinely in computer and medical equipment offer
t
the reasonable specific energy and specific power capabilities. Nickel-metal hydride batteries
have a much longer life cycle than lead acid batteries and they are safe and abuse-tolerant.
These batteries have been used successfully in producing electric vehicles and recently in low-
volume production HEYs. The main challenges with nickel-metal hydride batteries are their
high cost, high self-discharge and heat generation at high temperatures, need to control losses
of hydrogen and low cell efficiency.
(iv) Lithium ion batteries:
The lithium ion batteries are rapidly penetrating into laptop and cell-phone markets
because of their high specific energy. They also have high specific power, high-energy
efficiency, good high-temperature performance and low self-discharge. Components of

I· Alternative Energy Sources om 1

lithium-ion batteries could also be recycled. These characteristics make lithium ion batteries
suitable for HEV applications. However, to make them commercially viable for HEVs, further
development is needed similar to EV-design versions including improvement in calendar and
cycle life, higher degree of cell and battery safety, abuse tolerance and acceptable cost.
(v) Lithium polymer batteries:

Lithium polymer batteries with high specific energy initially developed for EV
applications also have the potential to provide high specific power for HEV applications. The
other key characteristics of the lithium polymer are safety, good cycle and calendar life. The
battery could be commercially viable if the cost is lowered and increased specific power
-batteries are developed.
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3. Hybrid electric vehicle power units:
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(i) Spark ignition engines:
A Spark Ignition (SI) engine runs on an Otto cycle. Most gasoline engines run on a
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modified Otto cycle. This cycle uses a stoichiometric air-fuel mixture which is combined prior
to enter the combustion chamber. Once in the combustion chamber, the mixture is compressed
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and then ignited using a spark plug (spark ignition). SI engine is controlled by limiting the
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amount'of air allowed into the engine. It is accompushed through the use of a throttling valve
placed on the air intake (carburetor or throttle body).
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(ii) Compression ignition engines:
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Progress continues to advance the compression-ignition direct-injection (CIDl) engine
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which has the highest thermal efficiency of any internal combustion engine. Challenges to
improvements include a lower specific power than gasoline engine, significant particulate
matter, nitrogen oxides in exhaust, noise, vibration and smell of the engine.
The recent advancements in high-speed automotive diesel engmes which address some of
t
these shortcomings have made them nearly ideal candidates for HEV applications. These
advancements include h~h-pressure direct fuel injection, low oxides of nitrogen catalysts and
sophisticated electronic controls. With a thermal efficiency upward of 40% and well-
understood maintenance, reliability, manufacturing and operating characteristics, the high-
speed CIDI engine shows a great promise as a near-term hybrid power unit.
(iii) Gas turbine engines:

The gas turbine engine runs on a Bryton cycle using a continuous combustion process. In
this cycle, a compressor (usually radial flow for automotive applications) raises the pressure
and temperature of the inlet air. The air is then moved into the burner where the fuel is

1_ I fl,ltomobile Engineerlnf/l
injected and combusted to raise the temperature of air. Power is produced when the heated
high-pressure mixture is expanded through a turbine and cooled through a condenser. When a
turbine engine is directly coupled to a generator, it is often called turbo generator or turbo
alternator.
The power output of a turbine is controlled through the amount of fuel injected into the
burner. Many turbines have adjustable vanes and gearing to decrease the fuel consumption
during partial load conditions and to improve acceleration.
(iv) Fuel cells:

Fuel cells generate electricity through an electrochemical reaction that combines
ww
hydrogen with oxygen in ambient air. Pure hydrogen or any fossil fuel that has been
"reformed," can be used to produce hydrogen gas. Methanol is a common fuel choice. For the
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most part, the fuel cell's only emission is water vapour giving it potential as the cleanest
hybrid power unit alternative. Efficient, quiet and reliable fuel cells are predicted to
a
.demonstrate energy conversion efficiencies up to 50% relatively high in comparison to 20%-
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25% efficiency of standard SI gasoline engines.
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The choice of fuel for a fuel-cell-powered HEV has important implications for required
infrastructure, system accessories, efficiency, cost and design. Although its viability has been
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well-proven in the space program, very high capital costs, large size, long start-up times and
immature technologies make it a longer-term enabling technology for an HEV.
4. Fuel systems for hybrid electric vehicle: rin

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The two primary fuels used in automobiles today are gasoline and diesel. The
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infrastructure is in place to produce, refine, truck or tank diesel and gasoline. Many of today's
HEVs and available in near future will use either gasoline or diesel to fuel the hybrid power
units. However, to ensure the security of our oil supply and to address increasing
environmental concerns associated with gasoline and diesel, alternative fuels are very
I
attractive. The opportunity for fuels such as biodiesel, natural gas (eNG & LNG), ethanol,
hydrogen and propane to be used as alternative fuels for vehicles is great. Many alternative
fuel vehicles are already being used effectively around the world. These fuels have the
potential to be used in HEVs as well.
5. Emission control system for hybrid electric vehicle:

Automotive emissions contribute significantly to urban air quality problems. HEVs can
reduce this contribution significantly through increased fuel economy, use of alternative fuels,
and improved power unit and after treatment technology.

I Alternative Energy Sources @:5.

A well-tuned spark ignition engine produces relatively low emissions. Significant
emissions occur when the vehicle is started and warmed up. During this time, the engine must
be choked to run properly. It creates excess unbumt fuel in exhaust which leads to
hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. During normal driving, emissions are relatively
low because the air-to-fuel mixture is precisely controlled thereby allowing the catalytic
converter to effectively reduce emissions.
The diesel engine emissions are primarily nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter
(PM). NOx is produced because the engine is operated with a lean air-to-fuel mixture. The
high compression ratio of a diesel engine (required because of compression ignition) creates
much higher pressure and temperature in the combustion cylinder. This lean mixture and high
ww
temperature cause the higher level of NO x production. At high engine loads, where more fuel
is injected, some of the fuel bums incompletely leading to the black smoke characteristic of a
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diesel engine.
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The fuel cell produces water as emissions when operating on pure hydrogen. Other types
of fuel cells have reformers that convert methane to hydrogen and then use the hydrogen. The
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reformer produces some emissions in the conversion process but overall emission levels are
low.
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6. Energy management for hybrid electric vehicle:
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A Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) has two or more sources of on-board power. The
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integration of these power-producing components with the electrical energy storage
components allows for many different types of HEV designs. A power control strategy is
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needed to control the flow of power and to maintain adequate reserves of energy in storage
the components to work together in an optimal manner to achieve multiple design objectives
such as high fuel economy and low emissions.
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devices. Although this is an added complexity not found in conventional vehicles, it allows
The biggest distinction between different hybrid designs is whether they are parallel or
series or a combination of these two. In a parallel design, an Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) can
mechanically drive wheels. In a series design, APU generates electricity and it does not
directly drive wheels. A third type combines the best aspects of both and it is called combined
or a series/parallel design. A combined design allows APU to directly drive wheels but also it
has the ability to charge the energy storage device through a generator. The combined hybrid
is a subset of the parallel design since it can directly drive wheels from APU. The way the
hardware components are connected (parallel, series or a combination of the two) will be

,,:!.
I Automobile
referred as the "hardware configuration" and the management of power flow among
Engineering]
components will be referred as "control strategy" or more generally "energy management."

A secondary distinction between hybrids is charge sustaining versus charge-depleting
hardware configurations and control strategies. Charge-depleting vehicles allow their batteries
to become depleted and cannot recharge them at the same rate they are being discharged. The
common "range-extender" is a charge-depleting vehicle unless APU is larger than the average
power load of the vehicle over a given cycle. A charge-sustaining hybrid has an APU that is
adequately sized to meet the average power load and if operated under the expected
conditions, it will be able to keep adequate electrical energy storage reserves indefinitely.
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7. Control strategiesfor HEVs:
The flexibility in HEV design comes from the ability of the control strategy to manage
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how much power is flowing to or from each component. The components can be integrated
with a control strategy to achieve the optimal design for a given set of design constraints.
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There are many (often conflicting) objectives desirable for HEVs. The primary ones are to
maximize the fuel economy
• minimize emissions En
•
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minimize propulsion system cost to keep the vehicles affordable to the consumer
market
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•
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do all of above while maintaining or improving on acceptable performance
(acceleration, range, handling, noise, etc.).
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To achieve these objectives, the hardware configuration and power control strategy are
make sense but there is still a wide spectrum of control strategies for each hardware
configuration.
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designed together. The hardware configuration dictates to some extent what control strategies
Before a control strategy is. implemented, an HEV consists simply of hardware

components hooked up electrically and mechanically. The control strategy brings the
components together as a system and it provides the intelligence which makes the components
work together. The implementation requires other connections to control individual
components.
(i) Mechanical control:

It includes mechanically controlled clutches, throttles controlled by the accelerator pedal
and dials on dashboard and other controls activated mechanically by the driver.

(ii) Electrical control:

With the increased use of on-board computers in today's conventional vehicles, electrical
controls will most likely be the dominant means of implementing control strategies. It will be
done through software programs running on microchips that then activate relays and other
electromechanical systems to perform the desired functions. These computing systems will
most likely have multiple data input measured on the current state of the vehicle such as
component temperatures, battery voltage, current and state of charge as well as the standard
desired response requested by the driver such as braking and acceleration.
8. Hybrid electric vehicle thermal management:
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As conventional gasoline engines require a cooling system, HEVs need a proper thermal
management of the power and energy storage units for optimum performance and durability.
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The type of thermal management system required will depend on the type of power and
energy storage units selected. In many cases, waste heat from these components can be used
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for cabin air and other heating needs.
1. Batteries
2. Power units En
3. Exhaust systems
4. Fuel system
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5. Waste heat utilization.
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(i) Batteries:
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The performance and life-cycle costs of electric vehicles (EV) and hybrid electric
vehicles (HEV) depend on the performance and life of their battery packs. Each battery
operates over a particular operating range to achieve optimum life and performance.
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Temperature variations from module to module in a battery pack could result an un-balanced
pack and thus, it reduces the performance. It is important to regulate a battery pack operating
temperature because it affects performance (power and capacity), charge acceptance (during
regenerative braking) and vehicle operating and maintenance expenses. Battery thermal
management is critical for high-power battery packs used in EVsand HEVs are to maintain
their battery packs within the desired temperature range.
(ii) Power units:

Fuel cells offer high efficiency and fuel-flexible power systems with low to zero
emissions for future HEV designs irrespective of the reformer. There are variety of thermal
issues to be addressed in the development and application of fuel cells for hybrid'vehicles. For

1_ Automobile Engineering 1
example, solid oxide fuel cells potentially offer very high efficiencies and low cost than PEM
or phosphoric acid cells but they run hotter. Isolation of this heat from the rest of the vehicle is
important not only for improved efficiency but also passenger safety. Reducing the warm-up
time of fuel cells via thermal management is important to achieve quick power and minimal
emissions. More standard power units such as small diesel or spark-ignition engines also need
proper cooling.
(iii) Exhaust systems:

60% to 80% of emissions in an auto's typical driving cycle come from "cold start"
emissions and pollutants that are emitted before the catalytic converter is hot enough to begin
ww
catalyzing combustion products.
(iv) Fuel system:
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As emissions standards tighten and exhaust control technologies improve the issue of
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evaporative emissions becomes increasingly important. Thermal management of fuel tanks is
one approach to reduce these emissions.
(v) Waste heat utilization:

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Heat recovered from any of above sources can be used in a variety of ways. For winter
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driving, heat recovery from HEV sources such as power unit exhaust, propulsion motors,
batteries and power inverter can significantly improve the cabin warm-up. Because of their
r ing
small power units, hybrid vehicles generally cannot supply enough heat to the cabin via tne
conventional coolant-to-air heat exchanger. Waste heat can also be converted into electricity
via thermoelectric devices.
.ne
5.15.5. Hybrid Electric Vehicle Benefits t
1. Low emissions and high efficiency:
Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) emissions vary depending on the vehicle and its
configuration. But in general, HEVs have lower emissions than conventional vehicles because
an electric motor is used with an internal combustion engine which offsets how often the
engine is used and therefore, it reduces fuel use and emissions.
An HEV can easily control the engine's operating point which enables the vehicle to be
more efficient and pollute less. Finally, an HEV engine can power electric components which
are more efficient than mechanical counterparts normally used.

