1.

4 COMMON TO ALL STREAM

BASIC AERODYNAMICS

(AS APPLICABLE TO AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING STUDENTS)

 FIRST SEMESTER
1.4 BASIC AERODYNAMICS
SYLLABUS

1. PHYSICS OF THE ATMOSPHERE 08

a. International Standard atmosphere (I.S.A) , Application to Aerodynamics

2. AERODYNAMICS 18
a. Airflow around a body, boundary layer, laminar and turbulent flow, free stream
flow, relative airflow, up wash and downwash, vortices, Stagnation.
b. The terms: Camber, Chord, Mean aerodynamic chord, Profile(Parasite drag),
Induced drag, Centre of Pressure, Angle of attack, Wash in and Wash out, Fineness
ratio, Wing shape and aspect ratio. Thrust, Weight, Aerodynamic resultant.
c. Generation of lift and Drag: Angle of attack, Lift co-efficient, Drag co-efficient, Polar
curve, Stall:
d. Aerofoil Contamination including Ice snow and frost.

3. THEORY OF FLIGHT 10
a. Relationship between lift, weight, thrust and drag. Glide ratio.
b. Steady state flights, performance, Theory of the turn.
c. Influence of load factor, Stall, Flight envelope and structural limitations.
d. Lift augmentation
.
4. FLIGHT STABILITY AND DYNAMICS 04
a. Longitudinal, Lateral and Directional stability ( Active and Passive)

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40
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 PHYSICS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
INTRODUCTION
The atmosphere is an ocean of air surrounding the earth and extending
upwards for about five hundred miles. The flight of all objects using fixed or
moving wings to sustain them is confined to the lower layers of the atmosphere.
The ability of the body to fly successfully is therefore closely associated with the
atmosphere, its properties and peculiarities.
The earth’s atmosphere can be said to consist of four concentric gaseous
layers. Commencing from the earth’s surface are: Troposphere, Stratosphere,
Ionosphere and Exosphere. The boundary of the troposphere known as
Tropopause is not at a constant height but varies from about 25000 ft at the
poles to about 34000 ft at the equator.

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Since air is a fluid having a very low internal friction between its
molecules, it can be considered, within limits as an ideal fluid. Air is a physical
mixture of a number of separate gases. They are Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon, Neon,
Carbon-di-oxide, Hydrogen and Helium. For all practical purposes, the
atmosphere can be regarded as consisting of 21percent Oxygen and 78 percent
Nitrogen and 1 percent of other gases. Up to a height of some five to six miles
water vapour is found in varying quantities.

INERTIA OF AIR
It will be easy to understand that air must also posses in common with
other substances the property of inertia and the tendency to obey the laws of
mechanics.
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW
The air which is still will tend to remain still and air which is moving will
tend to remain moving and will resist any change of speed or direction.

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW

If we wish to alter the state of rest or state of motion we must apply force to
the air. More speed or sudden change of direction and more mass of air to be
affected greater must be the force applied.
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW
The application of such a force up on the air will cause an equal and opposite
reaction upon the surface which produces the force.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE ON DENSITY
The decrease in temperature with altitude in the troposphere should cause
air to contract and tend to become denser but this effect is more than counter-
acted by the drop in pressure. Although air is not quite a perfect gas it does obey
the gas laws within the reasonable limits. If we increase the pressure on a gas its
volume will decrease, if the temperature remains constant and the decrease in
volume will be proportional to increase in pressure and if the pressure and
temperature are known at any height it is possible to estimate the density at that
height from the formula derived from these two laws.

PV/T = Constant or P0 V0/T0 = P1 V1/T1

Where,
P0, V0, T0 being the pressure, Volume and absolute temperature of a certain mass
of air at sea level.
P1 V1 T1 is the corresponding values of the same mass of air at the given height.

DENSITY OF THE AIR

Another property of the air is density. Air is very thin and it is very difficult
for us to obtain any grip upon and if it has any mass at all we usually consider it
as negligible for all practical purposes. The density of air i.e., the mass per unit
volume is low compared with water. ( The mass of a cubic meter of air at ground
level is roughly 1.225 kg where as the mass of a cubic meter of water is a metric
ton,1000 kg, nearly 800 times as much) yet this property of air –density- makes
all the flights possible.
“The less the density the more difficult the flight become”.
So let us realize the fact that however thin the air may seem to be, it possesses
the property of mass and density.
With the same horse power, an aircraft fly faster at higher altitude where density is
low. At low altitude, where the density is greater, the aircraft flies at a slower speed
PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The weight of air above any surface produces a pressure on that surface i.e.,
a force of so many newtons per square meter of surface. The average pressure at
sea level due to the weight of the atmosphere is about 101 KN/m2, a pressure
which causes the mercury in the barometer to raise about 760mm. This pressure
is sometimes referred to as “one atmosphere”.
The higher we ascend in the atmosphere, the less will be the weight above us and so
less will be the pressure.
When we ascend from sea level to 10,000 ft height, the pressure drops from
1013mb to 697mb, a drop of 316 mb(milli-bar); whereas the corresponding
increase of 10,000 ft between 20,000 ft and 30,000 ft, the decrease of pressure is
466mb to 301mb a drop of only 165mb. This is because air is compressible; the
air near the earth’s surface is compressed more because of the weight of air
above it.

DECREASE OF PRESSURE WITH ALTITUDE

The rate at which the pressure decreases is much greater near the earth’s
surface than at higher altitudes, due to the fact that the air is compressible.
“The density and pressure of the air decreases with the altitude”.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
An important factor affecting the atmosphere is the temperature. The air in
contact with the earth is heated by conduction and radiation. As a result the
density becomes less and the air therefore rises. In raising the pressure drop
allows the air to expand and the expansion in turn causes the drop in the
temperature. Both on account of expansion and because of the greater distance
from the heating effect of the earth, the temperature is lower than at sea level.
The rate of fall of temperature is about 1°F for every 300 ft. This rate of fall in
temperature continues up to a height of 3600 ft and then suddenly remains
constant. It is initially 1.98°C/1000 feet and virtually constant up to
approximately 36,000 feet, and then the lapse rate is zero. At much greater
altitude the temperature is believed to rise again.
The portion of the atmosphere where the temperature drops is known as
“Troposphere”.
The portion of the atmosphere where the temperature remains constant is known as “
Stratosphere”.

HUMIDITY AND its EFFECT

Humidity is a condition of moisture of dampness. The amount of water
vapour that the air can hold depends on the temperature. Higher the
temperature of the air more the water vapour that it can absorb. Weight of water
vapour is approximately 5/8 of that of the dry air. The air contains water vapour
is not as heavy as dry air.
Assuming the temperature to remain constant the density varies with the humidity.
On damp days the density is less than on the dry days.
For this reason the aircraft requires a longer runway for take-off or landing on a damp
day than it does on a dry day.

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

We know the variation that exist in the conditions e.g., temperature,
pressure and density of the atmosphere. Since it is true to say that the whole
performance of the aero engine, the aero plane and the propeller is dependant on
these three factors, it will be obvious that the actual performance of an aero
plane does not give a true basis of comparison with the other aero planes and for
this reason an “International Standard Atmosphere” has been adopted. If now the
actual performance of a certain aero plane is measured under certain condition
of temperature, pressure and density, it is possible to reduce what would have
been the performance under the condition of standard atmosphere and thus any
aero plane tested anywhere can be compared after deducing results to the
standard atmospheric conditions. This is particularly important where such
things as height records are concerned.
The standard atmosphere comprises at mean sea level –
Temperature - 15 °C or 288 K
Pressure- 1013 millibars
Density- 1225 gms/m3
Lapse rate- 1.98°C/1000 feet (6.5k/km)

AIRFLOW AROUND A BODY

When an object is placed into a moving airflow; the direction of the
airflow changes to pass around the object. The more smoothly this change is
accomplished, the lower the drag. If the object is so shaped, that it causes the
airflow to become turbulent and the smooth flow gives way to vortices and
eddies, then the drag is high and there is a large difference in pressure between
the front and rear of the object.
The effect of streamlining an object is shown in the figure. The flat plate
produces most drag (=100 percent resistance), the cylinder produces about 50
percent of the drag (= 50 percent resistance), and a streamlined shape produced
only 5 percent of it. (=5 percent resistance). The airplane wings are therefore
given streamlined shape called aerofoil shape.
 BOUNDARY LAYER

IMPORTANT ASSUMPTION MADE

• An assumption is made that air is an ideal fluid, with no viscosity or friction
effects.
• In actual, when air flows across any surface, friction develops.
• The air immediately next to the surface slows to near zero velocity as it
gives up kinetic energy to friction.
• As a viscous fluid resists flow or shearing, the adjacent layer of air is also
slowed.
• Succeeding streamlines are slowed less, until eventually some outer
streamline reaches the free airstream velocity.
BOUNDARY LAYER
• The boundary layer is that layer of airflow over a surface that
demonstrates local airflow retardation due to viscosity.
• Viscous drag is confined to a layer of air immediately adjacent to the surface
of the airplane. The layer within which all the viscous drag develops is
called the boundary layer.
• The boundary layer is the very thin layer of air lying on the surface of an
aerofoil that tends to adhere to the surface of the aerofoil.
• It is usually no more than 1mm thick (the thickness of a playing card) at the
leading edge of an airfoil, and grows in thickness as it moves aft over the
surface.
• The boundary layer has two types of airflow namely laminar flow and
turbulent flow.
• Boundary Layer Control in where high-energy air is bled from a source (e.g.
the engine) and added to the boundary layer.
• As the wing moves forward the boundary-layer air at first moves slowly aft
in the same direction as the streamlined flow, this is laminar or
streamlined flow.
• As the air approaches the centre of the wing chord the surface friction
causes the airflow to slow down and become thicker and more turbulent.
 • The point at which the airflow becomes turbulent is the transition point.
• As either the speed or the angle of attack increases then the separation
point moves forward.
• If the boundary layer can be controlled so as to remain laminar and un-
separated then the performance of the aero plane would be greatly
enhanced because the parasite (profile) drag, caused by surface friction and
the shape of the aerofoil, is greatly reduced, whilst the usable angles of
attack are greatly increased and lift is dramatically improved at slow
speeds.
• There are three main methods that are currently used to control the
boundary layer so that it remains attached to the aerofoil surface as long as
possible.
• They all depend on the principle of adding kinetic energy to the lower
layers of the boundary layer.
• They are blowing method, suction method and use of vortex generators.

LAMINAR FLOW
• In laminar flow, the air moves smoothly along in streamlines.
• A laminar boundary layer produces very little friction, but is easily
separated from the surface.

