Figure 3.19 Water-stained beams in an aluminum cover.
The beams will be covered
by roofing panels, so the water stains pose no detriment to the structure, aesthetic or otherwise. relative humidity is 50%. The dew point, which can be determined from a psychrometric chart, is 65#F [18#C] for these conditions. If cold metal is brought in from outside where the temperature is, say, 40#F [4#C], water will condense on the metal. When the relative humidity is 100%, the dew point temperature and the air temperature are the same. Since the dew point temperature can never exceed the air temperature, condensation won�t occur as long as the metal is as warm as the air. For this reason, as well to avoid precipitation, it�s advisable to store aluminum products indoors, especially products on which water can stand or become trapped between aluminum parts in contact. Moisture and water stains also wreak havoc with aluminum welding, so similar cautions apply to parts to be welded. Protective techniques are also used to prevent water stains. The Aluminum Association provides specifications for protective oil to be applied to aluminum in Aluminum Standards and Data. Also, producers apply plastic films to aluminum sheet stock; they can be removed after the material is ready to be incorporated in the work in the field. This film should be removed before it is allowed to weather, however, or it degrades and becomes difficult to strip. 3.1.3 Forgings Introduction Forgings are produced by pounding hot metal into a cavity. If you think this process sounds vaguely primitive, you�re right�forging is one of the oldest fabrication methods. Modern forging processes, though, can produce high-strength parts to very accurate dimensions, and are heavily relied on for complex, critical members such as aircraft frames (8). Two general categories of forgings exist: hand forgings (sometimes called open die forgings), and die forgings (also called closed die forgings or impression die forgings). Hand forgings are produced without lateral confinement of the material during the forging operation. Die forgings are more common and are produced by pressing the forging stock (made of ingot, plate, or extrusion) between a pair of dies and, thus, are also called closed die forgings. The complex shapes of parts suited to forgings are similar to those of castings. Forgings, however, have more uniform properties and generally better ductility, at least in the direction parallel to the grain, and unlike castings, they can be strain hardened by working to improve strength. Closed die forgings can be produced weighing up to 15,000 lb [6,800 kg]. Minimum thicknesses are a function of width, plan area, and forging method, but they may be as small as 0.09 in. [2 mm] for a 3 in. [75 mm] width. Automobile wheels and aircraft structural framing members are good examples of forging applications, but connection plates for some building structures also fall in this category. Forgings are more expensive than castings, but they may be feasible if enough parts are needed and strength and ductility are important. Die forgings are divided into four categories described below, from the least intricate, lowest quantity, and lowest cost to the most sharply detailed, highest quantity, and highest cost (see Table 3.8). Less intricate forgings are used when quantities are small because it is more economical to machine a few pieces than to incur higher one-time die costs. The most economical forging for a particular application depends on the dimensional tolerances and quantities required. Blocker-type forgings have large fillet and corner radii and thick webs and ribs, so that only one set of dies is needed; generally, two squeezes of the dies are applied to the stock. Fillets are about 2 times the radius of conventional forgings, and corner radii about 1 times that of conventional forgings. 1�2 Usually, all surfaces must be machined after forging. Blocker-type forgings may be selected if tolerances are so tight that machining would be required