I Altemativ~EnergySources
2. Highfuel economy ana lOW costs:
HEVs can go 10-18 miles per litre of gasoline. It allows drivers to fuel less often and it
gets more miles on a tank of fuel than they would drive a conventional vehicle. In addition to
the cost saving associated with vehicle operation, HEVs are very cost competitive with similar
conventional vehicles.
3. Outstanding performance:
Auto manufacturers are making HEVs with performance, safety and cost comparable to a
conventional vehicle because these three elements are most important to consumers. Ry
combining gasoline with electric power, hybrids will have the same or greater range than
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traditional combustion engines. HEV is able to operate approximately two times more
efficiently than conventional vehicles.
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4. Energy security:
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Because HEVs ace efficient and have high fuel economy, less fuel is used than
conventional vehicles. In addition, HEVs have the potential of running on alternative fuels
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which can be renewable and produced in our country. Therefore, HEVs can reduce Nation's
security. gi
dependence on fossil fuels and help to decrease foreign oil imports thereby increasing energy
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5.15.6. Hybrid Electric Vehicles
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Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) are not just for niche market applications. Hybrids are
.ne
available in various shapes and sizes. They are currently being used in a variety of
t
applications. Their range, ease of use, ease of fueling and various vehicle configuration
options make them prime vehicles for anyone to use.
1. Consumer applications:
Many consumers are looking for a vehicle which is fuel efficient, reliable, cost effective
and safe. Today's HEVs are made just as safe, comfortable and reliable as conventional
vehicles but it can get approximately double the fuel economy.
Toyota and Honda are successfully selling their current light-duty HEV models and they
are planning to phase-in other options such as hybridized Camry and Accord in nextseveral
years. Other auto manufacturers are also gearing up to sell HEVs including sport utility
vehicle hybrids.
One car is the Honda Insight which can get up to 18 miles per litre on the freeway. The
car uses a small 1.0-liter and 3-cylinder engine with an ultra-thin electric motor. Its primary
power comes from the gasoline engine but it uses the electric motor when it is accelerating or
climbing hills. The electric motor does not need an external power supply for recharging. Its
batteries are recharged by regenerative braking. It means, energy from forward momentum is
captured during braking. This energy is then used to recharge batteries.
Honda is also making its Civic sedan available as a hybrid which gets 13.5 miles per litre
(mpl) on the highway compared to a gasoline-only model and it gets 10 mp/ on the highway.
Another hybrid on the road is a Toyota Prius. This four-person car gets 13 mp/. It uses
advanced technology to combine a small gas engine with an electric motor. At very slow
speed, the car runs on its electric motor. Driving around the city, high speed and freeway
ww
speed, it shifts both gasoline motor and electric motor while also recharging the battery.
w.E
Other automobile companies will be releasing other types of hybrid vehicles soon. In
2003 model year, Ford began selling a hybrid-electrici Escape Sport Utility Vehicle. This
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vehicle will use an electric motor around town and a gasoline engine while on the freeway.
The vehicle's gas engine will shut off when it is stopped such as in a traffic jam. The regular
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gasoline-powered Escape gets 6 mp/ in the city and 7.5 mp/ on the highway. The Hybrid
Escape will get 10.5 mp/ but that better mileage may cost more than the gasoline model's.
gi
Incentives from government agencies may help to decrease extra cost. Other auto companies
nee
are also working on hybrid SUVs. Daimler Chrysler is working on a hybrid Dodge Durango
mpl. r
which will achieve a combined average of 5 mpg. The regular gasoline model gets only 4.1
ing
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General Motors and Toyota are working together to develop a small hybrid SUV. Honda
is planning a hybrid version of its CR- V.
2. Bus applications: t
There are several different hybrid buses available which can easily be used as a shuttle
bus, transit bus, school bus or trolley bus.
3. Heavy duty truck applications:

Advanced heavy hybrid vehicles will likely be commercialized in several vehicle classes
later in this decade and they will significantly improve fuel efficiency while simultaneously
reducing vehicle emissions. Heavy-duty trucks can easily be hybridized and they can make a
significantly positive impact on fuel economy and emissions.

I Alternative Energy Sources ":PM

5.16. USE OF FUEL CELLS IN AUTOMOBILES
A fuel cell produces electricity directly fromthe reaction between hydrogen (derived
from a hydrogen-containing fuel or produced from the electrolysis of water) and oxygen from
air. Like an internal combustion engine in a conventional car, it turns fuel into power by
causing it to release energy. In an internal combustion engine, the fuel bums in tiny
explosions that push the pistons up and down. When the fuel burns, it is being oxidized. In
other words, the fuel combines oxygen and it produces energy in the form of heat and
mechanical motion. In a fuel cell, the fuel is also oxidized but the resulting energy takes in the
form of electricity. When powered by pure hydrogen, by-products of the reaction are heat and
ww
water.
A fuel cell power system has many components but its heart is the fuel cell stack which is
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made of many thin flat cells layered together. (Although the term fuel cell is often used to
describe the entire stack strictly speaking, it refers only the individual cells.) Each cell
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produces electricity and output of all cells is combined to power the vehicle. ~
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Fuel cells have the potential to revolutionize the way we power our nation, offering
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cleaner, more-efficient alternatives to the combustion of gasoline and other
,. fossil fuels.
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The amount of power produced by a fuel cell depends on several factors including fuel
cell type, cell size, the temperature at which it operates and the pressure at which the gases are
supplied to the cell.
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A single fuel cell produces enough electricity for only small applications. Therefore, to
provide the power needed for most applications, individual fuel cells are combined in series
et
into a fuel cell stack. A typical fuel cell stack may consist of hundreds of fuel cells.
5.16.1. History of Fuel Cell

Fuel cell technology is over 150 years old. The first fuel cell was demonstrated by Sir
William Grove in 1839. Grove used porous platinum electrodes and sulphuric acid as the
electrolyte bath. William White Jaques later substituted phosphoric acid in the electrolyte bath
and he was the person who coined the term "fuel cell."
A significant fuel cell research was done in Germany during 1920's which laid the
groundwork for subsequent development of carbonate cycle and solid oxide fuel cells. In
1960s, NASA began using alkaline fuel cells to provide onboard electrical power for
spacecraft.


5.16.2. Comparison of a Fuel Cell Car and Battery Car
Fuel cell and battery-powered vehicles are both propelled by electric motors. Therefore,
both vehicle types can be designed with similar performance characteristics,
The primary difference in these vehicle types is the source of electricity. Battery-electric
vehicles are powered by electricity stored in a battery. Since the battery merely stores energy
instead of generating it, it must be recharged regularly.
On the other hand, fuel cells produce electricity from hydrogen or some other fuel. Such
as gasoline-powered vehicles, fuel cell vehicles are refueled rather than recharged. Refueling
usually takes much less time than recharging. Fuel cell vehicles can typically go further before
ww
refueling due to storage limitations of current battery designs. However, both technologies
need to improve their driving ranges in order to compete with gasoline and diesel-powered
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vehicles.
5.16.3. Comparison
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of Fuel Cell Car and Gasoline Cars
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Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs) are different from conventional gasoline and diesel-powered
gi
vehicles in several ways. First, FCVs are propelled by an electric motor instead of an internal
nee
combustion engine. This electric motor is powered with electricity provided by fuel cells. Fuel
cell vehicles are more energy-efficient and emit fewer greenhouse gases and pollutants than
r ing
vehicles powered with conventional fuel. In addition to these benefits, fuel cell vehicles are
quiet and they can provide more power for electrical accessories such as onboard navigation
and control systems.
.ne
t
Gasoline vehicles currently have an advantage in terms of driving range. Most gasoline
vehicles can travel 300 to 400 miles before refueling while most current FCVs can only travel
about 250 miles. However, scientists are developing technologies which will allow FCYs to
travel further between refills.
5.16.4. Working Principle of a Fuel Cell
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device in which the chemical energy of a conventional

fuel is directly converted into low voltage DC electrical energy. One of the main advantages
of such device is that Carnot limitation on efficiency does not apply because tile conversion
can be carried out isothermally. A fuel cell is frequently described as a primary battery in
which the fuel and oxidizer are stored in the battery and fed to it as needed.

