H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The behavior under impact loading of an innovative hybrid fiber-reinforced engineered cementitious composite
Received 31 October 2016 incorporating short randomly dispersed shape memory alloy (HECC-SMAF) and PVA fibers was explored using a
Received in revised form 13 December 2016 drop weight impact test. Test specimens were also heat-treated to investigate possible pre-stressing effects of
Accepted 16 December 2016
SMA fibers on the impact resistance of the ECC. Uniaxial tensile testing on ECC coupon specimens was also con-
Available online 19 December 2016
ducted. A two-parameter Weibull distribution was used to analyze variations in experimental results in terms of
Keywords:
reliability function. Results indicate that SMA fibers significantly enhanced the tensile and impact performance of
Engineered cementitious composite the ECC. Adding fibers beyond a certain dosage led to fiber clustering, thus, no further gain in tensile and impact
Shape memory alloy performance was measured. The impact resistance of HECC-SMAF specimens was further improved after expo-
Impact loading sure to heat treatment. This highlights the significant contribution imparted by the local pre-stressing effect of
Toughness SMA fibers to the impact resistance of the composite. The Weibull distribution was adequate to predict the im-
Heat treatment pact failure strength of ECC, allowing to avert additional costly experiments. This research underscores the poten-
Weibull distribution tial to engineer new cementitious composites with superior tensile properties and impact resistance for the
protection of critical infrastructure in the event of explosive or impact loading.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.12.047
0264-1275/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
140 M.A.E.M. Ali et al. / Materials and Design 117 (2017) 139–149
Table 1
Mechanical properties of NiTi-SMA and PVA fibers.
Mechanical properties Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) Diameter (mm) Length (mm) Young's modulus (GPa) Elongation (%) Density (kg/m3)
Table 2
Mixture proportions for the tested ECC specimens.
Mixture ID Cement Fly ash Silica sand w/cm HRWRA PVA (%Vf) SMA (%Vf)
trade center twin towers, research on the resistance of structures to im- properties of fibers were more influential than their material properties
pact loading, explosive waves and penetration of fragments has become in improving the impact resistance of the hybrid-fiber reinforced slabs.
a very active research topic, especially for military and defense facilities. The notion behind the growing interest in using hybrid fibers with two
Under impact loading, the failure of RC elements has often led to partial or more fiber types and sizes is that they could create synergistic effects
or total collapse of buildings, causing substantial economic and human through their different elastic properties and/or various sizes since
life losses [2]. Therefore, innovative materials that can enhance the de- micro-fibers can control the growth of micro-cracks, while large fibers
formation capacity, ductility, damage tolerance, and confinement of restrain the growth of larger cracks.
structural concrete elements, while minimizing residual crack sizes With the advent of engineered cementitious composites (ECC) and
and recovering/reducing permanent deformations, are highly sought emergence of smart materials such as shape memory alloys (SMA),
after [3]. A potential scheme to achieve such an enhanced performance new opportunities in tailoring high-impact resistance cement-based
is using shape memory alloy (SMA) bars in structural elements either as materials have opened up. ECC is a high-performance cement-based
total or partial replacement for traditional reinforcing steel [4–6]. How- composite, which was developed in the early 1990's [15]. Maalej et al.
ever, using large-diameter SMA bars was found to reduce the hysteretic [16] explored the behavior of hybrid-fiber ECC panels reinforced with
area of the SMA and its ability to dissipate energy compared to that of 1.5% polyethylene (PE) and 0.5% steel fibers subjected to a high velocity
small-diameter SMA wires. This was attributed to the accumulation of projectile. Results demonstrated the potential of ECC to perform as a
more distorted martensite crystalline structure and inherent deficien- protective material in various applications, such as improving shatter
cies in larger-diameter bars with respect to smaller-diameter wires resistance with reduced scabbing and spalling associated with distribut-
[7]. Moreover, the better spatial distribution of short fibers can facilitate ed micro-cracking. Moreover, a series of drop weight impact tests were
crack closing in multiple directions as opposed to unidirectional bars [8]. conducted by Yang and Li [17] on hybrid-fiber-reinforced ECC panels
Most pertinent recent research work focused on the impact behavior and beams incorporating PVA and PE fibers. It was concluded that the
of cement-based materials reinforced by mono-fibers [9–11] and/or hy- material ductility of ECC specimens led to enhanced impact resistance
brid-fibers with two different types of fibers or more [1,12,13]. For in- through improving the load carrying capacity and energy dissipation
stance, Almusallam et al. [14] investigated the effect of utilizing more ability of the tested structural elements. Furthermore, Soe et al. [1]
than two different types and sizes of fibers on the impact resistance of showed that a hybrid-fiber ECC incorporating a combination of 1.75%
hybrid-FRC slabs. They tested a set of slabs reinforced with steel (SE), PVA and 0.58% steel fibers achieved superior performance, absorbing
polypropylene (PP) and Kevlar fibers under the effect of high-velocity more energy than that of the control normal concrete when subjected
projectiles of up to 657 m/s. Results showed that the geometrical to high velocity projectiles.
