ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 1
Chapter 2 Transformation of Stress and Strain
Learning Objectives:
 Study the states of stress and strain at points located
on oblique or inclined planes using transformation of
stresses and strains
 Determine principal stresses & strains and maximum
in-plane shear stress & strains
 Determine the absolute maximum shear stress and
strain in 2D cases
 Applications to thin-walled pressure vessels
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 3
At a particular point A on the
surface of an aircraft making a
landing, the stresses have the
magnitudes and directions
depicted on the stress element in
Figure. Find
(a) The normal and shear
stresses acting on an inclined
plane parallel to line a-a.
(b) The normal and shear
stresses acting on an inclined
plane parallel to line b-b.
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 2
Applications
The cracks in this concrete beam were
These turbine blades are subjected caused by tension stress though the beam
was subjected to both an internal moment
to a complex pattern of stress. For
and shear. The stress-transformation
design it is necessary to determine
where and in what direction the equation can be used to predict the
maximum stress occurs. direction of the cracks and principal normal
stresses that cased them.
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 4
A closed-end cylindrical tank is constructed with a helical weld that makes
an angle   500 about the longitudinal axis and supported by two cradles as
shown in the Fig. (a). The vessel has inner radius r  2 m, wall thickness
t  10 mm, and is subjected to an internal pressure of p  500 kPa. Find (a)
The tangential and axial stresses. (b) The normal and shear stresses
acting perpendicular and parallel to the weld, respectively.
 y  xy
 x
t
a
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 5 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 6

y Convention for Denoting Stress (3D Element)

• Normal stress,  ij
z x I – indicates the direction of a normal to the
y plane on which the stress component acts;
 yy j – indicates the direction of the stress.
Usually denoted by  ij , e.g.  xx
 yx
 yz For simplicity
 xy
(a) Internal forces acting on a section of a body acted upon by external forces.  xx  zy  xx  xx is written as  x
(b) Components of an internal force ΔF acting on a small area centered on point O. O  zx  yy is written as  y
 xz
Normal Stress:
Fx dFx  zz x
 xx   x  lim  As dA 0, stress state is at the point O. • Shear stress
A0 A dA
Shear Stresses:  yy i – indicates the direction of a normal to
Note: Stress values depend on z the plane on which the stress component
Fy dFy magnitude of dF and also the
 xy  lim  acts;
A0 A dA direction of dF. j – indicates the direction of the stress.
F dF e.g.  xy
 xz  lim z  z
A0 A dA

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 7 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 8

Stresses in 3D Element The cube is stationary (in equilibrium)

y y
Stresses shown are all positive Take moment about z-axis
 yy on a cube of 1 unit length  yy
 yx  xy (11) 1   yx (11) 1
 yx  yz
 yz  xy   xy   yx
 xy For a small isolated element  xx  zy
 xx  zy  xx  xx
O  zx with planes perpendicular to O  zx
1  xz From equilibrium (i.e. taking
1  xz coordinate axes and surrounding
 zz x moment about any axis), we
 zz x a point O, there are 9 stress 1
1 1 can show that
1 components:
 yy  xy   yx
 yy 3 normal stresses
z z  xz   zx
6 shear stresses
Hence, number of “unknown”  yz   zy
As the size of parallelepiped reduces, in the limit, these 9 stress stresses reduced to 6. i.e.
components will define completely, the state of stress at point O.  xx   x ,  yy   y ,  zz   z , xy , xz , yz
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 9 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 10

Stress Component in 2D Case  z   xz   yz  0 Stress Component in 2D Case (continued)

Remaining stresses  x ,  y , xy
y

 yx 
x y
xy
 xy 
x x x
z

y

Consider an arbitrary plane whose normal makes an angle θ with horizontal

(a) Thin plate with in-plane loads
(b) Element in plane stress Q. What are the values of  x , xy in terms of  x ,  y and  xy ?
(c) Two-dimensional (2D) presentation of plane stress

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 11 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 12