I Alternative Energy Sources UIII

Figure 5.29 shows a schematic diagram of a fuel cell. The fuel gas diffuses through the
anode and it is oxidized. Therefore, it releases electrons to the external circuit. The oxidized
fuel diffuses through the cathode and it is reduced by electrons coming from anode by the way
of external circuit.
Electrons
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Figure 5.29 Schematicof afuel cell
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The fuel cell is a device which keeps the fuel molecules from mixing with the oxidizer
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molecules in permitting the transfer of electron by a metallic path that may contain a lead of
available fuels. Hydrogen has so far given the most promising results, although cells
r ing
consuming coal, oil or natural gas would be economically much more useful for large scale
applications.
Some of the possible reactions are given below. .ne
Hydrogen/oxygen 1.23 V
Nitrogen 1.56 V
2Hz + Oz => 2 HzO
N214 + 0 => 2 H20 + N2
t
Carbon (Coal) 1.02 V C +Oi => COz
Methane 1.05 V CH4 + 202 => CO2 + 2 H20
5.16.5. Parts of a Fuel Cell
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cells are the current focus of research for fuel
cell vehicle applications. PEM fuel cells are made from several layers of different materials as
shown in the Figure 5.29. The three key layers in a PEM fuel cell include the following:
..• Membrane electrode assembly

Automobile
• Catalyst
• Hardware.
Other layers of materials are designed to draw fuel and air into the cell and to conduct
electrical current through the cell.
1. Membrane electrode assembly:

Electrodes such as anode and cathode, catalyst and polymer electrolyte membrane
together form the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) of a PEM fuel cell.
a) Anode:
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Anode is negative side of the fuel cell which has several jobs. It conducts the electrons
which are bred from hydrogen molecules in order to use in an external circuit. Channels
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etched into the anode disperse the hydrogen gas equally over the surface of catalyst.
b) Cathode:
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Cathode is positive side of the fuel cell also containing channels which distribute oxygen
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to the surface of catalyst. It conducts electrons back from the external circuit to the catalyst
where they can recombine with the hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water.
c) Polymer electrolyte membrane: gi nee
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) is a specially treated material which looks similar
r ing
to ordinary kitchen plastic wrap which conducts only positively charged ions and blocks
electrons. rEM is the key to the fuel cell technology. It will permit only the necessary ions to
.ne
pass between anode and cathode. Other substances passing through the electrolyte will disrupt
the chemical reaction.
2. Catalyst: t
All electrochemical reactions in the fuel cell consist of two separate reactions such as an
oxidation half-reaction at the anode and a reduction in half-reaction at the cathode. Normally,
two half-reactions will occur very slowly at low operating temperature of a PEM fuel cell. So,
each of the electrode is coated at one side with a catalyst layer which speeds up the reaction of
oxygen and hydrogen. It is usually made of platinum powder very thin coated onto carbon
paper or cloth. The catalyst is rough and porous to expose the maximum surface area of the
platinum to the hydrogen or oxygen. The platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces PEM.
Platinum-group metals are critical to catalytic reactions in the fuel cell but they are very
expensive.

I Alternative Energy Sources U·

3. Chemistry of afuel cell:
Anode side:
H2:::::) 2Ir + 2e-
Cathode side:
O2 + 4Ir + 4e- :::::)
2H20
Net reaction:
2H2 + 02 :::::)2H20
The pressurized hydrogen gas (H2) enters the fuel cell at anode side. This gas is forced
through the catalyst by the pressure. When a H2 molecule comes in contact with the platinum
ww
on the catalyst, it splits into two H+ ions and two electrons (e"). The electrons are conducted
through the anode where they make their way through the external circuit and return to the
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cathode side of fuel cell.
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Meanwhile, on the cathode side of the fuel cell, oxygen gas (02) is forced through the
catalyst where it forms two oxygen atoms. Each of these atoms has a strong negative charge.
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This negative charge attracts two W ions through the membrane where they combine with an
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oxygen atom and two of electrons from the external circuit to form a water molecule (H20).
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This reaction in a single fuel cell produces only about 0.7 V. To obtain this voltage up to
a reasonable level, many separate fuel cells must be combined to form a fuel-cell stack.
4. Hardware: r ing
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The backing layers, flow fields and current collectors are designed to maximize the
current from a membrane/electrode assembly. The backing layers are one next to anode and
the other next to cathode is usually made of a porous carbon paper or carbon cloth about
t
thickness of 4 to 12 sheets of paper. The backing layers have to be made of a material which
can conduct electrons that leave anode and enter cathode. The porous nature of the backing
material ensures the effective diffusion of each reactant gas to the catalyst on the
membrane/electrode assembly. The gas spreads out as it diffuses so that it will be in contact
with the entire surface area of the catalyzed membrane when it penetrates backing.
The backing layers also help in managing water in the fuel cell. Too little or too much
water can cause the cell to stop operating. Water can build up in flow channels of plates or can
clog the pores in the carbon cloth preventing reactive gases from reaching electrodes.
Each plate also acts as a current collector. Electrons produced by the oxidation of
hydrogen must

,.. . Automobile Engineering I

1. be conducted through the anode and next, through the backing layer along the length
of the stack and through the plate before they can exit the cell.
2. travel through an external circuit, and
3. re-enter the cell at cathode plate. With the addition of flow fields and current
collectors, PEM fuel cell completes only a load-containing external circuit such as an
electric motor which requires electric current.
5.16.6. Types of Fuel Cells
Fuel cells are classified on the basis of electrolyte used. It determines the type of
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chemical reactions that take place in the cell, kind of catalysts required, temperature range in
which the cell operates, fuel required and other factors. These characteristics in tum affect the
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applications for which these cells are most suitable. There are several types of fuel cells
currently under development, each with its own advantages, limitations and potential
applications.
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1. Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell
2. Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cell
3. Direct methanol fuel cell
4. Alkaline fuel cell
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5. Phosphoric acid fuel cell
6. Molten carbonate fuel cell
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7. Solid oxide fuel cell .ne
8. Regenerative fuel cell.
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5.16.6.1. Hydrogen-Oxygen Cell
The hydrogen-oxygen device shown in Figure 5.30 is a typical type of fuel cell. It has
three chambers separated by two porous electrodes, anode and cathode. The middle chamber
between electrodes is filled with a strong solution of potassium hydroxide. The surfaces of
electrodes are chemically treated to repel the electrolyte so that there is minimum leakage of
potassium hydroxide into outer chambers. The gases diffuse through electrodes undergoing
reactions as shown below:
Anode: 2H2+4(OHf


Cathode: O2 + 2 H20 + 4 e-:::) 4 (OHf
4 KOH :::) 4 K++ 4 (OHf
Cell reaction:
The water formed is drawn off from the side. The electrolyte provides the (OH)- ions
needed for the reaction and it remains unchanged at the end since these ions are regenerated.
The electrons liberated at the anode find their way to move to the cathode through the external
circuit. This transfer is equivalent to the flow of a current from cathode to anode. Such cells
when properly designed and operated have an open circuit voltage of about 1.1 V. The
electrolyte fuel efficiencies are as high as 60% - 70%.
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w.E Oxygen
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Figure 5.30 Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell
There are two types of hydrogen fuel cells such as

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(i) Low temperature cell, and
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(ii) High pressure cell.
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Low temperature cell is operated at 90°C and less pressurized up to 4 atmospheric
pressure. In the case of high pressure cell, pressure and temperature are 45 atmospheric
pressure and 300°C respectively. Gases should be free from carbon dioxide. Otherwise, the
gas will react with potassium hydroxide and produce potassium carbonate. This type of fuel
cell is mainly suited for low voltage and high current applications.
5.16.6.2. Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cells also called proton exchange membrane
fuel cells deliver high power density and offer the advantages of low weight and volume when
compared to other fuel cells. PEM fuel cells use a solid polymer as an electrolyte and porous
carbon electrodes containing a platinum catalyst. They need only hydrogen, oxygen from air

and water to operate. It does not require corrosive fluids similar to some other fuel cells. They
are typically fueled with pure hydrogen supplied from storage tanks or onboard reformers.
Electric current
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asy
Anode Electrolyte Cathode
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Figure 5.31 Polymerelectrolytemembranefuel cell
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The chemical reaction and its description are already discussed in the earlier topic
'5.16.5. Parts of a Fuel cell'. Kindly refer.
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r ing
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells operate at relatively low temperature around
80°C. Low temperature operation allows them to start quickly (less warm-up time) and it
.ne
results less wear on system components thereby resulting better durability. However, it
requires a noble-metal catalyst (platinum) which is used to separate hydrogen electrons and
protons. It is added with the system cost. t
The platinum catalyst is also extremely sensitive to CO poisoning making it necessary to
employ an additional reactor to reduce CO in the fuel gas if hydrogen is derived from an
alcohol or hydrocarbon fuel. It is also added with the cost. PEM fuel cells are primarily used
for the transport applications and some stationary applications.
5.16.6.3.Direct Methanol Fuel Cells

Most fuel cells are powered by hydrogen which can be fed to a fuel cell system directly
or it can be generated within the fuel cell system by reforming hydrogen-rich fuels such as
methanol, ethanol and hydrocarbon fuels. Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs) are powered
by pure methanol which is mixed with steam and fed directly to the fuel cell anode.

I Alternative Energy Sources diiil

Direct methanol fuel cells do not have many of the fuel storage problems since methanol
has higher energy density than hydrogen in gasoline or diesel fuel. Methanol is also easy to
transport and supply to the public using current infrastructure since it is liquid such as
gasoline.
Direct methanol fuel cell technology is relatively new when compared to fuel cells
powered by pure hydrogen. DMFC research and development are roughly 3-4 years behind
than other fuel cell types.
5.16.6.4. Alkaline Fuel Cells
Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs) were one of the first fuel cell technologies developed and
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they were the first type widely used in US. A space program is to produce electrical energy
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and water onboard spacecraft. These fuel cells use a solution of potassium hydroxide in water
as the electrolyte using a variety of non-precious metals as a catalyst at anode and cathode.
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High-temperature AFCs operate at temperature between 100°C and 250°C. However, newer
AFC designs operate at low temperature of roughly 23°C to 70°C.
En
Electriccurrent
Hydrogen in e-
H2_ gin Oxygen in
-----02
e e-
e H+ e-
eer
11+ ~
...
...
- ing
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Water and
Anode Electrolyte Cathode
Figure 5.32 Alkalinefuel cell
AFC's high performance is due to the rate at which the chemical reactions take place in
the cell. They have also demonstrated the efficiency of 60% in space applications.
The disadvantage of this fuel cell type is that it is easily poisoned by carbon dioxide
1. (C02), Even small amount of CO2 in the air can affect this cell's operation. So, it should purify

IDIll Automobile Engineering I

both hydrogen and oxygen used in the cell. This purification process is costly. The
susceptibility to poisoning-also affects the cell's lifetime further adding to cost.
5.16.6.5. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs)
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs) use liquid phosphoric acid as an electrolyte. The
acid is contained in a Teflon-bonded silicon carbide matrix and porous carbon electrodes
containing a platinum catalyst. The chemical reactions take place in- the cell shown in
Figure 5.33.
Electric current
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Fuel
- nee
-----
Air in
in
Anode Cathode r ing
Phospheric acid
(Electrolyte)
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Figure 5.33 Phosphoric acidfuel cell
t
Usually, PAFC is considered as the "first generation" of modern fuel cells. It is one of
the most grown-up cell types and currently used over 200 units. This type of fuel cell is
typically used for stationary power generation but some PAFCs have been used to power large
vehicles such as city buses.
PAFCs are more tolerant of impurities in fossil fuels which have been reformed into
hydrogen than PEM cells because they are easily "poisoned" by carbon monoxide. PAFCs are
also less powerful than other fuel cells for the same weight and volume. As a result, these fuel
cells are typically large and heavy. PAFCs are also expensive. Similar to PEM fuel cells, .
PAFCs require an expensive platinum catalyst which raises the cost of fuel cell.


