42

CHAPTER 3

THERMAL SENSATION AND COMFORT

The principal components of climate are related here in this chapter

to the sensation of heat experienced by the human body. This is introduced by
a brief description of the mechanism for thermal control in the body and how it
responds to changing environmental conditions.

Comfort zones are established by which to assess the rigours of the

climate and against which to measure the thermal performance of a building as
a regulator of the ambient climate.

3.1 THERMAL REGULATORY SYSTEM OF HUMAN BEING

Thermal stress is manifested in several physiological and sensory

responses, which reflect the strain imposed on the body to maintain thermal
balance under stress conditions, or are caused by the discrepancy between the
rates of heat production and heat loss.

The main physiological responses are the circulatory regulation

(vasomotor regulation and pulse rate); change in skin temperature and inner
body temperature and weight loss (sweat rate). The main sensory responses are
thermal sensation (feeling of warmth) and the feeling of skin wetness (sensible
perspiration).
 43

To maintain life and health, the body not only has to lose its
internally generated heat at the same rate at which it gains it, but it has to
maintain a constant internal temperature of exactly 37°C. A person whose body
temperature rises above 42°C for even a short time will die of hyperthermia
(heat stroke). Similarly, life cannot be sustained if the body temperature drops
below 21°C due to hypothermia or exposure. In warm-blooded mammals
including man, the heat balance is controlled mainly by hypothalamus, which is
the part of the brain that acts like a thermostat.

When the external temperature conditions are cold, the hypothalamus

sets in motion a series of processes to minimise the heat loss at the skin, which
has normal temperature of between 31°C and 34°C. The skin contracts in order
to present as small a surface area as possible to the air. Blood circulation to the
capillaries is reduced by vasomotor contraction and often curtailed completely
in the extremities, such as fingers and toes. Finally in order to generate heat,
the involuntary muscular activity of shivering starts. When external thermal
conditions are hot, the reverse process is put into action: the skin dilates to
present as large a surface area as possible to the air and the flow of blood to the
surface is increased.

3.2 BODY HEAT LOSS

The human body loses heat at the surface of the skin through four
processes: the same processes by which the earth loses heat to the universe -
radiation, convection, evaporation and conduction.

Radiation is the transfer of heat through spaces between bodies of

different temperature that are not in contact with each other. Thus, the human
 44

body loses heat at its surface by radiation to the surrounding ground, walls,
ceiling and furniture as long as they are colder than the skin (31°C). If they are
hotter, obviously a person will gain heat from surroundings.

Convection is a series of thermally induced air currents. When the

temperature of the air is colder than that of the skin, the latter heats the air in
direct contact with it by conduction. This air expands and becoming less dense,
it rises to be replaced by cooler air, thereby setting up convection currents over
the body. In this way, a person in an environment with air temperature less
than 30°C (below skin temperature), is constantly surrounded by convective air
currents that remove heat from the surface of his body.

Evaporation is the conversion of a liquid into a vapour, during the

process of which the kinetic energy of the liquid is reduced which causes
cooling. The human skin is always slightly moist with sweat, which evaporates
in the air, thus cooling its surface. The lower the relative humidity of the air,
obviously the easier is the process of heat loss through evaporation.

Conduction is the transfer of heat from a body to a colder body in

i

direct contact with it. Apart from the conduction of heat from the skin to the air
with which it is in direct contact, (in a strict scientific sense the air is a gas and
not a body, therefore, the use of the term conduction of heat really means
conduction between the human body and the water vapour and solid particles
suspended in the air), in normal circumstances the body can lose very little heat
by conduction except through the soles of the feet to the ground or to a chair or
a bed on which a person may be sitting or lying.
 45

3.3 THE SENSATION OF HEAT

The human sensation of feeling hot is the way that a combination of

several climatic factors helps or hinders the loss of body heat. In a warm humid
climate, a person may feel very hot although the air temperature is not
particularly high. When he turns on a fan or the wind blows, he may
immediately feel comfortable or cool though the temperature of the air and the
mean radiant temperature of his surroundings have not changed. His sensation
of feeling ‘cooler’ results solely from the faster evaporation of sweat on his skin
caused by an increase in the rate of air movement over his body. A person may
feel equal sensation of ‘hotness’ throughout conditions where the temperature is
rising and the humidity is simultaneously dropping or vice versa. Thus, though
the ambient temperature is the major determinant in the sensation of feeling hot,
cold or comfortable, the humidity of the air and the speed of its movement can
fundamentally change this sensation.

3.4 THERMAL COMFORT INDICES

When the designer wants to assess the effect of climatic conditions

i

on the body’s heat dissipation process, he is faced with the difficulty of having
to handle the important four independent variables simultaneously, besides
clothing and activity etc. The environmental factors vary independently of each
other but act simultaneously on the human body. It is not possible to express
thermal response of the human body in terms of any single factor as the
influence of any one depends upon the levels of other factors. During the past
60 years, many experiments have been carried out in order to device a single
scale which combines the effects of these environmental factors. Such scales
 46

are collectively referred to as thermal ‘Comfort Indices’ or ‘Comfort Scales’ or

‘Index of Thermal Comfort’ or simply ‘Comfort’.

