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DISCLAIMER
The views expressed in this document do not necessarily reflect those of Shakti Sustainable
Energy Foundation. The Foundation does not guarantee the accuracy of any data included in
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Abstract
Driving cycles are extremely important in establishing compliance of emission control
norms for vehicles. Internationally, it has been observed that there are considerable
differences between the driving conditions of type-approval cycles and those of real-world
vehicle use. This leads to real-world emissions being higher than expected, and
hence, failure of employed policies. The current study assesses the real-world driving
conditions in different Indian cities and compares them with the Indian driving cycles
followed for different categories of vehicles. The driving cycle for different categories of
vehicles (cars, two-wheelers, and buses) are distinctly different and not representative of the
actual driving conditions in India. A case for world-harmonized driving cycles is also
assessed for India and the proposed cycles are compared with the existing ones. World
harmonized cycles cover a wide range of speed and acceleration profiles, and hence, they
provide fewer opportunities to meet the standards only on the cycle while emitting much
more in the real world. Moreover, the standardization of these procedures at the global level
allows manufacturers to design vehicles for various markets and not just for an individual
country.
1. Introduction
Driving cycles are the means to represent on-road driving conditions for a particular country
or region. They are developed to take into account the varying on-road driving conditions
(idling, cruising, accelerating, and decelerating) and serve as an important input for testing
of tail-pipe emissions and fuel efficiencies of different categories of the vehicles. They have
also been instrumental in assessing transport management strategies (Bata et al., 1994;
André, 1996). A driving cycle is formulated through statistical analysis of vehicle trip
databases made by carrying out extensive road driving experiments under varying
conditions (such as different road, and traffic densities) to eventually represent a working
day driving pattern in a region. Driving cycles can be used to represent the average driving
pattern in a region, or specific driving conditions to be investigated at the chassis
dynamometer (e.g. cold starts).
The Indian Driving Cycle (IDC) was the first driving cycle in India. This cycle, which was
introduced in 1985, was based upon extensive road tests conducted by Automotive Research
Association of India (ARAI), Pune. Since then some changes have been made to the cycle.
However, the growing number of vehicles and limited growth of road infrastructure has led
to increased congestion levels in urban centres of the country. (WSA) 2008 came out with
congestion indices of different cities highlighted the fact that cities like Delhi, Mumbai,
Varanasi, and Bangalore are dealing with the highest congestion levels. A study by the
Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) reported an annual loss of fuel worth Rs 994 crores
due to idling in Delhi. Congestion not only leads to reduced speeds of the vehicles but also
distorts the driving cycles prescribed for emission test procedures. On the other hand,
infrastructural developments in roads and highways have led to increase in speed and
acceleration profiles in non-congested driving patterns. A shift towards high-powered cars
also indicates shifting speeds and acceleration profiles. In all, the Indian driving profiles
have changed significantly since 1985 due to the growing number of vehicles and road
infrastructure.
Weiss et al, 2012 explains how the European type-approval procedures have not assured the
compliance of the on-road NOx (oxides of nitrogen) emissions from diesel cars, due to
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similar discrepancies between the test cycles and real-world operation. Shukla, 2010 also
shows the high pollutant emissions in actual on-road conditions in Delhi.
All this suggests that driving cycles prescribed for emissions testing are not representative of
real-world driving conditions. Although the vehicles tested on the driving cycles (for type
approvals) comply with emission regulations, they may emit much more under real-world
conditions. Hence, even though it is impossible to fully recreate all real-world conditions,
test cycles should include diverse driving modes and should prompt the manufacturers to
limit the emissions within the prescribed standards in most driving conditions.
The current paper analyses the Indian driving cycle vis-a-vis driving cycles in other
countries. A literature review exercise has been carried out to understand its limitations and
possible improvements. Real-world driving conditions were mapped in four cities of India
falling in different geographical zones, representing different cultures, population densities,
climate, and road conditions. The results of the actual primary surveys are compared with
the IDC to assess the deviations. A case for introduction of the world harmonized driving
cycles in India is also evaluated.
