c

c
c
c

CHEMISTRY
FORM 4

PORTFOLIO:

MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY

NAME : MOHAMAD FARIED BIN AHMAD ADNAN

FORM : 4 SC S
SUBJECT : CHEMISTRY
TOPIC : MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY
TEACHER : PN. YIP YIN LENG
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c


cT O TO c
c
c
c c

c
c c  c
cc

 c
c 
c
c
c c
 ccc
c
c
c

c
c 
c
 c
c 
c
c


c
cc
c ccc
c cc
 
cc c
c
c
cc
c c  cc c
c
c
 c
c
 
c c
 ccc c
cc
c
cc
c c

 c
c

cc c ccccccc
c
c
cc
 

 c


cccc
c
cc
c
c  c c

c
cc
ccc c

cc
 cBccc
c
 c
c 
c
c

c

c
c
 c
  cc
c   cc c c
cc

c
c
c
c c  c c
c

cc
cc  c
c
c
c

  c :c
c
Ôc p
c
c
Ôc 

c
Ôc 
c
Ôc p 
c
 c
Ôc 6c cC 
c
Ôc C


cM
c
c
c c c c
cc
cc

c
cM
cp
ccc c
c
   c
c
cc!c
cc
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c


cOBJE TE c
c
c c
"
c
c
c
c



c c
c
cappreciatecthecanufacturedc
ubtancecinc alayiac 
c#cc
cc#c
c
ccc
"
c
cc

c$
 cc
 c
"
c :c
c
c 
c   cc  c
c
c
c
c 
c 
cc  c
c

c c
cc
c 
c   c
c
c 
c
 cc
  c
c
c c
c cc
c 
ccc
c
c 
c
 c%  c

cc
 

 c


&c
c 
c 
cc
  cc




c
 
c cc
cc
 c 
c
c 
c   c


cc cc
cc
c 
c 
c

c 
c

c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
u
GATHERING F INF RMATI N

u S l i A i

D

 : The Su hur
 Ac
 H2SO4

u M S l i A i , H2S 4 I I s
Su hur
c ac

produced from suphur, oxygen and waer v
a he conven
ona Conac
Process (DCDA) or he We Suphur
c Ac
d Process (WSA).

c Co P o ss (DCDA)

F
gure: Manufacure Of H2SO4 In Indusry Conac Process

In he f
rs sep, suphur
s burned o produce suphur d
ox
de.
mc S (s) + O2 (g) ĺ SO2 (g)

Th
s
s hen ox
d
'ed o suphur r
ox
de us
ng oxygen
n he presence of a vanad
um (V)
ox
de caays.
mc 2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g) 2 SO3 (g) (
n presence of V2O5)
c c

!
c
c
c

c()(*+c$,p
c
c
c
c%$,p, )&c
c
 cc

c
c
cc
mc $,p
c%&c-cp c.c$,p, )c%&c
c
c
c c
c
c c
c
c
  c
c
c
mc $,p, )c%&c-c$, c%&c.c,c$,p
c%&c
c

cc
c


cp c
c c
c
c 
cc
cc
c!
 
c  c

cc 

c c c

!
c c cc 

c
cc


c

c
c
c c

c
c c
c
cc
/
c
mc p c%&c-c$, c%&c.c$,p
c%&c
c
c xetc
ulphuricccidcr cec x
c
c
# cc
cc c
c c
c
c c

!
:c
mc p%&c-c ,%&c.cp ,%&c
c
c 
c
 c
c%$,p&cc
c

 c
cp ,c:c
mc ,c$,pc-cc ,c.c,c$, c-c,cp ,c%012*c34
&c
c

c
c c
!

c
c c

!
c
c
! c
c 
c%5&c
!
cc:c
mc ,cp ,c-c ,c.c,cp c%0((c34
&c
c
c c

!
c
c c

c
c
c$,p
:c
mc p c-c$, c.c$,p
%&c%0262c34
&c
c
ccc
cc
 

c
cc
c
c
c
/
c()7(*+c$,p
:c
mc $,p
%&c.c$,p
%&c%08(c34
&c
c
c Otherc eth dc
c
c 
 c
c
ccc
 c

c
c
c
c


c
cccc

c
cc c c2,8c
 c
  

c



c
c
ccc 
cc
cc
c

c
c
c
c
c
 4 c
 cc


c
cc 

c
c

ccc
c
cc
c
c
c
c
c
c c
 c
c
c
c/
c

 c
c
p
c
c cc
c
cc

cc
c c
c
c c


cc
c
c
cc
 c
!
c


c
mc p ,c-c$, ,c.c$,p
c
c

 c
c
c
c c


c
c
c
 c##c:c
mc ,c$Cc-cCp
c.c$,p
c-cCC, c
c
c 

c
c2(66c
c
c
cc  ccc c
ccc
c2(
6cc
c16+c
c
c
c  c
cc9
cpcc
cc
 c
c c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c



