Biology 1103 - Week 2

Biochemistry I Tissue Structure Tissue structure Lab

Tissue Structure Lab

• Part A: – Examine different types of tissue under the microscope • Part B: – Examine cross-sections of
frog intestine

Learning outcomes

• Organic molecules in the body – part I – Carbohydrates – Lipids • Tissue types in the body – Epithelial –
Connective – Muscle – Nervous

BIOCHEMISTRY

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates

• Organic molecules containing the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O), in a ratio of
1:2:1 • Carbohydrates are classified mainly by size and the number of building blocks it contains –
Monosaccharide – Disaccharide – Polysaccharide

Remember the ratio of elements for carbohydrates and be able to compare it with the ratios of other
organic compounds

1. Monosaccharides • Building block, also called a simple sugar • Usually contains anywhere from 3 to 7
carbons

Be able to recognize all names as monosaccharide Be able to name an example of a monosaccharide No

need to memorize structures

Figure 2.15a Carbohydrate molecules important to the body. Monosaccharides Monomers of

carbohydrates Example

Hexose sugars (the hexoses shown here are isomers) Example

Pentose sugars

Glucose Fructose Galactose Deoxyribose Ribose

2. Disaccharides • Two monosaccharides linked together • Different combinations make different

disaccharides: 1. Glucose + Fructose Sucrose

Figure 2.15b
2. Galactose + Glucose Lactose

3. Glucose + Glucose Maltose

Figure 2.15b

Be able to recognize all names as disaccharides Be able to name an example of a disaccharide

3. Polysaccharides • Also called complex sugars • Multiple monosaccharides linked together • How
these monosaccharides are linked together can make different types of polysaccharides • All of the
following examples are made of glucose molecules: – Glycogen (human storage of glucose) – Starch
(plant storage of glucose) – Cellulose (forms plant walls of plant cells) Be able to name an example of a
polysaccharide Be able to recognize these as polysaccharides

Starch granules in potato tuber cells

Glycogen granules in muscle tissue Glycogen Glucose monomer

Starch

Cellulose

Hydrogen bonds

Cellulose molecules

Cellulose microfibrils in a plant cell wall

Polysaccharides

BIOCHEMISTRY

Lipids

Lipids

• Organic molecules containing carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen • However the ratio of carbon and
hydrogen to oxygen is much higher
• There are different types of lipids:

Be able to name and describe all the different types of lipids

• Most common form of lipids, often used as a building block for other types of lipids • Structure
contains a carboxylic acid with a hydrocarbon chain • Fatty acids vary in: 1. Length 2. Saturation level

1. Fatty acids

Figure 2.17a, pg 48

Fatty acids

• Saturated fatty acid: hydrocarbon chain contains only single covalent bonds • Unsaturated fatty acid:
hydrocarbon chain contains at least one double covalent bond

Saturation level

• Certain double bonds cause “kinks” in the hydrocarbon chain • Kinks prevent close packing of fatty
acid molecules • Saturated fatty acids are commonly solid at room temperature (eg. butter), and
unsaturated fatty acids (eg. olive oil) are commonly liquid at room temperature

Saturated fatty acid and fat

Unsaturated fatty acid and fat

Fatty acids are nonpolar

• Nonpolar: all electrons are shared equally in the chemical bonds of the molecule • Polar: when there is
unequal sharing of electrons

What happens when you mix a polar molecule with a nonpolar molecule?

In general, if a molecule is nonpolar it is hydrophobic (it cannot mix with water) and if a molecule is
polar it is hydrophilic (it can mix with water)

2. Triglycerides • One glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acids • The fatty acids can vary in type,
number of carbon atoms and number of double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain • In the body, it is the
storage form of fat Figure 2.16a Lipids. Triglyceride formation Three fatty acid chains are bound to
glycerol by dehydration synthesis.

