MECH3361/9361 Semester 2, 2016

PLASTICITY AND FAILURE

6.1. Introduction
In order to ensure safe operation, a mechanical component or system should operate in the
elastic regime. If plastic deformation occurs during normal loading, the system may no longer
work as originally intended. Any desired plastic (permanent) deformation should be made
during forming.

Since the material behaviour in the plastic region differs from that in the elastic region, there
are a couple of questions we need to address:

 Are the basic equations still valid?

 Can we still use the methodology established in the previous chapters?
 What criteria are available for expressing the stress-strain relationships?

6.2. Plasticity under simple tension

In a typical uniaxial tensile test, plastic deformation occurs once the stress in the material
exceeds the yield stress (or limit). Unloading the sample after this point leads to plastic
(permanent) strain and elastic (recoverable) strain.

Beyond the yielding point, different materials behave in different ways. Consider the
following:

Mild steel Stainless steel Al alloy

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6.2.1. Bilinear models

To simplify such curves for analysis, various models have been introduced over the years:

Some remarks:
 When the unloading takes place after plastic deformation has occurred, the recovery
will be completely elastic. Thus we can use elastic analysis to study the stress and
deformation during unloading.
 After unloading, then reloading, the strain-stress behaviour will be elastic at first. If
the material exhibits hardening behaviour, it will not yield until the reloading stress
reaches some new yield stress 𝑌’, which is higher than 𝑌. This increase in yield stress
during loading-reloading is called work-hardening.

6.2.2. Non-linear models

While the bilinear models above are easy to analyse, they are often not accurate enough. For
this reason, some non-linear models have also been proposed.

Power law:

𝜎 = 𝐴𝜀 𝑛

where material constants are 𝐴 = strength coefficient and 𝑛 = strain-hardening exponent.

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Ramberg-Osgood model:

𝜎 𝜎 𝑛
𝜎= +𝑘( )
𝐸 𝐸

where 𝐾 and 𝑛 are material constants to be determined experimentally.

Curve fitting:

𝐸𝜀
𝜎={
𝐴0 + 𝐴1 𝜀 + 𝐴2 𝜀 2 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑚 𝜀 𝑚

Sometimes, we need to fit testing curves using a higher order polynomial, so the relationship
here can be expressed as a linear sum of components.

Example 6.1
A cylindrical steel bar is subjected to a uniform tension 𝑃 along its axis. The maximum axial
strain was measured to be 𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.005, Young’s modulus 𝐸 = 210 GPa, yield stress 𝑌 =
600 MPa, and the material’s stress-strain curve exhibited almost no hardening.

e
ε e
ε p

ε max

(a) Calculate the plastic strain in the bar at the above max strain.

(b) If the bar is unloaded at this max strain, what is the residual strain remaining in the bar
after complete unloading (short answer question, 2009 final exam).

Solution

(a) Since there is no hardening, the steel can be idealised as an “elastic/perfectly plastic”
material as shown. The elastic strain is:

𝑌 600 × 106
𝜀𝑒 = 𝜀𝑌 = = = 0.003
𝐸 200 × 109

Hence, at the maximum strain of 𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.005, the plastic strain in the bar is:

𝜀𝑝 = 𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜀𝑒 = 0.005 − 0.003 = 0.002

(b) When unloading, all the elastic strain will disappear and the plastic strain remains. Thus
the residual strain after complete unloading is 0.002.

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Example 6.2
For the structure loaded at joint O shown below, determine (a) the elastic limit load 𝑃𝑒 , and
(b) the plastic limit load 𝑃𝑝 . The material is elastic/perfectly plastic.

Solution

Step 1: Determine internal forces

From the FBD (right subfigure):

∑𝐹𝑥 = −𝑁1 sin 𝜃 + 𝑁3 sin 𝜃 = 0

𝑁1 = 𝑁3

∑𝐹𝑦 = 𝑁1 cos 𝜃 + 𝑁2 + 𝑁3 cos 𝜃 − 𝑃 = 0

2𝑁1 cos 𝜃 + 𝑁2 = 𝑃

We cannot solve for three unknowns using only two equations, so a compatibility condition is
required.