cThecEnvir nentalcllutincbycthecBy-rductcOfc
Oc
c
c p c

!
cp ,c
c
c
cc
c
cc  c
cp
c
c
$,p
cp c

!
cc 

 c


c
cc c

!
c
c
c

c
cc
c
c

cc


c ccc
cc 

 cc
c
c 
c
c cidcainc
c

c
Ú
 :c
cR
c
c
c  c 
 ccc$c
c1
c
c 
c
 c cc$c
cc 
c
c
 c,
c c16c
c
cc
cc 

c
c c

!
c
cc 
 c
mc ,p ,%&c-c ,%&c-c,$, %&cåc,$,p
%/&c
c
c p c

!
c
c c
c
 c
c

cc c

!
c c

c c c
! c
c
c
c 
c
cc
cc
c 
c:c
2c B

c cc  c

c
,c c c
c
c
c
c
c :c c
 c
c

c%
c
c c

&c

c c$c
c

c c
1c pc cc
c
cc
c

c
c

c
c
c
c
c
u 2 Ammo i

D
agram: The Ammon
a NH3

u2 T P si l & C mi l P o i s Ammo i , NHu

cP si l P o i s

ëc Ammon
a
s a coouress gas.
ëc I has a pungen odour w
h and an a a
ne or soapy ase. When
nhaed suddeny,

br
ngs ears
no he eyes.
ëc I
s 
gher han a
r and
s herefore coeced by he downward d
spacemen of a
r.
ëc I
s h
ghy soube
n waer: One voume of waer d
ssoves abou 1300 voumes of
ammon
a gas. I
s due o
s h
gh soub

y
n waer ha he gas canno be coeced
over waer.
ëc I can be eas
y 
uef
ed a room emperaure by appy
ng a pressure of abou 8-10
amosphere.
ëc L
u
d ammon
a bo
s a 239.6 K (- 33.5°C) under one amosphere pressure. I has a
h
gh aen hea of vapor
'a
on (1370 J per gram) and
s herefore used
n
refr
gera
on pans of
ce mak
ng mach
nes.
ëc L
u
d ammon
a free'es a 195.3 K (-77.8°C) o g
ve a wh
e crysa
ne so
d.

cC mi l P o i s

The ammon
a moecue has a r
gona pyram
da shape w
h a bond ange of 107.8° as
shown above, as pred
ced by he vaence she eecron pa
r repus
on heory (VSEPR). The
cenra n
rogen aom has f
ve ouer eecrons w
h an add

ona eecron from each hydrogen
aom. Th
s g
ves a oa of e
gh eecrons, or four eecron pa
rs wh
ch are arranged
erahedray. Three of hese eecron pa
rs are used as bond pa
rs, wh
ch eaves one one pa
r
of eecrons. The one pa
r of eecrons repe more srongy han bond pa
rs, herefore he
bond ange
s no 109.5° as expeced for a reguar erahedra arrangemen, bu
s measured a
107.8°.

The n
rogen aom
n he moecue has a one eecron pa
r, wh
ch makes ammon
a a
base, a proon accepor. Th
s shape g
ves he moecue a d
poe momen and makes
 poar.
The moecue's poar
y and, espec
ay,
s ab

y o form hydrogen bonds, mak
ng ammon
a
h
ghy m
sc
be w
h waer. Ammon
a
s moderaey bas
c, a 1.0 M aqueous sou
on has a pH
of 11.6 and
f a srong ac
d
s added o such a sou
on un
 he sou
on
s neura (pH = 7),
99.4% of he ammon
a moecues are proonaed. Temperaure and sa
n
y aso affec he
propor
on of NH4+. The aer has he shape of a reguar erahedron and
s
soeecron
c w
h
mehane. I
s known o have he h
ghes spec
f
c hea capac
y of any subsance.
u22 T M NHu I I s

Ammon
a NH3
s manufacured
n
ndusr
es hrough he Haber Process wh
ch comb
nes he
n
rogen gas N2 from a
r w
h hydrogen gas H2 der
ved ma
ny from naura gas.

cH P o ss

F
gure: Manufacure Of NH3 In Indusr
es Haber Process

The manufacure of ammon

a by Haber's process
nvoves he d
rec comb
na
on of
n
rogen and hydrogen. The m
xure of 1 voume of n
rogen gas N2 o 3 voume of hydrogen
gas H2
s passed hrough he reacor. The m
xure
s compressed o a h
gh pressure of 200
am a a emperaure abou 450°C. I
s hen passed hrough ayers of
ron caays o speed up
he rae of reac
on.
mc N2(g) + H2(g) NH3() (ǻH = -92kJ)

Ammon
a ha
s formed
s hen 
quef
ed and separaed o ge a beer y
ed. The
produc
on of ammon
a g
ves ou hea. However, he unreaced n
rogen gas and hydrogen
gas are recyced and passed back o he reacor aga
n ogeher w
h he new source of N2 and
H2. Th
s reac
on
s: revers
be, exoherm
c, and proceeds w
h a decrease
n voume. Abou
98% of N2 and H2 are convered
no ammon
a. Accord
ng o he Le Chae
er's pr
nc
pe, he
favourabe cond

ons for he forma
on of ammon
a are:

ëc gow T m
The emperaure shoud be rema
n as ow as poss
be, (ahough a unusuay ow
emperaures, he rae of reac
on becomes sow). I has been found ha he emperaure,
wh
ch op
m
'es he y
ed of ammon
a for he reac
on,
s max
mum a abou 500°C.