Although there is significant research on the impact resistance of
ECC as a material, there is dearth of information on the performance
of ECC structural members under the effects of impact loads. Therefore,
in the present study, the impact resistance of innovative hybrid fiber-re-
inforced ECC mixtures incorporating a combination of randomly dis-
persed polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and nickel titanium shape memory
alloy (NiTi-SMA) short fibers was investigated. The study aims to ulti-
mately coin a composite with superior resistance to impact loading,
and possibly with self-healing capability to create novel alternatives in
designing ductile structural elements capable of mitigating damage
inflicted by impact, explosive and dynamic loading.
2. Experimental program
(HRWRA) meeting the requirements of ASTM standard C494 [20] was For the drop weight test, 100 mm × 200 mm [4 in. × 8 in.] cylindrical
used to adjust workability. All ECC mixtures had a constant water-to- specimens were cast and then cut into three similar 100 mm × 50 mm
binder ratio (w/b) of 0.26, fly ash-cement ratio (FA/C) of 1.2 and 1.2% [4 in. × 2 in.] discs. Furthermore, 160 mm × 50 mm × 20 mm
of HRWRA by weight of binder. NiTi-SMA fiber conforming to ASTM [64 in. × 20 in. × 8 in.] coupon specimens were prepared from each mix-
standard F2063 [21] and PVA short fibers were added at different dos- ture for the uniaxial tensile test [23]. After 24 h, all ECC specimens were
ages to the ECC mixtures. Table 1 summarizes various characteristics demolded and cured for 7 days in sealed plastic bags at the laboratory
of the PVA and SMA fibers. temperature (21 ± 2 °C) then left in laboratory condition until testing.
Five different ECC mixtures incorporating various dosages of SMA All reported results represent the average value obtained on triplicate
and/or PVA short-fibers were tested. The first test mixture series was di- specimens.
rected to investigating the effects of using mono PVA fibers at a dosage
of 2% by volume fraction on the tensile and impact resistance of the ECC
matrix. In the second test series, the effects of adding different dosages
of SMA fibers (i.e. 0%, 0.5%, 1%, and 1.5% by volume fraction) on the ten-
sile and impact behavior of hybrid fiber (PVA combined with SMA) ECC
were investigated. Table 2 exhibits the compositions of the different ECC
mixtures. The first number in the abbreviation of mixture labels relates
to the PVA fiber content, while the second number indicates the SMA
fiber content. For example, mixture ECC2-1 refers to an ECC mixture in-
corporating 2% PVA fiber and 1% SMA fiber by volume fraction,
respectively.
Initially, all solid ingredients including the cement, FA and silica sand
were dry-mixed for one minute. Then, the mixing water and HRWRA
were added and mixed with the dry ingredients for another three mi-
nutes until a homogeneous mortar was obtained. The PVA and SMA fi-
bers were gradually added into the mortar over another three minutes
of mixing until the fibers were uniformly distributed based on visual in-
spection. More details about the utilized mixing technique were pre-
sented by Turk and Demirhan [22]. Fig. 4. Percent enhancement in tensile strength of ECC specimens.
142 M.A.E.M. Ali et al. / Materials and Design 117 (2017) 139–149
Fig. 5. Percent enhancement in strain capacity of ECC specimens. Fig. 6. Impact energy sustained by ECC specimens up to failure.
