Refrigeration

Process
Design

Absorption Refrigeration Systems or Absorption

Chillers – An absorption chiller produces chilled water by using the residual heat in a process
plant. Pure water is usually used as refrigerant, whereas lithium bromide (LiBr) solution is used
as absorbent. Usual steps in an absorption based refrigeration cycle are – evaporation of
 refrigerant, absorption of refrigerant vapors by LiBr, regeneration of LiBr solution by using
residual waste heat, condensation of vapors etc.

An absorption chiller is a machine that produces chilled water by using the residual heat from
sources such as steam, hot water or hot gas. Chilled water is produced by the principle of
refrigeration that liquid (refrigerant), which evaporates at low temperature, absorbs heat from its
surrounding environment while evaporating. Pure water is usually used as refrigerant, whereas
lithium bromide (LiBr) solution is used as absorbent.

Figure 1 - Schematic of double effect absorption chiller

How absorption chiller systems work

In absorption refrigeration systems, an absorber, generator, pump, and heat exchanger replace the
compressor of vapor compressor refrigeration (mechanical refrigeration) systems. The other
three (3) components found also in mechanical refrigeration systems, i.e. expansion valve,
evaporator and condenser are also used in absorption refrigeration systems.
 Evaporation stage of absorption chillers
Refer to figure-2 for schematic explanation of the absorption refrigeration process. Similar to
mechanical refrigeration, the cycle “begins” when high pressure liquid refrigerant from the
condenser passes through an expansion valve (1, in figure-2) into the lower-pressure evaporator
(2, in figure-2) and collects in the evaporator sump.

At this low pressure, a small amount of the refrigerant flashes to vapor. This process of
vaporization cools the remaining liquid refrigerant. In a similar way, the transfer of heat from the
comparatively warm process water to the now cool refrigerant causes the latter to evaporate (2,
in figure-2), and the resulting refrigerant vapour is driven to the lower-pressure absorber (3, in
figure-2). As the process water looses heat to the refrigerant it can get cooled to significantly low
temperatures. In this stage chilled water is actually produced by evaporation the refrigerant.

Absorption stage of absorption chillers

Absorption of refrigerant vapor into lithium bromide is an exothermic process. At the absorber,
the refrigerant is “soaked up” by an absorbent lithium bromide (LiBr) solution. This process not
only creates a low-pressure area that draws a continuous flow of refrigerant vapor from the
evaporator to the absorber, but also causes the vapor to condense (3, in figure-2) as it releases the
heat of vaporization provided in the evaporator. This heat, along with the heat of dilution
produced as the refrigerant condensate mixes with the absorbent, is transferred to the cooling
water and released in the cooling tower. Cooling water is a utility in this stage of refrigeration.

Regeneration of lithium bromide solution

As the lithium-bromide absorbent soaks up the refrigerant,it becomes more and more diluted,
reducing its ability to absorb more refrigerant. In order to continue the cycle, the absorbent must
be re-concentrated. This is accomplished by constantly pumping (4, in figure-2) dilute solution
from the absorber to the low temperature generator (5, in figure-2), where the addition of
residual heat (hot water, steam, or natural gas) boils the refrigerant from the absorbent. Often this
generator is used to recover waste heat from the plant. Once the refrigerant is removed, the re-
concentrated lithium bromide solution returns to the absorber, ready to resume the absorption
process and the free refrigerant is sent to a condenser (6, in figure-2). In this regeneration stage,
waste heat from steam or hot water is an utility.

Condensation of the refrigerant

The refrigerant vapor boiled off in the generator (5, in figure-2) goes back to the condenser (6),
where it returns to its liquid state as the cooling water picks up the heat of vaporization. The
refrigerant then returns to the expansion valve where the full cycle is completed. In the
condensation stage cooling water is again an utility.
 Fogure 2 - How a single effect absorption refrigeration system works

Different technologies for absorption chillers

Absorption chillers can be single effect, double effect, or the latest development, which is triple
effect. Single effect machines have a single generator (please refer to the schematic above,
figure-2) and have a COP value smaller than 1.0. Double effect machines have two generators
and two condensers and are more efficient (typical COP values > 1.0). Triple effect machines add
a third generator and condenser and are the most efficient: typical COP value > 1.5.
 Pros and cons of absorption chiller systems
The primary advantage of absorption chillers is lower electricity costs. Costs can be even further
decreased if natural gas is available at a low price or if we can utilize a source of low grade heat
that is otherwise wasted in a plant.