5.16.6.6.Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells
-
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) are currently being developed for natural gas and
coal-based power plants for electrical utility, industrial and military applications. MCFCs are
high-temperature fuel cells which use an electrolyte composed of a molten carbonate salt
mixture suspended in a porous chemically inert ceramic lithium aluminum oxide (LiAI02)
matrix. Since they operate at extremely high temperature of 650°C and above, non-precious
l
metals can be used as catalysts at the anode and cathode which reduces its cost.
Electric current
Hydrogen ih
ww H2-
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a Water and
s
Heat out
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Carbon dioxide in
~ gin t Metal carbonate

Anode (Electrolyte) Cathode
- -eer
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Figure 5.34 Molten carbonatefuel cell
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Dissimilar to alkaline, phosphoric acid and polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells,
t
MCFCs do not require an external reformer to convert more energy-dense fuel to hydrogen.
Due to high temperature, these MCFCs are operated to convert into hydrogen within the fuel
cell itself by a process called internal reforming which also reduces the cost.
Molten carbonate fuel cells are not prone to carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide
"poisoning". They can even use carbon dioxides as fuel making them more attractive for
fueling with gases made from coal because they are more resistant to impurities than other
fuel cell types.
The primary disadvantage of current MCFC technology is durability. High temperatures
are preferred to operate these cells to avoid component breakdown and the corrosive
electrolyte is used to reduce the corrosion because the corrosion affects the cell life. Scientists
are currently exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell
designs which increase the cell life without decreasing its performance.

IImI Automobile Engineering I

5.16.6.7.Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) use hard and non-porous ceramic compound as the
electrolyte. Since the electrolyte is a solid, cells do not have to be constructed in the plate
similar to the configuration of typical other fuel cell types. The efficiency of SOFCs is
expected around 50-60% in converting fuel to electricity. These cells can be used where the
system wants to capture and utilize the system's waste heat (co-generation). The overall fuel
efficiency is around 80-85%.
SOFCs operate at high temperature around 1,000°C. High temperature operation removes
the need for precious metal catalyst thereby reducing its cost. It also allows SOFCs to reform
fuels internally which enables the use of a variety of fuels and it reduces the cost associated
ww
with adding a reformer to the system.
w.E Electric current
asyFuel----r..L,.-_::,.--L.,---
in
_.
e
A ir in
...,_---
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---
Unused
....
gases out g.n
water
Anode Electrolyte Cathode et
Figure 5.35 Solid oxidefuel cell
SOFCs are also the most sulphur-resistant fuel cell type. They ean tolerate several orders
of magnitude more sulphur than other cell types. In addition, they are not poisoned by carbon
monoxide (CO) which can even be used as fuel. It allows SOFCs to use gases made from coal.
High-temperature operation is the main disadvantage of this cell. It results a slow start-up
and it requires significant thermal shielding to retain heat and protect personnel which may be
acceptable for utility applications but it is not for transportation and small portable
applications.

I Altemative Energy Sources

5.16.6.8.Regenerative Fuel Cells
Regenerative fuel cells produce electricity from hydrogen and oxygen. They generate
heat and water as by-products similar to other fuel cells. However, the regenerative fuel cell
systems can also use the electricity from solar power or some other sources to divide the
excess water into oxygen and hydrogen fuel. This process is called electrolysis. It is a
comparatively young fuel cell technology being developed by NASA.
5.16.7. Conversion Efficiency of Fuel Cells
The electrical energy produced by fuel cells depends mainly on free energy of overall
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chemical reaction. Most of the fuel cells have maximum efficiency of 70% but fuel cell such
as hydrogen and oxygen is with 50-60%. Again, the efficiency of fuel cell is low with air
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instead of pure oxygen as the source.
a
5.16.8. Advantages and Disatlvantages of Fuel Cells
Advantages offuel cells: syE

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I. Fuel cells eliminate pollution caused by burning fossil fuels; the only by-product is
water.
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2. Fuel cells do not need conventional fuels such as oil or gas and can therefore
r
eliminate economic dependence on politically unstable countries.
ing
3. Since hydrogen can be produced anywhere where there, is water and electricity,
production of potential fuel can be distributed.
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4. Fuel cells can achieve high efficiencies in energy conversion terms, especially where
the waste heat from the cell is utilised in cogeneration situation. t
5. Installation of smaller stationary fuel cells leads to a more stabilized and decentralized
power grid.
6. Fuel cells convert chemical energy directly into electricity without the combustion
process. As a result, a fuel cell is not governed by thermodynamic laws, such as the
Carnot efficiency associated with heat engines, currently used for power generation.
7. A high power density allows fuel cells to be relatively compact source of electric
power, beneficial in application with space constraints. In a fuel cell system, the fuel
cell itself is nearly dwarfed by other components of the system such as the fuel
reformer and power inverter

Ims Automobile Engineering I

8. Fuel cells, due to their nature of operation, are extremely quiet in operation. This
allows fuel cells to be used in residential or built-up areas where the noise pollution is
undesirable.
9. The maintenance of fuel cells is simple since there are few moving parts In the
system.
10. The absence of combustion and moving parts means that fuel cell technologies are
expected to 'provide much improved reliability over traditional combustion engines.
11. Use a variety of fuels, renewable energy and clean fossil fuels.
12. Fuel cells can be responsive to changing electrical loads.
ww13. Fuel cells provide high quality DC power.

14. Fuel cells have no "memory effect" when they are getting refueled.
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15. Operating times are much longer than with batteries, since doubling the operating
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time needs only doubling the amount of fuel and not the doubling of the capacity of
the unit itself.
Disadvantages offuel cells:

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1. Initial cost is high. Fuel cells are currently very expensive to produce, since most units
are hand-made.
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2. Service life is low.
3. Operation requires repleisable fuel supply. rin
4. Some fuel cells use expensive materials. g.n
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5. Fuelling fuel cells is still a major problem since the production, transportation,
distribution and storage of hydrogen i.~cult.
6. Reforming hydrocarbons via reformer to produce hydrogen is technically challenging
and not clearly environmentally friendly.
7. The technology is not yet fully developed and few products are available.
8. The refueling and the starting time of fuel cell vehicles are longer and the driving
range is shorter than in a "normal" car. ,
5.16.9. Applications of Fuel Cells
I. They can also be used for stationary applications such as providing electricity to
power homes and business.
2. They are used in central power stations.

I Alternative Energy Sources I:11iD

3. Fuel cells have the potential to replace the internal combustion engine in vehicles.
They can be used in transportation applications such as powering automobiles, buses,
cycles and other vehicles.
4. Many portable devices can be powered by fuel cells such as laptop computers and cell
phones.
5. They are used in spacecraft power stations.
6. Low temperature fuel cells (PEM, DMFC) have low heat transmission which makes
them ideal for military applications.
5.16.10. Fuel Cell Vehicles

ww
Fuel cells can be used to provide propulsion or auxiliary power for many transportation
w.E
applications. Aside from spacecraft which typically use alkaline fuel cells for onboard power,
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cells are the primary type used in transportation.
a syE
Few fuel-cell-powered transportation products are currently in use today, even fewer are
available commercially. A handful of fuel-cell-based passenger cars have been leased to
ngi
government and Universities but they are not available for sale to the public. About 200
auxiliary power units have been used in US and Russian spacecraft.
1. Highway vehicles: nee

r ing
Since highway vehicles account for a large share of petroleum use, carbon dioxide (a
primary greenhouse gas) emissions and air pollution, advances in fuel cell power systems for
.ne
vehicles could substantially improve our energy security and air quality. While- fuel-cell-
powered cars are not available commercially, almost every major auto manufacturer has a
t
fuel-cell vehicle program with various targets for demonstration in near future. Figure 5.36
describes the typical arrangement of various components in a fuel cell powered passenger car.
Figure 5.37 illustrates the layout of components in a fuel cell powered vehicle.
Other highway-based applications include large passenger buses and long-haul trucks.
Fuel cell Auxiliary Power Units (APUs) for commercial trucks could also reduce energy use
and emissions since these vehicles must often run while idle to provide electricity for
refrigeration, heaters and air conditioners and sleeper compartment accessories.
2. Other surface transportation:

Other potential surface transportation applications include rail locomotives, mining
locomotives, scooters and personal mobility vehicles for the disabled.

Inm Automobile Engineering I
ww Power electronics
w.E Cathode Electro engine
asy
Figure 5.36 Arrangements of Components in Fuel cell car
En
gi nee
r ing
.ne
Figure 5.37 Layout of components in Fuel cell vehicle t
3. Aerospace:
Fuel cells are often used in aerospace applications. They have been used to provide
auxiliary power in spacecraft since 1960s all 18 Apollo missions and over 100 Space Shuttle
missions. Other similar applications include powering near-Earth orbit (NEO) satellites.
4. Marine vehicles:
Ships and submarines are other possible applications for fuel cells by providing both
propulsion and auxiliary power. Recreational and personal watercraft may also be powered by
fuel cells.

I Alternative Energy Sources ,fi,a

1. What are the different alternative fuels suitable for automobiles?

[Anna Univ. May'llj
1. Ethanol
2. Methanol
3. Gasohol
4. Bio-diesel
5. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
6. Natural gas
ww 7. Hydrogen
w.E 8. Fuel cells.

2. List down the properties of alternatefuels.
a1. Energy density

2. Volatility syE
3. Octane number
ngi
4. Cetane number
5. Heat of vapourization nee
6. Flame speed r ing
7. Flame temperature and luminosity
8. Auto-ignition temperature .ne
9. Flashpoint
10. Flammability.
t
3. Define energy intensity. [Anna Univ. May'14J
The evolution of the ratio of energy use to economic output is called energy
intensity. The ratio is usually depicted as E / GDP where E stands for energy and
GDP stands for gross domestic product i.e. economic output.
4. Define volatility.
Volatility indicates a fuel's ability to vapourize under different temperature and
pressure.

5. What is meant hy octane number?
Octane numbers measure a fuel's tendency to knock in a spark ignition engine.

6. Define flame speed..
The speed at which a flame front propagates through a fuel/air mixture can affect
the engine performance and emissions.
7. Define auto-ignition temperature of fuels.

Auto-ignition temperature is a temperature at which the fuel will self-ignite. Self-
ignition is a concern in environment where the fuel might escape and come into
contact with hot engine parts.
ww
8. Define flash point.
w.E
The flashpoint is the lowest temperature at which combustible mixtures of fuel
vapour and air form above the fuel.
asy
9. What is the composition of natural gas? {Anna Univ.Nov'05]
hydrocarbons. E
Natural gas is at least 88% methane with the balance being higher weight
ngi
10. List out the various forms of natural gas.
nee
Various forms of natural gas are methane, ethane, methanol, ethanol,
reformulated and oxygenated gasoline.
rin
Ll, State the advantages of methane asfuels ill automobiles.
g.n
(a)
et
low emissions of ozone-forming hydrocarbons, toxics and carbon
(b) made from a variety of feed stocks including renewables.

