Objective:

The purpose of this experiment is to use the tensile testing machine to test different
materials (aluminum, steel, brass and ABS) by subjecting them to uniaxial tensile loading.
Furthermore, it will provide an understanding of deformation and fracture characteristics
of these materials as well as the load displacement and the stress-strain relationships.

Introduction:
The uniaxial tensile testing is a process of applying an axial load on a material specimen
until failure is obtained. This kind of testing permits us to determine certain material
properties such as tensile strength, yield strength, % elongation, % area of reduction and
Young’s modulus.

Figure 1. Sress-strain relationship under uniaxial tensile testing

The tensile strength is the highest stress a material can withstand before necking. During
the process of uniaxial tensile testing, the stress-strain curve is recorded by the computer
software and then the tensile strength can be determined by looking at the highest point on
the graph.

The yield strength is the point where plastic deformation begins. It is also found from the
stress-strain curve by drawing a parallel line at a 0.2% offset of the slope in the linear

1
section. The intersection of this line with the curve is the point at which plastic deformation
will start.

The ductility also known as the % elongation or the % reduction in area are calculated by
the following equations:
∆𝐿
% 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100
𝐿o

𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑓
% 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = × 100
𝐴𝑜

The gauge length and cross-sectional area are measured before and after the experiment
and then compared. This allows to calculate the ductility by imputing theses values in the
equations.

The Young’s modulus is the relationship between the stress and strain during elastic
deformation. After the experiment, it can be determined by taking the slope of the linear
part of the curve. The slope can found through this equation:

𝜎
𝐸=
𝜀

Procedure:
A universal tensile machine was used to perform the uniaxial tensile test. Four different
material specimens were tested; aluminum, steel, ABS and brass. The specimens were
loaded one at a time into the machine. An extensometer was also attached to each specimen.
The computer software LabView was used to record the load and displacement data. A
crank on the tensile machine was turned incrementally to increase the load applied to the
specimen. After each increment, the data was recorded by clicking the record button on the
software interface. This process of incrementing and recording continued until the
specimen fractured. In addition to the procedure describe above, the aluminum sample was
also connected to both axial and lateral strain gauges, which recorded the strain
automatically to the LabView software as the experiment was performed.

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Data & Results:

Part 1)

a) The ratio of the lateral and axial strains is known as the Poisson’s ratio v. For isotropic
materials Poisson’s ratio can be calculated using the relation between the modulus of
elasticity (E), the modulus of rigidity/shear modulus (G) using formula: E=2G(1+v).

b) Yield strength 𝜎𝑦 is defined as the stress corresponding to the intersection of the line
(straight line made parallel to the elastic portion of the stress-strain curve at 0.002 offset)
and the stress-strain curve as it changes for elastic to plastic. Yield stress is the point at
which the material starts to plastically deforms permanently. Yield strength can be
𝐹
calculated from the stress-strain curve using the following formula: 𝜎𝑦 = 𝐴, where F=

load at yield point (N) and A= original cross sectional area of the sample.

c) The stress at the maximum (highest point) on the engineering stress-strain curve is
known as the tensile strength (TS). Tensile stress is the maximum stress that can be
sustained by a structure in tension before it starts necking.

d) Stress at fracture point is known as fracture strength, thus it is the furthest point on the
engineering stress-strain curve (at maximum strain). Fracture strength can be calculated
by dividing the load at facture point with the original cross-sectional area of the sample.

e) The measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at fracture is
known as tensile ductility. Tensile ductility can be represented quantitatively as either
percent elongation %EL or percent reduction in area %RA. The percentage of plastic
strain at fracture is known as percent elongation:

𝑙𝑓 − 𝑙𝑜
%𝐸𝐿 = ( ) × 100
𝑙𝑜
Where;

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𝑙𝑜 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑙𝑓 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

Percent reduction in area %RA is defined as:

𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑓
%𝑅𝐴 = ( ) × 100
𝐴𝑜
Where;
𝐴𝑜 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐴𝑓 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

f) Strain hardening exponent n, is used to describe the true stress- true strain relationship
in plastic region of the deformation. The strain hardening exponent n can be calculated
using the following formula:

𝜎𝑇 = 𝐾𝜖 𝑇𝑛

Where,
K= strength coefficient
𝜎𝑇 = true stress
𝜖 𝑇 = true strain

Part 2)

Figure 2. Stress Strain curve for Al 6061-T6

Stress vs. Strain for Aluminum 6061-T6

350000
300000
250000
Stress [Pa]

200000
150000
100000
50000
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Strain [mm]

Extensometer LVDT

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Figure 3. Stress Strain curve for Brass

