✓ Of these 25, four elements constitute more than 98

percent of all biological matter: carbon (C), oxygen

(O), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N).

BIOLOGY – is a natural science concerned with the study of life LIFE MAINTAINS INTERNAL CONSTANCY
and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth,
evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy.
IN OUT
BILOGICAL HIERARCHY Oxygen Carbon Dioxide
1st Atoms Water Sweat, Breath
2nd Molecules Dried Food Urine
Chemical Energy Execrements
3rd Cells
Heat, Work
4th Tissue
5th Organs
6th Body System
Homeostasis – A process by which a cell or organisms
7th Organism
maintains the state of internal constancy or equilibrium.
8th Population
9t Community
LIFE REPRODUCES ITSELF, GROWS AND DEVELOPS
10th Ecosystem 1. Asexual Reproduction – Genetic information comes
11th Biosphere only from a single parent; All offsprings are produced
virtually identical.
Emergent Properties 2. Sexual Reproduction – Genetic information comes
Are new functions that arise from interactions among a from two individuals uniting to create offspring of
system’s components. different genetic inheritance.

Unicellular Organisms - are composed of a single cell LIFE EVOLVES

• they each live and carry out all of their life processes as 1. Adaptation – Is and inherited characteristic or behavior
one single cell. that enables an organism to survive and reproduce in
its environment.
Multicellular Organisms – are composed of many cells 2. Natural Selection – Is the enhances reproductive
• are to varying degrees integrated and independent. success of certain individuals from a population based
on inherited characteristics.
Basic Properties of Life 3. Evolution – Is a change in the genetic makeup of a
1. Cellular Organization population over multiple generations.
2. Reproduction
3. Metabolism THE TREE OF LIFE INCLUDES THREE MAIN BRANCHES
4. Homeostasis
5. Heredity
6. Responsiveness
7. Growth and Development
8. Adapt Through Evolution

LIFE REQUIRES ENERGY

1. Producers (Autotrophs)
- Make their own food by extracting energy and
nutrients from non-living sources.
2. Consumers (Heterotrophs) 1. Bacteria - are single-cell organisms that are neither
- Obtain energy and nutrients by eating other plants nor animals.
organisms, living or dead. 2. Archaea - any of a group of single-celled prokaryotic
3. Decomposers organisms (that is, organisms whose cells lack a defined
- Are heterotrophs that absorb energy from wastes nucleus)
or dead organisms. 3. Eukarya - are organisms with cells that contain a
nucleus as well as membrane-bound organelles
BIOCHEMISTRY
✓ 25/92 naturally existing elements on Earth play a role
in the chemical processes of life.
 1840 Albrecht von Realized that sperm cells
PROTISTA ANIMALIA FUNGI PLANTAE Roelliker and egg cells are also cells.
Unicellular/ Multicellular Most are Multicellular
1855 Rudolf Virchow Was able to add a third
Multicellular Organisms Multicellular Organisms
tenet to the cell theory: Omnis
Heterotrophs/ Heterotrophs Heterotrophs Autotrophic Cellula e Cellula, or all
Autotrophs (Ingestion) (External) Organisms cells develop only from existing
cells

Microscopes – Are used to magnify small objects and its parts.

1. Matter - is any substance that has mass and takes up space;
this includes atoms and anything made up of these.
2. Atom - is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter
that has the properties of a chemical element.
3. Elements - is a species of atoms having the same number
of protons in their atomic nuclei.
4. Compound – is a substance consisting of atoms or ions of
two or more different elements in definite proportions
joined by chemical bonds into a molecule.