TURBULENT FLOW
• In turbulent flow, the streamlines break up and the flow is dis-organized
and irregular.
• A turbulent boundary layer produces higher friction drag than a laminar
boundary layer, but adheres better to the upper surface of the airfoil,
delaying boundary layer separation.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BOUNDARY LAYER
• Any object that moves through the air will develop a boundary layer that
varies in thickness according to the type of surface.
• The type of flow in the boundary layer depends on its location on the
surface.
• The boundary layer will be laminar only near the leading edge of the airfoil.
• As the air flows aft, the laminar layer becomes turbulent.
• The turbulent layer will continue to increase in thickness as it flows aft.
• As air flows aft from the leading edge of the airfoil, it moves from a high-
pressure area towards the low-pressure area at the point of maximum
thickness.
• This favorable pressure gradient assists the boundary layer in adhering
to the surface by maintaining its high kinetic energy.
• As the air flows aft from the point of maximum thickness (lower static
pressure) toward the trailing edge (higher static pressure), it encounters an
adverse pressure gradient which impedes the flow of the boundary layer.
• The adverse pressure gradient is strongest at high lift conditions and at
high angles of attack in particular.
• If the boundary layer does not have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome
the adverse pressure gradient, the lower levels of the boundary layer will
stagnate.
• The boundary layer will then separate from the surface, and airflow along
the surface aft of the separation point will be reversed.
• Aft of the separation point, the low static pressure that produced lift is
replaced by a turbulent wake.
• If the separation point moves forward enough close to the leading edge, the
net suction on the top of the airfoil will decrease and a decrease in co-
efficient of lift will occur, resulting in a stall.
• The angle of attack beyond which co-efficient of lift begins to decrease is co-
efficient of lift maximum angle of attack.
• Even at low angles of attack there will be a small adverse pressure gradient
behind the point of maximum thickness, but it is insignificant compared to
the kinetic energy in the boundary layer until co-efficient of lift maximum
angle of attack is approached.
• Figure shows the boundary layer attached at a normal angle of attack.
• The point of separation remains essentially stationary near the trailing edge
of the wing, until angle of attack approaches co-efficient of lift maximum
angle of attack.
• The separation point then progresses forward as angle of attack increases,
eventually causing the airfoil to stall.
• At high angles of attack the airfoil is similar to a flat plate being forced
through the air; the airflow simply cannot conform to the sharp turn.
• Note that the point where stall occurs is dependent upon angle of attack
and not velocity.
• A stall is a condition of flight in which an increase in angle of attack results
in a decrease in co-efficient of lift. In Figure shown co-efficient of lift
increases linearly over a large range of angles of attack then reaches a peak
and begins to decrease.
• The highest value of co-efficient of lift is referred to as co-efficient of lift
maximum, and any increase in angle of attack beyond co-efficient of lift
maximum angle of attack produces a decrease in co-efficient of lift.
• Therefore, co-efficient of lift maximum angle of attack is known as the
stalling angle of attack or critical angle of attack, and the region beyond
co-efficient of lift maximum angle of attack is the stall region.
• Regardless of the flight conditions or airspeed, the wing will always stall at
the same angle of attack, co-efficient of lift maximum.
• The only cause of a stall is excessive angle of attack. Stalls result in
decreased lift, increased drag, and an altitude loss.
• They are particularly dangerous at low altitude or when allowed to develop
into a spin.
• The only action necessary for stall recovery is to decrease angle of attack
below co-efficient of lift maximum angle of attack.
• The depth of the boundary layer is dependent on the Reynold’s number.
The Reynold’s number accounts for the following factors:
a. the speed of the free airflow;
b. the density of the air;
c. the viscosity of the air;
d. the compressibility of the air.
 VORTICES
WING TIP VORTICES
The pressure difference between the upper and lower surface of the wing tip
causes the air to spill around the tips from the high pressure region below the
wing to the low pressure region above. Because the main airflow is moving past
the tips, the overall effect is the formation of a spiral flow or vortex from each tip,
the direction of rotation of the vortices being inwards the fuselage. The direction
of rotation induce an upward flow of air outside of the span (which does not
affect the wing) and a downward deflection of airflow at these tips. This induced
downwash has nothing in common with the downwash which is necessary to
produce lift. The later has an opposite upwash whereas the former is a source of
induced drag. Consequently the net direction of the airflow on the wing is tilted
downwards and the lift component also is tilted back producing a horizontal
component of its own which is called the induced drag.
TRAILING EDGE VORTICES
The airflow over the top surface tends to flow inwards towards the centre of the
low pressure area, and the airflow under the wing tends to flow outwards away
from the high pressure peak. Therefore when the air flows from the upper and
lower surfaces meet at the trailing edge, they do so at an angle to each other and
combine in a rotary motion to form vortices along the entire trailing edge. These
trailing edge vortices add to the major effect of the tip vortices.
 STAGNATION POINT
Airflow around a symmetrical aerofoil at zero angle of attack will have a
streamline pattern similar to that shown in the given figure. As the air strikes the
leading edge of the aerofoil, its velocity will slow down to near zero, creating an
area of high static pressure called the leading edge stagnation point.
The airflow then separates so that some air moves over the aerofoil and
some under it, creating two stream tubes. Airflow leaving the leading edge
stagnation point will be accelerated due to the decrease in the area of each
stream tube. The airflow on both surfaces will reach a maximum velocity at the
point of maximum thickness. The airflow velocity then decreases until the
trailing edge where the upper and lower airflow meet. At the trailing edge, the
velocity of the airflow slow downs to near zero velocity, forming another area of
high static pressure called the trailing edge stagnation point.
The increase in airflow velocity over an aerofoil causes dynamic pressure
to increase, which decreases static pressure. These changes in pressure, along
with friction, are responsible for the aerodynamic force on an aerofoil.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

1. Air speed- The speed of an aircraft relative to the air through which it
moves.
2. Chord line- The straight line joining the centre of curvature of the leading-
edge radius and the trailing edge of an aerofoil is the chord line.
3. Chord- The distance between the leading edge and the trailing edge of an
aerofoil measured along the chord line is the chord.
4. Camber-The curvature of the profile view of an aerofoil is its camber.
5. Fineness Ratio-The fineness ratio is the ratio of the length of a streamlined
body to its maximum width or diameter (depth).
6. Leading Edge Radius-The radius of a circle, centered on a line tangential to
the curve of the leading edge of an aerofoil, and joining the curvatures of the
upper and lower surfaces of the aerofoil is the leading-edge radius or nose
radius of an aerofoil.
7. Maximum Thickness-The maximum depth between the upper and lower
surfaces of an aerofoil is its maximum thickness.
8. Mean Camber Line- The line joining points that are equidistant from the
upper and lower surfaces of an aerofoil is the mean camber line.
9. Root Chord- The line joining the leading edge and trailing edge of a wing at
the centre line of the wing is the root chord.
10. Mean Geometric Chord- This is the average chord length of an aerofoil is
the mean geometric chord or alternatively it is defined as the wing area
divided by the wingspan.
11. Thickness/Chord Ratio- The ratio of the maximum thickness of an
aerofoil to the chord length expressed as a percentage is the thickness to
chord ratio. This is usually between 10% and 12%.
12. Washout- A reduction in the angle of incidence of an aerofoil from the
wing root to the wing tip is the washout. This is also known as the geometric
twist of an aerofoil.
13. Relative wind: Relative wind is airflow relative to an airfoil. Movement of
an airfoil through the air creates relative wind. Relative wind moves in a
parallel but opposite direction to movement of the airfoil.
14. Angle of Attack- The angle between the chord line of an aerofoil and the

relative airflow.
15. Critical Angle of Attack-The angle of attack at which the maximum lift is