Two basic disadvantages of absorption chillers are their size – weight, as well as their
requirement for larger cooling towers. Absorption chillers are larger and heavier compared to
electric chillers of the same capacity.

Basics requirements of refrigerants – A refrigerant is a compound used in the refrigeration

process that goes under a phase change from a gas to liquid and then back. Selection of the
refrigerant to be used is most of the times project-specific and demands careful consideration.
Multiple factors such as toxicity, flammability, explosivity, Ozone Depletion Potential, dew point
pressure, corrosivity etc. of the refrigerant compound need to be considered when selecting a
refrigerant for a specific refrigeration process.

Refrigerants – Basic Requirements

A refrigerant is a compound used in the refrigeration process that goes under a phase change
from a gas to liquid and then back. Refrigerants can be found in household refrigerators as well
as several commercial and industrial applications.
Different types of refrigerants can be used for specific applications and requirements.
Some of the most important things to consider while selecting a refrigerant are listed below:
 The refrigerant must not be poisonous. In case this is not possible, the refrigerant must
have a characteristic odor or contain a tracer element so that its leakage can quickly be
observed.
 The refrigerant must not be flammable or explosive. Where this condition cannot be met,
a distinctive odor has to be given to the refrigerant and relevant regulations to be applied.
 The refrigerant must be environmentally friendly. All refrigerants are characterized by the
following two numbers: ODP (Ozone Depletion Potential) and GWP (Global
Warming Potential). The lower these values are, the more environmentally friendly a
refrigerant is.
 The refrigerant must be kept under reasonable pressure, preferably a little higher than
atmospheric pressure at the temperatures required in the evaporator.
 To avoid expensive design, the pressure, corresponding to normal condensing pressure,
must not be too high.
 High evaporating temperature is generally desirable so that heat transmission can occur
with lowest possible circulating refrigerant.
 The refrigerant must be chemically stable at the temperatures and pressures typically
expected to be encountered in a refrigeration plant.
  The refrigerant must not be corrosive or attack normal design materials.
 The refrigerant must not break down lubricating oil.
 The refrigerant must be easy to obtain and handle.
 The cost of the refrigerant must not be too high.
Of course, not a single refrigerant can meet all above mentioned requirements. Therefore,
selection of the refrigerant to be used is most of the times project-specific and demands careful
consideration.

Figure 1 - Typical compressor used in household or commercial refrigeration systems

Types of Refrigerants – Most commonly used types of refrigerants are – halocarbons or freons,
azeotropic refrigerants, zeotropic refrigerants, inorganic refrigerants like carbon dioxide,
ammonia, water, air etc. and hydrocarbon refrigerants.

Vapor Compression Refrigeration (VCR) Cycle –

A majority of big refrigeration systems in use nowadays use the Vapor Compression
Refrigeration (VCR) cycle. VCR uses mechanical energy (through a compressor) as the driving
force for refrigeration. A typical vapor compression refrigeration cycle goes through following
 steps – evaporation of liquid refrigerant, compression of the refrigerant vapors, condensation of
pressurized refrigerant vapors and finally expansion of the condensed refrigerant through an
expansion valve.