Consider a cut section of 1 unit of thickness on the element Resolving forces in the x-direction
y
y y
 yx 
x
C Ty  xy  x  AC 1   yx  AB 1  Tx  BC 1
x  C Ty
y x  xy x 1 x
 y
x Tx  Divide the above equation by BC
1 x Tx
 xy y  xy
AC AB
1 Tx   x    yx 
 yx  yx BC BC
A B x B
A x
y y
Let Tx and Ty be the stress components of  x and  xy in x- and y-
directions on the cut plane BC.
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 13 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 14

y
y y x
AC C
 cos  Ty
BC  x
C  xy
Ty   Tx   x cos    yx sin 
x AB
 sin  x Tx
y BC
   xy 1 Ty   y sin    xy cos 
x Tx AC AB  yx
Tx   x    yx  B x
BC BC A
 xy 1 y
  yx   x cos    yx sin 
A B x Consider the equilibrium of forces on plane BC.

y In the x direction:  x  BC  1  Tx  BC  1  cos   Ty  BC  1  sin 

AB AC   x  Tx cos   Ty sin 
Likewise, we can show that Ty   y    xy 
BC BC In the y direction:  xy  BC  1  Ty  BC  1  cos   Tx  BC  1  sin 
  y sin    xy cos    xy  Ty cos   Tx sin 

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 15 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 16

y
Substitute for Tx and Ty into Eqs. for  x and  xy  y x  y y x
 yx   y
 yx 
 x   x cos2    y sin 2   2 xy sin  cos  x
x
xy  xy Shear stress xy
 xy   xy (cos2   sin 2  )  ( y   x ) sin  cos   
x  xy x xy
x x

Note that when the value of  is increase to    / 2 Normal stress

 x is equivalent to  y , hence,  y can be found by  y
substituting    / 2 for  in the expression for  x y y
y Q: Is  y the same stress as  xy ? No! y
 y   x cos2 (   / 2)   y sin 2 (   / 2)
 2 xy sin(   / 2) cos(   / 2) We have
z x x
z
  y   x sin 2    y cos2   2 xy sin  cos   x   x cos2    y sin 2   2 xy sin  cos 
 y   x sin 2    y cos2   2 xy sin  cos 
Q: Is  y the same stress as  xy ?
 xy   xy (cos2   sin 2  )  ( y   x ) sin  cos 
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 17 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 18

Use relations: cos 2  cos2   sin 2   2 cos2   1  1  2 sin 2  Sign Convention

sin 2  2 sin  cos  • Normal Stresses
x y x  y Stress is positive: Tension (e.g.  xx )
 x   cos 2   xy sin 2 (2.1)
Stress is negative: Compression (e.g.   xx )
2 2
x y x  y Positive normal stress acts outward from all
 y   cos 2   xy sin 2 (2.2)
2 2 faces
x  y
 xy   sin 2   xy cos 2 (2.3) • Shear Stresses
2
Positive shear stress acts upwards on the right-hand face of the element
Eqs. (2.1) – (2.3) is known as stress transformation equations.
y y

  xy   xy

Stresses on element A
inclined at θ counter-
clockwise to the x-axis x Negative shear x
Element A Positive shear

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 19 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 20

Solution: (a) Apply Eqs. (2.1) – (2.3) for   450 ,  x  10 MPa,  y  5 MPa
Example 2.1 At a particular point A and  xy  6 MPa, we obtain
on the surface of an aircraft making
a landing, the stresses have the x y x  y
 x   cos 2   xy sin 2
magnitudes and directions depicted 2 2
on the stress element in Figure. Find 10  5 10  5
  cos 900  6 sin 900  3.5 MPa
(a) The normal and shear stresses 2 2
acting on an inclined plane
parallel to line a-a.
x y x  y
 y   cos 2   xy sin 2
(b) The normal and shear stresses 2 2
acting on an inclined plane 10  5 10  5
  cos 900  6 sin 900
parallel to line b-b. In each case, 2 2
sketch the results on a properly  8.5 MPa
oriented element.
x  y
 xy   sin 2   xy cos 2
2
10  5
 sin 900  6 cos 900  7.5 MPa
2
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 21 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 22

(b) As   30  90  1200 , from Eqs. (2.1) to (2.3), we have In-Plane Principal Stress
x  y
x y x  y When  xy  0  sin 2   xy cos 2  0
 x   cos 2   xy sin 2 2
2 2
 xy 1 2 xy
10  5 10  5  tan 2 p  or  p  arctan (2.4)
  cos 2400  6 sin 2400  3.95 MPa ( x   y ) / 2 2 x y
2 2

x y x  y At this angle,  x is known as the maximum principal stress (denoted

 y   cos 2   xy sin 2 as  1 ),  y is known as the minimum principal stress (denoted as  2 )
2 2 and  often denoted as  p is known as the principal angle.
10  5 10  5
  cos 2400  6 sin 2400 Substitute principal angle  p into Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), we have
2 2
 1.05 MPa 2
x y   y 
1    x    2 xy (2.5)
x  y 2  2 
 xy   sin 2   xy cos 2
2 2
x y   y  (2.6)