ëc Hig P ss
S
nce Haber's process proceeds w
h a decrease
n voume,

s favoured by h
gh
pressure. In acua prac
ce, a pressure of 200 - 900 amospheres
s empoyed.

ëc C l s
A caays
s usuay empoyed o
ncrease he speed of he reac
on. F
ney d
v
ded

ron cona
n
ng moybdenum or aum
na
s used as a caays. Moybdenum or aum
na
(A2O3) acs as a promoer and
ncreases he eff
c
ency of he caays. A m
xure of
ron
ox
de and poass
um aum
naes has been found o work more effec
vey.
c
c
c
c
c
c



cThecreparatincOfcniuc
altcnc
chlcgabratry c
c
c niuchlridec
c
c

c

cc
c  cc 
c


c
c
c

cc

c
c


c

c
c
c
c

ccc
c

c

c
cc
c
c
c;pc

;c
c
c niuc
ulphatec
c


cc
c  cc 
c
c
c
c

cc

c
c


c

c
c c
c
ccc

ccc
c
c niucitratec
c


c
 c  cc 
c

c
c
c

cc

c
c

c
 c


c

c
c
c
cccc
c
c niucarbnatec
alclatilec
c
 cc
! c
c

cc c
 c
c 
c cc cc

 c
 c

c 
c
cc

c
c

c

c
c

c
c
c
c
u u Allo s

D
agram: A Mea Aoy (See W
re)

u u  Allo s & Aim M ki g Allo s

An aoy
s a par
a or compee so
d sou
on of one or more eemens
n a mea
c
mar
x. Compee so
d sou
on aoys g
ve s
nge so
d phase m
crosrucure, wh
e par
a
sou
ons g
ve wo or more phases ha may be homogeneous
n d
sr
bu
on depend
ng on
herma (hea reamen) h
sory. Aoys usuay have d
fferen proper
es from hose of he
componen eemens. Aoys' cons
uens are usuay measured by mass. The ma
n a
m of
mak
ng aoys
s o produce a sronger mea from he cons
uen pure meas. Therefore, he
aoy can be made
no many more uses afer he process as

s sronger and has much more
res
sance.

uu2 T Com iso P o i s Allo s & T i P M ls

D
agram: An Aoy (Two D
fferen Pure Meas Comb
ned)

Aoy
ng one mea w
h oher mea(s) or non mea(s) ofen enhances
s proper
es.
For exampe, see
s sronger han
ron,
s pr
mary eemen. The phys
ca proper
es, such as
dens
y, reac
v
y, Young's moduus, and eecr
ca and herma conduc
v
y, of an aoy may
no d
ffer greay from hose of
s eemens, bu eng
neer
ng proper
es such as ens
e
srengh and shear srengh may be subsan
ay d
fferen from hose of he cons
uen
maer
as. Th
s
s some
mes due o he s
'es of he aoms
n he aoy, s
nce arger aoms
exer a compress
ve force on ne
ghbour
ng aoms, and smaer aomsexer a ens
e force on
he
r ne
ghbours, hep
ng he aoy res
s deforma
on. Some
mes aoys may exh
b
 marked
d
fferences
n behav
our even when sma amouns of one eemen occur. For exampe,

mpur

es
n sem
-conduc
ng ferromagne
c aoys ead o d
fferen proper
es, as f
rs
pred
ced by Wh
e, Hogan, Suh, T
an Abr
e and Nakamura.
c p
c
c ccc
c c
!
c
c
c
ccB
c c
c
c

 c c
ccc
c
c

 c
cc 


c

c
c
 ccc
B
cc
cc  c c c
 c c


cc
cc

c c
c
cc c ccc c
c
c c
 
c# c c
c
cc
 cc
c
 ccc c
cB c
c c
cc
c
 c c

c
c
c 9 
c cc
c
c
c
ccc
c
c

ccc
c
 c
c
cc
c
cc
! c
c

c c
/
ccc  cc
c

c
c
ccc

c cc  c c
c
c"c
c
c
cc
/
c$
 c
c
c
c c cc 
 c



c
c

 c
%
c  cc

&c<c
c
! <c
c
cc
cc
/c
c

c
c



cExaplecOfcllyccThece c
c
ExaplecOfc
pitinc rpertiec ec
llyc
Ôc $ c cp
c Ôc # cc

c
cc c
Ôc (6+cC
 c Ôc Ú
c
cC

c 
 c
Brnzec
Ôc 26+c
c 
c Ôc # cc
c
cc
Ôc p
cp c 
c c 

c
c
Ôc )6+cC
 c Ôc $  c c Ôc # cc
c
c
c
Brac
Ôc 6+c=
c C
 c
  c c
  c
Ôc # cc
 

c
c
c
Ôc ((+c#
c  c

c

teelc Ôc $ c cp
c
Ôc 2+cC 
c Ôc # cc

c
cc
c
c
 c c 
c c
Ôc )
+c#
c
Ôc p
c Ôc # cc
c
c c
Ôc *+cC 
c

tainlec
teelc Ôc p
c Ôc # cc
c
c 
c
Ôc 2*+c
Ôc Ú
c
cRc
  c
C

c
Ôc (+c


c
Ôc +cC
 c
Ôc :
c Ôc # cc

c
cc
c
c
Úuraluinc Ôc +c
Ôc p
c 
 c cc 
c
M 
c
Ôc 2+c
M  c
Ôc (8+c
c Ôc : c
e terc Ôc +cC
 c Ôc p
c Ôc # cc
c
c

c
Ôc 2+c 

c Ôc p
c
:c!c c
c c
c9c

c
c
c
c
c
c
u4 S i Pol m s

D
agram: Aom
c V
ew Of Synhe
c Poymers

u4 N l i g Pol m s (Bio ol m s)