Large number of thermal indices has been developed in various

countries throughout the world, but none of them appears to be universally
satisfactory over the entire range of environmental conditions. For an index to
be valid its function must correlate well with the thermal sensation of people
engaged in their normal life routine. The divergence appears to be mainly on
physiological grounds partly due to the rapid and complex adjustment, the body
continually makes to counter environmental changes, partly to the fact that
thermally equivalent conditions produce different subjective sensations and
partly to the individual variation in adaptation to a given environment

Various research workers have devised some thirty different thermal

index scales (Koenigsberger, 1993). Some of the important thermal indices are
summarised as follows :

3.4.1 Effective Temperature

First Houghton and Yaglou introduced such scale in 1923 while

working at the American Society of Heating and Air-conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE). They named the new scale as effective temperature. It is defined
as the temperature of still, saturated air, which has the same general effect over
comfort as the atmosphere under investigation. Combinations of temperature,
humidity and wind velocity producing the same thermal sensation in an
individual are taken to have the same effective temperature. It over estimates
the effect of humidity both at cool and comfortable temperature. Considered
reasonably accurate for warm humid climates where heat stress is not high.
 47

3.4.2 Corrected Effective Temperature (C.E.T)

While the ET Scale integrates the effect of three variables -

temperature, humidity and air movement, corrected effective temperature also
included radiation effects.

This scale at present is the most widely used one. The chart used in
the analysis for the computation of effective temperatures were developed from
the normal scale of corrected effective temperatures published by Bedford.
Effective temperature for 0.1 m /sec and 5 m / sec velocity is shown in (Fig.3.1)
and (Fig.3.2), respectively. [‘Environmental warmth and its measurement’,
Medical Research Council, war office memorandum No. 17, HMSO, London,
1940, Reprinted 1961].

3.4.3 Resultant Temperature

This index developed by A. Missenard in France. It is thought to be

reliable for moderate climates and not for tropical climate, as it does not allow
sufficiently for the cooling effects of air movement over 35°C and 80% R.H.
t

3.4.4 Equatorial Comfort Index (E.C.I.)

Developed by C.G. Webb in Singapore in 1960. Subjective

responses of acclimatized subjects were recorded together with measurements
of air temperature, humidity and air movement. ECI is applicable for very
limited warm humid climates and oppressive conditions only where wet bulb
temperature exceeds 25°C.
 48

RELATIVE HUMIDITY %
0 10 20 30 40 SO tO 70 8090
o M ^ » e .o S X ^ S tS K K K a S S S S S fc i!!* * *

K S S B K K B S S S S S *
*ET
BYECT1VETEMPERATURE
°C AIRTEMPERATURE

FIGURE 3.1: EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE AT WIND SPEED OF 0.1 M/S

(FOR PEOPLE DRESSED IN LIGHT CLOTHING)
 49

FIGURE 3.2: EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE AT WIND SPEED OF 5.0 M/S

(FOR PEOPLE DRESSED IN UGHT CLOTHING)
 50

3.4.5 Equivalent Warmth (E.W)

Developed by Bedford in England. It is reliable within the comfort

zone up to 35°C with low R.H and up to 30°C with high R.H, but it under
estimates the cooling effect of air movement with high humidities.

3.4.6 Operative Temperature (O.T)

Developed in U.S.A by Winslow, Herrington and Gagge. In

principle similar to the equivalent warmth. Applicable to cool conditions,
where the effects of humidity were small and the rate of air movement also
negligible.

3.4.7 Predicted 4 Hours Sweat Rate (P4SR)

Recommended by McArdle (1947) and his colleagues during World

War II at the Royal Naval Research Institute. This index is based on
experiments carried out over 4 hour periods and measuring the sweat rate
resulting from 4 hour exposure to the given conditions. Metabolic rates as well
as clothing, air temperature, humidity, air movement and mean radiant
temperatures of the surrounding were considered. It is a reliable scale for high
temperature conditions. The cooling effect of air movement at high humidity is
under estimated.

3.4.8 Heat Stress Index

The heat balance equation of the human body was adopted by

Belding and Hatch (1955), to include numerical index of heat stress for the
 51

given conditions of work and climate. Several physiological assumptions were

made and calculation methods evolved to find an indication of heat stress on the
basis of environmental measurements. It was suggested (Givoni, 1976) that the
influence of clothing might affect all heat exchanges. It was also found that
Heat Stress Index overestimates the cooling effect of wind and warming effect
of humidity. Heat stress index, therefore, was regarded inadequate for
quantitative evaluation of the severity of thermal stress.

