4/11/2012

2012 UA-CEAC GREENHOUSE CROP PRODUCTION & “Hanging” gardens of Babylon: ~600 B.C.
ENGINEERING DESIGN SHORT COURSE
April 10, 2012 One of the seven wonders of the ancient world
Location: 50 km S of Baghdad, Iraq
Greenhouse Structures and Design on the east bank of the Euphrates
River
Built by: King Nebuchadnezzar II
(604-562 BC)

Dr. Murat Kacira

Associate Professor
Early form of
Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering
Controlled Environment Agriculture Center “protected agriculture”
University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
mkacira@cals.arizona.edu
Water lifted from the
Euphrates River by a
“chain pump”
(P. Rorabaugh)

Egypt: several hundred years BC 1st Century A.D. Rome

Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs:
people grew plants in water culture
Ancient Egyptian agriculture 14-37 A.D.
Cucumbers grown out of
Papyrus and lotus growing in the Nile River season in structures
covered with
“transparent” rock (mica)
for the Roman Emperor
Tiberius.
First known use of CEA.
Other such structures
noted during that time.

(P. Rorabaugh) (P. Rorabaugh)

3 4

Why Greenhouses? What is Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) ?

 Improved independence from outside climate

 Grow year round CEA, also known as Protected Agriculture, is
 Usage of unproductive land defined as an integrated science and engineering-
 Efficient use of resources (i.e. water, fertilizer, labor, based approach to establish the most favorable
energy) environmental conditions for plant productivity
 More control over aggressors (pests & diseases) while optimizing resources including water, energy,
 Societal effects: steady, year round jobs space, capital and labor, and thereby to provide
 Considerable increase in production & quality the desired plant product or biological processes
under controlled conditions.
Superior Income!

5 6

1
 4/11/2012

Challenges of the greenhouse grower

Holland
Grower against mother nature and the rest of the 10,370 ha
France Poland
world Canada
2,286 ha 9,620 ha 7,560 ha
57% Ontario Spain
52,170 ha

Unites States Italy

8,425 ha
26,500 ha

Greece
Mexico 4,670 ha
Turkey
11,759 ha 33,515 ha

Total Greenhouse Areas in Japan

Major Greenhouse 49,049 ha

S. Korea
Production Countries China 57,444 ha
2,760,000 ha
in the World
7

Source: Source:
Kacira, M. 2011. Greenhouse Production in US: Status, Challenges, and Opportunities. Presented at CIGR 2011 9 Kacira, M. 2011. Greenhouse Production in US: Status, Challenges, and Opportunities. Presented at CIGR 2011 10
conference on Sustainable Bioproduction WEF 2011, September 19-23, 2011 • Tower Hall Funabori, Tokyo, Japan conference on Sustainable Bioproduction WEF 2011, September 19-23, 2011 • Tower Hall Funabori, Tokyo, Japan

Main factors for design and technology selection

• Market size and infrastructure in the region Low tech Main factor effecting the technology selection
• Climate of the site
•
•
Plant requirements
Water quality and availability
• Provide desired conditions for the canopy and
• Cost of land, availability and zoning restrictions root zone using knowledge of the grower with
• Availability of materials, equipment and services
• Availability of dependable labor, level of Medium tech anticipated production quantity and quality.
education/training of labor
• Legislations: Food safety, chemical residue,

•
emission of chemicals to soil, water and air
Supporting infrastructure
• A reasonable balance needs to be established
• Capital availability for investment, economics based on market demand, grower skills,
High tech
expected economic return, and level of
greenhouse technology selected for crop
production.
(Plant Factory, Terraspheresystems) (High tech, roof top GH, Gotham Greens) 12

2
 4/11/2012

Greenhouse Designs Greenhouse Designs Roof vents

Winds

Wind

Even span Taking advantage of the prevailing winds

Two slopes of equal pitch and width for passive cooling.
Sawtooth Roof vents

Roofs of unequal width and pitch For best ventilation with multi-span
– Adaptable to slopes Sawtooth designs, top-down vent
openings are recommended.
Uneven span www.netafim.com

13 14

Greenhouse Styles Ridge and Furrow

Greenhouse Styles (Gutter connected)

Wide single span greenhouse Venlo (Dutch) greenhouse

Quonset greenhouse Arch greenhouse

Open roof (Cabrio) greenhouse Multi bay (span) greenhouse

“A” frame greenhouse Retractable roof greenhouse 15 16

Single or Gutter Connected? Air inflated greenhouses

For energy conservation: For large
areas, gutter connected units have
less wall surface area relative to floor
area so are more energy efficient.
Advantages:
- No structural support elements
- Improved light transmission
- Low infrastructure cost
Disadvantages
- Power needs for positive pressure
- Wind/snow load concerns