(c) It is excellent fuel especially for fleet vehicles.
12. Write down the advantages and disadvantages of propane gas.

Advantages of propane asfuels in automobiles:
(i) It is cheaper than gasoline today.
(ii) It is widely available clean fuel today.
(iii) It produces lower emissions of ozone - forming hydrocarbons and toxics.
(iv) It is elcellent fuel especially for fleet vehicles.

I Alternative Energy Sources 'tl'iA

Disadvantages of propane asjuels in automobiles:
(i) Cost will rise with demand.
(ii) It has limited supply.
(iii) There is no energy security or trade balance benefits occur.
13. What is meant by reformulated and oxygenated gasoline?

The petroleum industry is beginning to market gasoline formulations that emit
less hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and toxics than conventional
gasoline. These new gasoline is called reformulated and oxygenated gasoline.
14. State the advantages of liquefied natural gas.

ww I. Due to its low carbon-to-hydrogen ratio, it produces less carbon dioxide per GJ
w.E
of fuel than diesel.
2. It has low cold-start emissions due to its gaseous state.
asy
3. It has extended flammability limits, allowing stable combustion at lean
mixtures.
En
4. It has a lower adiabatic flame temperature than diesel which leads to reduce
NOx emissions.
gin
eer
5. It has much higher ignition temperature than diesel making it more difficult to
auto-ignite and it is thus safe.
ing
6. It contains non-toxic components. The liquefaction process removes
impurities.
.ne
7. LNG is pure methane which is a non-toxic gas. : ,.. ~
8. It is much lighter than air and thus it is safer than spill~crdiesel. t
9. Methane is not a volatile organic compound (VOC).
15. Mention any four disadvantages of liquefied natural gas.

1. Its' driving range is limited because its energy content per volume IS relatively
low.
2. It requires special refueling stations and handling of a cryogenic-liquid making
it suitable only for fleet operations.
. }; The energy required to liquefy NG leads to increas~~ouse gas
emissions when compared to CNG.

4. Exhaust emissions of methane, a greenhouse gas are relatively high compared
with low sulphur diesel.
16. Write down the fuel characteristics of natural gas.

NG has different fuel characteristics from fuels normally used in internal
combustion engines. It has lower heating value of 52.9M1lkg. According to Perry's
Chemical Engineering Handbook, the higher heating value of LNG at -164°C is 23.9
MIlL. It corresponds to a lower heating value of 21.7 MIlL which is less than
automotive diesel (38.6 MIlL).
17. What is the composition of LPG? {Anna Univ.Nov'05j
ww LPG is the mixture of petroleum gases released during the extraction of crude oil
and natural gas or during refining the crude oil. It consists of a mixture of
w.E
hydrocarbons including major components of propane and butane, minor components
such as normal-butane, iso-butane, pentane, ethane, propene and butene together with
a syE
small quantities of additives including sulphur to give it an odour for safety reasons.
Propane (C3HS) and butane (C4HIO) are the main components but different mixing
ratio is used in different countries.
18. List down the properties of LPG. ngi

Properly (units/conditions) nee Value
Relative molar mass r ing44.1
Carbon content (mass %) 82

.ne
Hydrogen content (mass %)
Oxygen content (mass %)

18
0
t
Specific Gravity of Liquid at 15°C 0.54 - 0.57 \
Sp. Volume of Gas at 15°C, 760 mm Hg.(Iitig of gas) 0.4"
Relative density (@15°CI I bar) 0.5
Boiling temperature eCI I bar) -42
Autoignition temperature (0C) 480
Octane number (RON) 112
Octane number (MON) 99.5

I Alternative Energy Sources IIZ'DI J

Methane number 35
Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio (mass) 15.7
Vapour pressure @ 38°C (kPa) 1300
freezing temperature eC) -187

~-.----
flash poine ternperature (0C) -104
Sp. heat (kJ/kg-K) @ 1 bar & 15°C liquid phase 2.48

gas phase 1.67
ww Latent heat of vapourisation @ I bar (kJ/kg)
Lower heating/calorific value (MJ/kg)

426
46
w.E Gross Calorific Value of LPG (kcal/kg) 11,400
asy
Viscosity (MPa-s at 15°C) for liquid phase 11.10-5
E For gas phase
19. Write down the components of LPG equipment. ngi

80.10-7
1. LPG fuel tank

nee
2.
3.
Vapourizer
Fuel meter. rin
20. What are types of LPG vehicles available in the market? g.n
1. Passenger cars
2. Two/three wheelers
e t
3. Buses.
21. Compare LPG and CNG cars working principles. [Anna Univ. May'09j
S.No. LPG CNG

, 1.
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) It is a mixture of light hydrocarbons
consists mainly of propane, including methane, ethane, propane,
propylene, butane and butylene butanes and pentanes.
in various mixtures.
Propane or LPG I is used in all Light-duty vehicles designed to run

2. major end-use sectors as a on 'natural gas include cars,
and vans - mainly for
heating fuel, engine fuel, l111l11VanS
cooking fuel and chemical fleets.
feedstock.
22. What is LPG? What are the advantages ami disadvantages of using it in
automobiles? [Anna Uni., May'l1 & May'12J
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is made of a mixture of propane and other
similar types of hydrocarbon gases.
Advantages of LPG:
ww 1.
2.
It has very low sulphur levels giving a rise to insignificant sulphate emissions.
It has low cold start emissions due to its gaseous state at ambient pressure and
3.
w.E
temperature.
It has relatively high octane number with propane having the best antiknock
asy
properties relative to other components.
4.
En
It has lower peak pressure during combustion whicn generally reduces noise
and improves durability. Noise levels can be less than 50% of equivalent diesel
engines. gin
5.
eer
It can be stored as liquid under low pressure (~5bar) and ambient temperature.
Disadvantages of LPG:
1. ing
Although LPG has a relatively high energy content per mass, its energy content
per unit volume is low.
.ne
2.
3.
It is heavier than air which requires appropriate handling.
t
It's vapour flammability limit in air (2-10% by volume) is wider than gasoline
which makes LPG ignitable more easily.
4. It has a high expansion coefficient which necessitates only partial filling of the
tank to not more than 80% of its capacity.
23. What are the advantages of using compressed natural gas over diesel?
[Anna Univ. May'l1J
1. Due to its low carbon-to-hydrogen ratio, it produces less carbon dioxide per
GJ of fuel than diesel.
2. It has low cold-start emissions due to its gaseous state.

! Alternative Energy Sources am I

3. It has extended flammability limits allowing stable combustion at lean
mixtures.
4. It has a low adiabatic flame temperaturylmn diesel thereby leading to low
NOx emissions.
5. It has much higher ignition temperature than diesel in making it more difficult
to auto-ignite. Thus, it is safe.
6. It contains non-toxic components. The liquefaction process removes
ilmpurities.
7. LNG is pure methane which is a non-toxic gas.
ww S.
9.
It is much lighter than air and thus, it is safer than spilled diesel.
Methane is not a volatile organic compound (VOC).
-c.,
w.E
24. How is biodiesel prepared?
The majority of biodiesel is made from soybean or canola oils but it is also made
asy
from waste stream sources such as used cooking oils or animal fats.
E
25. Why blodiesel is mixed with conventional diesel?
ngi
Biodiesel is mixed with conventional diesel because of high cost of biodiesel,
nee
engine compatibility issues and cold weather operating concerns.
26. List down the available common biodiesel blends.

rin
1. B20, or 20% biodiesel, and
ii. B2, or 2% biodiesel. g.n
27. What does BI00 refer?
BI00 is the 100% biodiesel which offers the most overall environmental
e t
benefits. The use of B I00 may require engine or fuel system component modification
and it can cause operating problems especially in cold weather.
28. Give any four advantages of biodiesel. [Anna Univ. Nov'08 & May'15j
1. It is a substitute or extender for traditional petroleum diesel and special pumps or
high pressure equipment for fueling is not needed because little"fossil energy is
required to move biodiesel.
2. Scientists believe carbon dioxide is one of the main greenhouse gases

contributing to global warming. Neat biodiesel (100% biodiesel) reduces carbon
dioxide emissions by more than 75% over petroleum diesel.

3. Use of biodiesel in a conventional diesel engine wilt result a substantial
reduction of unbumt hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particulate matter.
Biodiesel reduces emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) by approximately 50 %
and carbon dioxide by 78.8 % on a net lifecycle basis because the carbon in
biodiesel emissions is recycled from carbon present in atmosphere rather than
being new carbon from petroleum that was sequestered in the earth's crust.
4. Since biodiesel is made entirely from vegetable oil, it does not contain any
sulphur, aromatic hydrocarbons, metals or crude oil residues.
29. What are the basic routes of producing esterfrom oils andfats?
ww 1. Base catalyzed transesterification of the oil with alcohol.

2. Direct acid catalyzed esterification of the oil with methanol.
w.E
3. Conversion of the oil to fatt): acids, and then to Alkyl esters with acid catalysis.
asy
30. State the reasons alkyl esters produced with the base catalyzed reactors.
1. Low temperature (150U F) and pressure (20 psi) processmg.
E ngi
2. High conversion (98%) with minimal side reactions and reaction time.
3. Direct conversion to methyl ester with no intermediate steps.
nee
4. Exotic materials of construction are not necessary.
31.. Define "transesterification process".

rin [Anna Univ. May'll]
g.n
Biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils by converting the triglyceride oils to
methyl (or ethyl) esters with a process known as transesterification.
12. What is Bio-ethanolt et

Bio-ethanol is one of form of renewable energy. It can be produced from
agricultural feed stocks. It can be made from very common crops such as sugar cane,
potato, manioc and corn.
33. Write short notes on ethanol based engines.

Ethanol is most commonly used to power automobiles even if it is used to power
other vehicles such as farm tractors, boats and airplanes. Ethanol (E 100) consumption
in an engine is approximately 51% higher than gasoline since the energy per unit
volume of ethanol is 34% less than gasoline. The higher compression ratio in an
ethanol-only engine provides the increased power output and better fuel economy
than lower compression ratio. Usually, ethanol-only engines give slightly better power
and torque output than gasoline-powered engines.