Step 2: Consider strain compatibility

𝐿
The initial length of bars 1 and 3 is 𝐿′ = cos 𝜃. The elongation of bars 1 and 3 is
approximately 𝑑 cos 𝜃, therefore:

𝑑 cos 𝜃 (𝐿𝜀2 ) cos 𝜃

𝜀1 = = = 𝜀2 cos2 𝜃
𝐿′ 𝐿
cos 𝜃

Step 3: Internal stress of bars

𝜎1 = 𝜎3

𝑃
2𝜎1 cos 𝜃 + 𝜎2 =
𝐴

Step 4: Calculate the stresses

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From Hooke’s law, 𝜎1 = 𝐸𝜀1 and 𝜎2 = 𝐸𝜀2, so:

𝜎1 𝜀1
= = cos 2 𝜃 ⇒ 𝜎1 = 𝜎2 cos2 𝜃
𝜎2 𝜀2

Plugging this into the second equation of Step 3 gives:

𝑃
2𝜎1 cos 𝜃 + 𝜎2 = 2(𝜎2 cos2 𝜃) cos 𝜃 + 𝜎2 =
𝐴

leading us to obtain:

𝑃
𝜎2 =
𝐴(1 + 2 cos3 𝜃)

𝑃 cos 2 𝜃
𝜎1 =
𝐴(1 + 2 cos 3 𝜃)

Step 5: Elastic deformation and initial yielding

Since 𝜎1 = 𝜎2 cos 2 𝜃, it must be that 𝜎1 ≤ 𝜎2 , which implies that yielding occurs in bar 2
first. Let’s assume that the corresponding stress in the bar reaches the yield limit, so 𝜎2 = 𝑌.
This means that:

𝑃𝑒 = 𝜎2 𝐴(1 + 2 cos 3 𝜃) = 𝑌𝐴(1 + 2 cos 3 𝜃)

Step 6: Elastic-plastic deformation and plastic limit load

Once bar 2 reaches its elastic limit, further increasing the load will cause it to undergo plastic
deformation. Since the material is elastic/perfectly plastic, 𝜎2 = 𝑌 for any such load. Thus
𝑃
from Step 3 where we found 2𝜎1 cos 𝜃 + 𝜎2 = 𝐴, we now have:

𝑃 = 2𝑌 cos 𝜃 ⋅ 𝐴 + 𝑌𝐴 = 𝑌𝐴(2 cos 𝜃 + 1)

This load eventually reaches the plastic limit when all three bars start undergoing different
degrees of plastic deformation, so

𝑃𝑝 = 𝑌𝐴(2 cos 𝜃 + 1)

Step 7: (Extension) Compare elastic and plastic loading

𝑃𝑝 𝑌𝐴(2 cos 𝜃 + 1) 1 + 2 cos 𝜃

= = ≥1
𝑃𝑒 𝑌𝐴(1 + 2 cos 𝜃) 1 + 2 cos3 𝜃
3

𝑃𝑝
For example, for 𝜃 = 45°, 𝑃 = 1.41, which means that if we allow the frame to work in its
𝑒
elastic-plastic deformation regime, the load-carrying capacity is much increased.

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Bear in mind that the discussion above only applies for structures under simple uniaxial
tension, where the only non-vanishing stress component is 𝜎1 (which acts along the axis).
When there are more stress components at work, these simple models can no longer
predict the material’s behaviour. As such, we will now introduce a couple of additional
concepts in preparation for the subsequent discussion on yielding under complex stress states.

6.3. Octahedral stresses

6.3.1. Octahedral planes

nn
y

Consider the principal directions as the coordinate axes. The planes oriented such that the
normal vector makes equal angles with each of the principal axes (i.e. having direction
1
cosines equal to 𝑙 = 𝑚 = 𝑛 = | |) are called the octahedral planes. These are illustrated in
√3
the figure above.