1UDC represents city driving conditions with low vehicle speeds, low engine load, and low
exhaust gas temperature.
2EUDC accounts for more aggressive, high-speed driving modes up to 120 km/h in NEDC
and 90 km/h in MIDC
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World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations. It is to be noted that both IDC and
MIDC includes cold start procedural testing.
A comparison of Indian driving cycles (IDC and MIDC) with others in the world is
presented in Figure 1a, which shows that Indian cycles assume lower speeds in comparison
to cycles followed in other countries. Figure 1b shows the extensive speed profiles covered
by MIDC in comparison to the IDC.
Figure 1a Comparison of average and maximum speeds and maximum accelerations under
different driving cycles followed across the world
Figure 1b Indian Driving Cycle and Modified Indian Driving Cycle (IDC and MIDC)
The suitability of IDC as the standard cycle for testing in India has been questioned by many
research studies. Kamble, 2009 stated IDC as unsuitable for evaluating fuel consumption
due to its gentle acceleration, braking, and long periods spent in stationary mode.
Chugh et. al., 2012 contested that MIDC may not give a realistic assessment of vehicular
emissions in actual on-road conditions. They attributed the variations to differences in traffic
density, land-use patterns, road infrastructure, and traffic management.
Kumar et. al., 2011 commented on the homogeneity of the traffic assumed in the IDC, hence
ignoring the actual heterogeneous composition of traffic on Indian roads. Nesamani, 2005
also concluded that IDC does not represent the real-world driving and also confirmed that it
may lead to underestimation of the emission rates. Table 1 presents the differences observed
by different Indian studies of real-world driving compared to the IDC.
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Based on these, the major limitations of the IDC can be summarized as follows:
1) IDC does not take into account the higher speeds (>42 km/h) and accelerations ( >
0.65 m/s2), which means the vehicles running at high speeds/highly transient
conditions can have higher in-use emissions, while they could still pass the emission
tests on the prescribed driving cycles.
2) IDC assumes all traffic to be homogenous, and it does not take into account the
varying conditions in which real-world traffic operates. In reality, traffic movement
is highly dependent on street design, quality of roads, traffic lights, congestion levels,
and driver behaviour.
3) IDC assumes low accelerations as observed in real-world driving conditions (on
broader roads, hilly terrains, and highways). Considering undulating terrains found
in many parts of the country, the cycle should account for higher engine loads which
may lead to higher emissions.
For heavy and commercial vehicles, the earlier used ECE R49 test has now been replaced by
ESC and ETC cycles followed in Europe. ECE R49 cycle was a steady-state diesel engine test
cycle used for type approval emission testing of Euro II equivalent vehicles (Delphi, 2012).
ESC3 and ETC tests were proposed in the Auto Fuel Policy (MoPNG, 2002) for testing of
Euro III/Euro IV equivalent vehicles. Rexeis et. al., 2005 showed that ECE R49 test was not
able to ensure reduction in emission (especially for NOx) for all real-world driving
conditions, and that ESC had an advantage there. In contrast to the steady state tests like
ECE R49 and ESC, the ETC is a transient cycle based on road-type-specific driving patterns
of HD vehicles. It mainly consists of three equally divided modes (of 600 seconds each):
urban (maximum speed 50 km/h, frequent starts, stops, and idling), rural (steep acceleration
segment and average speed 72 km/h), motorway driving (average speed 88 km/h).
3 ESC test simulates high average load factors and very high exhaust gas temperatures
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systems, and emission regulations in the four cities make it interesting to assess the driving
conditions in different possible urban conditions in India. GPS (global positioning system)
instruments were used to accurately collect the speed profiles of different categories of
vehicles (two-wheelers, cars, and buses) in the cities. The surveys were carried out for more
than 10 hours of drive covering different types of roads and area categories in the cities.