D
agram: Aom
c V
ew Of B
opoymers

Naura poymers or b
opoymers are poymers produced by 
v
ng organ
sms.
Ceuose, sarch, ch

n, proe
ns, pep
des, DNA and RNA are a exampes of b
opoymers,

n wh
ch he monomer
c un
s, respec
vey, are sugars, am
no ac
ds, and nuceo
des.

Ceuose
s boh he mos common b
opoymer and he mos common organ
c
compound on Earh. Abou 33 percen of a pan maer
s ceuose. E. G. The ceuose
conen of coon
s ~ 90 percen and ha of wood
s ~ 50 percen.

Some b
opoymers are b
odegradabe. Tha
s, hey are broken down
no CO2 and
waer by m
croorgan
sms. In add

on, some of hese b
odegradabe b
opoymers are
composabe. Tha
s, hey can be pu
no an
ndusr
a compos
ng process and w
 break
down by 90% w
h
n 6 monhs. B
opoymers ha do h
s can be marked w
h a 'composabe'
symbo, under European Sandard EN 13432 (2000). Packag
ng marked w
h h
s symbo can
be pu
no
ndusr
a compos
ng processes and w
 break down w
h
n 6 monhs (or ess).
An exampe of a composabe poymer
s PLA f
m under 20 ȝm h
ck: f
ms wh
ch are
h
cker han ha do no qua
fy as composabe, even hough hey are b
odegradabe. A home
compos
ng ogo may soon be esab
shed wh
ch w
 enabe consumers o d
spose of
packag
ng d
recy ono he
r own compos heap.
c
c
c
c
c
c c"
cc

c
  c c
 c c


 c cc
 c
c

c  c
 c

c


 c cc
c 

c
cc


 cB


 c
 cccc
c  c
c
c
c
cc

c
 

c%!:c


&:cc!c
c




c cc/ c

c
cc
c c  c
ccc
 c  c
ccc
c

cM c



 c
 
c
c

c 

c
cc%c
c;

c

;c
ccc
 c  c c 
 c  &c
c 
c
c



c
 

c c c
cc

cc
c
c
 c  cp  c


c
c
cc
cc  c
 
c
cc


 c# c
 c
c 
c
 c
cc
 c c
c  
c%
c

&c  c
ccc
cc
 c
c



cc
c

c
c


 c# ccc
c 
c
c

ccc
c
c
c
c
c
c

ccc


 c
ccc%c
c

c


&c cc
:ccc

cc

 c/ c c  c
c

 c c
cccccc
c

c
cc


 
c
c
 c
cc


 
c 
  c
c 
c
 ccc c


 ccc


 
c
!c
c2c
c



c
yntheticclyerc
c

c
>
 :cp 
c
 c
c
c p 
c
 c c
cc c
 c
c
c>
c cc

cc
 cc!  c c
c2*11c#cc cc c
c% c
c
C

&c
c
c 
 c cc
cc 
c  c
cc

 c
 c

cc
c
 c
c

c
c c% &cc

 c
c cc



c
 c
 c
cc
c 
c
 c%$Ú&M c

c

c
c

c  c

 c
c
 c c
 cp 
c
 c
 c
 c  c
cc;
;c
 c c
 c c 
c
c
c 
 c
ccc 

 c

c
 c
c

 c
c
c
c
c

c
c
c
c cc


c
 c
c

c
 cc
cc c
 
c
 ccp 
c
 c cc
c c
c
c cc
c

c
ccc ccc
c
 c

 c cc
c 
c
 c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c



c
yntheticclyerccTheircecncÚailycgife c
c

yntheticclyerc rulac nerc ec
lyethylenec  c 9c
c
c c
7%C$,C$,& 7c
gcÚenityc gÚEc C$,?C$,c 
cc
lyethylenec  c 9c
c
c
7%C$,C$,& 7c
i hcÚenityc ÚEc C$,?C$,c