3. Testing method the front face of the tested specimens. The temperature of the speci-
mens' core and surface were measured every minute during the heating
3.1. Uniaxial tensile test process using embedded thermal sensors and an infra-red (IR) ther-
mometer. The specimens were left to cool down to room temperature,
Three uniaxial tensile coupon specimens, as shown in Fig. 1, were and then the drop weight test was carried out. The impact energy for
prepared from each ECC mixture and tested at the age of 90 days to ex- each ECC specimen was calculated according to ASTM standard D5628
plore the tensile behavior of the mono- and hybrid-fiber-reinforced ECC [27] using the following equation (Eq. (1)):
specimens. Tests were carried out using the Instron testing machine
under displacement control and a loading rate of 0.5 mm/min as per IE ¼ Ni :h:w:f ð1Þ
the guidelines of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE) [24] for di-
rect tension testing of HPFRC. The specimens were clamped at both where IE is the impact energy in Joule, Ni is the number of blows, h is the
ends and wedge pressure was adjusted to avoid cracks in the clamped falling height of the steel mass in mm, w is the mass of the steel hammer
parts. The tensile properties of the ECC coupon specimens including in kg, and f is a constant with a value of 9.806 × 10−3.
the ultimate strength and strain capacity were evaluated directly
from a data analysis system connected to the Instron testing 4. Results and discussion
machine. A 50 mm extensometer was attached to the coupon speci-
mens to estimate the strain capacity, which is evaluated by dividing 4.1. Uniaxial tensile strength
the extension reading at which the tensile stress on the descending
zone reaches 90% of the ultimate strength, by the extensometer Fig. 3 shows typical stress-strain curves from uniaxial tensile tests of
gauge length. The tensile strength is evaluated via dividing the hybrid-fiber ECC specimens conducted at the age of 90 days. The results
applied tensile load by the cross-sectional area of the coupon speci- indicate that there is an intrinsic increase in the ultimate tensile
men [16]. strength of mono-PVA-ECC coupon specimen compared to that of con-
trol fibreless ECC specimens. For instance, the ultimate tensile strength
3.2. Impact test of the ECC2-0 specimen is 301.7% higher than that of the ECC0-0 control
specimen. Likewise, the strain capacity of the PVA-ECC specimen was
The drop weight impact test was conducted in compliance with the enhanced due to the incorporation of PVA fibers. It can be observed
guidelines proposed by the American Concrete Institute (ACI) Commit- that the strain capacity at ultimate tensile strength of ECC2-0 is about
tee 544 [25]. Each test specimen was adjusted, at the age of 90 days, in hundred and sixty times that of the fibreless ECC control mixture. Fur-
the testing setup and subjected to impact loading induced by a 4.5-kg thermore, the PVA-ECC specimen exhibited a strain hardening behavior
weight dropped from 457 mm height above the specimen, which was with appearance of multiple cracking up to failure. As displayed in Fig. 3,
able to produce an impact energy of 20.167 J per hit, as shown in Fig. after first crack, the stress continued to raise with inelastic strain and
2. The numbers of impacts to induce the first visible crack (N1), and fail- started to descend after reaching the peak strength. Conversely, the
ure (N2), respectively were recorded. fibreless ECC specimen showed fracture localization at the peak
Furthermore, a series of drop weight tests were conducted on similar strength due to its brittle nature.
ECC specimens after applying heat treatment. The heat treatment pro- Moreover, it can be observed that SMA fiber addition generally en-
cedure was similar to that suggested by Kim et al. [26]. A heating gun hanced the composite tensile properties. The achieved tensile strength
was fixed at 35 mm from the specimen's front surface for 25 min to mo- ranged between 6 MPa and 8 MPa, depending on the SMA fiber content.
bilize the pre-stressing effect of NiTi-SMA fibers owing to its shape Fig. 4 illustrates the percent enhancement in tensile strength capacity of
memory effect. The heat gun raised the specimen's temperature by the hybrid-fiber-reinforced ECC specimens compared to that of ECC
about 150 °C, leading to the appearance of multiple micro-cracks at specimens reinforced by 2% PVA fiber alone. The ultimate tensile
Table 3
Statistical analysis of test results (N1/N2).
Table 4
Cumulative mercury intrusion volume of ECC specimens (mL/g).