produced is the critical angle of attack often referred to as the stalling angle
of attack. A fixed-wing aero plane is stalled at or above the critical angle of
attack.
16. Angle of Incidence- The angle between the chord line of the aerofoil and
the longitudinal axis of the aircraft is known as the angle of incidence.
17. Angle of incidence is also the angle between the chord line of the aerofoil
and the horizontal when the aircraft is in rigging position.
18. Critical Angle of Attack. The angle of attack at which the maximum lift is
produced is the critical angle of attack often referred to as the stalling angle
of attack. A fixed-wing aero plane is stalled at or above the critical angle of
attack.
19. Climb or Descent Angle-The angle subtended between the flight path of
an aero plane and the horizontal plane is the climb angle or descent angle.
20. Longitudinal Dihedral- The difference between the angle of incidence of
the main plane and the tail plane is the longitudinal dihedral.
21. Pitch Angle- The angle subtended between the longitudinal axis and the
horizontal plane is the pitch angle.
22. Pitching Moment-The length of the arm multiplied by the pitching force
is referred to as a pitching moment and is counteracted by the use of the tail
plane. A pitching moment is positive if it moves the aircraft nose-upward in
flight and negative if it moves it downward.
23. Aspect Ratio. The ratio of the span of an aerofoil to the mean geometric
chord is the aspect ratio, which is sometimes expressed as the square of the
span divided by the wing area.
Aspect Ratio = span/ chord = span2/wing area
24. Mean Aerodynamic Chord- The chord line that passes through the
geometric centre of the plan area (the centroid) of an aerofoil is known as
the Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC).
25. Centre of pressure: It is a point on the chord line of the aerofoil about
which the total aerodynamic force is said to act.
26. Centre of gravity: It is a point on the chord line of the aerofoil about
which the total weight of the aircraft is said to act.
27. Aerodynamic centre: It is a point on the chord line of the aerofoil about
which the aerofoil tends to rotate when the centre of pressure moves
forward and backward when the angle of attack is altered.
28. All-up-Weight- The total weight of an aircraft in operating conditions.
29. Anhedral- Angle at which the main plane or tail plane inclined
downwards from the horizontal when the airplane is in rigging position.
30. Buffeting- A term used for the vibration of a control surface caused due
to the wake of a main control surface forward of the control surface.
31. Boundary layer- A layer of fluid close to the surface of moving body
through which the velocity of the fluid changes from zero on the surface of
the body to the velocity of the free stream.
32. Burble- A term used to denote the breakdown of streamline flow about a
body.
33. Absolute Ceiling- The maximum height above sea level at which an aero
plane would be able to maintain horizontal flight under standard air
conditions.
34. Control surface- A movable aerofoil surface designed to be moved by the
pilot in order to change the attitude of the flight.
35. Datum line- An imaginary line fixed by the designer from which
measurements are made when rigging or truing the aircraft.
36. Dihedral-The angle at which the main plane or the tail plane inclined
upwards to the lateral axis.
37. Downwash- The downward deflection of a current of air by an aerofoil or
part of an aircraft.
38. Drag- The resistance offered to the forward motion of an aircraft along
the line of flight.
39. Induced drag- The part of drag induced by the lift.
40. Parasite drag- The total drag of an aircraft minus the total wing drag.
41. Profile drag- The difference between the total wing drag and the induced
drag.
42. Streamline flow- A fluid flow in which due to the shape of the body the
streamlines are kept undisturbed.
43. Laminar flow- A particular type of streamline flow in which the flow in
the boundary layer moves in very thin successive layer sliding past each
other.
44. Turbulent flow- A flow which is not laminar i.e., where the flow of
streamlines interfere with each other.
45. Flutter- A rapid unstable oscillation due to alternating forces.
46. Gliding angle- The angle between the path of flight of an aircraft in glide
and the horizontal with engine(s) giving no thrust.
47. Keel surface- The complete surface which is seen in side elevation.
48. Lateral axis- An imaginary straight line through an aircraft centre of
gravity usually considered parallel to the line joining the wing tips.
49. Longitudinal axis- An imaginary straight line running fore and aft
through the aircraft centre of gravity and at right angle to the lateral axis.
50. Normal axis- An imaginary straight through the aircraft’s centre of
gravity which is vertical when the lateral and longitudinal axes are
horizontal.
51. Rolling- The movement of aircraft about its longitudinal axis is known as
Rolling.
52. Yawing- The movement of aircraft about its vertical axis or the normal
axis is known as yawing.
53. Pitching- The movement of aircraft about its lateral axis is known as
pitching.
54. Rigging- The position of the aircraft in which the lateral and longitudinal
datum lines are horizontal and parallel to the ground.
55. Separation- The act of parting off the airflow from the surface of a body.
56. Skin friction- It is the resistance to motion due to friction between the air
and the surface of a solid body moving through it.
57. Slip stream- The stream of air driven to the rear by a revolving propeller.
58. Span- The overall distance from wing tip to wing tip is known as span.
59. Stall- An aerofoil is said to be stalled when its angle of attack is so
increased that it crosses the position of maximum lift obtainable.
60. Starboard- The right hand side of an aircraft as seen by the pilot looking
forward from cockpit.
61. Sweep back- The angular set back of the main plane relative to the
fuselage or hull.
62. Wash in- The increase in angle of incidence towards the wing tip.
63. Wash out- The decrease in angle of incidence towards the wing tip.
64. Compressibility- The property of a substance that allows its density to
increase as pressure increases.
65. Co-efficient of lift- The dimensionless portion of the total lift on an
aerofoil that is dependant on the same variables that affect the co-efficient
of aerodynamic force.
66. Co-efficient of drag- The dimensionless portion of the total drag on an
aerofoil that is dependant on the same variables that affect the co-efficient
of aerodynamic force.
67. Co-efficient of aerodynamic force- The dimensionless portion of the
aerodynamic force that is a function of angle of attack, camber, aspect ratio,
compressibility and viscosity.
68. Endurance- The length of time that an airplane can fly under specified
conditions of flight.
69. Glide- A shallow descent usually associated with power off flight.
70. Glide endurance- The maximum time that an air plane can stay airborne
in a glide as a function of weight, attitude and angle of attack.
71. Glide range- The maximum distance that an aircraft can travel in a glide
as a function of altitude, wind and lift-drag ratio.
72. Glide ratio- The ratio of the horizontal distance travelled to the vertical
distance descended in a glide. Glide ratio is always equal to the lift-drag
ratio.
73. Mach number- The ratio of the true airspeed of an object moving
through the air to the local speed of sound in that air.
74. Free stream mach number- It is the mach number of the airflow at a
point unaffected by the presence of the aircraft.
75. Local mach number- It is the Mach number at some specified region of
the airflow and may be greater or lesser than the free stream Mach number.
76. Critical mach number- It is the lowest free stream Mach number which
for a given aerofoil and angle of attack (usually zero degree) gives rise to a
local mach number of 1.0 on the aerofoil.
77. Compressibility mach number- This is the Mach number at which
because of compressibility effects, control of an aircraft becomes difficult
and beyond which loss of control is probable.
78. Mean camber line- A line halfway between the upper and lower surface
of an aerofoil.
79. Maximum Range-The maximum distance that an aircraft can travel
without refueling.
80. Taper ratio- The ratio of tip chord to root chord.
81. Taper- A gradual reduction in the chord length of an aerofoil from root to
tip.
82. Sonic speed- Speed equal to the speed of sound.
83. Transonic speed- When the free stream mach number is high enough to
produce local mach number some of which are greater and some less than
1.0
84. Sub sonic- Movement or flow at speeds below the speed of sound,
generally at a mach number of 0.0 to 0.75.
85. Super sonic- Movement or flow at speeds above the speed of sound,
generally at a mach number of 1.2 to 5.0
86. Hypersonic- When the free stream mach number is greater than 5.0
87. Wing Loading- The mass per unit area of a wing is the wing loading.
88. Load Factor- The total lift of an aerofoil divided by the total mass is the
load factor.
89. Tapered Wing- Any wing on which the root chord is longer than the tip
chord is a tapered wing.
90. Tip Chord- The length of the wing chord at the wing tip is the tip chord.
91. Pitch Angle- The angle subtended between the longitudinal axis and the
horizontal plane is the pitch angle.
92. Climb or Descent Angle- The angle subtended between the flight path of
an aero plane and the horizontal plane is the climb angle or descent angle.
93. Wing area- It is the apparent surface area of a wing from wing tip to wing
tip.
94. Span wise flow- It is the airflow that travels along the span of the wing.
Span wise flow is normally from the root to the tip.
95. Chord wise flow- It is the airflow that flows at right angles to the leading
edge of an aerofoil.
 96. Geometric Twist- The decrease in angle of incidence from wing root to
wing tip is known as geometric twist.
97. Aerodynamic Twist- The decrease in camber from wing root to wing tip
is known as aerodynamic twist.
98. Drag- Drag is the component of the aerodynamic force that is parallel to
the relative wind, and acts in the same direction.
99. Proverse roll- It is the tendency of an airplane to roll in the same
direction as it is yawing.
100. Adverse yaw- It is the tendency of an airplane to yaw away from the
direction of aileron roll input.

RELATIVE WIND

RELATIVE WIND
Relative wind is airflow relative to an airfoil. Movement of an airfoil through the
air creates relative wind. Relative wind moves in a parallel but opposite direction
to movement of the airfoil.
ANGLE OF ATTACK
• Angle of attack is the angle between the chord line of the aerofoil and the
• relative airflow.
• Angle of attack is an aerodynamic angle.
• It can change with no change in angle of incidence.
• Angle of attack is one of the primary factors that determines amount of lift
and drag produced by an aerofoil.
• When the angle of attack is increased, the lift co-efficient increases and
hence the resultant lift value is increased.
• Similarly when the angle of attack is decreased, the lift co-efficient
decreases and hence the resultant lift value is decreased.
• Lift increases as the angle of attack increases up to a certain point.
• If the angle of attack becomes too great, airflow over the top of the airfoil
tends to lose its streamlined path and break away from the contoured
surface to form eddies (burbles) near the trailing edge.
 • When this happens, the airfoil loses its lift, and it stalls.
• The angle of attack at which burbling takes place is called the critical angle
of attack.
• As the angle of attack is increased, the separation point starts near the
trailing edge of the airfoil and progresses forward.
• Finally, the airfoil loses its lift and a stall condition occurs.

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
• The angle between the chord line of the aerofoil and the longitudinal axis of
the aircraft is known as the angle of incidence.
• It is also the angle between the chord line of the aerofoil and the horizontal
when the aircraft is in rigging position.
• It is a mechanical angle rather than an aerodynamic angle.
RELATION BETWEEN ANGLE OF ATTACK AND LIFT

AEROFOILS
The performance of an aerofoil is governed by its contour. Generally aerofoil can
be divided into three basic classes.
1. High lift aerofoil.
2. General purpose aerofoil.
3. High speed aerofoil.
HIGH LIFT AEROFOIL
• High lift aerofoils are sections employing a high thickness/chord ratio, a
pronounced camber, and a well rounded leading edge.
• Their maximum thickness is at about 25% to 30% of the chord aft of the
leading edge.
• The greater the camber, more the range of movement of the centre of
pressure.
• The movement is greatly decreased by reflexing upwards the trailing edge
of the wing.
• Sections of the type are used mainly on sail planes and other aircraft where
a high co-efficient of lift is all important and speed a secondary
consideration.
GENERAL PURPOSE AEROFOIL
• General purpose aerofoil are sections employing a lower thickness/chord
ratio, less camber and a sharper leading edge than those of high lift aerofoil.
• This lower thickness/chord ratio results in less drag and a lower
co-efficient of lift than those of high lift aerofoil.
• These sections are used where require speeds (which although higher than
that of high lift aerofoil,) are not high enough to subject the aerofoil to the
effects of compressibility.
HIGH SPEED AEROFOIL
• High speed aerofoil employs very low thickness/chord ratio, no camber and
a sharp leading edge.
• The maximum thickness is about 50% of the chord.
• Most of the sections have 5% to 10% thickness/chord ratio.
• These are symmetrical about the chord line and some are wedge shaped.
AEROFOIL PERFORMANCE
• The performance of all aerofoil is sensitive to small changes in the contour.
• Increasing or decreasing the camber by as little as 1% of the chord or
moving the point of maximum camber one inch or so in either direction,
will alter all the characteristics.
• In particular, changes in the shape of the leading edge have a marked effect
on the maximum lift and drag obtained and the behavior at the stall.
• A sharp leading edge will have a marked effect on the maximum lift and
drag obtained and stalling more readily than the one which is well rounded.
• Any dents or scratches in the surface caused by careless handling bring
about deterioration in the general performance.
• These points are of particular importance on high performance and also the
controllability at high mach numbers.

AIRFOIL TYPES
The two basic types of airfoils are symmetrical and nonsymmetrical.
SYMMETRICAL
• The symmetrical airfoil is distinguished by having identical upper and
lower surface designs, the mean camber line and chord line being
coincident and producing zero lift at zero Angle Of Attack.
• A symmetrical design has advantages and disadvantages.
• One advantage is the center-of- pressure remains relatively constant under
varying angles of attack (reducing the twisting force exerted on the airfoil).
• Another advantage is it affords ease of construction and reduced cost.
• The disadvantages are less lift production at a given AOA than a non-
symmetrical design and undesirable stall characteristics.
NONSYMMETRICAL (CAMBERED)
• The nonsymmetrical airfoil has different upper and lower surface designs,
with a greater curvature of the airfoil above the chord line than below.
• The mean camber line and chord line are not coincident.
• The nonsymmetrical airfoil design produces useful lift even at negative
angles of attack.
• A nonsymmetrical design has advantages and disadvantages.
• The advantages are more lift production at a given Angle Of Attack than a
symmetrical design, an improved lift to drag ratio, and better stall
characteristics.
• The disadvantages are the center-of-pressure travel can move up to 20
percent of the chord line (creating undesirable torque on the airfoil
structure) and greater production costs.

LIFT
LIFT
Lift on an aerofoil depends upon the following:
1. The shape of an aerofoil
2. The plan area of an aerofoil
3. The square of the velocity
4. The density of the air
The formula used to calculate the amount of lift generated is given by
L=CL ½ρv2 s
Where,
L= Lift generated by the aerofoil
Ρ= Density of the air
V= Velocity of the air
S= Plan area of the wing.
From the above formula, it is made clear that for an aero plane which is flying at
a constant height, the lift can be altered only by two means.
 1. By altering the value of co-efficient of lift which varies with the angle of
attack.
2. By varying the speed of the aircraft
The value of co-efficient of lift depends essentially on the shape of the
aerofoil. Flaps are the devices used to change the camber of an aerofoil. Flaps are
used primarily for take-off and landings. When employed, they will be lowered to
a particular setting and remain there until the landing or take-off is complete.
Although lift is considered to be an upward force opposing weight, it can,
and does, act in any direction. It is always perpendicular to the relative wind, not
the horizon. In the given figure, the relative wind and lift vectors are shown for
an aerofoil during a loop maneuver. Note that the lift vector is always
perpendicular to the relative wind. The lift is inclined backwards in a climb,
forwards in a dive and inwards in the case of a banked turn.