3.4.9 Bio-climatic Chart

Developed by V. Olgyay. The Bio-climatic chart on which the

comfort zone is defined in terms of dry bulb temperature and relative humidity,
but subsequently it is shown, by additional lines, how this comfort zone is
pushed up by the presence of air movements and how it is lowered by radiation.
Conclusions though valid, it is felt that a reliable comfort index still has its
usefulness.

3.4.10 Tropical Summer Index (T.S.I)

i
This has been developed by Central Building Research Institute
(C.B.R.I), Roorkee, India, from the subjective sensation of 24 observers during
the hot dry and warm humid indoor conditions in north India during summer
and monsoon months. Tropical Summer Index (T.S.I) is defined as the
temperature of calm air, at 50% relative humidity which imparts the same
thermal sensation as the given environment (BIS, 1987).

Tropical Summer Index (T.S.I) can be used for most parts of north
India, where it is hot dry and of moderate humidity.
 52

3.4.11 Index of Thermal Stress (I.T.S)

This index was developed by Givoni and Bemer-Nir (1967) to cover

all the mechanisms of heat loss and heat gain by the human body, and various
levels of work and clothing, Index of Thermal Stress (I.T.S) is not easily
workable and involves complex calculation.

3.4.12 Predicted Mean Value (P.M.V)

Fanger (1970) derived a thermal index depending upon the comfort

which makes it possible to predict the thermal sensation for any given
combination of activity level clothing and four environmental parameters. The
mathematical expression for Predicted Mean Value P.M.V is complex.
Predicted Mean Value P.M.V index can be expected to be less accurate at the
combinations.

Among the various thermal indices, two of the thermal indices, which
find application for hot environments, are i) corrected effective temperature and
ii) Tropical summer index. Among these two scales, the normal scale of
corrected< effective temperature by Bedford (1961) is shown in Fig.3.1 for
0.1 m/sec and Fig.3.2 for 5m/sec. It is based on the responses of subjects
wearing normal light clothing and is most widely used and the most accurate
for tropical climates.

3.5 HEAT FLOW THROUGH BUILDING MATERIALS

After the human body adjustment mechanisms and clothing, shelter

(the building envelope) is the third level of protection against climate. The
 53

human body has several adjustment mechanisms, for the protection of deep
body temperature as already discussed in Section 3.1 of this report. A second
level of protection is provided by clothing, which gives an insulation layer, thus
reducing heat dissipation. This can vary from zero to 3.5 clo, which is the
heaviest practicable arctic clothing (1 clo, the unit, is the equivalent of a 3 piece
business suit with cotton underwear). Clothing will significantly extend the
range of temperature we can survive in (Szokolay, 1985). The envelope of the
building separates the indoor space from the external environment and in this
way modifies or prevents the direct effect of climate.

In view of the analysis of heat transfer through buildings, it is well

known now that in practice 60% to 80% of incident heat on buildings enters
through the roof and it is only 20% to 40% that enters either through the
fenestration or exposed walls of a single storey building (S.P. Jain, 1994).

Therefore it is important that the building elements such as roofs and

walls be designed to optimise the transfer of heat through them to create
comfort in indoor spaces. However, for this some understanding of the
behaviour of building materials under changing thermal conditions is necessary.

3.5.1 Conductivity, Resistivity and Specific Heat

Heat is a form of energy that is radiated through space as

electromagnetic radiation or conducted through solids as the spread of
increasing molecular movement within the structure of the solid. It is measured
in units of energy, which are Joules (J) or Kilojoules (KJ). The rate of flow of
energy (or heat) is measured in Joules / second which are called Watts (W) or
Kilowatts (KW).
 54

The rate of heat flow through space by radiation between two bodies
is dependent upon the difference in temperature between them and upon the
distance between them. The rate at which heat is conducted through a solid is
similarly dependant upon the difference in temperature between its surfaces and
upon the distance between them but in addition it is also dependant upon the
molecular structure of the solid. Thus some substances transfer heat readily;
they are good conductors of heat or have a high conductivity. Other materials
are not good conductors of heat; they have a low conductivity, which is usually
expressed as a high resistivity to the conduction of heat. Resistivity is the
reciprocal of conductivity.

In addition to their resistivity (or conductivity) substances also have a

property known as their specific heat, which is the amount of energy that is
needed to cause a unit rise in temperature in a unit mass of the substance. Thus
specific heat describes the ability of a substance to absorb or 'store' heat energy
without showing a rise in temperature. The volumetric specific heat of a
material is the product of its specific heat and its density. In this case though it
is not an expression of the density of the material itself but of the amount of air
contained in the product; not the density of clay but that of a brick.

So it can be 'generalised that dense materials have a low resistivity

and a high volumetric specific heat; and that materials with a low density have a
high resistivity and low volumetric specific heat. That is to say that heavy
materials such as stone, concrete and brick with low resistivities transfer heat
between their surfaces very easily but with a high volumetric specific heat they
absorb a large amount of heat before showing a rise in temperature: they heat
up and cool down slowly. Meanwhile lightweight materials such as expanded
polystyrene, cork and softwoods do not conduct heat readily; they cannot get
 55

very hot and they heat up and cool down very rapidly. Thus it is these materials,
the inefficient conductors that are used for the insulation of buildings and
machines to minimise the gain or loss of heat.