Stress vs. Strain for Brass

400000

350000

300000
Stress [Pa]

250000

200000

150000

100000

50000

0
-0.04 0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.24 0.28 0.32 0.36 0.4 0.44 0.48 0.52
Strain [mm]

Extensometer LVDT

Figure.4 Stress Strain curve for ABS

Stress vs. Strain for ABS

45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
Stress [Pa]

20000
15000
10000
5000
0
-0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
-5000
Strain [mm]

Extensometer LVDT

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Figure.5 Stress Strain curve for 4130 Steel

Stress vs. Strain for 4130 Steel

800000
700000
600000
500000
Stress [MPa]

400000
300000
200000
100000
0
-0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
-100000
Strain [mm]

Extensometer LVDT

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Table 1. Results for each Material and from Each Displacement Measuring Device

Aluminum 6061-T6 Brass ABS 4130 Steel

Extension LVDT Extension LVDT Extension LVDT Extension LVDT

Yield Stress (Pa) 288876.42 288876.42 315080.38 315080.38 37765.17 38229.39 623304.54 623304.54

Tensile Stress
312988.5 312988.5 361356 361356 39526.6 39526.6 667952.4 667952.4
(Pa)
Fracture Stress
308257.2 308257.2 347741.4 347741.4 34696.5 34696.5 460746.6 460746.6
(Pa)
Young’s
64.69 23.19 82.64 12.94 2.23 0.800 219.04 23.61
Modulus (GPa)

%Elongation 12.1 12.1 36.78 36.78 0.1 0.1 5.76 5.76

%Reduction in
3.32 3.32 27.9 27.9 0.67 0.67 10 10
area

Poisson's Ratio 0.21 0.21

- - - - - -

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Sample Calculations for Part 3 (ABS):

20153.52−10153.81
Young’s Modulus = slope of graph = 0.008253−0.003763 = 2.23 𝐺𝑃𝑎
∆𝐿 50.05−50.0
% Elongation = 𝐿 = ∗ 100% = 0.10%
𝑜 50.0
𝐴𝑜− 𝐴𝑓 38.88−38.62
% Reduction in Area = = ∗ 100% = 0.67%
𝐴𝑜 38.62
𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 −340.07
Poisson’s Ratio = − = − 1615.61 = 0.21
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Discussion :

The results obtained for this lab experiment using each measuring device (extensometer,
LVDT, and strain gauge) are the same or very similar except for the Young’s Modulus.
The strain of each specimen vary, however, the load (kN) stays the same for each
measuring device. As a result, the only data that is changes with the measuring device is
the Young’s Modulus, because it is calculated using the gradient of the stress-strain
graph, thus it varies for each device. By observing the fracture characteristics of
Aluminum 6001-T6, it can be said that it is a ductile fracture. It can be observed from the
stress-strain curve that Aluminum exhibits a large amount of strain before it fractures.
The same can be said for 4130 Steel. Steel also exhibits quite a bit of strain before it
fractures, thus it is a ductile fracture. However, when observing the fracture
characteristics of Brass, it can be said that it is a brittle fracture because it did not deform
very much before the material started to fail. In addition, when looking at the fracture
characteristics of ABS it can be said that it is a ductile fracture. Looking at the stress-
strain curve for ABS it can be seen that the material displays quite a bit of deformation
before it fractures. Strain hardening exponent n, is used to describe the true stress- true
strain relationship in plastic region of the deformation; and the value for the strain
hardening exponent varies from 0 to 1. The strain hardening exponent n can be calculated
using the following formula: 𝜎𝑇 = 𝐾𝜖 𝑇𝑛 . A material with a strain hardening exponent of
n=0, means that it is a perfectly plastic solid. However, a material with a strain hardening
exponent of n=1 means that the material is elastic solid (thus, material is able to
completely return to its original form). In addition, the value of n for most metals varies

8
between 0.10 and 0.50. Due to the advanced equipment used in this lab experiment such
as Vernier caliper (used to measure the gauge length of the specimen) and the remote
sensor that was calibrated to high sensitivity, the potential for errors were very minimal.
The results obtained for this lab experiment were similar to the theoretical values, within
the limits of error.

Conclusion:

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Reference:

Callister, Jr. W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (2014). Materials Science and Engineering, An
Introduction, 9th Ed. (pp.157). USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

"MECH 321 Properties & Failure of Materials Lab Manual." Properties & Failure of
Materials Laboratory Manual.

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Appendix A: Photographs of Fractured Specimen

Image A: Aluminum 6061-T6 Specimen

Image B: Brass Specimen

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Image C: ABS Specimen

Image D: 4130 Steel Specimen

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