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION OVER AN AEROFOIL

SYMMETRICAL AEROFOIL
A symmetrical aerofoil at zero angle of attack produces identical velocity
increase and static pressure decrease on both the upper and lower surfaces.
Since there is no pressure differential perpendicular perpendicular to the
relative wind, the aerofoil produces zero net lift.
Even at zero angle of attack, a symmetrical aerofoil still produces drag due
to friction and a pressure differential parallel to the relative wind. In the given
figure, the arrow marks indicate static pressure relative to the ambient static
pressure. Arrows pointing towards the aerofoils indicate higher static pressure;
arrows pointing away from the aerofoils indicate lower static pressure.
 SYMMETRICAL AEROFOIL AT SYMMETRICAL AEROFOIL AT
ZERO ANGLE OF ATTACK POSITIVE ANGLE OF ATTACK
NON SYMMETRICAL AEROFOIL (CAMBERED AEROFOIL)
A cambered aerofoil is able to produce an uneven pressure distribution even
at zero angle of attack. Because of the positive camber, the area in the stream
tube above the wing is smaller than the area in the stream tube below the wing;
therefore the airflow velocity above the wing will be greater than the velocity
below the wing.
In the given figure, notice that the static pressure on both surfaces will be less
than the atmospheric pressure, and thus will produce a lifting force on both
upper and lower surfaces. The important point is the difference in the pressures
produced. The static pressure on the upper surface will be less than the static
pressure on the lower surface creating a pressure differential. The lower static
pressure on the upper surface will pull the wing upward, creating a lifting force.

A. POSITIVE CAMBER AEROFOIL AT B. POSITIVE CAMBER AEROFOIL AT

ZERO ANGLE OF ATTACK POSITIVE ANGLE OF ATTACK
The given figure (B) shows how increasing-the angle of attack on any
aerofoil causes the area of the stream tube above the wing to decrease. This
produces a greater velocity increase above the wing than below the wing. The
greater velocity above the wing will create a pressure differential on a
symmetrical aerofoil, and will increase the pressure differential on a cambered
aerofoil. The greater pressure differential on the aerofoil will increase the
magnitude of the aerodynamic force.
Static pressure- The weight of a column of air above a given area; the pressure
each air particle exerts on another due to the weight of all the particles above;
the potential energy per unit volume.
Stagnation- Loss of kinetic energy or velocity; Lack of motion.
Positive camber aerofoil- An aerofoil in which the mean camber line is above the
chord line.
Negative camber line- An aerofoil in which the mean camber line is below the
chord line.
CENTRE OF PRESSURE
It is a point on the chord line of the aerofoil about which the total aero
dynamic force is said to act.
• The centre of pressure of aerofoil moves between 0.75 % and 0.30 % of
the chord during ordinary flight.
• The center of pressure is the point along the chord where the distributed
lift is effectively concentrated and the sum of the moment is zero.
• The position of centre of pressure and its movement depends totally on
the shape of the aerofoil and the angle of attack at which it meets the
relative airflow.
MOVEMENT OF CENTRE OF PRESSURE
Pressure plotting experiments show that as the angle of attack is altered, the
distribution of pressure over the aerofoil changes considerably. And
consequently there will be a movement of centre of pressure.
• As the angle of attack is increased up to 16 degrees, the centre of pressure
is seen to move gradually forward until it is less than one-third of the chord
from the leading edge, while above this angle it begins to move backwards
again.
• At the angle of attack for zero lift, which may be about 4 degrees depending
on the amount of camber of aerofoil, the centre of pressure moves back to a
position where the total reaction cannot be shown by a single force.
• The net effect of forces is to produce a resultant horizontal force with no
lifting force.
• But the vertical forces, even though they are same in magnitude and
opposite in directions, as their points of application are different produce
a couple causing pitching movement.
UNSTABLE MOVEMENT OF CENTRE OF PRESSURE
• The forward movement of centre of pressure on the aerofoil as the angle
of attack is increased will tend to drop the trailing edge still more thus
increasing the angle of attack still further: and this causes the centre of
 pressure to move further more forward and so on. This is called the
“Instability” of the centre of pressure
STABLE MOVEMENT OF CENTRE OF PRESSURE
• In the case of a flat plate, the increase of angle of attack over the same
angle causes the centre of pressure to move backwards. This tends to dip
the nose of the plate back again to its original position and it makes the flat
plate “stable”.
STATIONARY CENTRE OF PRESSURE
• The unstable movement of centre of pressure is a definite disadvantage of
the ordinary curved aerofoil. This is overcome generally by using an
aerofoil with a convex undersurface instead of concave and also a reflex
curvature towards the trailing edge.
• These features make the centre of pressure of an aerofoil to remain
practically stationary over the angles of attack used in ordinary flight.
CENTRE OF PRESSURE ON SYMMETRICAL AEROFOIL
• On symmetrical airfoils, it is co-located with the aerodynamic center.
• The center of pressure of the upper and lower surfaces of a symmetrical
airfoil act directly opposite each other.
• The aerodynamic center and center of pressure are co-located; therefore,
no moment is produced even though the total lift force changes with change
in angle of attack.
• On symmetrical aerofoil, the centre of pressure is more or less fixed.
CENTRE OF PRESSURE ON NON-SYMMETRICAL (CAMBERED) AEROFOIL
• On nonsymmetrical airfoils, the center of pressure of upper and lower
surfaces does not act directly opposite each other, and a pitching moment is
produced.
• On non-symmetrical aerofoil, a substantial amount of movement of centre
of pressure is achieved with the changes in the angle of attack.
• As the angle of attack changes, the location of the distributed pressures on
the airfoil also changes.
• The net center of pressure (sum of upper and lower) moves forward as
angle of attack increases and aft as angle of attack decreases, producing
pitching moments.
• This characteristic makes the center of pressure difficult to use in
aerodynamic analysis.
• Since the moment produced about the aerodynamic center remains
constant for pre-stall angle of attack, it is used to analyze airfoil
performance with lift and drag coefficients.

GENERATION OF LIFT
MAGNUS EFFECT
The explanation of lift can best be explained by looking at a cylinder rotating in
an airstream. The local velocity near the cylinder is composed of the airstream
velocity and the cylinder’s rotational velocity, which decreases with distance
from the cylinder. On a cylinder, which is rotating in such a way that the top
surface area is rotating in the same direction as the airflow, the local velocity at
the surface is high on top and low on the bottom.
As shown in the figure at point “A,” a stagnation point exists where the airstream
line that impinges on the surface splits; some air goes over and some under.
Another stagnation point exists at “B,” where the two air streams rejoin and
resume at identical velocities. We now have up wash ahead of the rotating at the
rear now have up wash ahead of the rotating cylinder and downwash at the rear.
The difference in surface velocity accounts for a difference in pressure, with the
pressure being lower on the top than the bottom. This low pressure area
produces an upward force known as the “Magnus Effect.” This mechanically
induced circulation illustrates the relationship between circulation and lift.
An airfoil with a positive angle of attack develops air circulation as its sharp
trailing edge forces the rear stagnation point to be aft of the trailing edge, while
the front stagnation point is below the leading edge.

BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
Air flowing over the top surface accelerates. The airfoil is now subjected to
Bernoulli’s Principle or the “venture effect.” As air velocity increases through the
constricted portion of a venturi tube, the pressure decreases. Compare the upper
surface of an airfoil with the constriction in a venturi tube that is narrower in the
middle than at the ends.
The upper half of the venturi tube can be replaced by layers of undisturbed air.
Thus, as air flows over the upper surface of an airfoil, the camber of the airfoil
causes an increase in the speed of the airflow. The increased speed of airflow
results in a decrease in pressure on the upper surface of the airfoil. At the same
time, air flows along the lower surface of the airfoil, building up pressure. The
combination of decreased pressure on the upper surface and increased pressure
on the lower surface results in an upward force.
As angle of attack is increased, the production of lift is increased. More upwash is
created ahead of the airfoil as the leading edge stagnation point moves under the
leading edge, and more downwash is created aft of the trailing edge. Total lift
now being produced is perpendicular to relative wind.
In summary, the production of lift is based upon the airfoil creating circulation in the
airstream (Magnus Effect) and creating differential pressure on the airfoil (Bernoulli’s
Principle).
LIFT ON AN AEROFOIL
The length of each arrow indicates the amount of lift at that point on the wings
surface. Note that:
• Lift is not distributed evenly around the wing.
• The top surface normally generates more lift than the bottom surface – at
some angles of attack, as much as 80% of the total.
• The greatest amount of lift on the top surface occurs where the surface is
curved the most.
• The greatest effect, on both top and bottom surfaces, is nearer the front
edge of the wing than the rear (that is, about 1/3 of the of the way from the
front).
• All lift forces act at 90° to the direction of the airflow - which is the same as
the flight path of the aircraft.

LIFT CO-EFFICIENT
• The coefficient of lift depends essentially on the shape of the airfoil and the
Angle Of Attack.
• Flaps are the devices used to change the camber of an airfoil, and are used
primarily for takeoffs and landings.
• When employed, they will be lowered to a particular setting and remain
there until takeoff or landing is complete.
• This allows us to consider each separate camber situation (i.e. flap setting)
individually and plot CL against AOA.
• AOA is the most important factor in the coefficient of lift, and the easiest for
the pilot to change.
• The given figure plots CL as it varies with AOA. These curves are for three
different airfoils: One symmetric, one negative camber and one positive
camber.
• The shape of the CL curve is similar for most airfoils.
• At zero angle of attack, the positive camber airfoil has a positive CL, and the
negative camber airfoil has a negative CL.
• The point where the curves cross the horizontal axis is the AOA where the
airfoil produces no lift (CL = 0).
• At zero AOA the symmetric airfoil has CL = 0.
• The positive camber airfoil must be at a negative AOA, and the negative
camber airfoil must be at a positive AOA for the CL to equal zero.
• As angle of attack increases, the coefficient of lift initially increases.
• In order to maintain level flight while increasing angle of attack, velocity
must decrease. Otherwise, lift will be greater than weight and the airplane
will climb.
• Velocity and angle of attack are inversely related in level flight.
• As angle of attack continues to increase, the coefficient of lift increases up to
a maximum value (CLmax).
• The AOA at which CLmax is reached is called CLmax AOA.
• Any increase in angle of attack beyond CLmax AOA causes a decrease in the
coefficient of lift.
• Since CLmax is the greatest coefficient of lift that can be produced, we call
CLmax AOA the most effective angle of attack.
• Note that as long as the shape of an airfoil remains constant, CLmax AOA
will remain constant, regardless of weight, dynamic pressure, bank angle,
etc.
• Although lift is often thought of as an upward force opposing weight, it can
act in any direction.
• It is always perpendicular to the relative wind, not the horizon. It is known
that, the relative wind and lift vectors are shown for an airfoil during a loop
maneuver. Note that the lift vector is always perpendicular to the relative
wind.
 DRAG