6.3.2. Octahedral normal stress

From the stress transformations in Chapter 1, we have:

𝜎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑙 2 𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝑛2 𝜎𝑧𝑧 + 2𝑙𝑚𝜎𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑚𝑛𝜎𝑦𝑧 + 2𝑛𝑙𝜎𝑧𝑥

Since the octahedral plane is rotated from the principal stress direction, whose shear
components are zero, we get:
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 1 11
𝜎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑙 𝜎1 + 𝑚 𝜎2 + 𝑛 𝜎3 = ( ) 𝜎1 + ( ) 𝜎2 + ( ) 𝜎3 = (𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 )
√3 √3 √3 3

This quantity is known as the octahedral normal stress or hydrostatic stress.

1
𝜎𝑜 = 𝜎𝐻 = (𝜎 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 )
3 1

It is mathematically equivalent to the mean principal stress. Its value is the same in all eight
octahedral planes.

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6.3.3. Octahedral shear stress

The octahedral shear stress 𝜏𝑜 is the resultant shear stress on an octahedral plane. To
determine this quantity, we first need to consider the total stress on the octahedral plane. The
square of this value is:
2
𝜎 2 = (𝜎𝑛𝑥 )2 + (𝜎𝑛𝑦 ) + (𝜎𝑛𝑧 )2 = (𝑙𝜎1 )2 + (𝑚𝜎2 )2 + (𝑛𝜎3 )2
2 2 2
1 1 1
= ( 𝜎1 ) + ( 𝜎2 ) + ( 𝜎3 )
√3 √3 √3
1 2
= (𝜎1 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 )
3

Since we know that the total stress is the vector sum of the normal and shear stresses, 𝜏𝑜 can
be calculated as follows:

2
1 2 1
𝜏𝑜 = √𝜎 2 − 𝜎𝑜2 = √ 2 2
(𝜎 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 ) − [ (𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 )]
3 1 3

3 1
= √ (𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 ) − [𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 + 2𝜎1 𝜎2 + 2𝜎2 𝜎3 + 2𝜎3 𝜎1 ]
9 9
1
= √2(𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 ) − [2𝜎1 𝜎2 + 2𝜎2 𝜎3 + 2𝜎3 𝜎1 ]
3
1
= √(𝜎12 − 2𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎22 ) + (𝜎22 − 2𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎32 ) + (𝜎32 − 2𝜎3 𝜎1 + 𝜎12 )
3

1
∴ 𝜏𝑜 = √(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2
3

6.4. Distortion energy

According to the work-energy principle, external work = internal strain energy (if there is
no energy loss due to heat).

Strain energy density (SED) is the strain energy per unit volume:

1
𝑈 = [𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜀𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜀𝑦𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝜀𝑧𝑧 + 2(𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜀𝑥𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝜀𝑦𝑧 + 𝜎𝑧𝑥 𝜀𝑧𝑥 )]
2

We can use Hooke’s law to replace the strain terms with stress:

1 2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑈= [(𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧𝑧 ) − 2𝜈(𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 + 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝜎𝑥𝑥 ) + 2(1 + 𝜈)(𝜎𝑥𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦𝑧 + 𝜎𝑧𝑥 )]
2𝐸

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or the stress terms with strain:

𝜈 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑈 = 𝐺[ (𝐼1,𝜀 ) + (𝜀𝑥𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧𝑧 ) + 2𝜈(𝜀𝑥𝑦 + 𝜀𝑦𝑧 + 𝜀𝑧𝑥 )]
1 − 2𝜈

When 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 are the principal directions, 𝑈 can be expressed in terms of the principal
stresses:

1
𝑈= [(𝜎 2 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 ) − 2𝜈(𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 )]
2𝐸 1
1 2 1+𝜈
= 𝐾(𝐼1,𝜀 ) + [(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 ]
2 6𝐸
= 𝑈𝑣 + 𝑈𝑑