10  5
sin 2400  6 cos 2400  9.5 MPa 2    x    2 xy
2 2  2 

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 23 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 24

 xy
tan 2 p  Maximum Shear Stress
( x   y ) / 2
Maximum shear stress is obtained by taking d xy / d  0 in Eq. (2.3)
( x   y ) / 2  xy
 cos 2 p  , sin 2 p 
d x ' y ' x  y
2 cos 2    xy 2 sin 2   0
2 2
x y  x  y  
    xy2     xy2
 2   2  d 2
 ( x   y ) / 2
Substitute cos 2 p and sin 2 p into Eqs. (1) and (2), we get
 tan 2 s  (2.7)
 xy
x y x  y  s denotes the angles locating the plane of maximum
 x   cos 2 p   xy sin 2 p
2 2 shear stresses. Two directions mutually are found to
x y x y satisfy Eq. (2.7). Substitute 2 s of Eq. (2.7) into Eq. (2.3):
 y   cos 2 p   xy sin 2 p
2 2
2
x y  (2.8)
x y
2  max      xy2
  y   2 
1    x    xy
2

2  2 
2 The value of  max as calculated in this equation
x y   y 
2    x    xy2 is referred to as the maximum in plane shear
2  2  stress because it acts on the element in x-y plane.
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 25 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 26

By comparison with Eq. (2.4) and (2.7), tan 2 s is negative reciprocal Example 2.2 At a particular point in a machine frame, the material is in
of tan 2 p and so each root 2 s is 900 from 2 p , and the roots  s and a plane stress condition with  x  7 MPa,  y  2 MPa,  xy  5 MPa acting
 p are 450 apart. on an element as shown in Fig. (a). Find (a) The principal stresses. (b) The
maximum shear stresses and the associated normal stresses. Sketch the
 xy
tan 2 p  (2.4) results found in (a) and (b) on properly oriented elements.
( x   y ) / 2

y  y  2 MPa
 ( x   y ) / 2
tan 2 s  (2.7)
 xy
 xy  5 MPa

Hence, the element subjected to maximum  x  7 MPa

shear stress will be 450 from the position
of an element that is subjected to the
principal stress. x

(a)

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 27 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 28

Solution: (a) The largest normal stresses. Using Eqs. (2.5) and (2.6) Mohr’s Circle for 2D Stresses
x y   y 
2
To develop an expression for Mohr’s circle, we rewrite Eqs. (2.1) and (2.3)
 1, 2    x    2 xy after setting  x   , and  xy   in the forms
2  2 
2 x y x y
72 72   cos 2   xy sin 2
     5  4.5  5.59
2
2 2
2  2 
( x   y )
 1  10.09 MPa,  2  1.09 MPa   sin 2   xy cos 2
2
1 2(5)
 p  tan 1  31.70 and 121.70 Squaring each equation, adding them, and simplifying, we obtain
2 72

(b) Maximum shear stress. Using Eq. (2.8)   y 

2
  y
2
    y 
2

   x    2   x cos 2   xy sin 2     x sin 2   xy cos 2 

2  2   2   2 
x  y 
 max      2 xy
 2  1  72
 s  tan 1     13.3 and 76.7
0 0
  y 
2
 y 
2

72
2
2  2  5     x    2   x    xy2 (2.9)
    5  5.59 MPa
2
 2   2 
 2 
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 29 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 30

The preceding expression can be written in a simpler form in terms of

the following notation. What does a point on the circumference of the circle represent?
2 y A point on the circumference is given by
1 x  y 
 avg  ( x   y ), R      xy2 y its x and y coordinates i.e. it represents the
2  2  Plane B stresses on a plane in the element.
 xy
Eq. (2.9) is then  xy  x
  xy
(   avg )    R
2 2 2
(2.10)
x x x
 max

Eq. (2.10) represents a circle in    Plane A A

y
plane with center at ( avg ,0) and 2
radius R. 2 1 
Hence the state of stress on x y  R
The circle is known as the Mohr’s Plane A or Plane B as shown  ,0  B
 2 
Circle introduced by Otto Mohr above can be represented by   max 2
(1835 –1918) who was a German a point on the circumference   y 
R   x    xy2
Civil Engineer. Mohr’s circle is a of a Mohr’s circle.  2 
graphical method for analysing stress.

