Inverter Design Shines
in Photovoltaic Systems
A proposed photovoltaic current-source grid-
connected inverter has small volume, low total
harmonic distortion, high power factor and
simple control, and also simplifies photovoltaic
system design.
T
he electric utility grid-connected photovoltaic
(PV) system is an important technology for
future renewable energy applications. This
requires the design of a high-efficiency grid-
connected inverter that delivers power to the
grid with low total harmonic distortion (THD) and high
power factor (PF).
There are two basic types of grid-connected inverters:
voltage-source inverters (VSI) and current-source inverters
(CSI). A VSI grid-connected system requires the system’s
output voltage to be boosted and regulated, which greatly
increases its complexity and cost.
Compared with a VSI system, the output current of a CSI
system is not influenced by grid voltage (UGRID), so its grid
current (IGRID) has low THD and high PF. Also, when the
input voltage to a CSI system is lower than the peak value
of UGRID , it can successfully interface with the grid. Con-
sequently, the input voltage to a grid-connected inverter is
A E
L1
V1 V3
+ B + i1 i1
C1 Ud u1 C2
– –
O –
PV V2 V4
Fig. 1. System topology of the proposed single-phase current-source grid-connected inverter that consists of a high-frequency,
full-bridge inverter, immittance converter, center-tapped transformer, high-frequency bridge rectifier, power-frequency
inverter and low-pass filter.
0708PETfairchild_F1
Power Electronics Technology July 2008 20
By Eric Zhang, Senior Technical Marketing Engineer,
Fairchild Semiconductor, Shanghai, China
not restricted by UGRID . Therefore, the current-source grid-
connected inverter is ideal for a PV generation system.
The immittance converter theory, which is a variation
of the impedance-admittance converter, has been analyzed
in detail in several papers. A novel topology is being pro-
posed for a current-source grid-connected inverter based
on the immittance converter theory. Compared with the
traditional current-source inverter that employs power-
frequency inductors and transformers, the proposed to-
pology uses high-frequency inductors and transformers,
resulting in a small-volume, low-cost system with low THD
and high PF.
The new topology employs a disturbance observer de-
rived by monitoring the PV cell output voltage and cycle-
by-cycle current to determine the output power. By analyz-
ing the disturbance, the injection direction can easily be
obtained. By estimating the output power, the disturbance
injection direction can be determined, which can achieve
D
L1 C V5 F L3
G
TR
VD1 VD3
+
u2 C3 e
V6
1:n
D' VD2 VD4
E'
www.powerelectronics.com
the maximum power point tracking (MPPT). This method
is the traditional MPPT solution, which provides a quick
response. However, its disadvantages are more components
and higher costs.
A concept that will be explored here is the injection of a
disturbance (d) that causes the system’s duty cycle (DCYCLE)
to vary. The MPPT can be determined by tracking and
programming the DCYCLE variation caused by injection of
the input d. The direction of the DCYCLE variation needs to
be known, as it will affect the inverter’s next switching cycle.
This disturbance observer uses a new concept for dc MPPTs,
obtained by monitoring the inverter output current as an
input parameter. This simplifies the control algorithm and
cuts down the voltage sense in the disturbance observer,
providing significant cost savings.