34. Why is ethanol fuel mixtures used in automobiles?
Ethanol has a research octane number of 120 which is higher than petrol,
between 87 and 98. Thus, ethanol blending increases the octane number without
adding a carcinogenic substance such as benzene or a health-risk posing chemical
such as methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE). The energy content of ethanol is only
26.9 MJ/kg compared to 44.0 MJ/kg of petrol. The fuel economy (kmllitre) of a
petrol-powered engine would be 38.9 % higher than an ethanol-powered engine. In
actuality, this difference is 30 % since ethanol engines can run more efficiently (at a
higher compression ratio) because of high octane rating. For a 10 % ethanol blend, the
ww fuel economy advantage of a petrol engine is only 3 %. The flammability limit of

ethanol (19 % in air) is higher than petrol (7.6 %), and likewise the auto-ignition
w.E
temperature of ethanol is higher than petrol (366 versus 300°C). Thus, ethanol is safer
than petrol due to the low like hood of catching fire.
35. What is meant gasohol? asy

E
Gasohol is a mixture of 10% of ethanol (commonly known as grain alcohol or
ngi
beverage alcohol) and 90% of unleaded gasoline.
nee
36. List down the different way.\'ethanol can be used as a transportation fuel:
rin
(a) As a blend of 10 % ethanol with 90 % unleaded gasoline called "E-IO Unleaded".
g.n
(b) As a component of reformulated gasoline, both directly and as ethyl tertiary butyl
ether (ETBE), or
e
(c) As a primary fuel with 85 parts of ethanol blended with 15 parts of unleaded
gasoline called "E-85."
t
37. How can befermentation process defined?
Fermentation is a sequence of reactions which release energy from organic
molecules in the absence of oxygen.
38. What are the major steps of dry milling ethanol process?
(a) Milling
(b) Liquefaction
(c) Saccharification
(d) Fermentation
42
(e) Distillation

1""' (f) Dehydration

(g) Denaturing.
39. List down the properties of gasohol.

a) Octane rating
b) Heat value
c) Volatility
d) Latent heat of vapourization
ww e) Exhaust emissions
f) Alcohol/water mix
w.E
g) Engine economy.
asy
40. What are the advantages and limitations of alcohols as engine fuel?
{Anna Univ. Apr'05 & Dec'14J
Advantages:
E ngi
1. Low emissions of ozone-forming hydrocarbons and toxics.
2.
3.
It can be made from renewable sources.
It can be domestically produced.
nee
Limitations: rin
I. Fuel cost is high. g.n
2. Vehicle range is less.
41. Write down any six advantages of ethanol

et
I. Car owners benefit from increased octane in gasoline which reducer. engine
"knock" or "pinging." Ethanol-blended fuels also absorb moisture and clean the
fuel system.
2. Ethanol blends such as E-IO unleaded can be used in all gas engines without
engine or mechanical revisions.
3. Ethanol guards against gas line freeze by absorbing moisture which may get in the
tank during cold weather.
4. Ethanol is low in reactivity and high in oxygen content making it an effective tool
in reducing ozone pollution.

I Alternative Energy Sources "j,U

5. Ethanol is a safe replacement for toxic octane enhancers in gasoline such as
benzene, toluene and xylene.
6. Ethanol reduces greenhouse gas emissions because it is produced from renewable
agricultural feed stocks.
42. Compare the properties of alcohols and gasoline as engine fuels.
[Anna Univ. Dec'12]
(a) Alcohol is 16 points higher on the research octane scale than premium gasoline.
It means, alcohols have higher octane rating than gasoline.
ww (b) Alcohols contain only 63% of the energy that gasoline has mainly because of the
presence of oxygen in alcohol's structure. Hence, heating value is less.
w.E
(c) Alcohols are highly volatile than gasoline.
(d) Alcohols have higher flash point than gasoline and hence, it is a much safer the
automotive fuel.
asy
E
(e) Latent heat of vapourization of alcohols is more than gasoline. When a substance
ngi
undergoes a change in form (from a liquid to a vapour), it must absorb a certain
amount of additional heat from its surroundings to take place. Since alcohol must
nee
absorb roughly 2 Y2 times the amount of heat what gasoline does and the heat
rin
naturally is taken from the engine block, the engine should operate at much
lower temperature.
g.n
(f) Alcohol requires a richer air/fuel mix than gasoline (9:1 as opposed to 15:1) due
43. Define the process of electrolysis.

e
to alcohol having higher "octane" rating and it can be utilized more efficiently.
t
Electrolysis is a process in which the hydrogen and oxygen in water can be
dissociated by electric current.
44. Why is hydrogen called as secondary energy source? [Anna Univ. May'14]
As a fuel, hydrogen is used in the form of gas. Since hydrogen does not exist on
earth as a gas, it must be separated from other compounds. It is considered as a
secondary source of energy because another form of energy is needed to produce the
i
hydrogen fuel. The primary sources of energy to produce hydrogen are natural gas,
water, coal or oil. These sources go through different types of processes that allow
hydrogen fuel to be made.

1mB Automobile Engineering I

45. What are the methods for using hydrogen as afuel? {Anna Univ. May'lOj
1. Hydrogen in its liquid form has been used as a fuel in space .vehicles for years.
Hydrogen has high combustion energy per pound relative to any other fuel
meaning that hydrogen is more efficient on weight basis than fuels currently used
in air or ground transportation.
2. Hydrogen is both flammable and buoyant. It is flammable over a wider range of

concentrations than either gasoline or natural gas but due to its buoyancy, it
dissipates more rapidly than either of these fuels in a spill. Hydrogen gas such as
other gases used today should be used in areas that can be ventilated.
ww 3. Hydrogen can and has been used safely when guidelines for its proper handling
w.E and storage are observed.
4. It can be used in applications requiring electricity or gas and it can link the fossil-
a syE
based energy supply of today with the renewable energy tomorrow.
46. Mention any two methods of producing hydrogen gas.

I. Steam reforming of natural gas.
ngi
2. Electrolysis of water.
nee
47. List out tile various technologies used in producing hydrogen gas.
r
I. Steam reforming converts methane (other hydrocarbons
ing in natural gas) into
.ne
hydrogen and carbon monoxide by reaction with steam over a nickel catalyst,
2. Electrolysis uses electrical current to split water into hydrogen at the cathode
(+) and oxygen at the anode (-). t
3. Steam electrolysis (a variation on conventional electrolysis) uses heat instead
of electricity to provioe some of the energy needed to split water making the
process more energy efficient.
4. Thermochemical water splitting uses chemicals and heat in multiple steps to

split water into component parts.
5. Photoelectrochemical systems use semi-conducting materials (such as

photovoltaics) to split water using only sunlight.
6. Photobiological systems use microorganisms to split water using sunlight.

I Alternative Energy Sources Dig

7. Biological systems use microbes to break down a variety of biomass feed
stocks into hydrogen.
48. Mention any four properties of hydrogen gas.

1. Colorless, odorless, tasteless and nonpoisonous gas under normal conditions.
2. It readily combines with oxygen to form water which is absolutely necessary

for life on this planet.
3. It has high energy content per weight (nearly 3 times as much as gasoline) but
the energy density per volume is quite low at standard temperature and
ww pressure.
w.E 4. Hydrogen is highly flammable. It also has a wide flammability range and it
can burn when it makes up to 74% of the air by volume.
asy
S. Hydrogen burns with a pale-blue, almost-invisible flame in making hydrogen
fires difficult.
E ngi
49. Describe briefly natural gas steam reforming.
The production of hydrogen from natural gas is an integral part of the strategy to
nee
introduce hydrogen into the transportation and utility energy sectors by reducing the
rin
cost of conventional and developing innovative hydrogen production processes which
rely on cheap fossil feed stocks.
50. Write short notes on biomass gasification ami pyrolysis. g.n

e t
The thermal processing techniques for plant material (biomass) and fossil fuels
are similar with a number of the downstream unit operations being essentially same
for both feed stocks. Using agricultural residues and wastes or biomass specifically
grown for energy uses, hydrogen can be produced via pyrolysis or gasification.
Biomass pyrolysis produces a liquid product (bio-oil). such as petroleum contains a
wide spectrum of components which can be separated into valuable chemicals and
fuels.
51. How are electrolytic processes carried out?

Electrolytic hydrogen production processes use electrical energy to split water
into hydrogen and oxygen. In electrolysis, electricity is used to separate water (H20)
into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (02). The electricity can come from fossil fuels such
as coal or from renewable sources such as nuclear, solar or hydroelectric power.

I.:'
I
52. State any four disadvantages of using hydrogen asfuel.
{Anna Univ. Dec'13}
I
a) Heavy bulky fuel storage both in vehicle and at the service station. Hydrogen can
be stored either as cryogenic liquid or compressed gas. If stored as a liquid, it
would have to be kept under pressure at low temperature. It would require a
thermally super-insulated fuel tank. Storing in a gas phase would require a heavy
pressure vessel with limited capacity.
b) It is difficult to refuel.
c) Poor engine volumetric efficiency. Any time a gaseous fuel is used in an engine,
the fuel will displace some of the inlet air and poor volumetric efficiency will
ww result.
w.E
d) Fuel cost would be high at present-day technology and availability.
e) NOx emissions are high because of high flame temperature.
a syE
53. What are the advantages and disadvantages 0/ electricity asfuels in automobiles?
Advantages:
(i)
ngi
Potential for zero vehicle emissions is possible.
(ii) Power plant emissions control is easy.
nee
(iii) It can recharge at night when power demand is low.
Disadvantages:
r ing
(i) Current technology is limited.
(ii) It has higher vehicle cost, lower range and performance. .ne
(iii) It has less convenient refueling.
54. Enumerate the limitations of electnc vehicle.

t
{Anna Univ. Nov'07 & May'll}
I. Initial torque is less.
2. It is more expensive.
3. Frequent recharging of battery is needed also battery charging needs more time.
4. The performance is poor.
5. A variety of vehicles is less available in the market.
55. What isfuel cell? {Anna Univ. May'08, May'12 & May'14}
A fuel cell produces electricity directly from the reaction between hydrogen
(derived from a hydrogen-containing fuel or produced from-the electrolysis of water)
and oxygen from air.
I Alternative Energy sources "'pi

56. Briefly explain fuel cell. [Anna Univ. May'08)
Like an internal combustion engine in a conventional car, it turns fuel into power
by causing it to release energy. In an internal co: bustion engine, the fuel burns in
tiny explosions that push the piston up and down. When the fuel burns, it is being
oxidized. In other words, the fuel combines with oxygen and it produces energy in the
form of heat and mechanical motion. In a fuel cell, the fuel is also oxidized. but the
resulting energy takes in the form of electricity. When powered by pure hydrogen, the
only by-products of the reaction are heat and water.
ww
57. What is meant by reversiblefuel cell?
Some fuel cells can be run in reverse under certain conditions which produces
w.E
hydrogen via electrolysis. It is called reversible fuel cell.
1. Highway vehicles asy

58. Explain the application offuel cell. [Anna Univ. Nov'08)
3. Aerospace
E
2. Other surface transportation
ngi
4. Marine vehicles.
nee
59. How can we define photolytic process?
rin
g.n
Photolytic hydrogen production technologies use the energy from sunlight to
split water into hydrogen and oxygen. Emerging direct water-splitting technologies
include photobiological and photoelectrochemical systems.
60. Define the following processes: Photo~iological and Photo electrolysis

I
e t
(a) Photobiological process:
Certain photosynthetic microbes produce hydrogen in their metabolic activities
using light energy. By employing catalysts and engineered systems, hydrogen
production efficiency could reach 24%. Photobiological technology holds great
promise because oxygen is produced along with the hydrogen, the technology must
overcome the limitation of oxygen sensitivity of hydrogen-evolving enzyme systems.
(bJPhotoelectrolysis:
Multifunction cell technology developed by PV industry is used for
photoelectrochemical (PEC) light harvesting systems which generate sufficient
voltage to split water and they are stable in a water/electrolyte environment.