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 31 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 32

Construction of Mohr’s Circle Steps to Construct Mohr’s circle:

Sign convention for stresses when constructing and analysing Mohr’s circle:
Shear stresses–if the shear stresses on opposite faces of the element produce
forces that result in a clockwise couple, these stresses are taken as positive.
Hence, shearing stresses on y faces of element is +ve, but those on x faces are -ve.
on Plane B the shear stress direction
is clockwise, hence it is a +ve shear
stress on Mohr’s circle
1. Set up a rectangular coordinate system, indicating   and   . Both stress scale must
be identical.
2. Locate the center C of the circle on horizontal axis a distance ( x   y ) / 2 from the
origin O.
3. Locate point A (  0) by coordinates ( x , xy ) . These stresses may relate to any face
of the stress element; however, it is usual to specify the stresses on positive x face.
4. Draw a circle with the center at C and with radius CA.
5. Draw line AB through C.

on Plane A the shear stress direction

is anticlockwise, hence it is -ve
shear stress on Mohr’s circle
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 33 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 34

Interpretation of Mohr’s circle: Stress components at any arbitrary plane can be determined from Mohr’s circle:
State of stress associated with the original x and y planes corresponds to points A and B on x y
 x   CA cos(2 p  2 )
the circle. Points A and B defines states of stress with respect to any other set of x and y  2
planes rotated relative to the original set through an angle  .  xy  CA sin(2 p  2 ) where CA  CA
Radius of R of the circle: CA  CF 2  AF 2 x y
x y
 x   CA(cos 2 p cos 2  sin 2 p sin 2 ) CF  , AF   xy
x y 2 2
where CF  , AF   xy and CA is magnitude of max. shearing stress  max
2  xy  CA(sin 2 p cos 2  cos 2 p sin 2 )
 1 = max. principal stress
CA cos 2 p  CF , CA sin 2 p  AF
 2 = min. principal stress
x y
 x   CF cos 2  AF sin 2
2
B x y x  y
  cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
x y
A  xy   sin 2   xy cos 2
2
x y x  y
Similarly,  y   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 35 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 36

Note that rotation on Mohr’s circle is twice that of element and sense of IMPORTANT:
direction of rotation of axes is the same for Mohr’s circle and element. Do not confuse shear stress sign convention on Mohr’s circle with that of
 an entire element.
B ( y , xy )
R cos(2 p  2 ) REMEMBER:
2
  y  Shear stress sign convention for an entire element.
E ( y , xy ) R   x    xy2
 2  y y

  xy   xy
O 2 Q E C P 1 
2 p
Shear stress sign convention
2  y
D ( x , xy )  xy Positive shear x Negative shear x for a Mohr’s circle
Plane E  x
y y B 
A( x , xy )  xy
y x on Plane B the shear stress direction
Plane B is anticlockwise, hence it is -ve shear
 xy stress on Mohr’s circle
Plane D A

x x x x
On a Mohr’s circle we consider sign of
on Plane A the shear stress direction
Plane A shear stress on a plane and not entire is clockwise, hence it is a +ve shear
y element stress on Mohr’s circle
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 37 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 38

Applications of Mohr’s Circle (b) Pure Torsion: This can be converted to a condition of equal tension
and compression by rotating 450 as shown in the figure (b). The max. shear
(a) Pure Tension: The max. shear stress is one-half the tensile stress stress is twice as great as for pure tension.
and occurs on any plane that makes an angle of 450 with tension axis.
Pure compression is identical to pure tension, except the signs are
reversed.