Types of Refrigerants

The most common types of refrigerants in use nowadays are presented below:
- halocarbons or freons.
- azeotropic refrigerants.
- zeotropic refrigerants.
- inorganic refrigerants like carbon dioxide, ammonia, water and air.
- hydrocarbon refrigerants.
Halocarbons are generally synthetically produced. Depending on whether they include chemical
elements hydrogen (H), carbon (C), chlorine (Cl) and florine (F) they are named after as follows:
CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons): R11, R12, R113, R114, R115
HCFCs (Hydrochlorofluorocarbons): R22, R123
HFCs (Hydrofluorocarbons): R134a, R404a, R407C, R410a
Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) and Global Warming Potential (GWP)
In general, all refrigerants are characterised by two numbers: Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP)
and Global Warming Potential (GWP).
ODP values range from 0 to 1: the closest the ODP value is to 1, the more harmful the refrigerant
is for the ozone layer.CFCs are generally characterised by a big ODP value, because they contain
chlorine, which is accused of heavily contributing to the Ozone Depletion phenomenon. As a
result, CFCs have been phased out of use nowadays.
 Chart with typical refrigerants ODP values
GWP values range from 0 to several thousands: the bigger the GWP value is, the more harmful
the refrigerant is for the global warming effect. In general, inorganic refrigerants like ammonia
and carbon dioxide are characterised by small GWP values. In general, HCFCs have also been
phased out since 2005, and only the chlorine free (zero ozone depletion) HFCs are allowed for
use nowadays.
Zeotropic and azeotropic mixtures
Azeotropic mixtures are mixtures of two or more refrigerants whose vapour and liquid phases
retain identical compositions over a wide range of temperatures. Typical examples of azeotropic
mixtures can be seen below:
R-502 : 8.8% R22 and 51.2% R115
R-503 : 40.1% R23 and 59.9% R13
A zeotropic mixture mixture is one whose composition in liquid phase differs to that in vapour
phase. The word zeotropic is a combination of Greek words zeo (meaning boiling) and tropi
(meaning change)
Consequently, unlike azeotropic refrigerants, zeotropic refrigerants do not boil at constant
temperatures.
Typical examples of zeotropic mixtures can be seen below:
R404a : R125/143a/134a (44%,52%,4%)
R407c : R32/125/134a (23%, 25%,
R410a : R32/125 (50%, 50%)
Many hydrocarbon gases like R170 (ethane), R290 (propane), R600 (butane), R600a (isobutane)
have successfully been used as refrigerants in industrial, commercial and domestic applications.
 Typical Vapor Compression Refrigeration
(VCR) cycle

A majority of big refrigeration systems in use nowadays use the Vapor Compression
Refrigeration (VCR) cycle. VCR uses mechanical energy (through a compressor) as the driving
force for refrigeration.
We will try to present below the basic characteristics of VCR cycle:

Figure 1 - Typical schematic of a Vapour Compression Refrigeration (VCR) cycle

Evaporation Stage of refrigeration
From points 1 to 2 on figure-1, low-pressure liquid refrigerant in the evaporator absorbs heat
from its surrounding environment, usually air, water or some other liquid and gets evaporated
into gas. As such, the refrigerant is slightly superheated at the outlet of the evaporator. The
evaporating liquid absorbs heat from the surroundings, thus performing the cooling or
refrigeration duty for the surrounding air, water or other medium. This is where the refrigeration
actually occurs.
Compression of the refrigerant
 From point 2 to 3 on figure-1, the superheated vapor from evaporator enters the compressor
where its pressure is increased due to compression. The temperature also typically increases,
since a part of the energy put into the compression process is transferred to the refrigerant.
Condensation of pressurized refrigerant
From point 3 to point 4 on figure-1, the pressurized and superheated gas from compressor outlet
is sent to a condenser. The initial part of the cooling process (3-3a in figure-2) de-superheats the
gas before it is then turned back into liquid (3a-3b in figure-2). The cooling for this process is
usually accomplished by use of air or water. A further reduction in temperature happens in the
pipe work and liquid receiver (3b-4 on figure-2), so that the refrigerant liquid is sub-cooled as it
enters the expansion device. This step is where the heat absorbed from process fluid at the
evaporation stage is vented out to atmosphere, as indicated in figure-2.
Expansion of the subcooled and highly pressurized refrigerant
From point 4 to point 1 on figure-1, The high-pressure sub-cooled liquid passes through the
expansion device, which reduces its pressure as well as controls the flow into the evaporator. The
process is repeated from now in cycle.

Figure 2 - Typical representation of Vapour Compression Refrigeration (VCR) cycle in pressure-

enthalpy diagram