Figure 3.19 Water-stained beams in an aluminum cover.

The beams will be covered

by roofing panels, so the water stains pose no detriment to the structure,
aesthetic or
otherwise.
relative humidity is 50%. The dew point, which can be determined from a
psychrometric chart, is 65#F [18#C] for these conditions. If cold metal is
brought in from outside where the temperature is, say, 40#F [4#C], water will
condense on the metal. When the relative humidity is 100%, the dew point
temperature and the air temperature are the same. Since the dew point temperature
can never exceed the air temperature, condensation won�t occur as
long as the metal is as warm as the air. For this reason, as well to avoid
precipitation, it�s advisable to store aluminum products indoors, especially
products on which water can stand or become trapped between aluminum
parts in contact. Moisture and water stains also wreak havoc with aluminum
welding, so similar cautions apply to parts to be welded.
Protective techniques are also used to prevent water stains. The Aluminum
Association provides specifications for protective oil to be applied to aluminum
in Aluminum Standards and Data. Also, producers apply plastic films to
aluminum sheet stock; they can be removed after the material is ready to be
incorporated in the work in the field. This film should be removed before it
is allowed to weather, however, or it degrades and becomes difficult to strip.
3.1.3 Forgings
Introduction Forgings are produced by pounding hot metal into a cavity. If
you think this process sounds vaguely primitive, you�re right�forging is one
of the oldest fabrication methods. Modern forging processes, though, can
produce high-strength parts to very accurate dimensions, and are heavily relied
on for complex, critical members such as aircraft frames (8).
Two general categories of forgings exist: hand forgings (sometimes called
open die forgings), and die forgings (also called closed die forgings or impression
die forgings). Hand forgings are produced without lateral confinement
of the material during the forging operation. Die forgings are more
common and are produced by pressing the forging stock (made of ingot, plate,
or extrusion) between a pair of dies and, thus, are also called closed die
forgings. The complex shapes of parts suited to forgings are similar to those
of castings. Forgings, however, have more uniform properties and generally
better ductility, at least in the direction parallel to the grain, and unlike
castings,
they can be strain hardened by working to improve strength. Closed die
forgings can be produced weighing up to 15,000 lb [6,800 kg]. Minimum
thicknesses are a function of width, plan area, and forging method, but they
may be as small as 0.09 in. [2 mm] for a 3 in. [75 mm] width.
Automobile wheels and aircraft structural framing members are good examples
of forging applications, but connection plates for some building structures
also fall in this category. Forgings are more expensive than castings, but
they may be feasible if enough parts are needed and strength and ductility
are important.
Die forgings are divided into four categories described below, from the
least intricate, lowest quantity, and lowest cost to the most sharply detailed,
highest quantity, and highest cost (see Table 3.8). Less intricate forgings are
used when quantities are small because it is more economical to machine a
few pieces than to incur higher one-time die costs. The most economical
forging for a particular application depends on the dimensional tolerances and
quantities required.
Blocker-type forgings have large fillet and corner radii and thick webs and
ribs, so that only one set of dies is needed; generally, two squeezes of the
dies are applied to the stock. Fillets are about 2 times the radius of conventional
forgings, and corner radii about 1 times that of conventional forgings. 1�2
Usually, all surfaces must be machined after forging. Blocker-type forgings
may be selected if tolerances are so tight that machining would be required