• Drag is the component of the aerodynamic force that is parallel to the

relative wind, and acts in the same direction.
• The drag equation is the same as the aerodynamic force equation, except
that the co-efficient of drag CD is used.
D=CD ½ρv2 s
• CD may be plotted against angle of attack for a given aircraft with a constant
configuration. Note that the value of CD is low and nearly constant at very
low angles of attack. As the angle of attack increases, the CD rapidly
increases and continues to increase. Since there is always some resistance
to motion, drag will never be zero; therefore CD will never be zero.
• Total drag is composed of two types of drag: Wing drag and parasite drag.
• Wing drag is basically composed of Profile drag and induced drag.
WING DRAG
• This is the drag caused by the wings. In other words, the drags created by
the lift producing surfaces say wings are known as wing drag.
PROFILE DRAG
• Profile drag develops from the frictional resistance of the aircraft passing
through the air.
• It does not change significantly with the airfoil’s angle of attack, but
increases moderately when airspeed increases.
• Profile drag is composed of form drag and skin friction.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE PROFILE DRAG
The amount of Profile drag of any object is determined by the following.
a) INDICATED AIR SPEED: The profile drag increases approximately as the square
of the indicated air speed. This holds good for low sub sonic speeds, but for
higher speeds the increase of drag is more than the above mentioned ratio.
 b) SHAPE: The shape of an object plays an important role in creating or
reducing drag. This makes the streamlining necessary.
c) INTERFERENCE DRAG: When conflicting air flows meet at the point where one
component of the aircraft is attached to another, interference drag is
caused. The effect of this interaction can be reduced by fairing the
components into each other by the use of suitably shaped fillets.
d) SURFACE SMOOTHNESS: Constant care is necessary to preserve a smooth finish
on the surface of the body as the slightest irregularity; such as the remains
of the insects which have struck the wing at low altitudes or scratches due
to careless handling causes the local transition point to move forward.
e) SURFACE AREA: On high speed aircraft the rise in skin friction results from the
larger exposition of area (wetted area) which is in contact with airflow.
FORM DRAG
• Form drag, is otherwise known as pressure or profile drag.
• Form drag is caused by the frontal area of the airplane components being
exposed to the airstream.
• This kind of drag arises because of the form of the object.
• Form drag results from the turbulent wake caused by the separation of
airflow from the surface of a structure.
• The amount of drag is related to both the size and shape of the structure
that protrudes into the relative wind.
• Form drag would be temporarily significant until the aircraft velocity
decreased to match the higher angle of attack
• To reduce form drag, the fuselage, external attachments and other exposed
surfaces are streamlined.
• Form drag increases with the square of indicated airspeed.
• Factors affecting form drag (Profile drag) are Indicated air speed, Shape of
the object, Surface smoothness and surface area.
SKIN FRICTION DRAG
• Skin friction is caused by surface roughness.
• Skin friction is caused by the resistance which is set up when relative
motion exists between a surface of a body and the air.
• Skin friction drag is created in the boundary layer, which is produced due to
viscosity
• Skin friction drag can be reduced by smoothing the exposed surfaces of the
airplane through painting, cleaning, waxing or polishing
• The amount of drag arising out due to skin friction depends upon the nature
and the thickness of the flow in the boundary layer.
• Skin friction is a major source of drag at high speeds and it is one of the
most difficult to reduce.
• It can never be eliminated completely.
INDUCED DRAG
• Induced drag is the undesirable but unavoidable byproduct of lift, and
increases in direct proportion to increases in angle of attack.
• For an aircraft in level flight the induced drag varies inversely as the square of
the indicated air speed.
• The induced drag is greatest at lower speeds and becomes less as the speed
increases.
• The greater the angle of attack up to the critical angle, the greater the
amount of lift developed, and the greater the induced drag.
• The airflow around the wing is deflected downward, producing a rearward
component to the lift vector which is induced drag.
• The amount of air deflected downward decreases greatly at higher angles of
attack; therefore, the higher the angle of attack or the slower the airplane is
flown, the greater the induced drag.
• The principle factor affecting the amount of induced drag is the plan form of
the wing.
• Greater the wing area, greater is the induced drag. (Caused because of wing tip
vortices)
• The amount of induced drag produced by the wing is also related to its
aspect ratio.
• Higher the aspect ratio, lower is the induced drag produced. In other words, the
induced drag is inversely proportional to the aspect ratio of the wing.
VISCOUS DRAG
• Viscous drag is confined to a layer of air immediately adjacent to the surface
of the airplane.
• The layer within which all the viscous drag develops is called the boundary
layer.
• It is worth noting that viscosity of air increases with air temperature. i.e., air
“sticks” to the sides of an aero plane more on a warm day than a cold day.
Therefore, there is more viscous drag on warm days.
PARASITE DRAG
• Parasite drag is defined as all drag that is not associated with the
production of lift.
• Parasite drag is the resistance of the air produced by any part of the
airplane that does not produce lift.
• Several factors affect parasite drag. When each factor is considered
independently, it must be assumed that other factors remain constant.
• These factors are:
o The more streamlined an object is, the less the parasite drag.
o The denser the air moving past the airplane, the greater the parasite drag.
o The larger the size of the object in the airstream, the greater the parasite
drag.
o As speed increases, the amount of parasite drag increases. The
parasite drag increases as the square of the air speed.
o If the speed is doubled, four times as much drag is produced.
• Parasite drag can be further classified into form drag, skin friction, and
interference drag.
• Form drag is caused by the frontal area of the airplane components being
exposed to the airstream.
• A similar reaction is illustrated by the given figure where the side of a flat
plate is exposed to the airstream. This drag is caused by the form of the
plate, and is the reason streamlining is necessary to increased airplane
efficiency and speed. The given figure also illustrates that when the face of
the plate is parallel to the airstream, the largest part of the drag is skin
friction.
INTERFERENCE DRAG
• When conflicting air flows meet at the point where one component of the
aircraft is attached to the another interference drag is caused.
• Accounts for 5 to 10 percent of drag on an airplane
• The effect of the interference drag can be reduced by fairing the
components into each other by the use of suitably shaped fillets.
FACTORS AFFECTING LIFT AND DRAG
A number of the factors that influence lift and drag include:
1. Wing Area
2. Airfoil Shape
3. Wing Design
4. Airspeed
5. Air Density
A change in any of these factors affects the relationship between lift and drag.
When lift is increased, drag is increased, or when lift is decreased, drag is
decreased.
EFFECT OF WING AREA ON LIFT AND DRAG
• The lift and drag acting on a wing are proportional to the wing area.
• This means that if the wing area is doubled, other variables remaining the
same, the lift and drag created by the wing will be doubled.
EFFECT OF AIRFOIL SHAPE ON LIFT AND DRAG
• Generally, the more curvature there is, to the upper surface of an airfoil, the
more lift is produced (up to a point).
• High-lift wings have a large convex curvature on the upper surface and a
concave lower surface.
• Most airplanes have wing flaps which, when lowered, cause an ordinary
wing to approximate this condition by increasing the curvature of the upper
surface and creating a concave lower surface, thus increasing lift on the
wing.
• A lowered aileron also accomplishes this by increasing the curvature of a
portion of the wing and thereby increasing the angle of attack, which in turn
increases lift and also drag.
• A raised aileron reduces lift on the wing by decreasing the curvature of a
portion of the wing and decreasing the angle of attack.
• The elevators can change the curvature and angle of attack of the horizontal
tail surfaces, changing the amount and direction of lift.
• The rudder accomplishes the same thing for the vertical tail surfaces.
• As the ice forms on the airfoil, especially the leading edge, the flow of air
over the wing is disrupted.
• The disruption of the smooth airflow over the aerofoil due to the
accumulation of ice causes the wing to lose part or all of its lifting efficiency.
• Also, drag is increased substantially.
 • It is true that ice formation will increase weight, but equally important is
that ice formation will alter the shape of the airfoil and adversely affect all
aspects of airplane performance and control.
EFFECT OF WING DESIGN (PLANFORM) ON STALL (LOSS OF LIFT)
STALL PATTERN AND WING DESIGN
• The most desirable stall pattern on a wing is one that begins at the root.
• The primary reason for a root stall pattern is to maintain aileron effectiveness
until the wing is fully stalled.
• Additionally, turbulent airflow from the wing root may buffet the
empennage, providing an aerodynamic warning of impending stall.
The following stall patterns are due to the aerofoil’s planform.
RECTANGULAR WING
• The lift distribution on the rectangular wing is due to low lift coefficients at
the tips and high lift coefficients at the root.
• Since the area of the highest lift coefficients will stall first, the rectangular
wing has a strong root stall tendency.
• This pattern provides adequate stall warning and aileron effectiveness.
• This planform is limited to low speed, light weight airplanes where
simplicity of construction and favourable stall characteristics are the
predominating requirements.
HIGHLY TAPERED WING
• A highly tapered wing is desirable from the standpoint of structural weight,
stiffness and wing tip vortices.
• Tapered wings produce most of the lift towards the tip; therefore, they have
a strong tip stall tendency.
SWEPT WINGS
• Swept wings are used on high speed aircraft because they reduce drag and
allow the airplane to fly at higher Mach numbers.
• They have a similar lift distribution to a tapered wing, and therefore stall
easily and have a strong tip stall tendency.
• When the wing tip stalls, it rapidly progresses over the remainder of the
wing.
ELLIPTICAL WING
• The elliptical wing has an even distribution of lift from the root to the tip
and produces minimum induced drag.
• An even lift distribution means that all sections stall at the same angle of
attack.
• There is little advanced warning and aileron effectiveness may be lost near
stall.
 • It is also more difficult to manufacture than other planforms, but is
considered the ideal subsonic wing due to its lift to drag ratio.
• The elliptical wing is more efficient (greater lift for the amount of drag), but
does not have as good stall characteristics as the rectangular wing.
MODERATE TAPER WING
• This type of wings has a lift distribution and stall pattern that is similar to
the elliptical wing.
• However, the even stall progression of tapered wings is undesirable
because the ailerons are located near the tip.
• As the stall progresses, the pilot will lose lateral control of the airplane.
• If speed is the prime consideration, a tapered wing is more desirable than a
rectangular wing, but a tapered wing with no twist has undesirable stall
characteristics.
• Assuming equal wing area, the tapered wing produces less drag than the
rectangular wing because there is less area at the tip of the tapered wing.
• A desirable stall pattern can be accomplished by:
o designing the wing with a twist so that the tip has a lower angle of
incidence and therefore a lower angle of attack when the root of the
wing approaches the critical angle of attack;
o designing slots near the leading edge of the wingtip to allow air to flow
smoothly over that part of the wing at higher angles of attack, therefore
allowing the root of the wing to stall first; and
o attaching stall or spoiler strips on the leading edge near the wing root.
This strip breaks up the airflow at higher angles of attack and produces
the desired effect of the root area of the wing stalling first.

STALL PATTERN ON VARIOUS WING DESIGN

EFFECT OF AIRSPEED ON LIFT AND DRAG
• An increase in the velocity of the air passing over the wing (airspeed)
increases lift and drag.
• Lift is increased because:
o the increased impact of the relative wind on the wing’s lower surface
creates a greater amount of air being deflected downward;
o the increased speed of the relative wind over the upper surface
creates a lower pressure on top of the wing (Bernoulli’s Principle);
o a greater pressure differential between the upper and lower wing
surface is created.
• Drag is also increased, since any change that increases lift also increases
drag.
• Tests show that lift and drag vary as the square of the velocity.
• The velocity of the air passing over the wing in flight is determined by the
airspeed of the airplane.
• This means that if an airplane doubles its speed, it quadruples the lift and
drag (assuming that the angle of attack remains the same).
EFFECT OF AIR DENSITY ON LIFT AND DRAG
• Lift and drag vary directly with the density of the air.
• As air density increases, lift and drag increase and as air density decreases,
lift and drag decrease.
• Air density is affected by pressure, temperature, and humidity.