GrandPa Dome Greenhouse, AGTC, Japan

Advantages with gutter connected:

• Allows future expansion AirStream Innovations (http://airstreaminnovations.com/)

• Common access to bays

• Shared climate under one roof
• Sharing environmental control
system and other mechanical systems
Floating Lettuce Greenhouse
• Less wall surface area relative to floor Outer diameter: 29 m
area, thus less surface for heat loss, Cultivation Pool Area: 302 m2
and more energy savings Production capacity 195 heads/day
Low Tech GH with ETFE glazing
17 89.2 mph (40.2 m/s) designed wind load 18
6 blowers, 410 W/each

3
 4/11/2012

Unusual greenhouse designs Greenhouse Crop Production and Quality

Carefully select these greenhouse components!
Design is simply based on:
- Expectations,
- Needs
- Experience of the grower

US Botanical Garden Greenhouse Biosphere 2 (Tucson, AZ) Structure

(Washington DC)
Cover

Environmental control systems

Eden Project (UK )
20
19 Picture: G. Giacomelli

Greenhouse Covering Materials Glass

- Higher light transmission
- Non-combustible
• Light transmission, diffusion, light quality - Resistant to UV radiation
- Max. light: Use largest sheets of glass if possible
• Mechanical resistance - Vulnerable to hail
- Tempered glass allows wider panes, safety.
• Heat loss, thermal resistance (R-Value) - Cost:  $9-10/ft2

• Condensation behavior

• Sensitivity to aging (temperature, UV, chemicals)

• Size

• Cost $$$

Improve light transmission (Picture(Photo

courtesy
credit :of
Dr.C.
C.Kubota)
Kubota)
21 22

Polyethylene-flexible plastic film With Double Poly

Condensation between the layers reduces light

• Initial cost of installation is cheaper
• Fuel cost to heat is cheaper transmission into the greenhouse and may also lead to
• Life span is short, usually 3-4 years algae build up.
• Covering materials are 4 mil or 6 mil thick
• Anti-fog materials to prevent condensation Condensation must be prevented between the layers
• IR blockers = less heat loss
• Cost:  $ 0.16/ft2 - Use outside air to inflate the layer

23 24

4
 4/11/2012

Polycarbonate
Acrylic
• Easy to install • Easy to install
• Longer life span than • Good light transmission
polyethylene (10+ years) • Good insulation properties
• Polycarbonate is much stronger • Flame retardant
than glass, it is lighter in weight.
• Less flexible that Polycarbonate
• Has good insulation properties
and more prone to hail damage
and is flame retardant.
• Widely used to glaze end walls • Longer life span than
and gables in Quonset polyethylene (20+)
greenhouses. And, on roofs of A • Cost: $3.5/ft2
frame structures
• Cost:  $ 1.5/ft2

25 26

Advances in Greenhouse Coverings

Comparison on characteristics
of glazing materials

PAR Infrared UV
Durability
Covering Material Transmittance Transmittance Transmittance
(years)
(%) (%) (%)
Glass 90 <3 70 30+
transmission
Polyethylene (Double) <80 50 48 3-4
Polycarbonate 83 <3 18 8-10 HEAT 
Arcrylic (Twin wall) 86 <5 44 20+
Increase greenhouse temp.
TGH 

Photosynthesis & growth TPlant

27 28

Advances in Greenhouse Coverings Greenhouse Orientation

• Anti-reflection (AR) covering materials using nanomaterials on
sheet glass available (GroGlass, CentroSolar, Hanson ..) Goal: Maximize light (and uniformity of light)
• Increase transmission by 5-8%, 5% reduction in heat – Percent light entering a greenhouse depends on
radiation.
• Potential applications in Photovoltaics, Solar Thermal and
“angle of incidence”
Greenhouses Cover.
• ETFE (Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene)
Angle of incidence Angle of incidence
• Increased transmission by 3% at low latitudes in winter at high latitudes in winter
• Self cleaning Normal of greenhouse Normal of greenhouse
Angle of Angle of
• Light weight roof surface
incidence
roof surface
incidence