CELL - is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of

all known living organisms; is the smallest unit of life that can
replicate independently, and cells are often called the "building 1. Light Microscopes - Uses focused light and lenses
blocks of life". to magnify a specimen, usually a cell.
2. Electron Microscopes - A type of microscope that
CELL DISCOVERY uses electrons to illuminate a specimen and create
an enlarged image.
DATE SCIENTIST
1665 English Scientist Described a honeycomb- CELL TYPES
and Microscopist like network of cellulae (Latin
Robert Hooke for little storage rooms) in cork
slice using his primitive
compound microscope.
1670 Antonie van Described cells in a drop
Leeuwenhoek of pond water using a
microscope. He made his own
fine quality lens for use
in monocular microscopes and
was the first person to observe
bacteria and protozoa.
1833 English Botanist Discovered the nucleus in
Robert Brown plant cells. 1. Eukaryotic Cell – Distinctive membrane-bound
nucleus and presence of the organelles
1838 German Botanist Concluded that all plant
Average Size: 10 – 100 mm
Matthias Jakob tissues are composed of cells
✓ Eukarya
Schleiden and that an embryonic plant
2. Prokaryotic Cell – Absence of membrane-bound
arose from a single cell. He
nucleus and absence of organelles.
declared that the cell is the basic
Average Size: 1 – 10 mm
building block of all plant
✓ Bacteria and Archaea
matter.
1839 German Biologist Reached the same
Theodor Schwann conclusion as Schleiden about
animal tissue being composed
of cells, ending speculations that
plants and animals were
fundamentally different in
structure. EUKARYOTIC CELLS PROKARYOTIC CELLS
 Chloroplasts
(plant cells)

Are the sites of the photosynthesis within a

plant cell
Grana - are stacks of structures called
thylakoids, which are little disks of
membrane on which the light-dependent
reactions of photosynthesis take place.
PARTS OF THE CELL Stroma - refers to the fluid filled inner
space of chloroplasts surrounding
Membrane-Bound Organelles thylakoids and grana
Organelles Functions Golgi
Nucleus Apparatus
1. “Control Center” of the cell.
2. Contains the Cell’s DNA (genetic
information) in the form of genes
Nucleoli - A small body in the nucleus of a
cell that contains protein and RNA and is the
site for the synthesis of ribosomal RNA and
for the formation of ribosomal subunits.
Endoplasmic
Reticulum Modifies, sorts, and packages
(Rough) macromolecules for delivery to other
organelles or secretion from the cell via
exocytosis.
Cis Face – Entrance
Trans Face – Exit Phase
Lysosomes

Consists of many interconnected

membranous sacs called the cisternae onto
whose external surface, Ribosomes are
being attached.
Ribosomes – Produces Polypeptides
In Lumen of Cisternae – Produce Proteins

Endoplasmic Consists of many interconnected

Reticulum membranous sacs called the cisternae Are the tiny sacs that contain the enzymes.
(Smooth) (without the Ribosomes) Are the main sites for intracellular digestion.

Mitochondria Functions:
1. Autophagy
✓ Is the digestion of materials from
within the cell.
2. Heterophagy
✓ Is the digestion of materials
Functions as the power house of the cell originating from outside the cell.
by producing energy with the synthesis of 3. Biosynthesis
the ATP ✓ Recycling of unwanted products of
chemical reactions to process
 materials received from the outside
of the cell.
Peroxisomes

Similar (but smaller than) Lysosomes

Secretory
Vesicles

Transport and delivery of their contents
either in or out of the cell.
1. Endocytosis
✓ Movement of the contents of
secretory vesicles into the cell.
2. Exocytosis
✓ Movement of the contents of
secretory vesicles out of the cell.
Vacuole
In Eukaryotes:
1. G1 Phase
Metabolic changes prepare the cell for division. At a
certain point - the restriction point - the cell is
committed to division and moves into the S phase.
2. S phase
DNA synthesis replicates the genetic material. Each
chromosome now consists of two sister chromatids.
3. G2 phase
Metabolic changes assemble the cytoplasmic materials
necessary for mitosis and cytokinesis
4. M phase.
A nuclear division (mitosis) followed by a cell division
(cytokinesis).
Interphase - the period between mitotic divisions
✓ Is the stage of the cell cycle when a cell is preparing
itself to duplicate.

Helps maintain turgor pressure inside the

cell – which pushes the plasma membrane
against the cell wall.