1 1
 max  , 
2 2  1   2,  max   1 ,     max   1

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 39 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 40

Solution: From Eqs. (2.1) to (2.3), we have

Example 2.3 The state of plane stress at a point (in a pressure vessel) is
represented by the figure shown. Determine the stresses on an element  y x y
 x  x  cos 2   xy sin 2
oriented at 300 counter-clockwise from the position shown. Illustrate 2 2
your answer on a diagram. x y x y
 y   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
x  y
 xy   sin 2   xy cos 2
y 2
 y  12 MPa Substituting   300 , we obtain
 x  ( 8  12) / 2  [( 8  12) / 2] cos 600  ( 6) sin 600  8.2 MPa
300  y  ( 8  12) / 2  [( 8  12) / 2] cos 600  ( 6) sin 600  12.2 MPa
 x  8 MPa
x
x  xy  [( 8  12) / 2] sin 600  ( 6) cos 600  5.66 MPa
 xy  6 MPa
To construct the Mohr’s circle
 avg  ( x   y ) / 2  ( 8  12) / 2  2 MPa (Center of circle)

x  y   8  12 
2

R   xy2     ( 6)  11.66 MPa (Radius of circle)

2

2  2 
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 41 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 42

 avg  2 MPa, R  11.66 MPa Question: Where should point A be ? From the Mohr’s circle,
 x  8.2 MPa 
 12
12  y  12.2 MPa Clockwise,
8
 y  12 MPa 10
8 +v shear
Clockwise, B  xy  5.66 MPa 12.2

+v shear
10
y
x 8
 y
A  x  8 MPa  y  12 MPa
A
R  11.66 6 2
B’
x 8  y 4
A B’ x B 6
R  11.66 6 2  xy  6 MPa y 2
5.66

6
4 A  x  8 MPa 600
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2C 4 6 8 10 12 14
2 x 
Point A? 0
-2
60  xy  6 MPa 6
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2C 4 6 8 10 12 14   x A’ -4
B
Point A? -2  y  xy  x
-6 y
12
6 B’ 300
-ve shear stress at 8.22 -8
A’ -4 this point
B A’ x -10
 x -6 y 12.2 5.66 8.2
12 A’ 0 -12
-8 B’ 30
y
-10 x x
-ve shear stress on Mohr’s circle, hence
-12 anticlockwise direction

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 43 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 44

Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels Cylindrical Pressure Vessels

• A thin-walled vessel is one in which the distribution of stress is • Consider a cylindrical pressure vessel
essentially constant through the thickness, whereas in thick-walled with radius r and wall thickness t
vessels, the normal stress varies over the wall thickness. subjected to an internal gage pressure p.
• If the ratio of wall thickness t to inner radius r is less than about 1/10
F

(or r/t ≥ 10), the vessel is classified as thin-walled. In fact, in thin- v 0  sin d  cos  0  2

0

walled vessels, there is often no distinction made between the inside 

  2 t tL   pr ( d ) L(sin  )  0
and outside radii because they are nearly equal. 0

pr
 2 t tL  2rLp  0   t  (2.11)
t

 t : tangential stress
t

t t

(c)
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 45 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 46

• By passing a section through the vessel perpendicular to its axis, a Thin-Walled Spherical Vessel
FBD is obtained. • Pressure p acts over entire inside surface of
t
F h 0  p r  2rt a  0
2
hemisphere but only a projection of
hemisphere on a vertical plane is shown.
pr a Why?
a  (2.12) t
r
2t
 a: axial stress • For equilibrium, we have

F h  0 ( ro2  ri 2 ) a  pri 2  0 F h  0  t 2 rt  p r 2  0 t

( ro  ri )( ro  ri ) a  pri 2  0 pr
t    (2.13)
( ro  ri )t a  pri   0 2 ro 2t
ri
pri 2
a 
( ro  ri )t
t
 t  0.1ri ro  ri  ro  ri  2ri
pr pr ( r  ri )
a  i 
2t 2t

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 47 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 48

Principal Stresses in Pressure Vessels • Principal Stress in Cylindrical Pressure Vessels

• Principal Stress in Spherical Pressure Vessels Consider a long cylindrical thin-walled (r  t ) pressure vessel subjected to
internal pressure p. The tangential and axial stresses of cylindrical pressure
Consider a spherical thin-walled ( r  t ) pressure vessel subjected to internal vessel are give by
pressure p. The tangential stress of spherical pressure vessel is give by pr pr
t  , a 
pr State of stress on element C
t 2t State of stress on element C
t    pr
2t pr
2 t t t p
pr
C r
t 2t pr pr
C p p
L 2t 2t
p r 0
pr 0 pr
pr 2t
t
2t
C a pr pr
pr C 1  , 2 
C 1   2  p 2t t For all points,
 2t For all points,  not just C
 not just C pr
pr  3  0,  p 
p  3  0,  p  p t 2t
2t
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 49 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 50