Smaller AOI, more light Light ray incident on

entering the greenhouse greenhouse roof

Hanson Industrial
29 30

5
 4/11/2012

Greenhouse Orientation Greenhouse Structural (Design) Loads

• Loads = Forces acting on the greenhouse structure
Below 40° latitude: – Detailed info: National Greenhouse Manufacturer
• Ridges running N-S direction Association (NGMA) standards
• Provides better light distribution (moving shadows), more (http://www.ngma.com/standardpdf/DesignLoads.pdf)
important than light transmission optimization • Dead Loads
— Weight of all permanent construction including but not
limited to walls, roofs, glazing materials, service
Above 40° latitude:
equipments.
• Ridges of single-span houses running East-West to maximize
light intensity in the greenhouse • Live Loads
• Run ridges of multi-span houses North-South for light – Loads due to temporary (< 30 days) structural elements
(hanging objects, temporary equipments) (Do not include
distribution wind, snow or dead loads)
– Maximum allowable = 15 lb ft-2 or 73 kg m-2
31 32

Greenhouse Structural (Design) Loads Low Level of Technology

• Wind Loads
— In general, greenhouses should be designed to withstand • No or minimal adjustments of the GH environment
an 70-80 mile hour-1 or 31.3-36 m s-1 wind from the • GH environment dependent on outside
direction which will produce the greatest loads. • Passive ventilation (roof, side wall vents)
—70-80 mph = 16-20 lbs ft-2 • No heaters
• Snow Loads • Substrate (Soil)
For flat roof greenhouses: Sloped roof greenhouses: • Low cost (< $25-$30/m2)
Pf = C C I P tg c g
Ps = Cs Pf (< $2.50-3.00/ft2)
Pf : Flat roof design snow load [psf]
Ctg : Thermal factor; 0.83 for heated GH, 1.0
for unheated or intermittently heated GH
Cc : Exposure factor; 0.6 for open-terrain; 0.9
for sheltered areas; 0.7 for all others
I: Importance factor; 1.0 for retail & public
access GH; 0.8 for all others
Pg: Ground snow load [psf] (Pardossi et al., 2004)
C s: Slope factor

33

LOW Technology Greenhouse

Natural ventilation for cooling

No supplemental
heating

Grown in soil
Quonset design
(Picture credit: G. Giacomelli)

6
 4/11/2012

LOW TECH Greenhouse

“High Tunnels”

18.4 $/m2 ($1.7 per ft2) for structure

9.1 x 29 m (30 x 96 ft)

26.6$/m2 ($2.5 per ft2) for structure

9.1 x 29 m (30 x 96 ft)
Complete Package (upper and baseboard lumber U-clamps,
Screened/shade Greenhouse end-wall lumber mount fittings and hardware, wiggle wire,
single- layer clear poly roof and ends, manual roll-up
ventilation systems)
(PolyText FieldPro Gothic)

Environmental Control
Medium Level of Technology
Daytime:
Cooling with side vent
Inside air temperature higher than outside • Combined use of High and Low Technology
Nighttime: • Active and/passive cooling systems
No heating • With/without heaters
Inside air temperature about equal to outside • Simple environmental monitors and controls
• Substrate (soil/soilless)
Knowing day/night air temperatures for your location during the
season will help!
• Cost ($30-$100 per m2)
($3.00-$10.00 per ft2)
Pardossi et al., 2004

(PolyTex FieldPro Gothic HT Greenhouse)

Haygrove Super Solo High Tunnel

Greenhouse Technology Levels in the US

High Level of Technology High Technology
• Plant-response-based
EuroFresh Farms, Wilcox, Arizona
environmental control to optimize • 111 ha in Wilcox, 17 ha in Snowflake, 1 ha semi-
closed greenhouse in Wilcox.
plant growth, maximize productivity • Exceeding 75 kg/m2/year tomato production,
and fruit quality. • Glass venlo type
• Tomatoes, cucumbers
• Closed/recirculating fertigation and
hydroponic systems. Village Farms, Marfa, Texas
• 49 ha in Marfa, Texas, 0.6 ha semi-closed
• Computerized climate control of greenhouse in Marfa, 12 ha in under construction.
• Exceeding 100 kg/m2/year tomato production.
greenhouse (temperature, • Plastic arch type
irrigation, shading based on • Tomatoes

integrated light, CO2 enrichment.) Howeling’s Greenhouses, Oxnard, California

• Cost is high ($100-$150 per m2) • 50.2 ha in US, 21 ha in Canada, 16 ha
semi-closed greenhouse in Oxnard, CA
($10.00-$15.00 per ft2) • Glass venlo type
• Tomatoes, cucumbers
Pardossi et al., 2004