Glycerol 3 fatty acid chains Triglyceride, or neutral fat 3 water molecules

++
3. Phospholipids • A phospholipid has a polar side and a nonpolar side, making it amphipathic • Two
fatty acids and a phosphorus-containing group attached to glycerol • Important component of cell
membranes

Fatty acids

Choline

Phosphate

Glycerol

Non-polar tail

Polar head

Figure 2.16c

Simplified structure of a steroid Four interlocking hydrocarbon rings form a steroid. Example

Cholesterol (cholesterol is the basis for all steroids formed in the body) 4. Steroids

Testosterone Estradiol

TISSUE STRUCTURE

Atoms Molecule Organelle Smooth muscle cell

Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.

Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules.

Smooth muscle tissue

Cardiovascular system Heart Blood vessels

Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells.

Blood vessel (organ)

Smooth muscle tissue

Connective tissue

Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues.

Organismal level The human organism is made up of many organ systems.

Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely.
Epithelial tissue

Figure 4.1 Overview of four basic tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues.

• Brain • Spinal cord • Nerves Nervous tissue: Internal communication

• Muscles attached to bones (skeletal) • Muscles of heart (cardiac) • Muscles of walls of hollow organs
(smooth) Muscle tissue: Contracts to cause movement

Epithelial tissue: Forms boundaries between different environments, protects, secretes, absorbs, filters
• Lining of digestive tract organs and other hollow organs • Skin surface (epidermis)

• Bones • Tendons • Fat and other soft padding tissue

Connective tissue: Supports, protects, binds other tissues together

Epithelial Tissue

Classification of epithelial tissue

1. Number of layers – Simple: one layer – Stratified: multiple layers (can also be pseudostratified) 2.
Shape – Squamous: flattened cells – Cuboidal: cube-shaped cells – Columnar: column-shaped cells

Classified by the most superficial layer of cells

Figure 4.2 Classification of epithelia.

Simple

Stratified

Squamous

Cuboidal

Columnar

Simple squamous epithelium

• E.g., air sacs of the lungs (alveoli), blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, glomerular (Bowman’s) capsules of
kidneys, lining of heart, lining of ventral body cavity • Very thin - allows diffusion, osmosis and filtration
• Nuclei centrally located

Simple squamous epithelium

Simple squamous cell

Basement membrane

Connective tissue

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Simple cuboidal cell

Basement membrane

Connective tissue • E.g., ducts of pancreas, ducts of kidneys, thyroid glands, sweat glands, ovary surface
• Secretion or absorption • Nuclei centrally located

Simple columnar epithelium

Microvilli

Mucus in goblet cell

Absorptive cell

Basement membrane

Connective tissue

Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium

Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium

• E.g., stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, digestive glands, gall bladder, uterine tubes,
some regions of uterus, small bronchi • Nonciliated: secretion and absorption; ciliated: moving mucus,
moving oocytes

Stratified squamous epithelium

Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium

Flattened squamous cell at apical surface

Basement membrane
Connective tissue

• E.g., skin, vagina, esophagus, mouth • Protects against abrasion, water loss, UV radiation, foreign
invasion

Stratified cuboidal epithelium

Stratified cuboidal epithelium

Apical surface

Basement membrane

Connective tissue

Stratified cuboidal epithelium

• Quite rare: sweat gland ducts, salivary glands, mammary glands • Limited secretion and absorption;
protection

Stratified columnar epithelium

Stratified columnar epithelium

Apical surface

Basement membrane

Connective tissue

Stratified columnar epithelium

• Quite rare: male urethra, pharynx, some glandular ducts • Protection and secretion

Practice Question 1

Practice Question 2

Practice Question 3

Practice Question 4

Practice Question 5
Practice Question 6

Biology 1103 - Week 2

Biochemistry I Tissue Structure Tissue structure Lab

Practice Question 7

Connective tissue

• Forms the framework of organs • Connects organs to each other • Composed of a small number of
cells and a large amount of extracellular material called the matrix • The matrix of each specific type of
connective tissue will vary

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.7 Areolar connective tissue: A prototype (model) connective tissue. Extracellular matrix Ground
substance Fibers • Collagen fiber • Elastic fiber • Reticular fiber

Capillary

Neutrophil

Mast cell Adipocyte

Lymphocyte

Fibroblast

Macrophage

Cell types

Common components of the matrix

• Collagen, elastic and reticular fibers: to increase the strength and elasticity • Neutrophils,
lymphocytes, mast cells: to prevent infection • Adipocytes (cells that store fat) • Ground substance
(substance composed of water and many molecules; can be liquid, gellike, or calcified)