In Prokaryotes:
Binary Fission
✓ The method by which bacteria reproduce. The circular
DNA molecule is replicated; then the cell splits into two
identical cells, each containing an exact copy of the original
cell's DNA.
 2. Metaphase
✓ Centrioles are at opposite ends of the cell poles.
✓ Chromosomes are lined up at the 'metaphase plate',
an imaginary line equidistant between the two poles.
✓ Centromeres of the chromosomes are all aligned with
one another.
✓ Chromatids are of each chromosome are attached to
a microtubule which form the spindle

3. Anaphase
✓ the paired chromosomes separate.
A SUMMARY OF DNA REPLICATION ✓ they move along the microtubules toward opposite
poles of the cell.
Mitosis ✓ the two poles of the cell each have a complete set of
1. is a form of eukaryotic cell division that produces two chromosomes
daughter cells with the same genetic component as the
parent cell. 4. Telophase
2. chromosomes replicated during the S phase are divided ✓ the microtubules become even longer, and daughter
in such a way as to ensure that each daughter cell nuclei begin to form at the two poles of the cell.
receives a copy of every chromosome. ✓ nuclear envelopes are formed, the nucleoli reappear,
3. in actively dividing animal cells, the whole process takes the chromatin of the chromosomes uncoils.
about one hour. ✓ mitosis is now complete: one nucleus has divided into
two genetically identical nuclei.
✓ cytokinesis follows and involves the formation of a
cleavage furrow, which pinches the cells in two.

Meiosis

1. is the form of eukaryotic cell division that produces

haploid sex cells or gametes (which contain a single
copy of each chromosome) from diploid cells (which
Stages of Mitosis contain two copies of each chromosome).
2. the process takes the form of one DNA replication
1. Prophase
followed by two successive nuclear and cellular divisions
✓ Nucleoli in the nucleus disappear.
(Meiosis I and Meiosis II).
✓ The chromatin fibers become tightly coiled and
3. as in mitosis, meiosis is preceded by a process of DNA
condense into chromosomes.
replication that converts each chromosome into two
✓ Chromosomes line up in pairs and are joined at the
sister chromatids.
centromere.
✓ In the cytoplasm, the spindle fibers begin to form
and are made of microtubules.
✓ The centrosomes move away from each other,
propelled by the lengthening microtubules, or
spindle fibers, between them.
Stages of Meiosis

MEIOSIS I

1. Prophase I
chromosomal condensation
✓
homologous chromosomes pair laterally, called
✓
synapsis.
2. Metaphase I
✓ each pair of bivalents (two chromosomes, four
chromatids total) align on the metaphase plate.
✓ the position of each chromosome in the bivalents is
random - either parental homolog can appear on
each side.
2. Anaphase I
✓ homologous chromosomes separate.
✓ homologous chromosomes, each containing two
chromatids, move to separate poles.
3. Telophase I
✓ the homologs of each bivalent arrive at opposite
poles of the cell, and a new nuclear membrane
forms around each set of chromosomes.
Cytokinesis then divides the cell into two
daughter cells. Each of the two daughter cells is ENERGY – The power to do work that produces light, motion,
now haploid (n), with half the number of or fuel or electricity for power.
chromosomes per nucleus as in meiosis I. 1. Kinetic Energy: Energy in motion
2. Potential Energy: Energy stored
MEIOSIS II

1. Prophase II METABOLISM – The whole range of biochemical processes that

occur within a living organism.
✓ Spindle fibers reform and attach to centromeres.
Oxidation-Reduction (Redox Reaction) – A type of chemical
2. Metaphase II reaction that involves transfer of electrons between 2 species
✓ chromosomes align on the metaphase plate during OXIDATION REDUCTION
metaphase II in preparation for centromeres to Losing Electrons Gaining Electrons
divide in the next phase. Oxidized Reduced
More Positive More Negative
3. Anaphase II
Reducing Agent1 Oxidizing Agent
✓ chromosomes divide at the centromeres and the Na → Na++e- S + 2e-→ S2-
resulting chromosomes, each with one chromatid,
move toward opposite poles of the cell.
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) – Energy-carrying molecule
4. Telophase II found in the cells of all living things. Captures chemical energy
obtained from the breakdown of food molecules and releases it
✓ Four haploid nuclei (containing chromosomes with
to fuel other cellular processes.
single chromatids) are formed.
✓ Division of the cytoplasm during cytokinesis results Enzymes - substances that acts as a catalyst in living organisms,
in four haploid cells. regulating the rate at which chemical reactions proceed without
itself being altered in the process