CL VERSUS CD POLAR CURVE

• The polar curve of an aerofoil is the graphical relationship of the
coefficients of lift and drag plotted against each other, the resulting graph is
as shown in Figure given below.
• It reveals that the total lift and total drag increase from point A to a
maximum at point D, thus the angle of attack of the wings increases in the
same manner.
• Therefore, the speed decreases from a maximum at point A to a minimum at
point D. The points marked on the curve represent:

Point A is between VIMD and the maximum speed and has the minimum drag
coefficient. It therefore approximates VI/DMAX or VY for a jet aero plane.
Point B is the point at which a tangent from the origin touches the polar curve,
which is at the point at which the total drag is minimum, the lift/drag ratio is
maximum and the IAS in level flight is VIMD. This is also the speed at which the
longest glide distance will be achieved.
Point C falls between VIMD and Vs and is approximately VIMP, which
approximates to the speed of VY for a piston/propeller aero plane and indicates
the value at which the minimum sink rate will occur. It is the speed that will
attain the maximum endurance during a descent.
Point D is where CL and CD are both maximum and the point at which the
minimum speed in level flight, the stalling speed, VS is attained.

The effect that the aero plane configuration has on this curve is shown in Figure
given above.
It can be seen that the clean aero plane, i.e. the aero plane with undercarriage
and flaps retracted, has the least drag.
Lowering flap increases the amount of drag experienced but significantly
increases the lift generated.
The second curve is moved to the right if the undercarriage is lowered, with the
flap extended, but there is no increase of lift.
However, if the undercarriage is lowered without flap then the curve produced is
the same as the first curve but significantly moved to the right. This shows a
considerable increase of drag but no increase of lift.

THRUST
• Before the airplane begins to move, thrust must be exerted.
• The propeller, acting as an airfoil, produces the thrust, or forward force that
pulls (pushes) the airplane through the air.
• It receives its power directly from the engine, and is designed to displace a
large mass of air to the rear.
• It is this rearward displacement that develops the forward thrust that
carries the airplane through the air.
• This thrust must be strong enough to counteract the forces of drag and to
give the airplane the desired forward motion.
• The direction of this thrust force is referred to as the thrust line.
• It continues to move and gain speed until thrust and drag are equal.
• In order to maintain a constant airspeed, thrust and drag must remain
equal, just as lift and weight must be equal to maintain a constant altitude.
• If in level flight, the engine power is reduced, the thrust is lessened, and the
airplane slows down.
• As long as the thrust is less than the drag, the airplane continues to
decelerate until its airspeed is insufficient to support it in the air.
• Likewise, if the engine power is increased, thrust becomes greater than
drag and the airspeed increases.
• As long as the thrust continues to be greater than the drag, the airplane
continues to accelerate.
• When drag equals thrust, the airplane flies at a constant airspeed.
• Straight-and-level flight may be sustained at speeds from very slow to very
fast.
• The pilot must coordinate angle of attack and thrust in all speed regimes if
the airplane is to be held in level flight.
• Roughly, these regimes can be grouped in three categories: low-speed flight,
cruising flight, and high-speed flight.
• When the airspeed is low, the angle of attack must be relatively high to
increase lift if the balance between lift and weight is to be maintained.
• If thrust decreases and airspeed decreases, lift becomes less than weight
and the airplane will start to descend.
• To maintain level flight, the pilot can increase the angle of attack an amount
which will generate a lift force again equal to the weight of the airplane and
while the airplane will be flying more slowly, it will still maintain level flight
if the pilot has properly coordinated thrust and angle of attack.
• Straight-and-level flight in the slow speed regime provides some interesting
conditions relative to the equilibrium of forces, because with the airplane in
a nose-high attitude, there is a vertical component of thrust that helps
support the airplane.
• For one thing, wing loading tends to be less than would be expected.
 • Most pilots are aware that an airplane will stall, other conditions being
equal, at a slower speed with the power on than with the power off.
(Induced airflow over the wings from the propeller also contributes to this.)
• One can say that in straight-and-level slow speed flight the thrust is equal to
drag, and lift is equal to weight.
• During straight-and level-flight when thrust is increased and the airspeed
increases, the angle of attack must be decreased.
• That is, if changes have been coordinated, the airplane will still remain in
level flight but at a higher speed when the proper relationship between
thrust and angle of attack is established.
• If the angle of attack were not coordinated (decreased) with this increase of
thrust, the airplane would climb.
• But decreasing the angle of attack modifies the lift, keeping it equal to the
weight, and if properly done, the airplane still remains in level flight.
• Level flight at even slightly negative angles of attack is possible at very high
speed.
• It is evident then, that level flight can be performed with any angle of attack
between stalling angle and the relatively small negative angles found at
high speed.
RELATIONSHIP OF THRUST AND DRAG IN STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHT
• During straight-and-level flight, thrust and drag are equal in magnitude if a
constant airspeed is being maintained.
• When the thrust of the propeller is increased, thrust momentarily exceeds
drag and the airspeed will increase, provided straight-and-level flight is
maintained.
• With an increase in airspeed, drag increases rapidly.
• At some new and higher airspeed, thrust and drag forces again become
equalized and speed again becomes constant.
• If all the available power is used, thrust will reach its maximum, airspeed
will increase until drag equals thrust, and once again the airspeed will
become constant.
• This will be the top speed for that airplane in that configuration and
attitude.
• When thrust becomes less than drag, the airplane will decelerate to a
slower airspeed, provided straight-and-level flight is maintained, and thrust
and drag again become equal.
• Of course if the airspeed becomes too slow, or more precisely, if the angle of
attack is too great, the airplane will stall.
 JET ENGINE AND ITS PARTS

FAN - The fan is the first component in a turbofan. The large spinning fan sucks in
large quantities of air. Most blades of the fan are made of titanium. It then speeds
this air up and splits it into two parts. One part continues through the "core" or
center of the engine, where it is acted upon by the other engine components.
The second part "bypasses" the core of the engine. It goes through a duct that
surrounds the core to the back of the engine where it produces much of the force
that propels the airplane forward. This cooler air helps to quiet the engine as
well as adding thrust to the engine.
COMPRESSOR - The compressor is the first component in the engine core. The
compressor is made up of fans with many blades and attached to a shaft. The
compressor squeezes the air that enters it int
into
o progressively smaller areas,
resulting in an increase in the air pressure. This results in an increase in the
energy potential of the air. The squashed air is forced into the combustion
chamber.

COMBUSTOR - In the combustor the air is mixed with fuel and then ignited. There
are as many as 20 nozzles to spray fuel into the airstream. The mixture of air and
fuel catches fire. This provides a high temperature, high
high-energy
energy airflow. The fuel
burns with the oxygen in the compressed air, producing hot expanding gases.
The inside of the combustor is often made of ceramic materials to provide a heat-
heat
resistant chamber. The heat can reach 2700°.

TURBINE - The high-energy

energy airflow coming out of the combustor goes into the
turbine, causing the turbine blades to rotate. The turbines are linked by a shaft to
turn the blades in the compressor and to spin the intake fan at the front. This
rotation takes some energy from the high
high-energy
energy flow that is used to drive the
fan and the compressor. The gases produced in the combustio
combustion n chamber move
through the turbine and spin its blades. The turbines of the jet spin around
thousands of times. They are fixed on shafts which have several sets of ball-
ball
bearing in between them.

NOZZLE - The nozzle is the exhaust duct of the engine. This is the engine part
which actually produces the thrust for the plane. The energy depleted airflow
that passed the turbine, in addition to the colder air that bypassed the engine
core, produces a force when exiting the nozzle that acts to propel the engine, and
an
therefore the airplane, forward. The combination of the hot air and cold air are
expelled and produce an exhaust, which causes a forward thrust. The nozzle may
be preceded by a mixer,, which combines the high temperature air coming from
the engine core with
th the lower temperature air that was bypassed in the fan. The
mixer helps to make the engine quieter.
TURBO JET ENGINE
 • The basic idea of the turbojet engine is simple.
• Air taken in from an opening in the front of the engine is compressed to 3 to
12 times its original pressure in compressor.
• Fuel is added to the air and burned in a combustion chamber to raise the
temperature of the fluid mixture to about 1,100°F to 1,300°
1,300 F.
• The resulting hot air is passed through a turbine, which drives the
compressor.
• If the turbine and compressor are efficient, the pressure at the turbine
discharge will be nearly twice the atmospheric pressure, and this excess
pressure is sent to the nozzle to produce a high
high-velocity
velocity stream of gas
which produces a thrust.
• Substantial increases in thrust can be obtained by employing an afterburner.
• It is a second combustion chamber positioned after the turbine and before
the nozzle.
• The afterburner increases the temperature of the gas ahead of the nozzle.
• The result of this increase in temperature is an increase of about 40 percent
in thrust at takeoff and a much larger percentage at high speeds once the
plane is in the air.
• The turbojet engine is a reaction engine.
• In a reaction engine, expanding gases push hard against the front of the
engine.
• The turbojet sucks in air and compresses or squeezes it.
• The gases flow through the turbine and make it spin.
• These gases bounce back and shoot out of th thee rear of the exhaust, pushing
the plane forward.

TURBO PROP ENGINE

• A turboprop engine is a jet engine attached to a propeller.

• The turbine at the back is turned by the hot gases, and this turns a shaft that
drives the propeller.
• Some small airliners and transport aircraft are powered by turboprops.
 • Like the turbojet, the turboprop engine consists of a compressor,
combustion chamber, and turbine, the air and gas pressure is used to run
the turbine, which then creates power to drive the compressor.
• Compared
mpared with a turbojet engine, the turboprop has better propulsion
efficiency at flight speeds below about 500 miles per hour.
• Modern turboprop engines are equipped with propellers that have a
smaller diameter but a larger number of blades for efficient operation
o at
much higher flight speeds.
• To accommodate the higher flight speeds, the blades are scimitar-shaped
scimitar
with swept-back
back leading edges at the blade tips.
• Engines featuring such propellers are called propfans
TURBO FAN ENGINE

• A turbofan engine has a large fan at the front, which sucks in air.
• Most of the air flows around the outside of the engine, making it quieter and
giving more thrust at low speeds.
• Most of today's airliners are powered by turbofans.
• In a turbojet all the air entering the intake passes through the gas
generator, which is composed of the compressor, combustion chamber, and
turbine.
• In a turbofan engine only a portion of the incoming air goes into the
combustion chamber.
• The remainder passes through a fan, or low-pressure
pressure compressor, and is
ejected directly as a "cold" jet or mixed with the gas
gas-generator
generator exhaust to
produce a "hot" jet.
• The objective of this sort of bypass system is to increase thrust without
increasing fuel consumption.
• It achieves this byy increasing the total air
air-mass
mass flow and reducing the
velocity within the same total energy supply.
TURBO SHAFT ENGINE

• This is another form of gas

gas-turbine
turbine engine that operates much like a turbo
prop system.
• It does not drive a propellor.
• Instead, it provides power for a helicopter rotor.
• The turbo shaft engine is designed so that the speed of the helicopter rotor
is independent of the rotating speed of the gas generator.
• This permits the rotor speed to be kept constant even when the speed
spee of
the generator is varied to modulate the amount of power produced

RAM JET ENGINE

• The simplest jet engine has no moving parts.