Fig. 9. Failure patterns of ECC disc specimens: a) ECC0-0, b) ECC2-0, c) ECC2-0.5, d) ECC2-1, e) ECC2-1.5, and f) SMA fiber bridging.
simultaneously degraded as discussed above. For instance, the impact increased as the SMA fiber addition increased. For example, the impact
failure energy for specimens containing 0.5% SMA and 2% PVA fibers failure energy of the heat treated ECC 2-1 and ECC2-1.5 specimens in-
was increased by about 12.46% compared to that of the non-heated creased by about 34.15% and 29.53% compared to that of identical
specimens. Also, the impact failure energy for the heated specimens non-heated specimens, respectively. This can be attributed to the
Fig. 10. Effect of heat treatment on ECC specimens: a) surface cracking, and b) PVA deterioration.
M.A.E.M. Ali et al. / Materials and Design 117 (2017) 139–149 145
before failure. Moreover, the crack pattern changed from one main
crack in the case of the control specimens, to multiple fine cracks in
the PVA fiber-reinforced ECC2-0 specimens. The area under the
impactor was shriveled, displaying a small indent diameter and
depth in the PVA-ECC specimens. This is consistent with findings of
previous investigations [1,16,28].
A similar trend was displayed by the hybrid fiber-reinforced ECC
specimens incorporating a combination of PVA and SMA fibers, as
shown in Fig. 9c, d and e. The number of cracks induced by impact load-
ing increased with the increase of the SMA fiber content. For instance, as
displayed in Fig. 9c, d and e, the number of cracks was increased by
about 66%, 133% and 167% in the ECC2-0.5, ECC2-1 and ECC2-1.5 speci-
mens compared to that of ECC2-0. Also, the shriveling area, indent di-
ameter and its depth increased with increasing SMA fiber content
likely owing to the SMA fiber crack bridging capability, which held the
specimen together across growing cracks and performed as a crack
Fig. 11. Weibull distribution of first crack impact energy of ECC specimens. growth restraint (Fig. 9f).
Fig. 10 illustrates the effect of the heat treatment on the ECC spec-
imens. It can be observed that all specimens showed multiple fine
cracks specifically at the front surface, which was facing the heat
gun as shown in Fig. 10a. Also, the PVA fiber was deteriorated, partic-
ularly at the front surface exposed directly to the heating, thus incur-
ring damage to its mechanical properties as displayed in Fig. 10b.
Despite this damage to the PVA fiber and the deterioration that the
matrix incurred due to heat treatment, the addition of SMA fibers
contributed to superior performance of the heat-treated specimens
under impact loading.
α nα−1 −ðnuÞα
f ðnÞ ¼ e ð2Þ
u u
beneficial pre-stressing effect in ECC specimens owing to the shape where α represents the shape parameter (i.e. Weibull slope), u is the
memory alloy fibers, which restrained crack growth, a behavior also re- scale parameter, and n is the specific value of the random variable N
ported by Kim et al. [26]. The local pre-stressing effect of SMA fibers as (i.e. N1 and N2 in the present study). Integrating Eq. (2) gives the follow-
evidenced by the enhanced impact resistance subsequent to heat treat- ing (Eq. (3)):
ment opens interesting research directions for its application in protec-
n α
F N ðnÞ ¼ 1−e−ðuÞ
tive systems in critical facilities for national security.
ð3Þ
Table 5
Shape, scale parameters and coefficient of determination of ECC specimens.
Specimen ID α u R2
N2 N1 N2 N1 N2 N1
where i represents the failure order number and k denotes the number additional impact testing. Similar conclusions were drawn by others [8,
of data points. A linear regression analysis was applied to the ln [ln (1 / 34] for steel fiber-reinforced concrete. However, further tests are re-
LN)] and ln (impact energy) values as shown in Figs. 11 and 12. The linear quired to generalize this concept for ECC composite with different
trend is established by drawing the best fit line between data points characterizations.
using the method of least squares. The slope of the line provides an es-
timate of the shape parameter (α) and the scale parameter (u), which
4.4.2. Regression analysis of drop weight test results
can be obtained by calculating the value at which the line intersects
Fig. 13 illustrates the correlation between the number of blows
the ln [ln (1 / LN)] axis. The shape parameter (α), scale parameter (u)
which caused the first visible crack of the fiber-reinforced ECC speci-
and the coefficient of determination (R2) for the ECC specimens are
mens and the number of blows which caused its failure. This correlation
shown in Table 5.