3.5.2 Conductance, Resistance and Thermal Capacity

Conductivity, resistivity and specific heat are properties of

substances. Conductance, resistance and thermal capacity on the other hand
describe these properties when they are applied to define quantities of
substances. This difference will become clear with an examination of the units
by which each are measured.

Conductivity (K) is the rate of flow of heat energy (Watts) through

unit area (square metres) of unit thickness (metres) of a material when there is a
unit temperature difference (degrees Celsius) between its two surfaces.
Therefore, it is expressed as Wm/m2 deg C which can be simplified to
W/m deg C. Conductivity (K) values of popular building materials are given in
Appendix - 2. Conductance, however, is the rate of flow of heat (Watts)
through unit area (square metres) of a defined body (say a 12 cm brick wall)
when the temperature difference between its two surfaces is one degree Celsius.
\
•y
Therefore, it is expressed as W/m deg C.

Resistivity (ra) is the reverse or reciprocal of the conductivity of a

substance (1/conductivity). Therefore, its units are reversed to m deg C/W.
Values of some of the commonly used materials are given in Table 6.2.
 56

Resistance is the reciprocal of conductance. Therefore, for example a

building element that has a conductance value of 5W/m2 deg C will have a
resistance value of 1/5 = 0.2 m2 deg CAV.

The specific heat of a substance as defined in Section 3.5.1 is the

amount of heat (Joules or Kilojoules) required to cause unit temperature
increase (degree Celsius) of a unit mass (kilograms) of a substance. Thus, it is
measured in J/Kg deg C and volumetric specific heat is the product of this
expression and the density (kilograms per cubic metre) of the substance, which
is J Kg/Kg m deg C that can be simplified to J/m deg C or KJ/m deg C.
Values of some of the commonly used materials are given in Table 6.2.

The thermal capacity of a body differs from the specific heat of its
substance in the same way as conductance differs from conductivity or
resistance from resistivity, by applying the latter to a defined quantity.
Therefore, the thermal capacity of a building element (say 12 cm brick wall) is
the amount of heat (Joules) required to cause unit temperature increase (degree
Celsius) in the element and thus its units are simply J/deg C or KJ/ deg C. The
importance of thermal capacity is that it describes the amount of heat energy
t

that is stored in a building element of a certain material without its temperature

V

rising and, by doing so, delaying the flow of heat through it.

However, a far more useful expression is that of the transfer of heat •

between the air on one side of the element and the air on the other side. The
difference between this and the heat transmission between the surfaces of the
material itself is that account has to be taken of a thin film of air next to the
material on either side that offers a resistance to the flow of heat in much the
same way, as does the solid itself. This film of air is the point of transfer of heat
 57

from the air to the solid and is influenced by the texture of the surface of the
element.

Air is the least dense of the 'materials' commonly used in

construction and therefore it provides an excellent insulation if used correctly.
As it is not a solid through which heat is conducted, it does not have a property
of conductivity or resistivity. However, the conductance or resistance to the
flow of heat across an air cavity has been established and must be considered in
the thermal design of a building element (Table 3.1).

3.5.3 Air-to-Air Transmittance

The reciprocal of air-to-air resistance of a building element is its air-

to-air conductance, which is usually referred to as air-to-air transmittance or li­
vable. Air-to-air transmittance (U) values for popular building materials are
given in Appendix 3.

3.6 THERMAL COMFORT

It has long since been established by many studies that man’s

working capacity and performance is very much impaired by exposure to a hot
environment. The hot environment prevails in the tropical regions of the earth
in which almost seventy nations including India, with roughly 70% of the world
population are located (Kaushik et al., 1988). Hence, thermal comfort is a very
important design aspect in buildings of tropical region.

There was no such thing as a temperature standard, when some of the

most beautiful buildings in the world were erected. Buildings were erected in
 58

Table 3.1 Air cavities and its resistance values

Resistance
Air Cavities
m2 deg CAV
Unventilated cavities

5mm With normal surfaces 0.11

With reflective surface on one side 0.16
20mm With normal surfaces
Heat flow downward
Heat Heat flow horizontal or upwards 0.18
With reflective surface on one side
Heat flow downwards 1.06
Heat flow horizontal or upwards 0.35
80mm With normal surfaces
Heat flow downwards 0.18
Heat flow horizontal or upwards 0.13
Ventilated cavities

Vertical wall cavities (5cms)

With normal surfaces 0.17
With reflective surface on one side 0.35
V

Horizontal cavity between roof and ceiling

With normal surfaces 0.21
With reflective surface on top of ceiling 0.50
 59

which, the interplay of air and stone brings fresh delight at every turn - in the
heat of summer playful breeze skirting round a comer, a cool subterranean
passage or an airy courtyard complete with refreshing fountain.