1 2
Here, 𝑈𝑣 = 2 𝐾(𝐼1,𝜀 ) , where 𝐾 is the bulk modulus and 𝐼1,𝜀 is the first invariant of strain.
Since 𝐼1,𝜀 is dilatation (volume strain), 𝑈𝑣 represents the SED due to volume change caused
by hydrostatic stress.
1+𝜈
The second term, 𝑈𝑑 = [(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 ] corresponds to the shape
6𝐸
change due to shear stress (recall hydrostatic shear stress), namely the distortion energy
density (DED).

6.5. Plasticity under complex stress states

6.5.1. Initial yield criterion
The onset of plastic deformation depends on two main factors:

1. The stress in the material, which serves as the stimulus for atomic motion
2. The properties of the solid material, which govern the response of the of atoms to the
stimulus.

On a macroscopic level, we can say that at some arbitrary point in the material, if the
combination of stress and material properties reaches a critical value, then plastic yielding
will occur at that point. Mathematically:

𝐹(𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝜎3 , 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 , … , 𝑘𝑛 ) = 0

where 𝜎1,2,3 are the principal stresses (themselves a combination of 6 independent stress
components) and 𝑘1…𝑛 are parameters representing the material’s plastic deformation
response. Here, 𝐹 is called the initial yield criterion, with “initial” indicating that it is before
the critical state is reached (i.e. the deformation is purely elastic). Plotted graphically, 𝐹 is a
surface in the space of coordinates 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝜎3 — this is called the initial yield surface.

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Various criteria have been proposed. The two we will focus on in this course are the two most
widely used in engineering: the Tresca criterion (1864) and the von Mises criterion (1913).

6.5.2. Tresca criterion

Tresca performed a series of experiments and observed that material flow tends to occur
along the direction of the maximum shear stress. He proposed the following yield criterion:

𝐹 = 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑘𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎3 − 2𝑘𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎 = 0

i.e.

𝜎1 − 𝜎3 = 2𝑘𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎

This is called the Tresca criterion. To determine 𝑘𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎 , we can conduct a uniaxial tension
test, in which case the metal will yield when 𝜎1 = 𝑌 and 𝜎3 vanishes. Thus:

𝜎1 𝑌
𝑘𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎 = =
2 2

and from here we can say that the Tresca criterion is:

𝜎1 − 𝜎3 = 𝑌

6.5.3. Von Mises criterion

Experiments have shown that metals do not yield under high hydrostatic stress. We showed
in the previous section that hydrostatic stress induces volume change without shape change.
Therefore, in 1904, Huber proposed that plastic yielding occurs when the distortion energy
density equals or exceeds that for the same material under uniaxial tension. In 1913, von
Mises suggested that metal will yield under a combination of principal stresses:

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(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 = 2𝑘𝑣𝑚

2

which is called the von Mises criterion.

To determine 𝑘𝑣𝑚 , we can conduct a uniaxial tension test as per the Tresca criterion above.
Since 𝜎2 and 𝜎3 both vanish, we end up with:

(𝜎1 − 0)2 + (0 − 0)2 + (0 − 𝜎1 )2 = 2𝜎12 = 2𝑘𝑣𝑚

2

Thus,

𝑘𝑣𝑚 = 𝜎1 = 𝑌

and the von Mises criterion becomes

(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 = 2𝑌 2

This can be written in the Cartesian coordinate system as:

2 2
(𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ) + (𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎𝑧𝑧 ) + (𝜎𝑧𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥𝑥 )2 + 6(𝜎𝑥𝑦
2 2
+ 𝜎𝑦𝑧 2
+ 𝜎𝑧𝑥 ) = 2𝑌 2

Notice that the von Mises criterion retains the contribution of 𝜎2 whereas the Tresca criterion
ignores it.