c
c c
c
ly inylchlridec 
c

c 9c
c
c

c c
7%C$,C$C& 7c
c C$,?C$Cc 


c
ly inylidenec


 c

c 9c
cc
 c cc
chlridec 7%C$,CC,& 7c
C$,?CC, c 
c

arancc
lytyrenec   c 9c
c
c
c c
7@C$,C$%C8 $1&A 7c

c C$,?C$C8 $1 c 
c
lyacrylnitrilec  


c 9c
c c c c
7%C$,C$C & 7c
cOrlnccrilanc C$,?C$C c 

c
9c
c

c
lytetraflurethylenec  

 c
7%C>,C>, & 7c  c4c
c
TEcTeflnc C>,?C>,c



c
lyc inylccetatec 
cc 9c
c!c
c c
7%C$,C$ C C$& 7c
cc C$,?C$ C C$c 
c
$! 2c8c

c
9c
c

c
c
ylnc c B  c

 c
c

 
!
c
c
pcc 
c
erpexc c M c
 
c
c c c
R/
c


c


  c
ci-lyiprenec 7@C$,C$?C%C$ & 
c 
cc c
C$,?C$
aturalcubberc C$, A 7c 
c  c
cc
C%C$ &?C$, c

c c
#c
cc 
c  c
lychlrprenec 

  c
7@C$,C$?CCC$,A 7c  c
c

c 
 c
c
cicctranc eprenec C$,?C$CC?C$,c
c
cc
:c!c cp 
c
 c c
c9c
c



cThecEffectcOfcThececOfc
yntheticclyercTcThecEnvirnent c
c
c 
c
c
cc
c
c 
c
 c
c
c
cc c c
c

c
c
cc

c 

 c


c c
c 
cc  c
c
 c
c
c  c
ccc



c  c
c
c
c
c
c c
c

c
cc cc c

cc cc
 cc
c
c


c
c


cc
Bc
 c
ccc
c
cc
cc

cc
 c

c c

c
c 
c
cc c

c
cc
ccc ccc
cc c
c
cc
cccBc
c
cccc/

cc
cc c c

cc 

 cc
c
c
ccc
c
 c
c

c
c c c


c
ccc
c c

c c

c
c

c
c 
c

cc c
c c 

c 
c
c

c 

 c


ccc c
c
 


c
c
cc


c
c
  c
c

c

c p 
c
 c c
cc
c

c
  cc
c
c cc
c

c
c
c
c
c c
c
cc cc
c
c
c c c


c c c
c
cc
c c
 c
c cc

c
cc

c
ccc
cc
c
c


 cc

c 

c
cc
cc
c261c


c
c
c
c
c
c c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c,1c


c
c
c
c
c# 
ccc
c
c
% 
c
 &c
c c c
 c
 
c
c 
c)6cc c 
c c
 c
c
c# 
c
c
c
cc c 
c c c 
c
Bc
cc
cc
 cc
c

c
 c
c 
c
 cc
cc
 c
c 
c

cccC
c
c*1+c

c
"c
 c
ccc

c c
c
 cM
c
cc 
c
 c
cc
c
c
c
c
c
cc c c
cc
c c
c
c
c
c
c

c cccc
c# c 
c 
c
 c


c
ccc
 c
 c c

c
c c
c 
c



clacceraic c
c

c c c
c Ú
 :c6c c c c c Ú
 :cC 
cc c



cÚifferentcTypecpitincrpertieccecOfcla c
c
c Typeccec
c
c 6c
c c

c%
 
&c

c
c6c c
c
c
 c
 c

c    c6c
c

cc
c

c
c c c
!c
cc
c
c

cc



cc 
cc c
cM
c c

c
!

cc c
c
c
cccR
 c

c#cc
ccR
 c
c  cc
 c
c
c
 c6  ccc
:
c c c


c
c
cc6 
c
c
cc    c
c
 cc
c p
c
ccc
c
cc c


c
c
c

c
cc c


c
c
cc  


c
cc

cc

c 

cM cc


c

cc
c
c

 c c
  cc c;;c
c
 c
 c
! c
cc

c

c% ccc
c
c

c

&c

c

c 
c
c
 c

 c

c

c# c


c
c 


c
c

/c c
 c c
c  

c c

 ccc

c
 

c cc

c
cC

c


c c
cc
c
c


c

c


c
c
c c

 c

c c
 cc
 c
 c


c c
  c
 

c


c6cc c 
c
c
c
 c c
 cc

c
 c
c
 
c
ccc
c
c
c


ccccc

 c
c

c c



c
c

c/
 c c

c%c


&c 

 c
 c% 

c
cc
 c 

c
 &c c c
c
c  cc
 
ccc

c
c
c
!c
c

c
ccc


c cc
c
c




c

ccc!c
cc

c c
 c 
c

c




:c c
c
ëc p

cc
cc
c

c%(6+c
cc&c cc! 
c

c
cc#cc

c86)1+c

c2,2*+c
c12,+c
c
R
 c
c
c  c c c c
c  c c
c

c
 c 
 c
c


c
c
c
c
c
c
ëc :cccc
c  c
cc
!
c%cc,6+c
cc&c#c
c

c
c c
c  
c
!c
cc

 cccc!

