𝑞
𝐶𝑃 =
𝑚∆𝑇
Where:
C P= specific heat in cal/g-°C
q = heat added in calories,
m = mass in grams
ΔT = rise in temperature of the material in °C.
The value of CP for water is 1 cal/g-°C.
It can be shown that for a an ideal or perfect gas, 𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅, where R is the gas
constant.
𝐶
The ratio, 𝐶𝑃 , has been given symbol γ,
𝑉
𝐶𝑃
𝛾=
𝐶𝑉
and is always greater than unity. The approximate value of this ratio is 1.6 for monatomic gases
such as Ar and He. Diatomic gases (such as 𝐻2 , 𝑁2 , 𝑂2 , 𝐶𝑂) have a g ratio about 1.4 and triatomic
(such as𝑆𝑂2 , 𝐶𝑂3 ) 1.3
4. Enthalpy :
The enthalpy which is defined to be the sum of the internal energy E plus the
product of the pressure p and volume V. Using the symbol H for the enthalpy.
H = E + PV
Where:
H=enthalpy
E= energy of the system
PV = pressure in atm times volume in liters
Enthalpy is a state function.
5. Internal energy
Internal energy is the total energy content of the system
Internal energy (U) is the capacity to do work plus the capacity to release heat
The internal energy of a thermodynamic system, or a body with well-defined
boundaries, denoted by U, or sometimes E, is the total of the kinetic energy due to
6. Heat capacity.
The heat capacity of a substance is the quantity of heat to be supplied to effect a
temperature rise of one degree, the units J/K (Joule per Kelvin)
C= dQ / dT
7. Write the first law thermodynamic equation for an open and a closed systems.
a. Open system
The general equation for energy and material balances are as follows:
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
= 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 +
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
Under steady state condition energy and mass change in system are zero
b. Closed System
𝒎∆𝑬 = 𝑸 − 𝑾 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑎𝑠, 𝒎𝒅𝑬 = 𝒅𝑸 − 𝒅𝑾
Where, m is mass of the system, E is internal energy of the system, Q is heat added to the system
and W is the work done by the system.
8. Write down the first law equation for a steady stat and unsteady state open systems.
a. Steady state open system:
𝑚(∆𝐻 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸) = 𝑄 − 𝑊𝑆
b. Unsteady state open system:
∆(𝑚𝐻) = 𝑄 − 𝑊𝑆 − ∆(𝑚𝐸) , 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∆(𝑚𝐻) = 𝑚2 𝐻2 − 𝑚1 𝐻1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆(𝑚𝐸) = 𝑚𝑓 𝐸𝑓 − 𝑚𝑖 𝐸𝑖
Where ‘m’ is mass; ‘H’ is enthalpy; ‘KE’ is kinetic energy; ‘PE’ is potential
energy; ‘Q’ is heat added,
‘WS’ is shaft work; ‘E’ is internal energy; i and f indicates initial and final
conditions, of the system.
15. “The enthalpy of an ideal gas depends only on the temperature” and “the internal is only a
function of temperature” – State your comment on the statement.
The internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on temperature. It is independent of
pressure and volume.
19. At what conditions the ideal gas law is obeyed more closely by a real gas?
The ideal gas law is applicable only at very low pressures and temperatures far away from the
critical temperatures. The most engineering applications the normal pressure range is between 10
and 20 atm. Also if the absolute temperature involved is at least twice the critical temperature the
ideal gas relations do not introduce serious error.
20. Define reduced pressure (PR), reduced temperature (TR) and reduced volume (VR).
𝑃 𝑇 𝑉
𝑃𝑅 = , 𝑇𝑅 = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑅 = , 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝐶 , 𝑇𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐶 𝑎𝑟𝑒 critical pressure, critical
𝑃𝐶 𝑇𝐶 𝑉𝐶
temperature and critical volume.
𝑹
21. Show that 𝑪𝑽 = 𝜸−𝟏
𝐶𝑃
We know = 𝛾, also 𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅
𝐶𝑉
The work done by the system is still the area under the P-V curve, but because this
is not a straight line the calculation is a little tricky, and really can only properly be done
using calculus.