7
 4/11/2012

Greenhouse Technology Levels in the US Greenhouse Technologies in the US

High Tunnels (HTs) Technology
High Technology
• Most total area of single free standing greenhouses
Backyard Farms, Madison, Maine • In terms of numbers of HTs, the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic region holds 40%
• 16.9 ha in Maine of total HTs structures in the US. Around 1800 ha (based on 2007 survey
• Glass venlo type 2007), is growing, and expected to grow in the next 10 years (Orzelek, 2009)
• Tomatoes • Fresh, local food production, adaptability to urban settings
• USDA support $13M for more than 2400 farmers to install HTs
• Vegetables, Herbs, Small Fruit, Tree Fruit, Cut Flowers, Specialty Crops
Windset Farms, Las Vegas, Nevada and Santa • Interest in improving interior climate with low cost mechanization/automation,
Maria Valley, CA alternative energy systems integration, and local resources utilization
• 26 ha in-construction in Santa Maria Valley, CA Permanent HTs Temporary HTs (Image credit: hightunnels.org)
• Glass venlo type
• Tomatoes, peppers, cucumbers, eggplants

Wholesum Family Farms, Amado, Arizona

• 4.8 ha in-construction
• Glass venlo type, semi-closed
• Tomatoes (organic)

(Images credit: Dr. M. D. Orzolek)

Urban Agriculture, Rooftop Farming Gaining Interest Plant Factory (Indoor Plant Production)
Systems
- Minimal land use,
Local food production
- Minimized water and energy use
• Reduced transportation and fuel use - Fresh, pesticide-free produce regardless
• Fresh food of climate or location, year round.
• Support for local jobs and local farmers
• Pesticide free or organic food Challenges
- High energy and facility installation costs
- Cultivation technology yet to be
(Photo Credits: J. Nelkin) established
- Lack of human/expert resources to
operate/manage the systems
- Limited types/varieties of crops available

Gotham
http://brightfarms.com/ BrightFarms Greens,
NY
http://www.terraspheresystems.com/
VertCrop, Valcent
http://gothamgreens.com/

From traditional to sustainable systems

Sustainability
Traditional Systems

Control the GH climate automatically

Environmentally Economically Socially
Sound Viable Supportive
Sustainable Production Systems
Reducing environmental Increasing yields Providing stable
Establish production instruments pollution by re-cycle and employment to people
Decreasing the cost of
 Resource conserving reuse of resources
using resources
 Environmentally sound Reduce pest/disease
 Economically viable infestation
 Socially supportive Use of renewable
 Commercially competitive energy

47 48

8
 4/11/2012

FACTS-DEMANDS-SUCCESS FACTS-DEMANDS-SUCCESS
• There are many designs and structures to select from, thus
it is important to become familiar with the advantages and • Control aerial environment surrounding the
disadvantages of each. plant canopy
• Control the plant environment, so you can control plant • Manage the root zone conditions
growth, quality and nutritional content. • Determine demand for the produce and
• Greenhouse environment continuously marketing periods
affected by weather.
• Define seasonal environments to overcome
- Monitor the greenhouse environment
and manage
- Know conditions,
- React promptly and appropriately • Select technology level properly to meet your
needs/expectations!
49 50

SOME USEFULL REFERENCES SOME USEFULL REFERENCES

National Greenhouse Manufacturers Association
http://www.ngma.com
American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers
http://www.asabe.org
University of Arizona, Controlled Environment Agriculture Center
http://ag.arizona.edu/ceac/
High Tunnels
http://www.hightunnels.org
Center for Plasticulture
http://plasticulture.cas.psu.edu/default.html
Energy Sources, Department of Energy
http://www.energy.gov/energysources/index.htm
Energy conservation for commercial greenhouses, NRAES-3
Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service (NRAES)
Database for state incentives for Renewable and Efficiency
http://www.dsireusa.org/
Surviving the Energy Crisis, OFA
http://www.ofa.org/energy.aspx
Greenhouse Energy Cost Reduction Strategies, Michigan State Univ.
http://www.hrt.msu.edu/Energy/Notebook/Energy_Sec3.htm
Horticultural Engineering, Rutgers University
http://aesop.rutgers.edu/~horteng/
Michigan State University, Greenhouse Energy
Cost Reduction Strategies
http://hrt.msu.edu/Energy/Notebook/Materials_Sec6.htm
Ohio State University Greenhouse Engineering Extension Program
http://www.oardc.ohio-state.edu
Cornel University, CEA Program
http://www.cornellcea.com/
Greenhouse Management Online, Dept. of Horticulture, Univ. of Arkansas
http://www.uark.edu/~mrevans/4703/index.html

51 52