cc

c#c
c
c
c! 
c c

cc c
c
 c
c

c


cc
c
c! c
c

c
 
c
 
 c
c c cc c
cc
c
cc

c
ccc
cc
c
c
 c
c  c
c c
 c
c  c
c
ëc B



cc
c c

cc
ccc1+c
c

c
!
c
c
c





c#cc
c 
 c
c  c c c
c



c

c/
cc

 c
c
cc
 c
c
ccc c
cc
c
c

cc
c



Cc
c
c
 c c c
c
c c


c
cc

c

ccc
c

c
 c cc c c!c
c



c
c
c
ëc 



ccc

c
!
c
c
c




c#c
c

 c
c




ccc
cc  c
c 

c c c
 c
 c

 
c  cC
 c
c



c



c c
c


c
c
c c
c
c c
c

c
c




cc
ccc 

c
c

c

 c
ëc

!c  c

cc
cc



ccc c
cc

 

c c c
c
c 
c
ccc


c c

cc
cBc 
c
c2,66°Ccc 
c
c c


c
c
c
c 
 c
cc
cc
c(66°Cc
c
ëc >c

cc
c c


c

!
c
cc
 
cc#c
c c


c
c
c
c
c
cc
c! 
c
ccc#c c
c

 
c  cc
c2,66°Cc
c
c

c
 c
c
c
c pitinccrpertiec
c
c  c c cc
c

 c
c
!
c:c 
c
 c

 
c c


 cc 
c
 c%


c

c c 
&c
cc

c

c 
c
c
c
cc
 
c%

c

c



c 
c 
c
&c ccc
c 
c
 c c


 c


c
ccc




cc


 c%
cc

c

c


&c cc 
c  cc cc  cc

c
 cc
 c


c
! c
c
 cc
c
 c
c
ccc 
c c


c
c 
c c
c
 c
cc


c

c  cp
c c c
c
c
ccc cc
ccc 
c
 c%
-c 
cp

-&c
ccc



 c
c
c c  c
c


c
! c
 cc 
c  c
c
c
c
c
c
c c
 cc 
c 
cc


c
ccc c

cc

c  cc
cc

c cc c

c
c  c
cc

cc c
c
c


c
c
c
 cc
cc
c  c

c


c
 c cc
c 
 c
ccc

c
cc
 c c


c



c
c c

c
c
c
c


c c c
/
 c
c
c


c
! c

c
c
 c
c
c c ccc


cc c
c
 c


c
c
 c

c
cc
cc
c


c
 
cc

c
c
c c
c c

c%c

c c

&c
c
 c

c c

c



c 
 cC



c 
 c
c
c cc
cc


c 
c
cc
c

c
ccc cc


c
cc c
c

c

 c  c
c
cc

cc
c

 cc
cc
c  c
ccc c
c
c
c 
 cc
c


c%
ccc&cc
cc
c
c
 c
c
c 


c
cc%##&c
!
c
 c
c

c
 c


c
ccc c

 c  
c
!c:c
!
c
c

c


c
c
 cc
!
c c
 
c
cc
c

 ccc


c c
cccc
c c



 c%
c266c
c
c


c
c
c&c
c
c
 c 
c
c
c c

cc
 c  c c
c / ccc c

c
c
 
c
 c cc
 cc
c


c 
c
cc,-c

c   c
c
c


c
c
c
!c c
 cc
 c
c
 c

ccc 
cc
c
c

 c
c
c
 c
c
c
 c c

cc%26*1cc2681c
DcÚCcc,16c°C&c>
c
c
cccc
cc
c 


c
c

c
 cc

c
 c
cc>

c
c
c


c c cc
c
cc
c

cc



c
cc

cpc


c

!