However, it is to be noted that the survey does not includes driving outside dense,
congested cities (driving on highways) and there could be higher emissions at higher speeds
and accelerations on the highways.
Figure 2a shows the comparison of speed profiles of motor bikes observed in different cities
with the IDC.
Figure 2b Comparison of speed profiles of cars observed in different cities with the MIDC
Figure 2d Comparison of speed profiles of buses observed in different cities with the ETC
Table 2 Studies showing high emissions despite improvements in vehicular emission norms
Liu et. al., 2011 Increased NO(x) emission of buses by 60-120%. Inactivity of Selective Catalytic
Reduction (SCR) under low exhaust temperature
JRC, 2011 Euro 3-5 NOx emissions (diesel vehicles) were 2-4 times higher under real-world
conditions than under testing.
Carslaw et. al., 2011 Significant discrepancies between UK/European estimates of NOx emissions and
those derived from the remote sensing data.
TNO,.2012 Euro V and EEV NOx emissions performance of HDVs does not guarantee low
emissions in real world. Significant portion of vehicles show high NOx emissions
under certain driving conditions.
Wang et. al., 2012 Limited impact of emission standards implemented in Beijing and nationwide on NOx
emissions control
Huang et. al., 2013 NOx reduction efficiency of the SCR system in a Euro IV diesel bus strongly depends
on driving conditions.
Chen, 2007 Real-world low-speed conditions with frequent acceleration and deceleration cause
high emissions of CO and THC.
Wu et. al., 2012 No significant differences in NOx emission factors were observed between Euro II
and III buses and between Euro IV (equipped with SCR systems) and Euro III buses.
Real-time measurements suggest certification cycles did not reflect real-world
conditions.
Figure 3 from JRC, 2011 shows that real-world NOx emissions are much higher than the
emissions computed on the NEDC cycle in Europe.
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1.0
0.8
NOX emissions in g/km
0.0
Euro 6 Euro 5_V1 Euro 5_V2 Euro 5_V3
Figure 3 NOx emissions (g/km) under the NEDC test cycle and during real-world testing.
Source: Weiss et al, 2012
The results of Weiss et. al., 2012 also show that NOx emissions were many folds higher than
what is observed on the NEDC cycle (Figure 4). This could be attributed to higher
acceleration values under real-world driving. Figure 4 depicts that, while Euro 6 fared
better than Euro 5 in controlling NOx emissions, in both cases real-world NOx emissions
substantially exceeded type-approval test values.
Figure 4 NOx emissions (mg/s) and acceleration profiles of a Euro 5 and Euro 6 car under
the NEDC test cycle and real-world conditions in Europe
Source: Weiss et al, 2012
Note: Green dots are test emissions and black dots are emissions under real-world conditions.
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Along with the impact on emissions, Mock et. al., 2013 also assessed the difference between
the stated fuel economy and the ones observed during real-world driving in the US and
Europe. The difference between the two was 10 per cent in 2001, which more than doubled
to 25 per cent in 2011 coinciding with the establishment of mandatory CO2 standards.
Table 4 Classification of the motorcycles and the driving cycles suggested in WMTC
4 UNECE World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations administered ‘58’ Agreement in 1958 to
include: (a) technical requirements and test methods by which performance requirements (to allow any
technology) are to be demonstrated; (b) the administrative procedure for granting type approvals and their
reciprocal recognition, including markings and conditions for ensuring conformity of production (COP). Some
countries did not join the ‘58 Agreement due to disagreements on the mutual recognition. Thus, in 1998, in
parallel to the ‘58 Agreement, the ’98 Agreement concerning the establishing of global technical regulations
(GTRs) was adopted.