1 "",.t,j Automobile Engineering I

61. Mention the various methods of storing hydrogen.
(i) High-pressure storage tanks
(ii) Liquid hydrogen
(iii) Metal hydrides
(iv) Carbon nanotubes.
62. List out the various benefits of a parallel configuration 0/ EVs.

1. A smaller engine provides more efficient operation and therefore, it produces
ww better fuel economy without sacrificing acceleration power. The vehicle has more
power because both engine and motor supply power simultaneously.
w.E
2. Most parallel vehicles do not need a separate generator because the motor
regenerates the batteries.
3.a syE
Power does not need to be redirected through batteries. Therefore, it can be more
efficient.
63. Define a hybrid vehicle. ngi [Anna Univ. May'08 & May'H}
nee
The vehicle which is using more than one source of energy to run is called hybrid
vehicle. Hybrid means that it is mixed together from two things. Usually, it refers to
r ing
plants or animals that are breed from different dissimilar parents.
64. Mention the classification 0/ Hybrid vehicles?

1. Toyota Prius hybrid electric vehicle .ne
[Anna Univ. May'lO]
2. Ford Escape hybrid electric vehicle

3. Fuel cell powered hybrid electric vehicle
t
4. Heavy duty truck applications.
65. State the benefits 0/ a series configuration.

1. The engine never idles which reduces vehicle emissions.
2. The engine can continuously operate in its most efficient region.
3. The engine drives a generator to run at optimum performance.
4. The design allows for a variety of options when mounting the engine and
vehicle components.
5. Some series hybrids do not need a transmission.

I Alternative Energy Sources Utl'

66. What are the components of a hybrid vehicle? {Anna Univ. May '10 & Dec'}3}
1. Electric traction motors/controllers.
2. Electric energy storage systems such as batteries and ultra-capacitors.
3. Hybrid power units such as spark ignition engines, compression ignition direct
injection (diesel) engines, gas turbines and fuel cells.
4. Fuel systems for hybrid power units.
5. Transmissions.
67. What are the different types batteries used in hybrid vehicles?
ww 1. Lead-Acid batteries
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2. Nickel-Cadmium batteries
3. Nickel-Metal hydride batteries
asy
4. Lithium ion batteries
5. Lithium polymer batteries
En
6. Hybrid electric vehicle spark ignition engines.
gin
68. Describe briefly hybrid electric vehicle gas turbine.
ee
The gas turbine engine runs on a Brayton cycle using a continuous combustion
rin
process. In this cycle, a compressor (usually radial flow for automotive applications)
g.
raises the pressure and temperature of inlet air. The air is then moved into the burner
net
where the fuel is injected and combusted to raise the temperature of air. Power is
produced when heated. A high-pressure mixture is expanded and cooled through a
turbine. When a turbine engine is directly coupled to a generator, it is often called
turbo generator or turbo alternator.
The power output of a turbine is controlled through the amount of fuel injected
into burner. Many turbines have adjustable vanes and gearing to decrease the fuel
consumption during partial load conditions and improve acceleration.
69. What is a turbo alternator?

If a turbine engine is directly coupled to a generator, it is called turbo generator
or turbo alternator.
70. Mention the dismhtantage.v (if lIybril/ electric vehicle ga.\'turbine engines.
I. Turbine engines have high manufacturing cost because of the complicated design
and expensive manufacturing.
2. A turbine engine changes speed slowly. A gas turbine is slow to respond (reiative
to a reciprocating engine) to change in throttle request.
3. A gas turbine is less suitable for low-power applications. At partial throttle

conditions, the efficiency of gas turbine decreases.
4. A turbine requires intercoolers, regenerators and reheaters to reach efficiencies

comparable to current gasoline engines. It adds significant cost and complexity
to a turbine engine.
71. What are the objectives of hybrid electric vehicles?
ww (i) To maximize the fuel economy

(ii) To minimize emissions
w.E
(iii) To minimize propulsion system cost to keep the vehicles affordable to the
asy
consumer market
(iv) To do all of above while maintaining or improving on acceptable performance.
En
72. List the various control strategies in hybrid system.
gin
(i) Mechanical control
ee
(ii) Electrical control.
73. State tile applications of IIybrid vehicles.

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1. Consumer applications.
2. Bus applications.
g. net
3. Heavy duty truck applications.
74. What is meant by afuel cell and "ow it works? {Anna Univ. Apr'06 & May'09j
A fuel cell produces electricity directly from the reaction between hydrogen
(derived from a hydrogen-containing fuel or produced from the electrolysis of water)
and oxygen from air.
75. Write down tile comparison between a fuel cell powered car to one powered by a
battery.
Fuel cell and battery-powered vehicles are both propelled by electric motors.
Therefore, both vehicle types can be designed with similar performance
characteristics. The primary difference in these vehicles is the source of electricity.
Battery-electric vehicles are powered by electricity stored in a battery. Since the
battery merely stores energy instead of generating it, it must be recharged regularly.
I Alternative Energy Sources OlD

Fuel cells generate electricity from hydrogen or some other fuel. Such as
gasoline-powered vehicles, fuel cell vehicles are refueled rather than recharged.
Refueling usually takes much less time than recharging. Fuel cell vehicles can
typically go further before refueling due to the storage limitations of current battery
designs. However, both technologies need to improve their driving range in order to
compete with gasoline and diesel-powered vehicles.
76.Mention the variousparts offuel ceiL

I. Membrane electrode assembly
ww 2. Catalyst
3. Chemistry of a Fuel Cell
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4. Hardware.
77. List downthe major sectionsof afuel cell vehicles.

(i) asy
Fuel processing section
En
(ii) Fuel cell power pack
gin
(iii) Power conditioning section
ee
(iv) Switchgear and supply section
(v) Control subsystem section
(vi) Heating section. rin
78. Mention anyfour typesof'fuel cells.
I) Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell
g. net
{Anna Univ.Nov'05]
2) Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell

3) Direct methanol fuel cell
4) Alkaline fuel cell
5) Phosphoric acid fuel cell
6) Molten carbonate fuel cell
7) Solid oxide fuel cell
8) Regenerative fuel cell.
79. Whatare thefactors to be consideredin benefitsoffuel cellst

1. Fuel cells are cleaner and more efficient than traditional combustion-based
engines and power plants.

2. Using pure hydrogen to power fuel cell vehicles offers the distinct advantage of
zero emissions but only on the vehicle not at the hydrogen production source.
3. Fuel cell vehicles are expected to achieve overall energy conversion throughout
efficiencies around twice oftoday's typical gasoline internal combustion engines.
4. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe and it can be found on
Earth in virtually unlimited quantities. Using hydrogen or other domestically
produced alternative fuels to power fuel cell vehicles will help to reduce our
nation's dependence on imported oil.
ww
80. What is the difference between variousfuel cells? {Anna Univ. Dec'12]
The main difference between various fuel cells is the type of electrolyte used.
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Fuel cells are classified on the basis of electrolyte used by the difference in startup
time ranging from I second for Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) to 10
asy
min for Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFes).
En
81. What are the advantages offuel cells?
gin
1. Fuel cells eliminate pollution caused by burning fossil fuels; the only by-
product is water.
ee
2. Fuel cells do not need conventional fuels such as oil or gas and can therefore
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eliminate economic dependence on politically unstable countries.
production of potential fuel can be distributed. g.

3. Since hydrogen can be produced anywhere where there is water and electricity,
net
4. Fuel cells can achieve high efficiencies in energy conversion terms, especially
where the waste heat from the cell is utilised in cogeneration situation.
S. Installation of smaller stationary fuel cells leads to a more stabilized and
decentralized power grid.
82. What are the disadvantages offuel cells?

1. Initial cost is high. Fuel cells are currently very expensive to produce, since
most units are hand-made.
2. Service life is low.
3. Operation requires repleisable fuel supply.
4. Some fuel cells use expensive materials.
5. Fuelling fuel cells is still a major problem since the production, transportation,
distribution and storage of hydrogen is difficult.

83. List the various applications of'fuel cells.
I. They can also be used for stationary applications such as providing electricity to
power homes and business.
2. They are used in central power stations.
3. Fuel cells have the potential to replace the internal combustion engine In
vehicles. They can be used in transportation applications such as powering

automobiles, buses, cycles and other vehicles.
4. Many portable devices.can be powered by fuel cells such as laptop computers
ww and cell phones.
w.E 5. They are used in spacecraft power stations.

asy
I. Explain the reasons for looking for alternate fuels for IC engines.
En [Anna Univ. Dec' 12]
Refer page 5.1.
gin
eer
2. What are the alternative energy sources for automobiles? [Anna Univ. Dec '14]
3. Explain the various properties of alternative fuels. ing

Refer chapter 5.3 in page 5.4. .ne
t
4. Explain the production of natural gas with a neat sketch in detail.
5. What are the ~nefits of natural gas?
6. Write short notes on constraints in CNG. [Anna Univ. Nov '07]
7. Describe the salient features of using LPG as an alternate fuel.


IdfliJ Automobile Engineering I

8. Draw and explain the operation of liquefied petroleum gas system.
[Anna Univ. Nov '08 & May '09, May ']0 & May ']5]
9. What is LPG? What are the advantages and disadvantages of using it in automobiles?
[Anna Univ. Dec ']4]
Refer chapter 5.5 in page 5.19 for the definition of LPG and chapter 5.5.6 in
page 5.27 for advantages and disadvantages of LPG.
10. Explain briefly about the history, current uses, process of utilization and advantages
wwof biomass as a fuel. [Anna Univ. May'] 4 & Dec'] 4]
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11. How bio diesel is produced? Explain and its usage in automobile.
asy [Anna Univ. May '08]
En
gin
12. Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of using alcohol as a fuel.
[Anna Univ. May'14]
ee
]3. Explain how Bio-ethanol is prepared and used in automobiles. rin

Refer chapter 5.7.2 in page 5.35. g.
14. Explain the bio-ethanol consumption in India and reason for the same. net
15. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using
1. Alcohol and
2. Hydrogen in Ie engines. [Anna Univ. May'] 2]

16. Discuss "hydrogen is a part of life or not".

Or
Explain why hydrogen is considered as the most favourable fuel for future.

17. Discuss the properties of hydrogen. [Anna Univ. Nov '051

18. Explain electrolysis process in hydrogen production.
19. List out the various thermo chemical processes. Explain any two in detail.