Classification of connective tissue

I. Embryonic connective tissue II. Mature connective tissue A. Loose connective tissue B. Dense
connective tissue C. Cartilage D. Bone E. Liquid
Classification of connective tissue is based on cell type and what can be found in the matrix

Embryonic Mature

Mesenchyme Mucous Loose Dense Cartilage Bone Liquid

Adipose Areolar Reticular

Irregular Regular Elastic

Fibrocartilage Hyaline Elastic

Blood Lymph

Classification of connective tissue

I. Embryonic connective tissue

Mesenchyme • Present in the embryo and fetus • Usually contains soft and delicate fibers • Gives rise to
all other types of connective tissue

II. Mature Connective Tissue A. Loose connective tissue

• Types of loose connective tissue: – Areolar – Adipose – Reticular: not covered in this course • Loosely
intertwined fibers throughout tissues • Many cells present

Figure 4.8a Connective tissues. Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, areolar Description:
Gel-like matrix with all three fiber types; cells: fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, and some white
blood cells.

Function: Wraps and cushions organs; its macrophages phagocytize bacteria; plays important role in
inflammation; holds and conveys tissue fluid.

Location: Widely distributed under epithelia of body, e.g., forms lamina propria of mucous membranes;
packages organs; surrounds capillaries.

Epithelium

Lamina propria

Photomicrograph: Areolar connective tissue, a soft packaging tissue of the body (340x).

Elastic fibers

Ground substance

Fibroblast nuclei

Collagen fibers
Areolar Tissue

• Most widely distributed connective tissue type

Figure 4.8b Connective tissues. Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, adipose Description:
Matrix as in areolar, but very sparse; closely packed adipocytes, or fat cells, have nucleus pushed to the
side by large fat droplet.

Photomicrograph: Adipose tissue from the subcutaneous layer under the skin (350x).

Nucleus of adipose (fat) cell

Function: Provides reserve food fuel; insulates against heat loss; supports and protects organs.

Location: Under skin in subcutaneous tissue; around kidneys and eyeballs; within abdomen; in breasts.
Fat droplet Adipose tissue

Mammary glands

Adipose Tissue

• Peripheral nuclei

II. Mature connective tissue B. Dense connective tissue • Types of dense connective tissue – dense
regular connective tissue – dense irregular connective tissue: not in this course – elastic connective
tissue: not in this course • Contains thicker and more dense fibers than loose connective tissue • Fewer
cells than loose connective tissue • Example: tendons

Figure 4.8d Connective tissues. Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, dense regular
Description: Primarily parallel collagen fibers; a few elastic fibers; major cell type is the fibroblast.

Function: Attaches muscles to bones or to muscles; attaches bones to bones; withstands great tensile
stress when pulling force is applied in one direction.

Location: Tendons, most ligaments, aponeuroses.

Shoulder joint

Ligament

Tendon

Collagen fibers

Nuclei of fibroblasts

Photomicrograph: Dense regular connective tissue from a tendon (430x).

Dense connective tissue

II. Mature connective tissue C. Cartilage • Collagen fibers and elastic fibers embedded in a dense
network • The only connective tissue without blood vessels • Examples: between vertebral discs, ear

chondrocyte

ground substance

Figure 4.8g Connective tissues. Cartilage: hyaline Description: Amorphous but firm matrix; collagen
fibers form an imperceptible network; chondroblasts produce the matrix and when mature
(chondrocytes) lie in lacunae. Function: Supports and reinforces; serves as resilient cushion; resists
compressive stress. Location: Forms most of the embryonic skeleton; covers the ends of long bones in
joint cavities; forms costal cartilages of the ribs; cartilages of the nose, trachea, and larynx.

Costal cartilages Photomicrograph: Hyaline cartilage from a costal cartilage of a rib (470x).