c
cc
c  c
c
 c

cc c


c$
cc
c

c

cc
c


c
c

cp
> , c ccc
c
 c c cpc c c
c
c

c
 c
 c
c
c
17)c
c
c
c
c



cThecpitincrpertieccecOfceraicc
c
c C 
c cc
cc 
 c

c


c

cc c
%  &ccc
c

 c
c
c
c c

c c

c
  cc
c 
c cc c
  c
 
c
c  c 
c
 c



 
 c c cc
cM
c 
c c
c

c

c c c

 c
c  cc
 
ccc
c
cc
c
c cc

c
 c
cc
c
c p
c 
c c

c
c
c
c c>
c!c
c
c


c
!
c, c


c
c


c
!
c= ,cC 
c c

c

c c
 c
 c
c  cc
 cc
c 
c
c
c 
cp


c

!
c
p
,c c
 c 
c
c

c c
 cc
!c c c
c





c>
c!cc 
c
 c c
c
cc

 c
c 
c
cc
cEp
 *cc
c c
c c
c
c
c 
c cc
 c


c
c
 c
 c 
c

cc
c




c
cc 
c cc

 c
cc 
c ccc
 cc
cc

c
c

c


c!c c 
c
!
c% 
&c
M c c
c
 cB
c# c 
c

c
cc

c cc
c


c
c

c
 c!c c

c

cB c c


c 
cp
CcM
c
 
ccc
c 
c  c
c
cc 
 

c
ccc
c
c
c c

cc
c>
c!c 
c
!
c 
c
cc

cc  c# c
c  cMc,-c

c c
c c,0c

c
cc
  
 c!
cc
c
c M
c 
c c c
c
 c  
c% c
 c c
cc


c


&c c

c

c
cc c

cC 
c
cc
c
 

cc
 
cc 
c 
c
c c


cC 
c c
cc  

c
c c cc c

c
c%
cc
c
c
c
c

 c
c c
 c c
c

&cc c
ccc

c
c c
 c

c
cc  c
c cc
c
c

c
c c
c
c
c
c c$
 c 
c
c c
cc
cc"
c

c

ccc
c 
c
c
c  c
c/
c
c cc
c
c  c
 
cc
cc c
c  c 
c
c
c 
cc c
 c

cc

c
c
! 
c
cc c 
 c
c c
c
c C


c
cc

c 
c
 cc
c
 c
c

c c
cc
 
c
c 
cc
cc
c 

c c c

 c
c



cc c
c c!
c  c c
cc cc
c
c
c
c c


cC 
c


cc
ccc
c
c

c
 
c
cc!
cc
c c 
cc
cc


c
cC c
  c
c
cc
c
cc   c
cc
 ccc cc 
 c
cc



c
c
c 
c
c

 cC


c 
cc
c


c
 4
c 
c
c


c c
c
!c
c


c 
c cc
c cc

c
c
c cB  
 c

 c%
c
 
c c
c

 &c
c
cc
c 
c


cc
c
c 
c
c 
c c c c
c

c
ccc
c


c

c c

c

c
cc c
 ccc 
c
!
c
c


ccccc# 
c
c
!
c
cc    c 
cc
c


c c
cc
cc
/
c c
c
cp
c 
c c



c
c



cc
c  ccc  c
 c>
c
!c


c 
cp
Cc
cccc


c
c
c
c  c



c
c


cpitec aterial c
c

c c
Ú
 :c!c cC


cM
c% 6cC
c c

& c
c



cpitec aterial c
c
c C


c c
cc


c
c
c
c
c
cccccc


 c
cc


c
c c
c


c c
cc c


cc
!c
! c c!c
cc


c
c
c 

c
 c

cc ccc

c
c
c



c
c ccc 

 c# c
 cc
 cc  ccc
c 

 c
c
cc c



cc
cc c c

c
c
c C


c
cc c
cc
  c  c c


c
c
  c

c# ccc
cc c c
c
c!cc
c c! c

c

cc
c
c cc
c
 

c c
ccp c
cc
 c c
c
cc
c
 c
 

c

c 
c
c 
c c
c
c c
c


cc

c

c
ccc$ cc c 
c


c
c
c

c
 c c
 c
"c
c
 c
c c
cc
c c"

c
c


c
cc
c

 :cc
 c
c
!c c


 cc 

 c
c
 c c
 c

cc
c
c
c
c
c
!ccc 

 c
ccccc
 c
c
cc 

 c

ccc
c
c cc
ccc
cc
cc
 cc
c
" 

c

c
c
cc
 c6  c


c
cc! c

 


c

c
c

c 
c  c
cc 
c
cc
c  c

c


cc
c
c  
 c

c 
c
cc

c
c c
 c

ccc
/c c
c
c
 

c
c  
c! c c
c  c! c
c c
 c
c
c


c cc
 c
c
c c c
c c c

c c

 c
c!c 
 c c

c
c
cc c
c c
c
  c
c 
cc
 c c
 cc
c cc
c
c


c
ccc c c
cc
c
cc
 c cc
 c c

 c
 
c 

c


c
ccc
 c 
c c
 c

c
cc
 c cc
c
c ccc c

c
c


c


c
  c
c
c M c


c cc
c c
c
c
cc
 c
 c 

 c
 
c c c
c
c
c
 c

 c
 cc


c
c
cc c
c
c c
cc
ccc
cc
 c
cC


c
c 



cc  c
c

c
cc


c
 c
c
cc

 c
c
 c/
c


c
c

c
c
c
 c c c

 c
c



cExaplecOfcpitec aterialccTheirce c
c
ExaplecOfc
ec
pitec aterialc
Ôc C
 

c
c 
c
c
c c
c
einfrcedcncretec
Ôc 9c
cc
 

c
c

c

c
Ôc 
cc
c

 c  
c  
 c c

 c

upercnductrc Ôc 
c
c
c

 c
cc
 c c c

 c c
 c
 c
ibrecOpticc Ôc   
cc
cc
c
c
c
c



c
Ôc  c c

c
c

 c
Ôc B
c c

c
c
ibreclac
Ôc C c

c
Ôc R


c c

c

c

cc
Ôc 



c

c c c c c
Ôc 
cc c

c

c
c



c
c
htchricclac
 c
Ôc c

c
cc
c
 
cc
c



c
upercnductrc
c
c # c
c
c

ccc
 ccc!
 c
c 
 c
cc
c
c
c  ccc>  
c 
 c
 cc  c

 cp 

c c
c


c
c 
c 
 c cc c

c

c! c
c  cc 

c
c

c

c c
c
c
  c
c c
c Mccc
 c c
c
c 


ccc c
c  c
%
 ccc  


c  &c
c
c  c c
cc
c
c

/
c
c
c
c c! 
c cc
! c
c
 c%##&c
!
c
c
!
c
 c
c
!
c
ccccc
c 
c
cc
cFB,C )c
c
c

cc
c 
c
 cc

c
cFBC c c
c 


cc(6Ec

c  c c
cc
cc
cc c
/
c

 c
c
c cc
!
c%C cF, c cB &c cc
c

c$
 c c
c c

c
c
cc


cc


c
cc 

cc c
c
 c
c  c
 c
c
 c

c c
c
c  cp 

c cc
c
c
c

 c  
c 
c  
cc  
 c
c
c

 c c
 c cc c
cc
c 
c 
 c

c
%MR#&ccc
c
c

c
cp 

c c
cc
cc
 c

 c c
c
 c
 c$
cc
c 
c% 
cc
c
cc

c &c

ccc
c
 cc 

c
c
c



cibrecOpticcableccibrecla c
c
c ibrecOpticcablec Opticalcibrec
c
c 
c
 c c c
ccc
c cc
 cc c
 c
 c c
c c c c!
c>
 c