20. Explain the two methods by which hydrogen can be used in CI engine.
ww [Anna Univ. Nov '07, May:08 ..May' 11 & Dec' 12]
w.E
21. Explain the engine modification required to use alternate fuels in automobiles.
asy
En
22. Explain the modification required in 'Sf and CI engines to employ alternate fuels to
gin
produce on par performance, combustion and emission characteristics of conventional
engines.
ee
rin
fuels.
g.
23. Describe the steps involved in analysing the engine performance while using alternate
net
Refer chanter 5.11 in page 5.62.
24. Explain in detail about the electrical vehicle system with a block diagram.
[Anna Univ. Nov '08 & May '09, Dec'J3 & May '15]

25. What are the advantages and limitations of Electric vehicle? [Anna Univ. Apr '05]
Refer chapter 5.14.5 & 5.14.6 in page 5.75.
26. What is meant by hybrid vehicle? Give its merits. [Anna Univ. Nov '08]
27. With a layout diagram, explain the working features of hybrid vehicles.

'Ilt.,:1 Automobile Engfneerlng I

28. Write short notes on hybrid electric vehicle components.
29. Explain the different types of hybrid vehicles with neat sketch. [Anna Univ. Dec'] 4]

30. Why fuel cells are not preferred for automobiles now? [Anna Univ. Dec' 14]
31. Compare a fuel-powered car to one powered by a battery.
ww Refer chapter 5.16.2 in page 5.90. i
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32. Explain fuel cell with a neat sketch. Give their disadvantages and advantages.
[Anna Univ. Nov '05, Nov'OB, May'Ll & May ']5]
asy
Refer chapter 5.16.4 in page 5.90 for the description of fuel cell and chapter
E
5.16.8 in page 5.101 for advantages and disadvantages of fuel cell.
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33. Describe the various parts of fuel cell.

nee
34. What are the various kinds of fuel cells?
rin
35. Explain with a neat sketch PEM based fuel and its working. g.n
[Anna Univ. Dec']2]
Refer chapter 5.16.6.2 in page 5.95. e t

36. Explain the working of direct methanol fuel cell with its neat sketch.
37. How do alkaline fuel cells work? Explain with its sketch.
38. Explain the working of phosphoric acid fuel cells with a neat sketch.
39. Describe the working of molten carbonate fuel cell with a neat sketch.

I Altemative Energy Sources am I

40. Explain solid polymer fuel cell with a neat sketch. [Anna Univ. Dec'J4J

41. Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of fuel cells. [Anna Univ.Nov'07]
42. Explain briefly the applications of fuel cells.
ww ----- ENlJfvl1Jnit 5 ···l-"·~ •.ol'''''___
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Solvedsy En University
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Question gPapers'
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Solved Anna University Question Papers
B.E/B.TECH. DEGREE EXAMINATION - MAY/JUNE 2016

Sixth semester
Mechanical Engineering
ME 6602 - AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
(Regulation 2013)
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100marks
Answer ALL questions
Part A - (10 x 2 = 20 Marks)
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1. What are the types of cross sectional franes used in automobile?
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~
Channel section
Box section
~ Tubular section asy
~ I - section.
E ngi
2. What are the forces acting on the running vehicles?
~ Dragforce
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~
~
Lift force
Cross wind force. rin
3. Define "Continuous Injection" of petrol engine. g.n
e
The injection system which provides a continuous spray of fuel from each injector at
a point before the intake valve is known as continuous injection system.
t
4. State the diesel vehicle emission norms of Euro BS IV in g/km:
Bharat Stage (BS) IV which is equivalent to Euro- VI significantly states lower

emission limits for NOx emissions from diesel cars. The following table shows the diesel
vehicle emission norms ofEuro BS IV in g/km.
.-
Reference I CO HC+NOx NOx PM
BS-VI
I 0.63 0.39 0.33 0.04 .
~ Whatarethefuncdonsofgearbox?
The functions of gear box are as follows:

1. It helps the engine to disconnect from driving wheels.
' ... ' "
2. It helps the running engine to be connected to the driving wheel smoothly and without
shock.
4. It helps to reduce the engine speed in the ratio of 4 : l-in case of passenger cars and in
a greater ratio in case of heavy vehicles such as trucks and lorries.
5. It helps the driving wheels to be driven at different speeds.
6. It gives the relative movement between engine and driving wheels due to flexing of
the road springs.
ww
6. What are the functions 0/ differential ass.:mbly?
w.E
The functions of differential assembly are as follows:
1. Differential assembly allows the drive wheels to tum at different rpms while both
asy
receiving power from the engine.
En
2. It applies pressure to the side gears in such a way to begin one of the tires to slip.
gin
7. What is the/unction of the tension spring in the clutch plate?
ee
The functions of the tension spring in the clutch plate are as follows:
rin
I. To maintain the stability of the vehicle while traveling over rough round or when
g.
turning in order to minimize the rolling, pitching or vertical movement tendency.
net
2. To minimize the effects of stresses due to road shocks on the mechanism of the motor
vehicle and provide a cushioning effect.
8. Name the classifications 0/ brake system.

1. According to the applications:
(i) Service or running or foot brake
(ii) Parking or emergency or hand brake.
2. According to the number ofwheels:

(i) Two wheel brakes
(ii) Four wheel brakes.
3. According to the brake gear:

(i) Mechanical brake
(a) Hand brake
(b) Foot brake.

(ii) Power brake:
(a) With booster
(b) Without booster.
4. According to construction:
(i) Drum brake
(ii) Disc brake.
ww
9. Writeshort notes on " L.P.G.".
w.E
Most people pronounce Liquefied Petroleum .Gas (LPG) as "propane" because LPG is
mostly made up of propane. Actually, LPG is made of a mixture of propane and other similar
asy
types of hydrocarbon gases. LPG is stored in special tanks which keep it under pressure.
Therefore, it stays as liquid. LPG is the name given to the mixture of petroleum gases released
En
during the extraction of crude oil and natural gas during refining the crude oil. It consists of a
gin
mixture of hydrocarbons including major components of propane and butane and minor
components are normal-butane, iso-butane, pentane, ethane, propene and butane together with
ee
small quantities of additives including sulphur to give it an odour for safety reasons.
10. Why alcoholis an alternatefuel for S.l engine?

rin
in SI engine.
g.
Alcohols have the potential to reduce NOx, CO, HC and particulates when they are used
net
=
Part B - (5 x 16 80 Marks)
11. (a) (i) Writeshort notes on thefollowing engineparts:

(a) Piston (b) Cylinder head (c) Piston ring (d) Gudgeon pin (e) Flywheel
(f) Exhaust valve (g) Lubricationpump. (8)
(a) Piston Refer chapter 1.12.6 in page 1.60.
(b) Cylinder head Refer chapter 1.12.2 in page 1.58.
(c) Piston ring Refer chapter 1.12.8 in page 1.65.
(d) Gudgeon pin Refer chapter 1.12.7 in page 1.64.
(e) Flywheel Refer chapter 1.12.10 in page 1.66.
(t) Exhaust valve Refer chapter 1.12.13 in page 1.68.

Automobile
(I) Lubrication pump:
The lubricating oil pump is used to pressurise the oil and circulate it .to different
engine parts. It is generally driven by a spiral or warm gear on the cam shaft. The
different types of oil pumps in use are
1. Gear pump
2. Eccentric rotor pump
3. Eccentric vane pump and
ww4. Plunger pump.

(ii) Draw the layouts of automobile chassis and explain its significance. (8)
w .Ea
Refer chapter 1.6.4 and 1.6.5 in page 1.22.
Or
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(b) (i) Write short notes on the following;
(a) Valve mecahnism and (b) Cranshaft ngi

Valve mecahnism -
Crankshaft
n eer
(ii) What are the functions of carburettor? ing

Refer chapter 2.1.1 in page 2.1. . net
12. (a) (i) What are the advantages of Transistorized Coil Ignition (TCI) system? (4)
(ii) Sketch and explain the Capacitive Discharge Ignition System. (12)
Or
(b) Describe the working of distributor type offuel pllmp with a sketch. (16)
13. (a) (i) What are the types.of rear axle casing? (4)

(ii) What are the types of rear axle drive? And explain with a neat sketch? (12)
Or
(b) (i) What are the requirements of the cltuch? (8)

(ii) Sketch and explain the working method of torque tube type 0/ propeUer shaft.
(8)
ww Refer chapter 3.18.6.2 in page 3.89.
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U. (a) (i) List the types of suspension spring used in automobile.

(8)
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(ii) Describe the working method 0/ Antilock Braking System. (8)
En
gin Or
(b)
ee
m Draw the schematic diagram of pneumatic
braking system and explain it.
rin
(8)
15. (a) (i) What are the merits and demerits of LPG as a motor fuel? g. net (8)
(ii) List the advantages of LNG. (8)
Or
(b) (i) What are the the merits and demeritso/Hydrogen/uel? (8)
(ii) Explain the merits of Ethanol fuel: (8)
***********************************************************************
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et



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ANNA UNIVERSITY SYLLABUS· Reg. 2013

ME6602 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

UNIT I VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND ENGINES

UNIT V ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

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UNIT 2 Engine Auxiliary Systems

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1.1.2. Requirements of an Automobile 1.5

1.2. General classification of vehicles 1.5

1.2.1. Single unit vehicles 1.5

ww 1.2.2. Articulated vehicles 1.6

1.5.1.3. Central or mid-engine

1.5.3. Front engine rear wheel drive .ne 1.16

1.6. Chassis 1.19

1.6.1. Basic construction of chassis 1.19

1.6.2. Main components of chassis 1.20

1.6.3. Classification of chassis 1.20

1.6.4. Characteristics of a good chassis 1.22

1.6.5. Layout of chassis 1.22

1.6.6. Components and drive systems in chassis 1.23

1.7. Frame 1.27

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• 1.7.1. Functions or importance of frame

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1.13. Classification ofIC engines 1.71

1.14. Working principle ofIC engines 1.73

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2.1. Carburetors 2.1

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2.9. Engine emission and its control 2.56

w.E 2.9.8. Crankcase emission control system 2.66

2.11. Two mark questions and answers

2.12. Solved questions

3.2. Clutch 3.2

3.3. Types of clutches 3.4

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3.10.6. Trouble shooting chart for overdrive 3.54

3.11. Transfer box 3.55

3.12. Fluid flywheel 3.57

3.13. Torque converter gearbox 3.58

3.13.1. Difference between fluid coupling and torque convertor 3.61

3.14. Propeller shaft 3.62

3.14.1. Functions of propeller shaft 3.62

3.14.2. Propeller shaft construction 3.64

3.17.5.1. Conventional differential e

differential lockout 3.74

3.17.5.3. Non-slip differential 3.78

3.17.5.4. Double reduction type differential 3.78

3.17.6. Trouble shooting for differential 3.79

3.18. Rear axle 3.81

3.18.1. Construction of rear axles 3.82

3.18.2. Rear axle casing 3.82

3.18.3. Types of loads acting on rear axles 3.85

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ww 4.2.3. Types of front axles 4.46

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4.5. Braking system 4.90