The internal energy of an ideal gas is proportional to the temperature, so if the
temperature is kept fixed the internal energy does not change. The first law, which deals
with changes in the internal energy, thus becomes 0 = Q - W, so Q = W. If the system does
work, the energy comes from heat flowing into the system from the reservoir; if work is
done on the system, heat flows out of the system to the reservoir.
Note: The suffix ‘i’ indicates the initial and ‘f’ indicates the final condition of a given
process
Where is, the specific heat capacity at constant volume, is initial temperature and is final
temperature. and conclude with:
(or)
∆𝑼 = 𝑼𝟐 − 𝑼𝟏 = ∫ 𝑪𝑽 𝒅𝑻
According to the first law of thermodynamics, where W is work done by the system, U is
internal energy, and Q is heat. Pressure-volume work by the closed system is defined as:
where Δ means change over the whole process, whereas d denotes a differential. Since
pressure is constant, this means that
.
Applying the ideal gas law, this becomes
By convention, work is defined as the work the system does on its environment. If, for
example, the system expands by a piston moving in the direction of force applied by the
internal pressure of a gas, then the work is counted as positive, and as this work is done by
using internal energy of the system, the result is that the internal energy decreases.
Conversely, if the environment does work on the system so that its internal energy increases,
the work is counted as negative.
It is also worth noting that, for many systems, if the temperature is held constant, the
internal energy of the system also is constant, and so . From First Law of
Thermodynamics, , so it follows that for this same isothermal process.
When no heat flows into or out of the gas because the temperature is constant, then there is no
work done. Thus, work=0 which means external pressure is zero. This is called free expansion.
32. Define an adiabatic (no heat exchange within a system) process in terms of thermodynamic
equations.
An adiabatic process is a conversion that occurs without input or release of heat within a
system. Many rapid chemical and physical processes are described in this way. Such processes
are usually followed or preceded by events that do involve heat. Examples include electron-
transfer.
The mathematical equation for an ideal gas undergoing a reversible (i.e., no entropy
generation) adiabatic process is
being the specific heat for constant pressure, being the specific heat for constant
volume, is the adiabatic index, and is the number of degrees of freedom (3 for
monatomic gas, 5 for diatomic gas).
For a monatomic ideal gas, , and for a diatomic gas (such as nitrogen and oxygen,
the main components of air) . Note that the above formula is only applicable to
classical ideal gases and not Bose–Einstein or Fermi gases.
For reversible adiabatic processes, it is also true that
Because the net variation in state properties during a thermodynamic cycle is zero, it
forms a closed loop on a PV diagram. A PV diagram's Y axis shows pressure (P) and X axis
shows volume (V). The area enclosed by the loop is the work (W) done by the process:
Equation (2) makes a cyclic process similar to an isothermal process: even though the
internal energy changes during the course of the cyclic process, when the cyclic process
finishes the system's energy is the same as the energy it had when the process began.
If the cyclic process moves clockwise around the loop, then W will be positive, and it
represents a heat engine. If it moves counterclockwise, then W will be negative, and it
represents a heat pump
When the index n is between any two of the former values (0, 1, gamma, or infinity), it means
that the polytrophic curve, will bounded by the curves of the two corresponding indices.
54. How can you identify whether a process is feasible or not using entropy?
In this cycle, a circulating refrigerant such as Freon enters the compressor
as a vapor.
The vapor is compressed at constant entropy and exits the compressor
superheated.
The superheated vapor travels through the condenser which first cools and
removes the superheat and then condenses the vapor into a liquid by
removing additional heat at constant pressure and temperature.
The liquid refrigerant goes through the expansion valve (also called a
throttle valve) where its pressure abruptly decreases, causing flash
evaporation and auto-refrigeration of, typically, less than half of the liquid.
That results in a mixture of liquid and vapor at a lower temperature and
pressure.
The cold liquid-vapor mixture then travels through the evaporator coil or
tubes and is completely vaporized by cooling the warm air (from the space
being refrigerated) being blown by a fan across the evaporator coil or tubes.
The resulting refrigerant vapor returns to the compressor inlet to complete
the thermodynamic cycle.
Refrigeration Cycle (P-V diagram)
69. How COP is calculated for refrigeration and heat pump cycle for ideal and Carnot?
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