• The speed of the jet "rams" or forces air into the engine.
• It is essentially a turbojet in which rotating machinery has been omitted.
• Its application is restricted by the fact that its compression ratio depends
wholly on forward speed.
• The ramjet develops no static thrust and very little thrust in general below
the speed of sound.
• As a consequence, a ramjet vehicle requires some form of assisted takeoff,
such as another aircraft.
• It has been used primarily in guided
guided-missile systems.
• Space
pace vehicles use this type of jet.
WEIGHT
• Gravity is the pulling force that tends to draw all bodies to the center of the
earth.
• The center of gravity (CG) may be considered as a point at which all the
weight of the airplane is concentrated.
• If the airplane were supported at its exact center of gravity, it would
balance in any attitude.
• It will be noted that center of gravity is of major importance in an airplane,
for its position has a great bearing upon stability.
• The location of the center of gravity is determined by the general design of
each particular airplane.
• The designers determine how far the center of pressure (CP) will travel.

• Every aircraft has a maximum forward and rearward CG position at which

the aircraft is designed to operate.
• Operating an aircraft with the CG outside these limits affects the handling
characteristics of the aircraft. Serious "out of CG" conditions can be
dangerous.
• They then fix the center of gravity forward of the center of pressure for the
corresponding flight speed in order to provide an adequate restoring
moment to retain flight equilibrium.
• Weight has a definite relationship with lift, and thrust with drag.
• This relationship is simple, but important in understanding the
aerodynamics of flying.
• Lift is the upward force on the wing acting perpendicular to the relative
wind.
• Lift is required to counteract the airplane’s weight (which is caused by the
force of gravity acting on the mass of the airplane).
• This weight (gravity) force acts downward through the airplane’s center of
gravity.
• In stabilized level flight, when the lift force is equal to the weight force, the
airplane is in a state of equilibrium and neither gains nor loses altitude.
• If lift becomes less than weight, the airplane loses altitude.
• When the lift is greater than weight, the airplane gains altitude.
 STALL
• A stall is a condition of flight in which an increase in Angle Of Attack results
in a decrease in Co-efficient of Lift.
• In the given figure Co-efficient of Lift increases linearly over a large range
of angles of attack then reaches a peak and begins to decrease.
• The highest value of Co-efficient of Lift is referred to as CLmax, and any
increase in Angle Of Attack beyond CLmax Angle Of Attack produces a
decrease in CL.
• Therefore, CLmax Angle Of Attack is known as the stalling angle of attack
or critical angle of attack, and the region beyond CLmax Angle Of Attack is
the stall region.
• Regardless of the flight conditions or airspeed, the wing will always stall at
the same Angle Of Attack CLmax.
• The only cause of a stall is excessive Angle Of Attack.
• Stalls result in decreased lift, increased drag, and an altitude loss.
• They are particularly dangerous at low altitude or when allowed to develop
into a spin.
• The only action necessary for stall recovery is to decrease Angle Of Attack
below CLmax Angle Of Attack.

• Numerous devices may give the pilot a warning of an impending stall.

• They include AOA indicators, rudder pedal shakers, stick shakers, horns,
buzzers, warning lights and other devices.
 • Some of these devices receive their input from attitude gyros,
accelerometers, or flight data computers, but most receive input from an
AOA probe.
• The AOA probe is mounted on the fuselage or wing and has a transmitter
vane that remains aligned with the relative wind.
• The vane transmits the angle of attack of the relative wind to a cockpit AOA
indicator or is used to activate other stall warning devices.
• Some of the airplanes have standardized AOA indicators graduated in
arbitrary units of angle of attack, or graduated from zero to 100 percent.
• Stalls at idle in a clean configuration are characterized by a nose down pitch
with a slight rolling tendency at near full aft stick.
• The effect of the landing gear on stalls is negligible, but extending the flaps
will aggravate the stall characteristics by increasing the rolling tendency.
• Increased power will degrade the stall characteristics by increasing nose up
stall attitude, increasing buffeting and increasing roll tendency.

AEROFOIL CONTAMINATION
• Aircraft icing in flight is usually classified as being either structural icing or
induction icing.
• Structural icing refers to ice forming on aircraft and components while
induction icing refers to ice formation in the engine induction system.

STRUCTURAL ICING
• Ice forms on aircraft structure and surfaces when super cooled water
droplets impinge on them and freeze.
• Small and/or narrow objects are the best collectors of water droplets and
ice up rapidly.

INDUCTION ICING
• In turbo jet aircraft, air is drawn into the engine creates an area of reduced
pressure at the inlet, which lowers the temperature below that of the
surrounding air.
• In marginal icing condition, this reduction in temperature may be sufficient
to cause ice to form on the engine inlet, disrupting airflow into the engine.
LEVELS OF INTENSITY
TRACE
• Ice becomes perceptible.
• Rate of accumulation is slightly greater than the rate of sublimation.
• It is not dangerous even though de-icing/anti-icing equipment is not used,
unless encountered for an extended period of time. (say over one hour)

LIGHT
• The rate of accumulation may create a problem if flight is prolonged in this
environment.(say over one hour)
• Occasional use of de-icing/anti-icing equipment removes/prevents ice
accumulation.
• It does not present a problem if de-icing/anti-icing equipment is used.

MODERATE
• The rate of accumulation is such that even short encounters become
potentially dangerous and use of de-icing/anti-icing equipment is
necessary. Diversion of flight is necessary.

SEVERE
• The rate of accumulation is such that the de-icing/anti-icing equipment fails
to reduce or control the hazard. Diversion of flight is necessary.

EFFECTS OF ICING ON AIRCRAFT

• The lift characteristics of the lift producing surfaces are destroyed.
• It affects the performance of the aircraft.
• The efficiency of the aircraft is decreased.
• It increases the weight of the aircraft.
• It increases the drag and reduces the lift.
• It causes destructive vibrations.
• It hampers true instrument readings.
• Radio reception and engine performance is affected.
• It affects the clear visibility of the pilot.

CLASSIFICATION OF ICE FORMED ON AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE

There are four main types of icing that usually form on an aircraft structure. They
are: (1) Frost/Hoar frost (2) Rime ice (3) Clear ice or Glaze ice and (4) Mixed ice.
• The type of ice formed on an aircraft structure mainly depends on different
meteorological conditions, which are dependant on temperature and
precipitation.
FROST/HOAR FROST
• Ice crystals formed by sublimation when water vapour freezes on the
ground or any other exposed object, whose temperature is at or below zero
degree centigrade forming a white crystalline structure.
• This does not form a heavy blanket on the aircraft structure.
• Frost roughens the surface of the aircraft and is similar to sticking sheets of
coarse emery paper all over the skin.

RIME ICE
• Rime ice is the term given to a rough opaque white structure.
• Rime ice can form at ground level or at altitude.
• In flight, rime ice forms on the leading edge of an aircraft when it flies
through a low density cloud of small super cooled water droplets.
• Low temperatures, lesser amount of liquid water, low velocities and small
droplets favour formation of rime ice.
• Rime ice usually forms on areas such as leading edge of wings or struts.

CLEAR ICE (GLAZE ICE)

• Glaze ice is also known as clear ice or rain ice.
• Glaze ice forms a transparent air free sheet on an aircraft structure.
• Glaze ice can be formed even when the aircraft is on the ground by freezing
rain water.
• Glaze ice can be formed when the aircraft flies into a dense cloud of small
super cooled water droplets.
• Glaze ice is denser, harder and sometimes more transparent than rime ice.
• Temperature close to the freezing point, large amounts of liquid water, high
aircraft velocities and large droplets are conducive to formation of clear ice.
• Glaze ice is most dangerous because it is clear, hard to see and can change
the shape of the aerofoil.

MIXED ICE
• Mixed ice is a mixture of Rime ice and glaze ice.
• Mixed ice has the bad characteristics of both Rime ice and glaze ice.
• Mixed ice forms rapidly.
• Ice particles become embedded in clear ice, building a very rough
accumulation.
 FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRCRAFT

THE FOUR FORCES (IN STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT-CRUISE)

• When a well-trimmed aircraft is cruising (i.e. flying at a constant speed, and
maintaining a constant heading and a constant altitude) in non-turbulent
air, there are two sets, or couples, of basic forces acting on it.
The two forces in each couple are equal and approximately opposite to each
other otherwise the aircraft would not continue to fly straight and level at a
constant speed; i.e. the aircraft is in a state of equilibrium where all forces
balance each other out so there is no change in motion.
• The couple that acts vertically is the lift, generated by the energy of the
airflow past the wings and acting upward, and the weight acting downward.
So, being equal and approximately opposite, the lifting force being
generated must exactly match the total weight of the aircraft.
• The couple that acts horizontally is the thrust, generated by the engine-
driven propeller, and the air resistance, caused by the friction and pressure
of the airflow, or drag, trying to slow the moving aircraft. The thrust, acting
forward along the flight path, exactly equals the drag.
• The thrust provides energy to the aircraft and the drag dissipates that same
energy into the atmosphere. The forces are not all equal to each other. In
fact, an aircraft in cruising flight might generate ten times more lift than
thrust.
• When all forces are in equilibrium a moving aircraft will tend to keep
moving along the same flight path at the same speed- whether it is flying
straight and level, descending or climbing- until an applied force or a
displacement force changes that state of motion. For instance, if the pilot
 opens the engine throttle fully, and maintains level flight, the thrust force is
initially greater than drag and the aircraft accelerates. However, as the
speed of airflow over the aircraft increases, the air resistance also increases
and the aircraft will soon reach the speed - its maximum- where the forces
are again balanced.
THE FOUR FORCES (IN STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT-SLOWER THAN CRUISE)

• At a constant cruise speed, maintaining straight-and-level flight, the force of

thrust and drag act opposite to each other and parallel to the flight path.
• These opposing forces are equal in magnitude. Also, the force of lift is equal
in magnitude to the force of weight.
• While maintaining straight-and-level flight at constant airspeeds slower
than cruise, the opposing forces must still be equal in magnitude, but some
of these forces are separated into components.
• In this flight condition, the actual thrust no longer acts parallel and opposite
to the flight path and drag.
• Actual thrust is inclined upward as illustrated in figure given above.
• Note that now thrust has two components; one acting perpendicular to the
flight path in the direction of lift, while the other acts along the flight path.
• Because the actual thrust is inclined, its magnitude must be greater than
drag if its component of thrust along the flight path is to equal drag.
• Also note that a component of thrust acts 90° to the flight path, and thus
acts in the same direction as wing lift. The given figure also illustrates that
the forces acting upward (wing lift and the component of thrust) equal the
forces acting downward (weight and tail-down force).
 • Wing loading (wing lift) is actually less at slow speeds than at cruise speeds
because the vertical component of thrust helps support the airplane.
• To summarize, in straight-and-level flight at slow speeds, the actual thrust is
greater than drag, and wing lift is less than at cruise speed.