Builders used the experience of centuries passed down from

generation to generation to ensure their masterpieces performed the most
importance task of any building to modify a hostile external environment and
create delight indoors.

In the last hundred years came the era of cheap energy, particularly in
Western countries. Electricity became available in the nineteenth century,
which was produced by fossil fuels. Middle East countries provided vast
quantities of oil and it seemed inexhaustible. Under these circumstances,
aspects of architecture, which provided natural cooling and heating, are
forgotten. Buildings are now being designed obtaining thermal comfort by use
of energy consuming air conditioners, air coolers etc. in summer. However, in
the year 1973, the world awoke to the dangers of energy crisis when the oil
price was raised by four times. The oil price was further doubled in the year
1979. It was suddenly realized that the oil and other fossil fuels are not going
♦

to last long and efforts were made to conserve energy in all sectors. The
V

growing energy crisis revived interests in those aspects of architecture, which

contribute to natural cooling and heating. The energy consumption in providing
comfort in the building increased considerably and saving energy in this field.
This field will contribute much to easing energy crisis.

The primary purpose of building design and choice of materials is the

creation of an indoor thermal environment, which is conducive to the well
being of the occupants. The most important physiological requirement of
 60

human health and general well being is the ability of the human body to
maintain a constant internal temperature. The necessary condition for it is that
the rate of heat production with the body should balance the rate of heat loss
from it, regardless of the wide variations in the external environment. The body
constantly generates heat, uses a minor fraction of it as work and exchanges the
rest with the surroundings through the normal process of heat transfer, namely
convection, radiation and evaporation.

Environmental factors vary independently of each other but act

simultaneously on the human body. Comfort is a subjective experience and not
all people have the same opinion about optimal comfort. Inside building
comfort can be categorised as thermal comfort, lighting comfort and acoustic
comfort. While lighting and acoustic comfort only marginally affect the
behaviour of the individual, thermal comfort affects the adaptability of the
individual to the surroundings. Some researchers prefer the term, “Thermal
neutrality” to “Thermal comfort” to emphasise the quantification that the
subject feels neither too hot nor too cold nor feels any local discomfort due to
asymmetric radiation, drafts, cold floors, non uniform clothing and so forth.

From the twentieth century onwards, advancement of technology has

V

meant that we can now decide, with the flick of a switch what the indoor
temperature will be. It is much easier to use a little fossil fuel to run the air
conditioners than to bother with the complexity and expense of harnessing the
fickle wind and the burning sun.

Moreover, this is where the need for temperature standards comes in.
If it is in our power to decide the temperature inside a building then we have to
know exactly what it should be.
 61

Therefore, the environmental scientists set about deciding what the

temperature inside a building ought to be and the science of thermal comfort
was bom.

The American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air

Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) define thermal comfort for a person as
“that state of mind, which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment”.
The widely used comfort standards of ASHRAE were developed mainly for air
conditioning industry. It is also used in evaluating the indoor climate of
residential buildings.

The comfort zone in the ASHRAE Guide (1985) extends between

two-fixed levels of vapour content 4 g/kg and 12 g/kg. For still air conditions
(0.15m/sec in winter and 0.25m/sec in summer), the ASHRAE boundaries of
acceptable temperature in summer extends from 23 °C to about 26.5°C. With
higher air speed, the upper temperature limit is elevated by 1°C for an increase
of 0.275m/sec up to a temperature of 28°C at air speed of 0.8 m/sec (which is
the highest indoor air speed allowed by the ASHRAE Guide). The acceptable
upper humidity limit is not affected at all by the higher air speed in the
ASHRAE standard.
\

Some problems exist when these comfort standards, or similar

standards developed by other societies of air-conditioning engineers, are used in
buildings that are not air-conditioned, especially in developing countries with
hot climates. The major problem concerns the applications of the ASHRAE
humidity and air speed limits in hot and humid locations taking into account the
actual acclimatization and comfort expectations of residents in such places and
the role of higher air speeds in enhancing comfort at high humidity. The other
 62

problem concerns the boundaries of acceptable climatic conditions in buildings

that are not air-conditioned.

A large number of thermal indices have been developed in various

countries throughout the world, but none of them appears to be universally
satisfactory over the entire range of environmental conditions. For an index to
be valid, its functions must correlate well with the thermal sensation of people
engaged in their normal life routine. The divergence appears to be mainly on
physiological grounds; partly due to the rapid and complex adjustments that the
body continually makes to counter environmental changes, partly to the fact
that thermally equivalent conditions produce different subjective sensations and
partly to the individual variations in adaptation to a given environment.

There are two ways in which ventilation can improve comfort in

humid regions i) one is a direct physiological effect. For example, opening the
windows to let the wind in, and thus providing higher indoor air speed, makes
people inside a building feel cooler. This approach is termed ‘comfort
ventilation’, ii) The other way is an indirect one to ventilate the building only at
night and thus to cool the interior mass of the building. During the following
*

day the evolved mass reduces the rate of indoor temperature rise and this
\

provide a cooling effect. This strategy is termed ‘Nocturnal Ventilative

Cooling’. From the building design point it calls for some different details than
comfort ventilation.