Matrix

Chondrocyte in lacuna

Cartilage

Details of an osteocyte

Calcified extracellular matrix

Lacuna

Osteocyte

Canaliculi

II. Mature connective tissue D. Bone

• Stores calcium and phosphorus, and contains bone marrow • Support, protection, movement

Figure 4.8j Connective tissues. Others: bone (osseous tissue) Description: Hard, calcified matrix
containing many collagen fibers; osteocytes lie in lacunae. Very well vascularized. Function: Supports
and protects (by enclosing); provides levers for the muscles to act on; stores calcium and other minerals
and fat; marrow inside bones is the site for blood cell formation (hematopoiesis). Location: Bones

Photomicrograph: Cross-sectional view of bone (125x).

Lamella

Central canal Lacunae

Bone

Figure 4.8k Connective tissues. Connective tissue: blood Description: Red and white blood cells in a
fluid matrix (plasma).

Function: Transport respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes, and other substances.

Location: Contained within blood vessels.

Photomicrograph: Smear of human blood (1670x); shows two white blood cells surrounded by red blood
cells.

Plasma

White blood cells: • Lymphocyte • Neutrophil

Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

II. Mature connective tissue E. Liquid - blood

II. Mature connective tissue E. Liquid - lymph • Liquid matrix (blood plasma) • Composition similar to
blood, but fewer proteins and no red blood cells • Clear/white fluid

Muscle tissue

• Cells that shorten • Three types: – Skeletal muscle – Cardiac muscle – Smooth muscle

Skeletal muscle • Striated, voluntary, associated with bones of the skeleton

400x LM

Longitudinal section of skeletal muscle tissue

Skeletal muscle fiber (cell)

Nucleus

Striations

Skeletal muscle

Skeletal muscle fibre

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.9a Muscle tissues. Skeletal muscle Description: Long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells; obvious
striations.
Function: Voluntary movement; locomotion; manipulation of the environment; facial expression;
voluntary control.

Location: In skeletal muscles attached to bones or occasionally to skin.

Photomicrograph: Skeletal muscle (approx. 440x). Notice the obvious banding pattern and the fact that
these large cells are multinucleate.

Striations

Nuclei

Part of muscle fiber (cell)

Skeletal muscle

Cardiac muscle

• Striated but involuntary, branched rather than parallel fibres

500x LM

Longitudinal section of cardiac muscle tissue

Nucleus

Heart

Cardiac muscle fiber (cell)

Intercalated disc

Striations

Cardiac muscle fibres

Figure 4.9b Muscle tissues.

Cardiac muscle

Description: Branching, striated, generally uninucleate cells that interdigitate at specialized junctions
(intercalated discs).

Function: As it contracts, it propels blood into the circulation; involuntary control.

Location: The walls of the heart.

Photomicrograph: Cardiac muscle (900x); notice the striations, branching of cells, and the intercalated
discs.
Striations

Nucleus

Intercalated discs

Cardiac muscle

Cardiac muscle

Smooth muscle • Involuntary, associated with internal organs, glands and blood vessels

500x LM

Longitudinal section of smooth muscle tissue

Smooth muscle fiber (cell)

Nucleus of smooth muscle fiber

Smooth muscle

Artery

Smooth muscle fiber

Figure 4.9c Muscle tissues. Smooth muscle Description: Spindle-shaped cells with central nuclei; no
striations; cells arranged closely to form sheets.

Function: Propels substances or objects (foodstuffs, urine, a baby) along internal passageways;
involuntary control.

Location: Mostly in the walls of hollow organs.

Photomicrograph: Sheet of smooth muscle (720x).

Smooth muscle cell

Nuclei

Smooth muscle

Practice Question 8

Figure 4.10 Nervous tissue. Nervous tissue Description: Neurons are branching cells; cell processes that
may be quite long extend from the nucleus-containing cell body; also contributing to nervous tissue are
nonexcitable supporting cells.
Function: Neurons transmit electrical signals from sensory receptors and to effectors (muscles and
glands) which control their activity; supporting cells support and protect neurons. Location: Brain, spinal
cord, and nerves.

Photomicrograph: Neurons (350x).

Neuron processes

Nuclei of supporting cells

Cell body of a neuron

Neuron processes Cell body

Axon Dendrites

Nervous Tissue

• Supporting cells are called neuroglia