ARRANGEMENT OF FORCES
• Even though the forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, all
of them cannot be concentrated to act at one point, because their position
are liable to alter and upset the balance.
• Therefore one important thing to be observed is the lift and weight
couplemust always be arranged in one pattern. That is, “Weight always in
front of Lift”. Which will give the aircraft in the event of engine
failure(Thrust failure) a gliding attitude with a slight nose down tendency.
If the lift is in front of the weight, in the above case, the aircraft will stall.
• The next couple to be concentrated is the thrust and the drag. This couple is
to be arranged in such a way that it is used to counteract the nose down
tendency.
• This is possible only when the drag is placed above the thrust. This is the
normal arrangement done on any land planes.
• In one sentence, we can say “ weight forward of lift, drag above the thrust”

In the case of sea planes, where the position of the engines got to be high enough
to keep away from the water, the line of thrust remains above the drag. So, both
the couple gives the aircraft a resultant nose down tendency.
This tendency is counteracted by one of the following ways.
 1. By slightly inclining the line of thrust to the horizontal.
2. By providing an inverted camber on the tail plane which provides
downward force.
3. By having an adjustable tail plane, whose angle can be varied in flight.

THE FOUR FORCES (IN A CLIMB)

• The forces acting on an airplane during a climb are illustrated in figure

given above.
• When the airplane is in equilibrium, the weight can be resolved into two
components: one opposing the lift, and the other acting in the same
direction as the drag along the line of the relative wind.
• The requirements for equilibrium are:
o The thrust must equal the sum of the drag and the opposing
component of the weight;
o and the lift must equal its opposing component of the weight.
• The steeper the angle of climb, the shorter becomes the length of the
component of lift, and simultaneously the component of drag becomes
longer.
• Therefore, the lift requirement decreases steadily as the angle of climb
steepens until, in a true vertical climb, if this were possible, the wings
would supply no lift and the thrust would be the only force opposing both
the drag and the weight, which would be acting downward in opposition.
• At a constant power setting, a given rate of climb can be obtained either by
o climbing steeply at a low airspeed or
o by climbing on a shallow path at high airspeed.
• At one extreme, if the airspeed is too low, the induced drag rises to a figure
at which all thrust available is required to overcome the drag and none is
available for climbing.
• At the other extreme, if the speed is the maximum obtainable in level flight,
again all the power is being used to overcome the drag and there is no rate
of climb.
• Between these two extremes lies a speed, or a small band of speeds, which
will achieve the best rate of climb.
• The best rate of climb is achieved not at the steepest angle, but at some
combination of moderate angle and optimum airspeed at which the greatest
amount of excess power is available to climb the airplane after the drag has been
balanced.
• The given figure shows that the speed for minimum drag or the lowest
point on the power-required curve, although low, is not the lowest possible
that can be flown without stalling.
• The increase in power required at the lowest speeds (to the left of the
minimum power-required point) is caused by the rapidly rising effects of
induced drag at the lower speeds.
• The propeller driven airplane, under the same set of circumstances and for
a given rated horsepower, suffers a gradual loss of propeller efficiency and,
therefore, a gradual loss of thrust at both ends of its speed range.
• The vertical distance between the power-available and power-required
curves represents the power available for climbing at the particular speed.
• The best climbing airspeed is that at which excess power is at a maximum so
that after expending some power in overcoming drag, the maximum amount of
power remains available for climbing the airplane.
• At the intersection of the curves, all the available power is being used to
overcome drag, leaving none available for climbing.
• Of course at the lower range, excess power for climb soon becomes
available if the angle of attack is reduced to allow an increase in speed.

• The thrust horsepower of piston engines decreases with altitude.

• Even if it is possible to prolong sea-level power to some greater altitude by
supercharging, or some other method of power boosting, the power will
 inevitably decline when the boosting method employed reaches an altitude
at which it can no longer maintain a set power.
• At higher altitudes, the power available curves are lowered. Since power
required increases with true airspeed (velocity), the thrust horsepower
required to fly at any desired indicated airspeed increases with altitude.
• In summarizing, it is a fallacy to think that an airplane climbs because of
“excess lift.” It does not; the airplane climbs because of power available
over power required.

THE FOUR FORCES (IN A DIVE/GLIDE)

• The forces acting on an airplane in a glide are illustrated in figure given

above.
• For a steady glide with the engine providing no thrust, the lift, drag, and
weight forces must be in equilibrium.
• The illustration shows that weight is balanced by the resultant of lift and
drag.
• The lift vector, acting as it does at right angles to the path of flight, will now
be tilted forward, while the drag vector will be tilted upward and will
continue to act opposite to the path of flight.
• From the illustration, it can be seen that the geometry of the vectors is such
that the angle between the lift vector and the resultant is the same as that
between the glide path and the horizontal.
• This angle (X) between the glide path and the horizontal is called the glide
angle.
• Further examination of this diagram will show that as drag is reduced and
speed increased, the smaller will be the glide angle; therefore, the steepness
of the glide path depends on the ratio of lift to drag.
• When gliding at the angle of attack for best L/D, least drag is experienced,
and the flattest glide will result.
• The L/D is a measure of the gliding efficiency or aerodynamic cleanness of
the airplane.
• If the L/D is 11/1, it means that lift is 11 times greater than drag.
• If the gliding airplane is flying at an airspeed just above the stall, it is
operating at maximum angle of attack and therefore, maximum lift.
• This, however, does not produce the best glide angle for maximum glide
distance because the induced drag at this point is high.
• By reducing the angle of attack, the airspeed increases and, although lift is
less at the lower angle of attack, the airplane travels farther per increment
of altitude lost because of greatly reduced drag.
• The increased range can be accomplished up to a point, by decreasing angle
of attack and induced drag. At some point, the best glide angle will be
achieved.
• If airspeed continues to increase, the parasite drag begins to rise sharply
and the airplane will again start losing more altitude per increment of
distance traveled.
• The extreme of this is when the nose is pointed straight down.
• It can be shown that best glide distance is obtained when L/D ratio is at
maximum.
• This optimum condition is determined for each type of airplane and the
speed at which it occurs is used as the recommended best range glide speed
for the airplane.
• It will vary somewhat for different airplane weights, so the airspeed for a
representative operational condition is generally selected.
• If several instances of the optimum glide path were plotted by an observer
on the ground under varying conditions of wind, they would be found to be
inconsistent.
• However, the actual gliding angle of the airplane with respect to the moving
air mass remains unchanged.
• Starting from a given altitude, a glide into the wind at optimum glide
airspeed covers less distance over the ground than a glide downwind.
• Since in both cases the rate of descent is the same, the measured angle as
seen by a round observer is governed only by the groundspeed, being
steeper at the lower groundspeed when gliding into the wind.
• The effect of wind, therefore, is to decrease range when gliding with a
headwind component, and to increase it when gliding downwind.
• The endurance of the glide is unaffected by wind.
 • Variations in gross weight do not affect the gliding angle provided the
optimum indicated airspeed for each gross weight is used.
• The fully loaded airplane will sink faster but at a greater forward speed, and
although it would reach the ground much quicker, it would have traveled
exactly the same distance as the lighter airplane, and its glide angle would
have been the same.
• An inspection of given figure will show that an increase in the weight factor
is equivalent to adding thrust to the weight component along the glide path.
• This means more speed and, therefore, more lift and drag which lengthen
the resultant vector until the geometric balance of the diagram is restored.
This is done without affecting the gliding angle.
• The higher speed corresponding to the increased weight is provided
automatically by the larger component of weight acting along the glide path,
and this component grows or diminishes in proportion to the weight. Since
the gliding angle is unaffected, range also is unchanged.
• Although range is not affected by changes in weight, endurance decreases
with addition of weight and increases with reduction of weight.
• If two airplanes having the same L/D, but different weights, start a glide
from the same altitude, the heavier airplane, gliding at a higher airspeed,
will cover the distance between the starting point and touch down in a
shorter time.
• Both, however, will cover the same distance. Therefore, the endurance of
the heavier airplane is less.

EFFECT OF WIND ON THE GLIDE

• Starting from a given height a glide into wind at the optimum air speed
covers less distance over the ground than down wind.
• The effect of wind therefore is to decrease the range when gliding with a
head wind component and to increase it when gliding down.
• The endurance of glide is unaffected while the range is affected.
EFFECT OF WEIGHT ON THE GLIDE
• Variation in weight does not affect the gliding angle provided that the speed
is adjusted to fit the weight.
• The best “Indicated Air Speed” varies as the square root of the “All Up
Weight”.
• Increase in weight requires an increase in speed and vice versa.
• Since the gliding angle is unaffected by the weight the range is also
unaffected.

EFFECT OF WEIGHT ON ENDURANCE

• Although the range is not affected by changes in weight, the endurance
decreases with the increase in weight and vice-versa.
• If two aircrafts having the same L/D ratio but with different weights start to
glide from the same height and at same time, then the heavier aircraft
gliding at a higher “Indicated Air Speed” will cover the distance between the
starting points and touch down in a shorter time.
• Both will however cover the same distance. Therefore, the endurance of the
heavier aircraft is less.

THE FOUR FORCES (IN A TURN)

• Turning flight is described as changing the direction of the airplane’s flight
path by reorienting the lift vector in the desired direction.
• During a turn, the lift vector is divided into two components, a horizontal
component (LH) and a vertical component (LV).
• The horizontal component of lift, called centripetal force, accelerates the
airplane toward the inside of the turn.
• In straight and level flight (constant altitude, constant direction) total lift is
equal to weight, but in a turn, only the vertical component of the lift vector
opposes weight.
• If the pilot does not increase the total lift vector, the airplane will lose
altitude because weight will be greater than LV.
• The increased lift is normally obtained by increasing the angle of attack, i.e.
pulling back on the stick.
• As the stick moves aft, G forces build up. Increasing the lift produced by the
wings increases the load on the airplane.
• Load factor (n) is the ratio of total lift to the airplane’s weight.
• It is sometimes called Gs since it is the number of times the earth’s
gravitational pull felt by the pilot.
• For example, a 3,000 pound airplane in a 60º angle of bank turn must
produce 3,000 pounds of vertical lift to maintain altitude. Therefore, the
wings must produce 6,000 pounds of total lift so the airplane experiences a
load on its wings that is twice the force due to gravity, or 2 Gs. One “G” is
what we experience just sitting or walking.

• In level flight, the force of lift acts opposite to and exactly equal in
magnitude to the force of gravity.
• Gravity tends to pull all bodies to the center of the Earth; therefore, this
force always acts in a vertical plane with respect to the Earth.
• On the other hand, total lift always acts perpendicular to the relative wind,
which for the purposes of this discussion is considered to be the same as
acting perpendicular to the lateral axis of the wind.
• With the wings level, lift acts directly opposite to gravity.
• However, as the airplane is banked, gravity still acts in a vertical plane, but
lift will now act in an inclined plane.
• As illustrated in the given figure, the force of lift can be resolved into two
components, vertical and horizontal.
• During the turn entry, the vertical component of lift still opposes gravity,
and the horizontal component of lift must overcome apparent centrifugal
force.
• Consequently, the total lift must be sufficient to counteract both of these
forces.
• The total resultant lift acts opposite to the total resultant load.
• So long as these opposing forces are equal to each other in magnitude, the
airplane will maintain a constant rate of turn.
• If the pilot moves the controls in such a manner as to change the magnitude
of any of the forces, the airplane will accelerate or decelerate in the
direction of the applied force.
• This will result in changing the rate at which the airplane turns.