St.

Paul University Philippines

Graduate School

A Course Presentation in Statistics

Course Requirements

Reaction Paper/ Film Clip Analysis

Problem Set

Final Examination

1
 Reaction Paper (Film Clip Analysis)

Lies, Damned Lies and Statistics: The

Misapplication of Statistics in
Everyday Life

Statistics defined . . .

• STATISTICS is a collection of methods for

planning experiment, obtaining data, and
then organizing, summarizing, presenting,
analyzing, interpreting and drawing
conclusions based on the data.

2
 Main Divisions
Descriptive Statistics
- summarize or describe the important
characteristics of a known set of
population data

Inferential Statistics

-use sample data to make inferences (or

generalizations) about a population

Population vs. Sample

• A POPULATION is the complete collection of

elements (scores, people, measurements, and so
on)

• A SAMPLE is a portion / subset of elements

drawn from a population

3
 Parameter vs. Statistic

• A PARAMETER is a numerical measurement

describing some characteristics of a population

• A STATISTIC is a numerical measurement

describing some characteristic of a sample

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data

• Qualitative (categorical or attribute) data

can be separated into different categories
that are distinguished by some non –
numerical characteristics

• Quantitative data consists of numbers

representing counts or measurements

4
 Discrete vs Continuous Data

• Discrete data result from either a finite number of

possible values or a countable number of possible
values (that is, the number of possible values are
0, 1, 2, or more)

• Continuous data result from infinitely many

possible values that can be associated with points
on a continuous scale in such a way that there are
no gaps or interruptions

Dependent vs Independent Variable

• Dependent variable – the variable that is being

affected
- the variable that is being
explained

• Independent variable – the variable that affects

- the variable that explains

5
 Nominal Level of Measurement

• The nominal level of measurement is

characterized by data that consists of names,
labels or categories only. The data cannot be
arranged in an ordering scheme

• Examples:
gender of employees, civil status,
nationality, religion, etc

Ordinal Level of Measurement

• The ordinal level of measurement involves
data that may be arranged in some order, but
differences between data values are either
meaningless or cannot be determined.

• Examples:
good, better or best speakers; 1 star, 2 star
or 3 star movie; rank of an employee

6
 Interval Level of Measurement

• The interval level of measurement is like the

ordinal level, with the additional property that
meaningful amounts of differences between data
can be determined. However, there are no inherent
(natural) zero starting point

• Examples:
body temperature, year (2009, 2011, 2015, etc)

Ratio Level of Measurement

• The ratio level of measurement is the

interval modified to include the inherent
zero starting point. For values at this level,
differences and ratios are meaningful.

• Examples:
weights, lengths, distance traveled

7
 Visual Summary of the Scales of Measurement
Are there named categories?
YES NO

Nominal scale of measurement

`
Are the scores ranked?
YES NO

Ordinal scale of measurement Are there equal intervals with a

meaningful zero point?
YES NO

Ratio scale of measurement Interval scale of measurement

Tests of Hypothesis

Hypothesis
•A statement or tentative theory which aims to
explain facts about the real world
•An educated guess
•It is subject for testing. If it is found to be
statistically true, it is accepted. Otherwise, it gets
rejected.

8
 Kinds of Hypotheses
1. Null Hypothesis (Ho)
• It serves as the working hypothesis
• It is that which one hopes to accept or reject
• It must always express the idea of no
significant difference or relationship

2. Alternative Hypothesis (H1 or Ha)

• It generally represents the hypothetical
statement that the researcher wants to prove.

Types of Alternative Hypotheses (Ha)

1. Directional hypothesis
 expresses direction
one – tailed
uses order relation of “greater than” or “less than”,

2. Non – directional hypothesis

does not express direction
two – tailed
uses the “not equal to”

9
 Type I and Type II Errors
When making a decision about a proposed
hypothesis based on the sample data, one runs the
risk of making an error. The following table on the
next slide summarizes the possibilities:

10
 Level of Significance

The probability of making Type I error or alpha

error in a test is called the significance level of the
test. The significance level of a test is the maximum
value of the probability of rejecting the null
hypothesis (Ho) when in fact it is true.

Critical Region
The critical region (or rejection region) is the set of all values
of the test statistic that cause us to reject the null hypothesis.

Region of
rejection

Region of
acceptance

P - value Critical - value

11
 Critical Value
A critical value is any value that separates the
critical region (where we reject the null
hypothesis) from the values of the test statistic
that do not lead to rejection of the null
hypothesis, the sampling distribution that
applies, and the significance level .