System Topology
Fig. 1 is the circuit diagram for the current-source
grid-connected inverter. The proposed system consists of a
high-frequency full-bridge inverter, immittance converter,
center-tapped transformer, high-frequency bridge recti-
fier, power frequency inverter and low-pass filter. For the
purposes of this discussion, certain nodes in the circuit are
highlighted as test points (TP) and given letter designations. For superior solutions
For example, test point A is TPA (the test point letter desig-
nations are circled in Fig. 1 for easy reference). in automotive electronics
The immittance converter has two inductors, L1 and L2,
and a capacitor, C2, which provides the voltage-source to s !LUMINUMCAPSWITHHIGHVIBRATIONSTABILITY
current-source conversion. Inductances L1 = L2 = L, and
the transfer function is: s 0##WITHVOLUMEFILLFACTORNEARLY
 u1  = 1−ω LC jωL(2-ω LC )  u 2  ,
2 2
s 0IEZOACTUATORSFORFUEL SAVINGINJECTIONSYSTEMS
  (Eq. 1)
 i1   jωC 1-ω2 LC   i 2  s !PPLICATION SPECIFICTEMPERATURESENSORS
where ω is the resonant frequency of the immittance s 3-4POWERINDUCTORSUPTOª#
converter. When the carrier-frequency of the high-fre-
quency inverter is equal to the resonant frequency, that is s 3PACE SAVINGPOWERTRANSFORMERS
ω= 1 , Eq. 1 becomes: s 3!7COMPONENTSFORTELEMATICS2+%AND40-
LC
 u1  =  0
 jZ 0   u 2  (Eq. 2) s 3ELF REGULATING04#HEATINGELEMENTS
 i1   j / Z 0 0   i 2  , s 2ELIABLEVARISTORSFOROVERVOLTAGEPROTECTION
where Z 0 = L C is the characteristic impedance of the
immittance converter. From Eq. 2, the input voltage (u1)
of the immittance converter is proportional to the output
current (i2) of the immittance converter. Therefore, the
immittance converter effectively converts a voltage source
into a current source.
A sine-sine pulse-width modulator (SPWM) controls
this high-frequency inverter. The immittance converter
produces a high-frequency current with a sinusoidal en-
velope. The center-tapped transformer, high-frequency
rectifier bridge, power-frequency inverter and low-pass
filter deliver the sinusoidal current to the grid.
From the aforementioned analysis, the carrier frequency
of the high-frequency inverter is equal to the resonant
frequency of the immittance converter. Furthermore, to
avoid core saturation, the positive-drive pulse width must www.epcos.com
www.powerelectronics.com 21 Power Electronics Technology July 2008
 inverter design

1.5 y(t) uT uS
sin[(π/2)sinV]

325
0 UT
82 163 244
sinV

O t
-1.5

Fig. 2. The inverter uses the sine-sine PWM strategy that produces t
a high-frequency current with a sinusoidal envelope.
0708PETfairchild_F2

be equal to the negative-drive pulse width during every

resonant period.
Fig. 3. The grid-current waveform is not a pure sine wave, but
Control Strategy the sine-sine PWM can produce nearly sinusoidal current.
The operation of the circuit in Fig. 1 can be defined by
the following series of equations: 4. During the positive half-cycle of UGRID , switch V5
1. The pulse-width voltage of TPB (uTPB ) can be obtained turns on and rectifier diodes VD1 and VD3 naturally com-
0708PETfairchild_F3
by a Fourier Series expression, where the pulse width is mutate. The current at TPE (iTPE ) is:
Dπ, sin (2m −1)Dπ is the harmonic amplitude of the high-
2  4U d
frequency inverter and cos (2m −1)Dπ is the odd harmonic  sin 
Dπ 
 cos ωs t (0 < ωs t < π )
2 i TPE =  πnZ  2 
components of resonant frequency (ωS). The pulse-width  0 (Eq. 6)
voltage can be seen in Fig. 2.  
 0 (π < ωu t < 2π ).
( 2m − 1) Dπ
4 U ∞ sin × cos ( 2m − 1) ωs t
 2 , (Eq. 3) 5. During the negative half-cycle of UGRID , switch V6
u TPB = d
∑
π m =1 2m − 1 turns on and rectifier diodes VD2 and VD4 commutate
where D is the pulse width, m is equal to 1~`  and Ud is naturally. In a similar manner, the current at TPE9 (iTPE9 )
the dc line voltage at time (t). can be determined.
2. Since the immittance converter works as a special   0 0  u t   
band-pass filter, the current of TPC (iTPC ) is obtained when 
i TP   4U d D 
m = 1. According to Eq. 2, it is clear that iTPC  is 1/Z0 times  E'  sin   cos s t   u t  2 . (Eq. 7)
the voltage of TPB :  nZ 0  2 
4U d Dπ  6. The current of TPF (iTPF) can be obtained by synthesis of
i TPC =
 sin   cos ωs t. (Eq. 4) the current from TPE and TPE9.
πZ 0  2 
  4U d Dπ 
3. When UGRID is positive, the positive resonant current
 sin   cos ωs t (0 < ωu t < π )
passes through TPD . When UGRID is negative, the negative  πnZ 0  2 
i TPF =
resonant current passes through TPD. Assuming that the
− 4U d sin  Dπ  cos ω t (π < ω t < 2π ). (Eq. 8)
turns ratio of the center-tapped isolation transformer is 1:n,  πnZ 0  2  s u
the current of TPD (iTPD ) decreases “n” times.
i TPD = (Eq. 5) 7. Since only fundamental current can pass through the
low-pass filter, the current at TPG (iTPG) can be determined
 4U d Dπ   0 < ωu t < π 
 sin   cos ωs t  2 kπ − π / 2 < ω t < 2 k π + π / 2  by the integration of TPF :
 πnZ  2   s 
0
π
  