When a building is cross ventilated during the daytime the

temperature of the indoor air and surfaces closely follow the ambient
temperature. Therefore there is a point in applying daytime ventilation only
when indoor comfort can be experienced at the outdoor air temperature (with
acceptable indoor air speed). Further more, in unventilated buildings the indoor
 63

temperature during the daytime often can be appreciably below the outdoor
temperature. In this case daytime ventilation actually raises the temperature of
the indoor air. In this situation nocturnal ventilation may be advisable.

3.7 STUDIES ON THERMAL COMFORT IN INDIA

India is a country with diverse climates of many different climatic

regions that can be identified, from the cool mountains in the north through the
composite climate of the Gangetic plains, the hot desert of Rajasthan down to
the humid breezes of the south and east. Each of these regions has its own
cultural and architectural traditions reflecting its own particular climate.

In addition, in most areas there are yearly extremes of weather,

between the high summer of May and June and the cold winter of January.

So to use a single temperature as desirable throughout the country is

illogical to say the least and in addition each area of the country will vary in its
requirements between the summer and the winter.

More recently, the theory of the Adaptive model is used to relate the
i

thermal comfort of indoors to the conditions prevailing outdoors. The easiest

way to do this is to carry out a field study of thermal comfort in each climatic
zone and different seasons of the year.

At first sight, the relationship between comfort indoors and the

outdoor temperature may seem a bit bizarre, but if we consider the fact that
most buildings in hot climates are naturally ventilated, it is not strange that the
indoor temperature will be related to the outdoor temperature. Now if the
 64

theory of the adaptive model of thermal comfort is correct, then we adapt

ourselves to be comfortable at something like the average temperature we
encounter. In other words we will be comfortable at something like the average
indoor temperature.

Therefore, the comfort temperature is related to the indoor

temperature, which is related to the outdoor temperature. The relationship with
the indoor temperature is closer, but the relationship with the outdoor
temperature is more useful. The indoor temperature will vary from building to
building but the outdoor temperature will not. So, in our quest for comfortable
indoor temperature, which is sensitive to the changes from climate to climate
and from season to season, the average outdoor temperature is a good measure.

Humphreys (1978) was the first to show the strength of the

relationship between outdoor temperature and the comfort temperature indoors,
particularly for buildings, which are neither heated nor cooled. He collected the
results from comfort surveys throughout the world and plotted the temperature,
which the surveys reported as comfortable against the outdoor temperature for
the month of the surveys and came up with the graph shown in Fig.3.3. The
t

relationship between the two for free-running buildings (those without heating
\

or cooling) is very clear. The relationship between comfort temperature (Tc) and
outdoor temperature (T0) which Humphreys found was:

Tc= 12.1 +0.53To (3.1)

where,
Tc = Comfort temperature in°C
T0 = Outdoor temperature in °C
 65

\
-24 -22 -20 -18 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34

MONTHLY MEAN OUTDOOR TEMPERATURE0 C

• FREE - RUNNING BUILDINGS, REGRESSION UNE A

• OTHER BUILDINGS, REGRESSION UNE B

FIGURE 3.3: SCATTER DIAGRAM FOR NEUTRAL OR COMFORT TEMPERATURES. LINE A,

FREE RUNNING BUILDINGS (ORANGE DISC). LINE B, HEATED OR AIR-CONDITIONED
BUILDINGS (BLUE DISC, U.S. AND AUSTRALIAN STUDIES MARKED AS BLUE CIRCLES)
(REPRODUCED FROM HUMPHREYS 1978)
K
COMFORT TEMPERATURE ( Tc )

S
G;

■ WINTER

♦ SUMMER

S 10 IS 20 25 30 5
OUTDOOR MEAN TEMPERATURE (To)

FIGURE 3.4: COMFORT TEMPERATURE AND MEAN OUTDOOR TEMPERATURE SUMMER

AND WINTER VALUES FOR FIVE CITIES IN PAKISTAN FROM NICOL ETALf 1994)
 66

Similarly, the work by Nicol and his colleagues in Pakistan has

demonstrated (Fig.3.4) the same effect, in a climate, which is similar to that of
India. Though the slope of the line is somewhat lower than that of Humphreys,
the general effect, particularly in the summer months, is very similar.

Tc = 17.0 + 0.38To (3.2)

where,
Tc = Comfort temperature in°C
T0 = Outdoor temperature in °C

In addition to making people more comfortable, there are other

advantages to a temperature standard which tracks outdoor temperature and
they are related to energy and architecture.

Firstly, the energy used to heat or cool a building is proportional to

the difference between the temperature inside and the temperature outside. So
an indoor temperature, which increases and decreases with outdoor temperature
will require less energy to maintain it than a temperature that is a constant,
t

independent of the outdoor temperature.