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1-1 and Part 1s (cold and then Part 1 600 4.07/3.94 24.3 60 50 2.5/2.0
1-2 hot condition)
2-1 Part 1 (cold) - part 2 (red. Part 2 600 9.11 54.7 94.9 84.9 2.69
Speed-hot)
3-1 Part 1 (cold), part 2 (hot), Part-3 600 15.74 94.4 125.3 111.3 1.55
part 3 red. speed (hot)
Class Spec.
subclass 1-1 Engine capacity ≤ 50 cm³ and 50 km/h < vmax ≤ 60 km/h
subclass 1-2 50 cm³ < engine capacity < 150 cm³ and vmax < 50 km/h
subclass 1-3 Engine capacity < 150 cm³ and 50 km/h ≤ vmax < 100 km/h, but not including subclass 1-1
subclass 2-1 Engine capacity < 150 cm³ and 100 km/h ≤ vmax < 115 km/h or Engine capacity ≥150 cm³ and vmax
< 115 km/h
subclass 2-2 115 km/h ≤ vmax < 130 km/h
subclass 3-1 130 ≤ vmax < 140 km/h
subclass 3-2 vmax ≥ 140 km/h
At this moment the vehicles < 50 cc & Vmax < 50 km/h are not classified in any of the
categories. Figure 5 shows the speed variations under the different cycles and their
comparisons with the IDC. It can be adjudged that WMTC covers a wider range of speed
variations and considers different categories of two-wheeler vehicles.
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Figure 5 Speed variations in different WMTC cycles for two-wheelers compared with the IDC
The speed-acceleration test points followed in IDC are also compared with WMTC, which also shows
that WMTC test procedure covers a wide range in comparison to IDC (Figure 6).
Figure 6 Comparison of speed-acceleration test points followed in IDC and WMTC for
two-wheelers
IDC is applicable to all types of two-wheeler vehicles, while WMTC has three different
categories (Class 1, 2, and 3) based on CC and max speed. The cycles followed in WMTC
cover wide ranges of speed-acceleration profiles and, hence, allows for better compliance of
emission norms in varying driving conditions. At present, WMTC has not been suggested
for three-wheelers, but the same IDC used for two-wheelers has been applied to three-
wheelers. A certain percentage of driving time has been observed to be in the high-speed
range (>50 km/h) which is covered in WMTC but not in IDC. WMTC specifies cold-start
condition as opposed to warm-start testing suggested in IDC.
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It should be noted that India is part of the UNECE informal group to expand the use of
WMTC from motorcycles to mopeds and three-wheelers. The group for Environmental and
Propulsion Performance Requirements (EPPR) was created in 2012 and is expected to
present a regulatory proposal by 2016. The EPPR proposal intends to cover tailpipe
emissions under WMTC for moped and three-wheelers, in addition to motorcycles, and also
include durability, OBD, evaporative tests, and fuel consumption/CO2 emissions.
Class 3 PMR > Low, Middle, High, If v_max < 135 km/h, phase ‘extra-high’ is replaced by a
34 Extra-High repetition of phase ‘low’.
Class 2 34 ≥ Low, Middle, High If v_max < 90 km/h, phase ‘high’ is replaced by a repetition
PMR > of phase ‘low’.
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Class 1 PMR ≤ Low, Middle If v_max ≥ 70 km/h, phase ‘low’ is repeated after phase
22 ‘middle’.
If v_max < 70 km/h, phase ‘middle’ is replaced by a
repetition of phase ‘low’.
Source: www.unece.org
Figure 7a and 7b show the speed and acceleration profile suggested in the WLTP. Note that
the acceleration rates in Figure 7b are associated with the speeds in Figure 7a. Class 3
procedures are suggested for high powered vehicles representative of vehicles driven in
Europe and Japan. Class 2 and 1 procedures are defined for vehicles representing the Indian
fleet. Low PMR vehicles are subjected to a maximum speed of 64.2 km/h, while class 2
vehicles will be tested on a maximum speed of 85 km/h. Lower accelerations are suggested
in class-I vehicles (< 0.76 m/s²), which go up to 1.58 m/s² in case of Class-III vehicles.