was used to develop prediction equations for the number of blows
Tables 6 and 7 display the impact energy values for ECC specimens at
which can cause failure of ECC specimens under impact loading as
the first visible crack and failure stage, respectively based on reliability
shown in Table 8. Since the R2 values displayed in Table 8 for ECC spec-
analysis. The first crack impact energy of ECC2-0, ECC2-0.5, ECC2-1,
imens are equal to or higher than 0.89, which exceeds the limit (0.7)
and ECC2-1.5 specimens was approximately equal to or higher than
suggested by Rahmani et al. [33], these equations can be used with rea-
187.927, 876.453, 1377.93, and 1004.0088 with R2 of 0.9963, 0.9869,
sonable accuracy to represent the correlation between the number of
0.9874, and 0.9778, respectively. Likewise, the impact energy at failure
blows causing the first visible crack and the ultimate failure of the ECC
of ECC2-0, ECC2-0.5, ECC2-1, and ECC2-1.5 was approximately equal
specimens produced with and without SMA fibers.
to or higher than 667.926, 11614.5, 13502.0, and 13087.796 with R2 of
0.9322, 0.9505, 0.9973, and 0.9998, respectively. According to Rahmani
et al. [33], a coefficient of determination of 0.7 or higher is sufficient for a 4.4.3. Analysis of fiber dispersion
reasonable reliability model. Since all impact test data had R2 were equal Fiber distribution and free areas significantly affect the mechanical
to or higher than 0.93, a two-parameter Weibull distribution can be performance of fiber-reinforced composites [35]. It was observed that
used to establish the statistical distribution of impact test data for ECC by achieving better fiber distribution with decreased fiber-free area,
incorporating SMA fibers. These developed reliability curves can be con- the first crack stress, multiple cracking response and fracture toughness
sidered as a useful tool to quickly estimate the impact resistance of ECC of the composite could be improved [36]. Enhanced fiber spatial distri-
at cracking and failure, without conducting costly and time-consuming bution with minimal fiber clumping can enhance the fiber crack bridg-
ing capability and transferring of load to other parts of the composite.
For instance, Akkaya et al. [35] concluded that fiber-reinforced concrete
sections with higher fiber clumping percentages would crack before
Table 6 others with better dispersed fibers.
Weibull distribution for first crack impact energy of ECC specimens. In the present study, image processing analysis for cracked surfaces of ECC
Reliability level ECC2-0 ECC2-0.5 ECC2-1 ECC2-1.5 specimens was carried out as shown in Fig. 14. The cracked surface was finely
0.99 187.927 876.453 1377.93 1004.0088
clipped with diamond cut and then polished. It can be observed that ECC2-0.5
0.90 226.776 945.382 1448.94 1150.3270 specimens showed uniform distribution of SMA fibers with large free spaces
0.80 240.801 968.518 1472.39 1201.4080 between fibers along the cross-section. Likewise, ECC2-1 specimens displayed
0.70 250.004 983.264 1487.23 1234.4780 favorable SMA fiber dispersion with smaller fiber-free areas compared to that
0.60 257.289 994.710 1498.70 1260.4200
of the ECC2-0.5 specimens. Furthermore, ECC2-1.5 showed non-uniformity of
0.50 263.646 1004.540 1508.51 1282.8900
0.40 269.597 1013.610 1517.54 1303.7890
0.30 275.548 1022.570 1526.43 1324.5640
0.20 282.019 1032.180 1535.94 1347.0120
0.10 290.213 1044.160 1547.75 1375.2350
0.01 306.753 1067.740 1570.86 1431.5470
Table 7
Weibull distribution for impact energy at failure of ECC specimens.