Maximum Shear Stress in Vessels Vessels for pressurized storage such as oil refinery tanks and gas tanks etc.
Radial stress  r varies from  r   p at inner surface of shell to  r  0 at
outer surface. For thin-walled shells,  r is much smaller than  t and  a
is generally omitted.
For cylindrical vessels, the principal stress are  t ,  a   t / 2 and 0.
Mohr’s circle of the biaxial state of stress is shown in the Fig. (b).
1 pr
( max ) a  ( t  0)  (2.14a)
2 2t
For spherical vessels, the principal stress  t   a   and 0.
1 pr
( max )a  (  0)  (2.14b)
2 4t
r-t plane
t

a r

a-r plane a-t plane

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 51 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 52

Solution. Characteristic parameter t/R = 13mm/150mm = 0.087

Example 2.4
(a) In air, pi = 140 kPa, pe = 0
A hollow pressurized sphere having
radius R = 150 mm and wall Under water, pi is maintained, pe increases
thickness t = 13 mm is lowered in R
 1   2    ( pi  pe ) , pe  D0
a lake. The compressed air in the 2t
tank is at a pressure of 140 kPa
(gauge pressure when the tank is   9.81 kN/m3 (weight density of water)
out of the water).
For compressive stress of 700 kPa
At what depth D0, will the wall of
the tank be subjected to a R
( pi  D0 )  700 kPa
compressive stress of 700 kPa? 2t
Substitute numerical values:
150  103
(140  103  9.81  103 D0 )
2  13  103
 700  103  D0 = 26.64 m
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 53 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 54

t
Discussion 1: what can we learn from this example? Discussion 2:
Fuselage of aircraft The maximum tangential stress in the
wall of the tank (with an open top) due
to water pressure occurs
(A) at top of the standpipe
(B) at the middle of the standpipe
r
Tangential stress:  t  ( pi  pe ) (C) at the base of the standpipe
t
The axial stress in the wall of the tank
On ground: pi  pe due to the water pressure is
r
(A) > 0
High in sky: pi is maintained, (B) = 0
pe decreases (C) < 0

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 55 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 56

Example 2.5 A closed-end cylindrical tank is constructed with a helical Solution: (a) The tangential and longitudinal stresses are given by
weld that makes an angle   500 about the longitudinal axis and supported Eqs. (2.11) and (2.12).
by two cradles as shown in the Fig. (a). The vessel has inner radius r  2 m, pr 500(103 )( 2) 
wall thickness t  10 mm, and is subjected to an internal pressure of t    100 MPa,  a  t  50 MPa
t 0.01 2
p  500 kPa. Find (a) The tangential and axial stresses. (b) The normal and
The stresses are indicated in Fig. (b).
shear stresses acting perpendicular and parallel to the weld, respectively.
(b) An element oriented at   900  500  400 has its sides parallel and
perpendicular to the weld as shown in Fig. (c). Observing that there are
both tangential and axial stresses, we draw Mohr’s circle as shown in
the Fig. (d).
 y  xy
 x
t

a
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 57 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 58

So, a counterclockwise angle of 2  80 on the circle locates point B corresponding

0
Transformation of Plane Strain
to the stresses on the x face. The average normal stress and radius of circle are
1 1 • Normal Strain
 avg  (100  50)  75 MPa, R  (100  50)  25 MPa
2 2 
 (2.15)
The coordinates of point B are then L
 x   avg  R cos 2  75  25 cos 800  70.7 MPa  : elongation, L: original length
Hence, tensile stress: Displacement A  A : u, B  B : u  u
 xy  R sin 2  25 sin 800  24.6 MPa
 x  70.7 MPa
Similarly,  y   avg  R cos 2  75  25 cos 80  79.3 MPa Shear stress:
0 u du
  lim 
Normal stress in y’ axis
x 0 x dx
 xy  24.6 MPa • Shear Strain
A
B  
y  nt  tan    
2 
t Tangent of the total change in angle
a
A1
occurring between two originally
perpendicular lines (n and t).  nt is small,
B1 hence

x  nt     (2.16)
(d) 2

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 59 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 60