Active site – part of the molecules that has just the right shape
and functional groups to bind to one of the reacting molecule

Substrate – reacting molecules

Types of Enzymes a) Simple Diffusion
- only the cell membrane is required for small
1. Hydrolase molecule movement (CO2, H2O, O2)
- hydrolysis - it is the movement of particles from an area of
2. Isomerase higher concentration to an area with less
- rearrangement of atoms within a molecule concentration.
3. Lyase Dynamic Equilibrium - is the end of diffusion
- splitting a chemical into smaller parts without using
water (catabolic) b) Facilitated Diffusion
4. Oxidoreductase - transmembrane proteins are required as carriers of
- transfers electrons or hydrogen atoms from one some molecules and ions
molecule to another
c) Osmosis
5. Synthetases
- is the movement of water molecules across a semi-
- joining of 2 molecules by the formation of new
permeable membrane from the side or area where
bonds is greater in concentration to where it is less
6. Transferase concentrated.
- moving a functional group to another - its identity is the mechanism by which water moves
through a membrane from the side with lower
Transport Mechanism
solute concentration to the side with higher solute
- is important to accommodate the needs of the cell in the
concentration.
form of ions, nutrients, and other molecules.
- change in solute concentration mediates osmosis:
- it may occur with or without the use of energy in the form
✓ Isotonic – cells stay normal
of ATP.
✓ Hypotonic – cells swell (cytolysis)
✓ Hypertonic – cells shrink
Structure and Components of Plasma Membrane
Plasmolysis – contraction of cell
Components Function
protoplasm due to loss of water
Phospholipid Main fabric of the membrane
Cholesterol Dampens effects of temperature
Transport substances through
Integral Proteins
membrane
Peripheral Proteins Cell recognition
Cell recognition
Carbon Hydrates Interaction with the aqueous
environment

Factors Affecting Diffusion

1. Extent of concentration gradient
2. Mass of the molecules diffusing
3. Temperature
4. Solvent density
5. Solubility
6. Surface area and thickness of the plasma
membrane
7. Distance travelled
Types of Cellular Transport
2. Active Transport – is the transport wherein ions or
1. Passive Transport is an energy-independent
molecules move against a concentration gradient,
mechanism of the cell, allowing small molecules to enter
which means movement in the direction opposite that
into it without energy consumption.
of diffusion. Hence, this process will require expenditure
- usually the basis of movement is through
of energy, and the assistance of a type of protein called
concentration gradient.
a carrier protein.
3. Vesicular/Bulk Transport
- occurs when there is a huge quantity of materials
to transport into or out of the cytoplasm.
- also requires ATP for the mechanism to take place.
a. Endocytosis
moves a large quantity of substances into the
cell from the extracellular fluid.
3. Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
- it relies upon the interaction of the
substance that tries to enter the cell and
the cell surface receptor.
- it is the usual mechanism that some
metabolites, hormones, other proteins,
and viruses gain entry into the cell.

TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS:
1. Phagocytosis
- is the process of engulfing and ingestion
of particles by the cell or a phagocyte
(e.g. macrophage) to form a phagosome
(or food vacuole), which in turn fuse with
lysosome and become phagolysosome
where the engulfed material is eventually
digested or degraded and either released
extracellularly via exocytosis, or released
intracellularly to undergo further
processing. b. Exocytosis
is a process by which the cell moves out a bulk
Phases of Phagocytosis: quantity of materials from the cell.
1 Chemotaxis and adherence of of
microbe to phagocyte.
2 Ingestion of microbe by
phagocyte
3 Formation of phagosome.
4 Fusion of the phagosome with a
lysosome to form a
phagolysosome.
5 Digestion of ingested microbe by
enzymes.
6 Formation of residual body
containing indigestible material.
7 Discharge of waste materials.

2. Pinocytosis
- is a process of taking in fluid together with
its contents into the cell by forming narrow
channels through its membrane that pinch
off into vesicles, and fuse with lysosomes
that hydrolyze or break down contents.