Table 8 performance [36]. The F-function can be estimated by planning a regular grid
Relationship between N2 and N1 of ECC specimens. of points on AR and then finding the nearest fiber to each grid point. The F-
Reliability level Equation R2 function is evaluated as follows (Eq. (10)):
ECC2-0 N2 = 1.5 N1 + 19.833 0.9643
ECC2-0.5 N2 = 2.5 N1 + 469.5 0.8929 number of grid points in AR whose nearest fiber is lesser than r away
F ðr Þ ¼
ECC2-1 N2 = 4.2857 N1 + 377 0.9967 total number of grid points in AR
ECC2-1.5 N2 = 1.6892 N1 + 567.35 0.9686
ð10Þ
Fig. 14. SMA fiber dispersion of: a) ECC2-0.5, b) ECC2-1, and c) ECC2-1.5.
148 M.A.E.M. Ali et al. / Materials and Design 117 (2017) 139–149
Fig. 15. Typical K-function of fiber dispersion: a) clustered, b) random, and c) uniform. Fig. 17. F-function comparison of different ECC specimens and random dispersion.
In addition, Fig. 18 portrays the percentage of fiber-free area of different ANOVA at a significance level α1 = 0.05, displayed that variation in the
ECC specimens with respect to r distances. At lower r distances, all ECC spec- addition level of SMA fiber had a significant effect on the mean value of the
imens showed availability of fiber-free area. The ECC2-1 specimens achieved tensile strength and impact resistance of the ECC composite. The determined
the lowest fiber-free area, which reflects uniformity of SMA fiber dispersion Fo values for the tensile strength and impact test results were 25.21 and 77.51,
with relatively small spaces between fibers. In contrast, ECC2-0.5 specimens respectively, which is higher than the corresponding critical F value of 4.07
indicated the highest percentage of fiber-free area, followed by ECC2-1.5 (F0.05,3,8). This reflects the significant effect of incorporating SMA fibers in
specimens. Similar performance was observed at medium r distances. How- the production of ECC composites which is consistent with results obtained
ever, at higher r distances (typically r N 10 mm), fiber-free area in ECC2-0.5 earlier. Due to the overlap observed in impact test results due strength degra-
and ECC2-1 specimens no longer existed, indicating more uniform distribu- dation of ECC2-1.5 compared to that of ECC2-1 (Fig. 6) owing to fiber cluster-
tion of fibers. Conversely, free areas between SMA fibers in the ECC2-1.5 spec- ing and that of ECC2-0 due to heat treatment (Fig. 7), further ANOVA had
imens still existed at higher r distances. This is ascribed to the tendency of been applied especially for these results. The determined Fo value estimated
SMA fibers to cluster at high fiber dosage. The analysis of fiber distribution for impact resistance of HECC-SMAF composite reinforced by N2% PVA and
above provides insight into how various fiber dosages affected the tensile 1% SMA fibers was 7.286 which is higher than the corresponding critical F
and impact behavior of specimens incorporating various proportions of hy- value of 5.79 (F0.05,2,5). This reflects the significant effect of using higher dosage
brid fibers. of SMA fibers in the ECC mixture (ECC2-1.5) leading to decreased impact re-
sistance compared to that of ECC2-1. This is consistence with aforementioned
observations. Conversely, heat treatment indicated an insignificant effect on
4.4.4. Analysis of variance of test results the impact resistance of the PVA-ECC composite (ECC2-0). The estimated Fo
Recently, experimental test data of cement-based materials was statically value for the impact resistance results of the heated and non-heated ECC2-
analyzed using different probabilistic models. Particularly, the analysis of var- 0 specimen was 3.675 which is lower than the corresponding critical F
iance (ANOVA) has been among the most widely used [40–42]. To investigate value (F0.05,2,5).
whether an experimental variable (e.g. SMA fiber addition and/or effect of
heat treatment on ECC performance) is statistically significant, an Fo value is
estimated and compared to an F standard (critical) value of an F-distribution 5. Conclusions
density function obtained from statistical tables based on the significance
level (α1) and the degrees of freedom of error obtained from an experiment The performance of engineered cementitious composite specimens
using the number of variables and observations. Exceeding the F critical value incorporating hybrid PVA-SMA fiber reinforcement under tensile and im-
denotes that the tested variable affects the mean of the results [43]. pact loading was evaluated by conducting direct uniaxial tensile and drop
Fig. 16. K-function comparison of different ECC specimens and random dispersion. Fig. 18. Percentage of fiber-free areas of different ECC specimens with respect to r distance.
M.A.E.M. Ali et al. / Materials and Design 117 (2017) 139–149 149
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