Point particle

A point particle (ideal particle[1] or point-like parti-

cle, often spelled pointlike particle) is an idealization of
particles heavily used in physics. Its defining feature is
that it lacks spatial extension: being zero-dimensional, it
does not take up space.[2] A point particle is an appropri-
ate representation of any object whose size, shape, and
structure is irrelevant in a given context. For example,
from far enough away, an object of any shape will look
and behave as a point-like object.
In the theory of gravity, physicists often discuss a point
mass, meaning a point particle with a nonzero mass
and no other properties or structure. Likewise, in
electromagnetism, physicists discuss a point charge, a An example of a point mass graphed on a grid. The grey mass
point particle with a nonzero charge.[3] can be simplified to a point mass (the black circle). It becomes
Sometimes, due to specific combinations of properties, practical to represent point mass as small circle, or dot, as an
actual point is invisible.
extended objects behave as point-like even in their imme-
diate vicinity. For example, spherical objects interacting
in 3-dimensional space whose interactions are described 2 Physical point mass
by the inverse square law behave in such a way as if all
their matter were concentrated in their centers of mass.
In Newtonian gravitation and classical electromagnetism, Point mass (pointlike mass) is the concept, for example
for example, the respective fields outside of a spherical in classical physics, of a physical object (typically matter)
object are identical to those of a point particle of equal that has nonzero mass, and yet explicitly and specifically
charge/mass located at the center of the sphere.[4][5] is--or is being thought of or modeled as--infinitesimal (in-
finitely small) in its volume or linear dimensions.
In quantum mechanics, the concept of a point particle
is complicated by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle,
because even an elementary particle, with no internal 2.1 Application
structure, occupies a nonzero volume. For example, the
atomic orbit of an electron in the hydrogen atom occu-
A common use for point mass lies in the analysis of
pies a volume of ~10−30 m3 . There is nevertheless a dis-
the gravitational fields. When analyzing the gravitational
tinction between elementary particles such as electrons
forces in a system, it becomes impossible to account for
or quarks, which have no known internal structure, ver-
every unit of mass individually. However, a spherically
sus composite particles such as protons, which do have
symmetric body affects external objects gravitationally as
internal structure: A proton is made of three quarks. El-
if all of its mass were concentrated at its center.
ementary particles are sometimes called “point particles”,
but this is in a different sense than discussed above.

3 Probability point mass

A point mass in probability and statistics does not re-
fer to mass in the sense of physics, but rather refers to a
1 Property concentrated at a single finite nonzero probability that is concentrated at a point
in the probability mass distribution, where there is a dis-
point continuous segment in a probability density function. To
calculate such a point mass, an integration is carried out
over the entire range of the random variable, on the prob-
When a point particle has an additive property, such as ability density of the continuous part. After equating this
mass or charge, concentrated at a single point in space, integral to 1, the point mass can be found by further cal-
this can be represented by a Dirac delta function. culation.

1
2 7 NOTES AND REFERENCES

4 Point charge

u u
d
A proton is a combination of two up quarks and one down quark,
held together by gluons.

Scalar potential of a point charge shortly after exiting a dipole

ticle is often called a point particle. Even if an elementary
magnet, moving left to right.
particle has a delocalized wavepacket, the wavepacket
A point charge is an idealized model of a particle which is in fact in a quantum superposition of quantum states
has an electric charge. A point charge is an electric charge wherein the particle is exactly localized. This is not true
at a mathematical point with no dimensions. for a composite particle, which can never be represented
as a superposition of exactly-localized quantum states. It
The fundamental equation of electrostatics is Coulomb’s is in this sense that physicists can discuss the intrinsic
law, which describes the electric force between two point “size” of a particle: The size of its internal structure, not
charges. The electric field associated with a classical point the size of its wavepacket. The “size” of an elementary
charge increases to infinity as the distance from the point particle, in this sense, is exactly zero.
charge decreases towards zero making energy (thus mass)
of point charge infinite. For example, for the electron, experimental evidence
shows that the size of an electron is less than 10−18 m.[6]
Earnshaw’s theorem states that a collection of point This is consistent with the expected value of exactly zero.
charges cannot be maintained in an equilibrium con- (This should not be confused with the classical electron
figuration solely by the electrostatic interaction of the radius, which, despite the name, is unrelated to the actual
charges. size of an electron.)

5 In quantum mechanics 6 See also

Main article: Elementary particle • Elementary particle
• Brane
In quantum mechanics, there is a distinction between an
elementary particle (also called “point particle”) and a • Charge (physics) (general concept, not limited to
composite particle. An elementary particle, such as an electric charge)
electron, quark, or photon, is a particle with no inter-
• Standard Model of particle physics
nal structure. Whereas a composite particle, such as a
proton or neutron, has an internal structure (see figure).
However, neither elementary nor composite particles are
spatially localized, because of the Heisenberg uncertainty 7 Notes and references
principle. The particle wavepacket always occupies a
nonzero volume. For example, see atomic orbital: The 7.1 Notes
electron is an elementary particle, but its quantum states
form three-dimensional patterns. [1] H.C. Ohanian, J.T. Markert (2007), p. 3

Nevertheless, there is good reason that an elementary par- [2] F.E. Udwadia, R.E. Kalaba (2007), p. 1
 3

[3] R. Snieder (2001), pp. 196–198

[4] I. Newton, I.B Cohen, A. Whitmann (1999), p. 956

(Proposition 75, Theorem 35)

[5] I. Newton, A. Motte, J. Machin (1729), p. 270–271

[6] “Precision pins down the electron’s magnetism”.

7.2 Bibliography
• H.C. Ohanian, J.T. Markert (2007). Physics for En-
gineers and Scientists. 1 (3rd ed.). Norton. ISBN
978-0-393-93003-0.

• F.E. Udwadia, R.E. Kalaba (2007). Analytical Dy-

namics: A New Approach. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-04833-8.
• R. Snieder (2001). A Guided Tour of Mathematical
Methods for the Physical Sciences. Cambridge Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 0-521-78751-3.

• I. Newton (1729). The Mathematical Principles of

Natural Philosophy. A. Motte, J. Machin (trans.).
Benjamin Motte.

• I. Newton (1999). The Principia: Mathematical

Principles of Natural Philosophy. I.B. Cohen, A.
Whitman (trans.). University of California Press.
ISBN 0-520-08817-4.

• C. Quigg (2009). “Particle, Elementary”.

Encyclopedia Americana. Grolier Online. Re-
trieved 2009-07-04.
• S.L. Glashow (2009). “Quark”. Encyclopedia
Americana. Grolier Online. Retrieved 2009-07-04.
• M. Alonso, E.J. Finn (1968). Fundamental Uni-
versity Physics Volume III: Quantum and Statistical
Physics. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-00262-0.

8 Further reading
• Eric W. Weisstein, "Point Charge".
• F. H. J. Cornish, "Classical radiation theory and
point charges". Proc. Phys. Soc. 86 427-442, 1965.
doi:10.1088/0370-1328/86/3/301
• O. D. Jefimenko, "Direct calculation of the electric
and magnetic fields of an electric point charge mov-
ing with constant velocity". Am. J. Phys.62 (1994),
79.
• David L. Selke, "Against Point Charges". Ap-
plied Physics Research Vol 7, No 6 (2015).
doi:10.5539/apr.v7n6p138
4 9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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