• Components of Strain (2D) • Transformation of Plane Strain

Partial derivative notation is used since u or v State of strain and principal strains can be obtained similar to the state of stress
is a function of x and y and principal stress equations. Consider the displacement of corners A and D of a
u v linearly deformed and distorted element with dimension dx & dy, of unit thickness.
x  , y  (2.17a)
The x and y displacements of A are u & v. Displacement of C are u  du, v  dv
x y
v u u u v v
 xy   (2.17b) du  dx  dy , dv  dx  dy (a)
x y x y x y C’

 dv
In 2D strain or plane strain, the  is small  cos   1, sin   tan    
E du
following condition is satisfied Normal Strains:
 z   xz   yz  0 The components of strains in the xy  coordinate making angle  with xy axis
whereas in plane strains are  x ,  y ,  xy
 x ,  y ,  xy are EC  cos   EC   du cos   dv sin  (b)
usually non-zero.
Normal strain  x  EC  / ds
Deformations of an
element in plane strain where ds is the initial length of diagonal AC.
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 61 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 62

Applying Eqs. (a), (b) and (2.17), replacing dx/ds by cos  and dy/ds by sin  , Shear Strains: y y Rotation is measured
counterclockwise from
we have
du cos   dv sin  du dv u v Consider the shear strain  xy , as the total decrease in 
the x-axis and defined as

 x   cos   sin  x  , y  positive (i.e. clockwise is

x y the angle between two lines x and y  that were at right –ve) x
ds ds ds
v u angle. Hence  xy      x  EC  / ds 
u dx u dy v dx v dy  xy    x
 cos   cos   sin   sin  x y tan   EC / ds where EC  dv cos   du sin   EC  sin  A
x ds y ds x ds y ds du 
u u
dx  dy
u u x y
u v v 2 du 
 x
dx  dy
y
However, EC  sin    xds  0 , dealing small strain and small angle. v v
  x cos   sin  cos   sin  cos   sin 
2 dv  dx  dy
x y
y x y v v EC dv cos   du sin  v dx v dy u dx u dy
dv  dx  dy    cos   cos   sin   sin 
x y ds ds x ds y ds x ds y ds
  x cos2    y sin 2    xy sin cos 
v u C’ C’
 cos2    y sin  cos    x sin  cos   sin 2  EC  sin 
Use relations: cos 2  cos   sin   2 cos   1  1  2 sin  , sin 2  2 sin  cos 
2 2 2 2
x y dv
x  y x  y  xy v u
 ( x   y ) sin  cos   cos2   sin 2 
E 

E

 x   cos 2  sin 2 (2.18) x y C du
2 2 2
Introducing    / 2 for  into previous equation
The normal strain in the y  direction is obtained
by substituting    / 2 for  v 2 u
  ( x   y ) sin  cos   sin   cos2 
x y
x  y x  y  xy
 y   cos 2  sin 2 (2.19) The expression that results is counterclockwise, so
2 2 2 it equals to the negative of angle 

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 63 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 64

The shearing strain is Principals Strains and Max. Shear Strain:

v u u v There will be a plane in the element which does not experience any shear
 xy      ( x   y ) sin  cos  cos2   sin 2  x  , y 
x y x y strains, i.e.  xy  0
v u  xy  ( x   y ) sin 2   xy cos 2  0
v u  xy  
 ( x   y ) sin  cos   sin 2   cos2  x y
 xy  xy
x y 1
 tan 2 p  or  p  tan 1
 v u   v u 
x  y 2 x  y
 2( x   y ) sin  cos   cos2      sin 2    
 x y   x y  Substituting  p into Eqs. (2.18) and (2.19), we obtain
 ( x   y ) sin 2   xy (cos   sin  )
2 2
sin 2  2 sin  cos  2 2
x  y     y    xy  (2.21a)
 xy x  y  xy cos 2  cos   sin 
2 2 1    x    
Hence,  sin 2  cos 2 (2.20) 2  2   2 
2 2 2
2 2
x  y     y    xy 
2    x     (2.21b)
v u 2  2   2 
  ( x   y ) sin  cos   cos2   sin 2 
x y
The max. shear strains are found on plane 450 relative to the principal planes:
v 2 u
  ( x   y ) sin  cos   sin   cos2 
x y 2 2
  x   y    xy 
 max  2      (2.21c)
 2   2 
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 65 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 66

• Mohr’s Circle for Plane Strain Mohr’s circle of stress: x –axis represents normal stress 
y–axis represents shear stress 
x y x  y (2.1)
 x   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2 Mohr’s circle of strain: x –axis represents normal strain 
x y x  y y –axis represents half shear stain  / 2
Plane Stresses  y   cos 2   xy sin 2 (2.2)
2 2 Mohr’s circle of stress: 2
 y   y 
 xy  
x  y
sin 2   xy cos 2 (2.3) Center at  x ,0  R   x    xy
2