Calculations performed by Nicol have demonstrated that savings in

peak energy loads could be achieved by using a variable indoor temperature
standard. Indoor temperatures set according to the equation will save 20% or
more on cooling loads in the summer months compared to the maximum
temperature allowed by the ASHRAE standard of 26°C. In fact many air
conditioning engineers design their systems to achieve an indoor temperature of
22°C. Based on this standard the energy savings are even greater: more like
 67

35%! So an indoor temperature which varied with the outdoor temperature

could save India a great deal of energy, particularly electrical energy, as well as
saving a great deal of money buying over-sized air conditioning plant.

Secondly one of the problems with a single temperature standard is

that it cannot be fulfilled by a building that has no heating or cooling. It is the
nature of outdoor conditions to be variable. It is the outdoor conditions, which
ultimately decide the indoor conditions in such a building. An indoor
temperature standard, which varies with the outdoor temperature could be met
by naturally ventilated buildings as well as by those with air conditioning.

In the warm humid coastal area (Fig.3.5), the comfort temperature is

very close to the outdoor minimum in summer, and as a result night time
ventilation is unlikely to be an effective way to achieve comfort. Evaporative
coolers are often found in desert areas, but will be of less use where humidities
are already high. To achieve comfort without mechanical cooling it will be
necessary to use fans or utilise the breeze for natural ventilation. With a high
air speed in these conditions, the comfort temperature will be three or four
degrees above the still-air value and this is enough to move the comfort
t

temperature close to the mean outdoor temperature. In winter, the temperature

\

stays fairly high and comfort temperatures are within the daily temperature
range. This means that they should normally be attainable without heating.

For hot and humid climate, for the case study locations for the
climatic data shown in (Table 3.2) summer comfort temperatures are uniformly
above the mean outdoor minimum (Fig. 3.6). Judicious use of thermal mass and
night ventilation together with daytime use of fans should enable comfort to be
achieved without mechanical cooling. In winter, comfort temperatures are fairly
 63

Tc = COMFORT TEMPERATURE
To = OUTDOOR TEMPERATURE

WARM HUMID COASTAL AREA

FIGURE 3.5: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMFORT TEMPERATURE AND MEAN OUTDOOR

TEMPERATURE ( HUMPHREYS AND NICOL)
 69

Table 3.2 Comfort temperature according to NICOL

for case study locations

ENNORE TIRUPORUR PONDICHERRY

To To Tc To To Tc To To Tc
Min Max. Min Max. Min. Max.
Jan. 20.6 28.4 27.8 20.4 28.6 27.9 21.3 28.0 27.6

Feb. 21.2 29.9 28.4 21.3 30.6 28.6 22.1 29.0 28.0

Mar. 23.1 31.9 29.1 23.3 33.1 29.6 23.5 30.4 28.5

Apr. 25.9 33.6 29.8 26.1 35.2 30.4 26.0 32.1 29.2

May 27.6 36.4 30.8 27.7 37.6 31.3 26.7 34.6 30.2

Jun. 27.2 36.6 30.9 27.2 37.0 31.1 26.3 35.6 30.5

Jul. 25.9 34.7 30.2 26.0 35.0 30.3 25.6 34.4 30.1

Aug. 25.3 33.9 29.9 25.4 34.2 30.0 25.2 33.8 29.8

Sep. 25.3 33.5 29.7 25.3 33.8 29.8 25.0 32.8 29.5

Oct. 24.3 31.4 28.9 24.3 31.7 29.1 24.4 31.0 28.8

Nov. 22.8 29.2 28.1 22.6 29.3 28.1 23.4 29.2 28.1

Dec. 21.6 28.1 27.7 21.2 28.1 27.7 22.3 28.1 27.7

Tc = 17+ 0.38 To
Tc = Comfort temperature (°C)
To = Outdoor temperature (°C)
 70

To = OUTDOOR TEMPERATURE Tc = COMFORT TEMPERATURE

FIGURE 3.6 (A), (B), (C): COMFORT TEMPERATURE FOR CASE STUDY LOCATIONS ACCORDING
TONICOL ETAL
 71

high and are within daily temperature range. The ventilative cooling as major
strategy should be adopted for hot and humid region, which is discussed in
Chapter 4.

The comfort temperatures developed by these two researchers are

very simple and are suitable only for hot and dry location. As there is no
element of humidity included in this relationship, it could not be used for hot
and humid location, as humidity will have impact on comfort temperature.
Besides, thermal comfort depends upon individual parameters of activity level
and clothing; thermal comfort depends on environment parameters of air
temperature, air humidity and air velocity.

Scientists investigating thermal comfort treat human organism as a

‘meter’ of thermal comfort. The meter is calibrated in comfort votes - the
description on a scale from hot to cold, which best describes the person’s
impression of the thermal environment.