Example 6.3
A thin square plate is subjected to a set of uniform stresses on its edges as shown, where 𝛾 =
0.5. Yield stress 𝑌 = 600 MPa. Find the maximum stress  beyond which plastic
deformation occurs (final exam 2012).



 



Solution

Step 1: Determine the principal stresses

Since this is a plane stress problem 𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 0.

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2
(𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ) (𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
𝜎𝑝 = ± √[ 2
] + 𝜎𝑥𝑦
2 2
2
(𝜎 + 0) (𝜎 − 0)
= ± √[ ] + (𝛾𝜎)2
2 2
𝜎
= (1 ± √1 + 4𝛾 2 )
2

Since 1 − √1 + 4𝛾 2 ≤ 0, this must be 𝜎3 . The principal stresses are:

𝜎 𝜎
𝜎1 = 2 (1 + √1 + 4𝛾 2 ), 𝜎2 = 0, 𝜎3 = 2 (1 − √1 + 4𝛾 2 )

Step 2: Calculate the Tresca criterion

According to the Tresca criterion 𝜎1 − 𝜎3 = 𝑌, so:

𝜎 𝜎
(1 + √1 + 4𝛾 2 ) − (1 − √1 + 4𝛾 2 ) = 𝜎√1 + 4𝛾 2 = 𝑌
2 2

Thus the maximum stress must be:

𝑌 600 600
𝜎= = = = 422.54 𝑀𝑃𝑎
√1 + 4𝛾 2 √1 + 4(0.5)2 √2

Step 3: Calculate the von Mises criterion

According to the von Mises criterion: (𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 = 2𝑌 2 , which

is equivalent to:

𝜎 2 𝜎 2
[ (1 + √1 + 4𝛾 2 ) − 0] + [0 − (1 − √1 + 4𝛾 2 )]
2 2
𝜎 𝜎 2
+ [ (1 − √1 + 4𝛾 2 ) − (1 + √1 + 4𝛾 2 )]
2 2

𝜎2 2 𝜎2 2 𝜎2
= (1 + √1 + 4𝛾 2 ) + (1 − √1 + 4𝛾 2 ) + 4(1 + 4𝛾 2 )
4 4 4

𝜎2
= {[1 + (1 + 4𝛾 2 ) + 2√1 + 4𝛾 2 ] + [1 + (1 + 4𝛾 2 ) − 2√1 + 4𝛾 2 ] + 4(1 + 4𝛾 2 )}
4

𝜎2
= [2 + 6(1 + 4𝛾 2 )]
4

= 2𝜎 2 [1 + 3𝛾 2 ]

= 2𝑌 2

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Therefore,

𝑌 600 600
𝜎=± =± =± = 453.56 𝑀𝑃𝑎
√1 + 3𝛾 2 √1 + 3(0.5)2 √1.75

Step 4: Compare the two criteria and make a judgement on suitability

For safety reasons, it is best to be conservative. In this case, the Tresca criterion is lower and
therefore more restrictive, the maximum stress loading is 422.54 MPa.

6.6. Failure theories

6.6.1. Ductile materials
The maximum shear stress theory uses the following criterion:

𝑌
|𝜎1 − 𝜎3 | ≤
𝛼

where 𝛼 is the factor of safety.

For the maximum distortion energy theory:

2𝑌 2
(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 =
𝛼

6.6.2. Brittle materials

Generally speaking, brittle materials do not fail via yielding.

Under the maximum normal stress theory:

𝜎𝑓
|𝜎1 | ≤
𝛼

where 𝜎𝑓 is the failure normal stress.

There is also a maximum normal strain theory, which stipulates that

𝜀𝑓
𝜀1 ≤
𝛼
1
where 𝜀𝑓 is the failure normal strain. Since 𝜀1 = 𝐸 [𝜎1 − 𝜈(𝜎2 + 𝜎3 )] from Hooke’s law, we
have:

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𝜎𝑓
𝜎1 − 𝜈(𝜎2 + 𝜎3 ) ≤
𝛼

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