 0 < ωu t < π 1 2 2

0 
 2 k π + π / 2 < ωs t < 2 k π + 3 π / 2

 π ∫ π
cos ωs tdt =
π
 2
  0<ωu t < π 
 0  
 2 k π + π / 2 < ω t < 2 k π + 3 π / 2   8U d  Dπ 
 s
 π2 nZ sin  2  (0 < ωu t < π )
 4U d Dπ   π < ω t < 2 π    0
i =
sin  (Eq. 9)
u
-  cos ωs t  2kπ + π / 2 < ω t < 2kπ + 3π / 2  TPG  8U d Dπ 
π
 nZ 0  2   s  − sin   (π < ωu t < 2π ).
 π2 nZ 0  2 
where k equals 1,2,3... .

Power Electronics Technology July 2008 22 www.powerelectronics.com

 inverter design
From Eq. 9, grid current (IGRID) only depends on the
DCYCLE and the input dc voltage (Ud). Thus, IGRID is inde-
pendent of UGRID .
The conventional inverter often adopts the SPWM con- Pn – 1 Pn
60
trol scheme. According to the symmetric regular sampled

Output power (W)

method, pulse width D is: P4
D = Msinu,  (Eq. 10) 40 P3 P5
P2
where M is the modulation depth and θ is the electric
P1
angle. When M is equal to 1, substituting Eq. 10 into Eq.
9, the iTPG is: 20

8U π
i TPF = 2 d sin  × sin θ  .
 (Eq. 11)
π nZ 0  2  O 5 10 15 20 25
Obviously, it can be seen from Eq. 11 that IGRID is not PV array voltage (V)
a pure sine wave (Fig. 3). Consequently, the conventional
SPWM control scheme will produce a high THD. Fig. 4. The principle of disturbance observation for a photo-
While the SPWM proposed here can be implemented voltaic cell’s voltage versus power (U-P) curve determines
with nearly sinusoidal current, if the sine modulation wave whether the direction of the injected disturbance causes
is uS = USsinθ, then the pulse width is: output power to increase or decrease.
0708PETfairchild_F4
2  U sin θ  Substituting Eq. 12 into Eq. 9:
D = sin −1  s ,

π  UT  (Eq. 12) 8U U
i TPG = 2 d S sin (θ ).
 (Eq. 13)
π nZ 0 U T
where UT and uT relate to the carrier waveform, while
US and uS relate to the modulation waveform. Therefore, grid sinusoidal current is achieved by the

th ssnc of lctronics
componnts.systms.automotiv.mbddd.wirlss.micronano-systms.

www.powerelectronics.com 23 Power Electronics Technology July 2008

 inverter design
The definition of sin is:
iTPF 10 A/div uTPF 150 V/div

sin ( x ) = 1 ( x ≥ 0 )

Harmonic amplitude (%)


 (Eq. 14)
sin ( x ) = −1 ( x < 0 ).
When proceeding with MPPT, the
system needs to compare the value be-
tween Pk and Pk-1. The DCYCLE should be
continually added when Pk > Pk-1, other-
wise reduce it. So, the coming DCYCLE can
(a) Time (100 ms/div) (b) Harmonic frequency (Hz) be demonstrated by:
DCYCLEk+1 = DCYCLEk + ?Dd?sin(Dd)
iTPF 10 A/div uTPF 150 V/div sin(Pk-Pk-1). (Eq. 15)
iTPF 10 A/div uTPF 200 V/div

Fig. 4 is the output U-P curve (the

curve of voltage and power) of the PV
cell. Given that the initial operating
point is P2, injected disturbance ?Dd?,
when the output power is enhanced,
the operating point will be shifted to
Time (45 ms/div) (d) Time (100 ms/div) P3, output power increasing, which
(c)
illustrates the disturbance direction is
2500 correct. Contrarily, if the injected dis-
PV array output power (W)