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120
100
Speed (km/h)
80
60
40
20
0
131
196
261
326
391
456
521
586
651
716
781
846
911
976
1041
1106
1171
1236
1301
1366
1431
1496
1561
1626
1691
1756
1
66
Time (sec)
Figure 7a Speed profiles suggested in the WLTP for different classes of light duty vehicles (cars)
2.0
1.5
1.0
Acceleration (m/s²)
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
1
66
131
196
261
326
391
456
521
586
651
716
781
846
911
976
1041
1106
1171
1236
1301
1366
1431
1496
1561
1626
1691
1756
Time (sec)
Figure 7b Acceleration profiles suggested in the WLTP for different classes light-duty
vehicles (cars)
Figure 8 a-c Speed-acceleration scatter plots for MIDC and WLTP (Class-I, II, and III)
Figures 8 a to c show the coverage of MIDC and the WLTP cycles on speed-acceleration
profiles. It can be deduced from the figure that WLTP is a more exhaustive cycle and covers
many more data points so that it will require more robust emission control systems that
work better in the real world. Moreover, it is also based on power to mass ratios and hence
customised for different weight categories within the light-duty vehicles.
5.3.1 World Harmonized Stationary Cycle: WHSC for heavy duty vehicles
The WHSC test is a steady-state engine dynamometer test procedure developed based on
actual driving conditions observed in several world regions like EU, USA, Japan, and
Australia. The idea is to take into account regional variations in the driving conditions. The
difference between the two cycles is shown in Figure 9.
A B C
The comparison of the two cycles clearly shows that, while testing on ESC cycles is done on
three speed variations, WHSC covers five different speeds while testing different load
patterns. WHSC is a ramped steady-state test cycle, consisting of a sequence of steady-state
engine test modes and defined ramps in between.
5.3.2 World Harmonized Transient Cycles- WHTC for heavy duty vehicles
The WHTC test is a transient heavy-duty engine dynamometer test procedure developed by
UNECE for emission testing of heavy-duty vehicles. It is a transient test of 1800 second
duration, covering varying driving modes. Speed variations included in the WHTC and ETC
are compared in Figure 10. WHTC actually has a lower average cycle work than ETC as
lower speeds and loads have been assumed in this.
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Figure 10 Comparing speed profile in the WHTC and ETC prescribed for heavy-duty
vehicles
Figure 11 shows the speed-torque testing points in the WHTC and ETC cycles, which also
suggests that WHTC accounts for wider ranges of torque values than ETC. Wider ranges of
torque and speeds which were not well represented in ETC are now included in the WHTC.
120
100
80
Torque
60
WHTC
40 ETC
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Speed (km/h)
The main advantage of WHTC procedures is that they cover a wider range of driving
conditions, and, hence, ensure lower emissions during real-world driving. Moreover, in
contrast to ETC procedures, the testing is done under both hot and cold start conditions in
WHTC. One of the advantages of WHTC is that HD vehicles will also be tested under low-
speed conditions (typical of urban driving), which could effectively test the efficiency of SCR
systems under unfavourable conditions.
emission norms, and driving cycles are being dealt with at different ministries. There is
probably a need for an agency that can have a holistic view of the problem and regulate
fuels and vehicle standards appropriately to help meet the desired air quality standards in
the urban centres of the country. This was previously recommended by the 2002 Auto Fuels
Policy Committee.
There is a need to shift the focus of the current regulations from mere laboratory testing of
the controls to the real-world emissions performance. This is will ensure the long-term
compliance of stated emissions control norms in real world conditions. These procedures are
already being prepared in Europe for the type approval and in-service conformity testing of
all light-duty vehicles (EU, 2013). The adoption of better driving cycles may also need to be
coupled with a strong recall policy; i.e., testing of vehicles beyond type-approval and
conformity to production procedures to ensure the compliance throughout the life-cycle of
the vehicles.
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