c
cc


c
cc c  
c


cc
c
 c

c c
c
cc

c
c
cc
c
c
c
c
c
cccc ccc
 c

c

c
cc
c
cc
c
 c  
c

!c 
ccc
c
c
 c  
c
!cc
cc 
cc
 c
c
 c
ccccc
c
c
 c 

c
c
c # cc
c
c



c
 c

c
cc
c c
 c
c
c
c

 c
c
c

c
c

c c c
c
c
 c

c
c
 c 
c%: &c>
 c

cc
c
c
c
c
c cc>
 c

c
 c
cc%
 c  


c
&c
cc
   ccc
 c
c


c cc
 c
c
c
 c
cc



cccc
 c
>
 c

c c
c c
 c c ccc c

ccc
c
c # cc
c
c

cc cc cc c
c
 c

c
c

 

c
c 
c  c
c>
 c

c
c
cc
c 

:c
  c
c c
 c

cc
c
cc
c
c
c c
c

c
c!
cc

 c
 c  c

 c

c
c
cc
c
  c
c
cc


c
c
  c
c
c
c ibreclac
c
c 
c
c
c%
c
c 
&c
c!
cc
c
c
c c
c c

c6c
c c c
cc
c
cc%
c 
c
c 
&c c
cc
c
 
c  c cc
 c
 c cc
c
 c 
c
%cc
c
&c
 cc
c
c
c
c 

 c!
c
cc
c 
c
  c
c
c#c c
cc
c

 c
c cc
c
c 
c
c c
cc c

c 
c#c
c
c c
c%
c
c 
&c
 cccc c

c  c 

c
 c
c c c
c
c
c%
c
c
c
c
&c>
 c
c c
c
c
c
c c
c c
cc


c

c

c

c

 c

c
c c

c c
 c c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c



chtchriccla c
c
c 6c
c    c c
c
c 

c
c
c
 
cp
 c

c
c
 c


c
c 

c
c
c c!
c
c
cc

 c

c
c
c
 c
 c 
c
c
c # c



cc
 c

c%C&c
c
 c

c%B &c
cc


cc  c
cc




cccc

c
c c

 c c
c
  c c!
c
c 

c
c
c
c
 ccc c
c
 c
c
 c

ccc
c
 c
c
c c
 c
cp
 c
c c

 c
c
 c ccc  cc



cc
c

c
c
 c
c cc
c
 
c
c
 c c
 c
c
 cc
c
 c

c



cc
cc
cc cc c
c
c
c c


c
c 
c
cc c
c
c c#c
c
cc
cc c c c


c



c
c c
c
 
c c c
c

c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c


cOg
Oc
c
c 

c
c  c#c
 cc


c  c c
 c%R Ú&c
c
/
c
c
c c
cc
c

c
 c  c
c

c 
ccc

c
cc 
c
c
 c

c
c

c
c
!c c
c c /
c

c
 
c c c c
ccc
c
 c
c
cp 
c
c c

c
 cc
c



c c
c
c  c
c
c
c  
c c


c
 c ccc
 
c
cc c



c c
c
c

c c

c c



c
c

c
 c

c
c c
c


c
cc
c
c 
c c c c c

c
c
cc
 c
c c 
c
c>
c!ccc
c
c
c


c
c
c cc
c
c
cc
 cc
 c c


c
c
ccc c

cc
c


c
cc
ccc
c
cc
 c
c
 c   c
c c

c
c
c
cc 
c

cc
c
c c
 c

c c 

cc
c


c

c c
c
c
c # c


cc   
c
cc
 

c c
  c
c
c


 c
c
cc
 c
c c 

c
c cc

c
cc
 
c
ccc$ cc 

c c
c
c
c 
cc
c
c 
c
c c
c
c
c

 c
c  c 

 c



c  c ccc 
c c
 c
c 

 c
 c 
c

c
cc 
c
c

c c  c


c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c


cEEEE
c
c
c 



c
c
c 


4 c
c
c :44


4
G? ?
c
c
c 


4 c
c
c   


c
c
c 
 
4

c
c 
 

 
c
c
c 
c#cp cBc#  cC
c>
cp
 cp

cC
 c
>
c
cc:
cpc 
c:
cF cC
c c  c$
c:
c cc c
9
cE
c

cc
c
c !
c>" cp cBcp9CCppcC
 cpMcc cF
c

c:
c
c
: c c c
c
c