Architectural standards throughout the world have declined as a

result of the advent of air conditioning and they have been abetted in this by the
<

use of temperature standards, which can only be met using air conditioning.
\

The expectation of comfort may soon become 25°C or even 23°C. It feels warm
to step out of the air-conditioned room to an air-cooled room. The fact that any
building can be made to ‘work’ with the use of air conditioning has militated
against those architects who, like the builders of the past, want to design
buildings which work with the climate to produce internal delight rather than
fighting it with fossil fuels to produce the aptly named Neutral temperature.
 72

3.8 COMFORT IN HOT AND HUMID REGIONS

The simplest strategy for improving comfort when the indoor

temperature, under still air conditions, is felt as too warm is to open the window
and to enhance comfort by ventilation providing comfort through higher indoor
air speeds. Introducing outdoor air with a given speed into a building may
provide a direct physiological cooling effect even when the indoor air
temperature is actually elevated. This is particularly the case of hot and humid
regions, where the humidity is high and as the higher air speed increases the
rate of sweat evaporation from the skin, thus minimising the discomfort people
feel when the skin is wet.

Such comfort ventilation may be desirable, from the physiological

viewpoint, even when the outdoor air temperature is higher than the indoor air
temperature, because the upper temperature limit of comfort is shifted upward
with a higher air speed. Therefore, even if the indoor temperature is actually
elevated by ventilation with the warmer outdoor air, the effect on the comfort of
the occupants, up to a given temperature limit, might be beneficial. This is
especially the case in hot and humid regions.

3.9 CEILING HEIGHT AND ITS IMPACT ON THERMAL

COMFORT

One of the features traditionally associated with housing in hot

climates is a high ceiling. If the ceiling temperature is reduced below body
temperature (37°C), the ceiling acts as a heat receiver and this produces
comfortable conditions. The same is true in case of intermediate floors of
 73

buildings where ceiling temperature is most of the time below that of body
temperature.

Following are the advantages of high ceiling:

1) Heated ceiling would transmit less radiation to the occupants than lower
ceiling, assuring the same room area.
2) Convected heat transfer would have less effect with higher ceilings,
since the heated air would form a layer under the ceiling above the heads
of the occupants.
3) Rooms with higher ceiling would have larger surface area.
4) The possibility of having greater differences in height between 2
openings gives improved possibilities of exhausting heated air by stack
effect.
5) High ceiling increases the volume of air within the room. Ventilation
rates can therefore be reduced when out door temperatures are high, as
the larger volume of air will not become stale so quickly.

The minimum ceiling height from the point of view of thermal comfort
is based upon three factors (BIS, 1987).
\

a) Required ceiling surface temperature

b) Radiation load on the occupants
c) Safety requirements and minimum clear space for fixing ceiling fan.

Experimental studies conducted in India, have shown negligible

effect on indoor air temperatures due to variation of ceiling height from 2.4 m
to 3.3 m. However, the extent of reduction of temperature, with increasing
 74

height is of the order of 0.3°C for every 30 cm increase of ceiling height in

single storey buildings.

3.10 SIMULATION OF THERMAL DESIGN OF BUILDING

Approximately, one third of our primary energy supply is consumed

in buildings. Consequently, buildings are a primary contributor to global
warming and zone depletion. Since the oil embargo experience in 1973,
achieving better energy efficiency in buildings has become one of the world’s
major challenges. It is estimated that substantial energy savings can be
achieved from a conventionally designed building through careful planning for
energy efficiency. Space conditioning has been an area of high total energy use
and low optimisation of design and construction with respect to energy use.
This problem is not new and has already been faced in Europe and United
States where the cost of energy is already much higher and the energy situation
precarious in many cases. This is reflected from the fact that the attention is
being paid to the problem of heat transfer inside buildings by researchers in
different countries. The analysis has become more and more complex
necessitating the use of analogue and digital computer techniques.
t

In recent years the use of computer for the determination of heating

and cooling loads and for the prediction of indoor air temperature of buildings
has been well established and is on the increase, despite proliferation of many
performance based simulation tools and this increasing usage for building
design and evaluations especially in North America (Johnson Clayton, 1998).
The traditional approach to relying on accumulated experience of the building
designers is still prevalent.
 75

3.10.1 The Use of Performance based Regulatory System

To encourage the use of performance based simulation tools, it is

essential to shift the current regulatory systems from prescriptive to a
performance-based approach.

The basic concept of a performance-based approach is not to

prescribe solution but rather to demonstrate that the proposed design meets
defined objectives. This approach may result in alternative designs that are
more flexible, rational and innovative as well as cost effective. This approach
can also be multi disciplinary, consciously taking into consideration and
synergistic effects of the various performance mandates (Wong, 2000).

A comprehensive performance based approach necessitates the

ability to translate the objectives into quantifiable parameters, to set limits for
these parameters and to have the means of estimating the performance of
proposed design to validate compliance with the required performance
parameters. In this respect, simulation tools should be able to play vital role in
achieving such objectives.