2  2   2 
Mohr’s circle of strain: 2 2
x  y x  y  xy (2.18) Center at   x   y      y    xy 
 x   cos 2  sin 2  ,0  R   x    
2 2 2  2   2   2 
x  y x  y  xy
Plane Strains  y   cos 2  sin 2 (2.19) Mohr’s Circle of Strain
2 2 2 Sign convention for Mohr’s strain
 xy x  y  xy (2.20) circle similar to Mohr’s stress circle
 sin 2  cos 2
2 2 2 Normal strain plotted along x-axis
elongation  +ve strain (on +ve side
Re-examining Eqs. (2.18), (2.19) & (2.20) and compare with Eqs. (2.1), (2.2) & (2.3) for of x-axis)
 x ,  y &  xy . The equations are similar in form. Hence a Mohr’s circle of strain can also
contraction  -ve strain (on –ve side
be constructed.
of x-axis)

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 67 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 68


Given the strain state  x ,  y ,  xy
Compressive strain on -ve side 2 Tensile strain on +ve side
the corresponding Mohr’s strain circle can be plotted.
B
The convention for constructing and reading
shear strain values from Mohr’s strain circle 2  x 1
is similar to that used for shear stress in y
2
    y    xy 
2
C 2 p  R   x    
Mohr’s stress circle.  2   2 
y
A  y y

Shear strain: Positive shear stress results in positive shear strain B

i.e. A positive shear strain corresponds to a clockwise shear stress couple.  xy
x
A negative shear strain corresponds to anti-clockwise shear stress couple.  xy  x
 A
y x

 xy

Hence the strain components  x ,  y and  xy at any orientation 

x can be determined.
+ve Shear stresses +ve Shear strains
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 69 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 70

Example 2.6 The strain components at a point in a machine member are 

given by  x  900 ,  y  100 ,  xy  600 . Using Mohr’s circle, 2 Max. shearing strain
y  y  100
determine the principal strains and the maximum shearing strains.
B(-100,300)
Solution: R  583 B
y  y  100 x
C  xy   x  900
Center of circle: 2  y 0 2 p 1 
B
600  A

 xy   x  900 A(900,-300)
x  y 900  ( 100) x
 avg    400  600 A
2 2 400
x

Radius of circle: On plane A,  x  900  ,on plane A the shear

direction is anticlockwise, hence it is indicated
From the Mohr’s circle as a –ve shear stress on the Mohr’s circle
 x  y 
2
  xy 
2 2 2 1  983 ,  2  183   xy / 2  600 / 2  300
 900  100   600 
R             583 
 2   2   2   2  Maximum shearing strain On plane B,  y  100  , on plane B the shear
direction is clockwise, hence it is indicated as a
 max  1166 +ve shear stress on the Mohr’s circle
clockwise shear on plane B,  xy / 2  600 / 2  300 

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 71 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 72

Measurement of Strain and Strain Rosette Appendix A: Generalized Hooke’s Law

• Materials are isotropic and homogeneous

y

x
(a)

z

Uniaxial loading Multi-axial loading

1-D state of stress 3-D state of stress
Strain gage. A typical strain gage
consists of a grid of fine wire or foil
filament cemented between two (b)
sheets of treated paper foil or plastic Rosette strain gages: (a) rectangular rosette;   E   f ( )
backing. (b) Delta rosette.
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 73 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 74

 The strain produced by  x

x
x   x x z
x  ,  y  z  y
E E

 The strain produced by  y

x
y   y
y  , x  z  y z
E E
y x  y  z
x :  
E E E
 The strain produced by  z
y :  x y  z
 
z   z E E E
z  , x  y 
E E
z z :  x  y z
 
E E E

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 75

Using principle of superposition (valid for cases which

are within linear elastic limit and where deformation is
small), normal strains  x ,  y and  z can be found as
x  y  z
x :  
E E E
y :  x y  z
 
E E E
z :  x  y z
 
E E E
x  y  z 1
x     [ x   ( y   z )]
E E E E
 x y  z 1
y      [ y   ( x   z )]
E E E E
 x  y z 1
z      [ z   ( x   y )]
E E E E