P - Value

The P-value (probability value) is the probability of

getting a value of the test statistic that is at least as
extreme as the one representing the sample data,
assuming that the null hypothesis is true. The null
hypothesis is rejected if the P-value is very small,
such as 0.05 or less.

12
 Two-tailed, Right-tailed and
Left-tailed Tests

• The tails in a distribution are the extreme

regions bounded by critical values.

Two-tailed Tests
Given:
H0 : = ; H1 : ≠

13
 Right – tailed Tests
Given:
H0: = ; H1: >

Left – tailed Tests

Given:
H0: = ; H1: <

14
 Steps in Hypothesis Testing
1. Formulate the null hypothesis (Ho) that there is no
significant difference between the items compared. State
the alternative hypothesis (Ha) which is used in case Ho
is rejected.

2. Set the level of significance of the test, .

3. Determine the test to be used.

 Z – TEST – used if the population standard deviation
is given
 T – TEST – used if the sample standard deviation is
given

Steps in Hypothesis Testing

4. Determine the tabular value of the test.
***For a Z – test, the table below summarizes the
critical values at varying significance levels
Type of Level of Significance
Test 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.01

One – ± 1. 28 ± 1. 645 ± 1.96 ± 2.33

Tailed
Two – ± 1.645 ± 1.96 ± 2.33 ± 2. 58
Tailed

15
 Steps in Hypothesis Testing
4. Determine the tabular value of the test.

***For a T – test, one must compute first the

degree/s of freedom (df) then look for the tabular
value from the table of Students’ T – Distribution.

i. For a single sample

df = n – 1
ii. For two samples
df = n1 + n2 – 2

Steps in Hypothesis Testing

5. Compute for z or t as needed. Vary your solutions using
the formulas:

 For z – test
i. Sample mean compared with a population mean
ii. Comparing two sample means
iii. Comparing two sample proportions

 For t – test
i. Sample mean compared with a population mean
ii. Comparing two sample means

16
 Steps in Hypothesis Testing
6. Compare the computed value with its
corresponding tabular value, then state your
conclusions based on the following guidelines:
 Reject Ho if the absolute computed value is
equal to or greater than the absolute tabular value
 Accept Ho if the absolute computed value is less
than the absolute tabular value

Decision Criterion

Traditional Method:
***Reject H0 (Accept H1 ) if the test
statistic falls within the critical region.
***Fail to reject H0 (Accept Ho) if the
test statistic does not fall within the critical
region.

17
 Decision Criterion
P - value method:

*** Reject Ho (Accept H1 ) if P-value 

 (where  is the significance level, such as
0.05)

***Fail to reject H0 (Accept Ho) if

P-value > 

Decision Criterion

Another option:
Instead of using a significance level
such as 0.05, simply identify the P-value and
leave the decision to the reader.

18
 Z - TEST
1. Sample Mean (X) Compared with a Population Mean (μ)
( X – μ) n
Z =
δ

Where:
X – sample mean
μ – population mean
n – number of items in the sample
δ – population standard deviation

Z - TEST
2. Comparing Two Sample Means (X1 & X2)
X1 - X2
Z =
δ (1/n1) + (1/n2)

Where:
X1 – mean of the first sample
X2 – mean of the second sample
n1 – number of items in the first sample
n2– number of items in the second sample
δ – population standard deviation

19
 Z- TEST
3. Comparing Two Sample Proportions (P1 & P2)
P1 - P2
Z =
(p1q1/n1) + (p2q2/n2)

Where:
p1 – proportion of the first sample
p2 – proportion of the second sample
n1 – number of items in the first sample
n2– number of items in the second sample
q1 = 1 – p1
q2 = 1 – p2

T- TEST
4. Sample Mean (X) Compared with a Population Mean (μ)
( X – μ) n–1
t =
s

Where:
X – sample mean
μ – population mean
n – number of items in the sample
s – sample standard deviation

20
 T- TEST
5. Comparing Two Sample Means (X1 & X2)
X1 – X2
t =
(n1 – 1)(s1)2 + (n2 – 1)(s2)2 1 +1
n1 + n2 – 2 n1 n2
Where:
X1 – mean of the first sample
X2 – mean of the second sample
n1 – number of items in the first sample
n2– number of items in the second sample

s1 – standard deviation of the first sample

s2 – standard deviation of the second sample

21
 Pilar B. Acorda
Email Address :
pbcorda77@gmail.com
Mobile Number: 09359547319

22