2000
1000 W/m2 turbance is -?Dd?, the operating point
800 W/m2
shifts to P1 and output power decreases,
1500 which says the disturbance direction is
600 W/m2 wrong. Finally, the operating point will
1000
be shifted to Pn.
400 W/m2
500 A traditional disturbance observer
0 needs to sample the output voltage and
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 output current of the PV cell synchro-
(e)
PV array voltage (V) nously. If the MPPT can be realized only
by monitoring the output current of the
Fig. 5. Waveforms of the grid-connected experimental inverter. (a) Grid voltage and inverter, this brings two advantages: the
grid current of the experimental inverter. The voltage scale is 150 V/div (375 V) and the elimination of a multiplier device and
current scale is 10 A/div (22 A). (b) Total harmonic distortion of the grid current in the two sensors, thus reducing bill-of-ma-
experimental inverter, which is 4.7% times the fundamental amplitude. (c) Power fac-
0708PETfairchild_F5 terial costs. The orientation point of dc
tor of the grid current in the experimental inverter is 0.99; if the grid current and volt- MPPT was just discussed. What follows
age are exactly in phase, the power factor would be 1.0. (d) Modulation depth of the is a detailed explanation of the operating
experimental inverter increases from 0.7 to 0.9, while grid current increases. (e) MPPT theory. Two assumptions are given:
curves for the experimental single-phase grid-connected inverter provide the maxi- 1. The inverter’s dissipation is zero,
mum output current without the need for knowing the PV cell’s output characteristics. meaning the output power of the PV
cell is equal to the output power of the
SPWM scheme. The harmonic components I GRID are inverter.
decreased greatly. Fig. 3 illustrates the SPWM strategy. 2. The line voltage is constant.
In order for the grid to have a unity power factor, there PPV = POUT = eiTP , where e = K. (Eq. 16)
G 
must be synchronization between IGRID and UGRID. This can In Eq. 16, K is a constant, so that:
be approached by using the zero-crossing point of UGRID PPV ∝ i TPG .  (Eq. 17)
to control the inverter switches. When the zero crossing By substituting the results of Eq. 17 into Eq. 15:
point of UGRID goes negative to positive, V6 turns off and DCYCLEk+1 = DCYCLEk + ?Dd?sin(Dd)sin(iTPG - iTPG ). (Eq. 18)
k k-1
V5 turns on. And once UGRID goes positive to negative, V5 Eq. 18 is the determining item to judge how to realize
turns off and V6 turns on. the control dc MPPT, from which it’s determined that only
current sensor is needed. By checking the IGRID value, the
MPPT Method disturbance direction can be determined, and previous
According to the theory of a disturbance observer, as- calculations like output voltage, output current and power
sume DCYCLEk+1and DCYCLEk are the duty cycles at time k+1 are not needed anymore. This results in a simplification of
and k; Dd is the variation of disturbance; and Pk and Pk-1 the design and in reduced costs.
are the corresponding PV cell output power at k and k-1. By tracking IGRID, modulating the pulse-width varia-

Power Electronics Technology July 2008 24 www.powerelectronics.com

 inverter design
and control strategy, a laboratory prototype was imple-
Parameter Measurement
mented and tested. The main power topology can be seen
Input dc voltage (Ud) 220 V in Fig. 1, in which all power devices used in the system are
from Fairchild Semiconductor. The table lists the experi-
Grid voltage (IGRID ) 220 V mental parameters.
Fig. 5 illustrates the experimental waveforms of the
Resonant inductors of
immittance converter
L1 = L2 = 40 µH grid connection. Fig. 5a shows the waveforms of IGRID and
UGRID; Fig. 5b is the THD of IGRID, which is 4.7% times the
Resonant capacitor of fundamental amplitude; Fig. 5c is the PF of IGRID, which is
C2 = 1.6 µF
immittance converter 0.99; Fig. 5d, at t = 200 msec, shows that the modulation
depth of the high-frequency inverter increases from 0.7
Transformer turns ratio 1:2 to 0.9 and IGRID increases; Fig. 5e is the curve of MPPT in
Low-pass filter inductor L3 = 600 µH one day.
The current-source grid-connected inverter topol-
Low-pass filter capacitor C3 = 2 µF ogy proposed here is based on the immittance converter
theory and the SPWM scheme. This approach achieves
Carrier frequency of the maximum output current without the need for the
20 kHz
high-frequency inverter (fS )
PV cell’s output characteristic. This proposed system has
Table. Experimental parameters. the advantages of simple control, small volume, low THD
and high PF. And, experimental results confirm the valid-
tion and maintaining the converter’s output current, the ity and feasibility of the proposed topology and control
maximum status is held so that the PV cell can achieve its strategy.
highest output power. The online version of this article includes several refer-
ences for additional reading on grid-connected invert-
Experimental Results ers, the immittance converter theory and a disturbance
To validate the performance of the proposed topology observer.  PETech

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