Original Article

Sustaining the luxury brand on the

Internet
Received (in revised form): 19th January 2009

Uché Okonkwo
is recognised worldwide as one of the pioneer luxury business strategists. A true luxury industry veteran and expert, she
has closely collaborated with renowned luxury companies including LVMH, Richemont, Louis Vuitton, Gucci, Christian
Dior, Burberry, Piaget, Tiffany’s, Rémy Martin, Oscar de La Renta, Coty Prestige and Fabergé as well as selective retailers
Galeries Lafayette, Barneys New York, Selfridges and Bergedorf Goodman. She is the Founder and Executive Director
of Luxe Corp, the pioneer Luxury Strategy & Management consultancy company based at Paris’ famed Place Vendôme,
with a worldwide clientele. She is also the founding head of The Luxury Centre at ESC Rennes School of Business, the first
research centre established by a business school dedicated to luxury management research. She is also the author of the
2007 bestseller, Luxury Fashion Branding (Palgrave Macmillan), the first business text to provide a strategic and analytical
perspective of the luxury business and a reference in the field that has sparked subsequent academic and management
interest and publications. Her next book Luxury Online (2009), will be the first text on luxury in the context of the
Internet, e-Business and new technologies. Uché has conducted seminars on luxury management at several business
schools including Harvard and ESSEC Paris and sits on the board of several luxury entities including the Global Luxury
Forum. She is also a fellow of the American Luxury Marketing Council. She has an MBA from Brunel Business School at
Brunel University, London and is finalizing a PhD from Ecole Superieur de Commerce, Rennes, France.

ABSTRACT Luxury is neither a product, an object, a service nor is it a concept or a

lifestyle. It is an identity, a philosophy and a culture. As a business sector and
management discipline, these characteristics signify the presence of challenges in
the integration of luxury branding within the Internet and digital environment and
the requirement of intricate strategies to overcome them. Recent publications have
raised the issues of the compatibility of luxury and the Internet, the suitability of
luxury goods in the virtual environment and strategic approaches to maximising a
luxury brand’s presence online. Others have indicated that the Internet is a ‘dilemma’
that luxury requires to overcome through avoiding e-Commerce, whereas other
literature have suggested that the Internet is purely a channel of communications
for luxury brands. The question of the state of luxury in the digital context, however,
remains largely unexplored, particularly with regards to the particularities of luxury
management, which have posed a challenge in adopting digital technologies in the
sector over the past two decades. Until recently, the luxury industry showed low
commitment towards integrating advanced Internet technologies and its accompanying
interactive and digital tools in the sector’s marketing and overall business strategies.
They also seemed to be pushed to be present and conduct business on the Internet
as a result of evolving consumer needs and expectations. Notable international
brands such as Versace and Prada did not have corporate websites until 2005 and
2007, respectively. The economic as well as consumer societies have also expressed
bewilderment at the slowness of the luxury industry in establishing an online presence
Correspondence:
Uché Okonkwo in comparison to other sectors. These parties have been right to question this crucial
E-mail: author@luxuryfashion
branding.com issue particularly since the Internet has become an indispensable channel of modern

© 2009 Palgrave Macmillan 1350-23IX Brand Management Vol. 16, 5/6, 302–310

www.palgrave-journals.com/bm/
 Sustaining the luxury brand on the Internet

business. As an industry that is known for innovation, avant-gardism and creativity,

it may not be apparent why luxury brands and digital technology have been perceived
as incompatible since the advent of the Internet and digital communications
technology. However, as with every case of reverse human behaviour, this may be
explained through the examination of the very core of luxury. This paper examines
the core and scope of luxury as a business disciple, particularly in the dimension of
branding within the digital context. It investigates the true nature of luxury as a
current management science and identifies its key drivers and their scope of
integration within the Internet environment. This paper has been adapted from a
section of the forthcoming book, Luxury Online.
Journal of Brand Management (2009) 16, 302–310. doi:10.1057/bm.2009.2

Keywords: luxury; branding; e-Business; sensory goods; Internet; webmosphere

INTRODUCTION ascertain their position in the society,

Luxury has been built on the foundation
of certain principles that can neither be
ignored nor compromised.1–7 It is a culture
and a philosophy that requires under-
standing before the adoption of business
practices because its intricacies and output
are essentially different from other types of
goods such as daily consumer goods.1,8,9
Luxury’s original function and raîson d’être
is also significantly different from those of
other product or service sectors. This func-
tion is rooted in the social classes of the
past civilisations and societies when royals,
nobles and aristocrats used ostentatious
consumption to stamp their superiority and
maintain their distance from the lesser priv-
ileged. In societies such as the Roman
empire, class distinction was such an inte-
gral part of the society that the colours of
the shoes of each social class were decreed
by the ruling class.1 Although this structure
has more or less disappeared from our cur-
rent society, what has not changed is the
fundamental need of man to show his dis-
tinction, to be admired, recognised, appre-
ciated and respected through differentiating
himself in most cases with his possessions.
This form of indirect stratification, which
meets the innate desire of human beings to
remains a part of today’s reality and the
practice of distinction remains prevalent in
all cultures, irrespective of economic situ-
ation. Therefore, the core role of luxury
has stayed basically unchanged although this
role can currently be created and controlled
by each individual according to his/her
dreams, goals and means. This new order
however means that luxury remains in a
superior position as it acts as a pointer for
defining the new codes of social distinction.
Therefore, the consumer still looks up to
the luxury brand in many ways although
the relationship is currently evolving
beyond the existing ‘top-down’ model.
LUXURY AND THE INTERNET
If the unique relationship that luxury has
with its clients were to be placed in the
context of the Internet where the consumer
is in total control and expects to be looked
up to, it would likely lead to resistance,
apprehension and anxiety from the top (the
luxury brand); and confusion, surprise and
disappointment from the bottom (the
luxury client). This has been the situation
of luxury in the Internet virtual environ-
ment in the last decade and explains why
several brands were slow in establishing a

© 2009 Palgrave Macmillan 1350-23IX Brand Management Vol. 16, 5/6, 302–310 303
 Okonkwo
web presence and why brands like Chanel
and Hermès continue to resist integrated
e-Commerce leaving their consumers at
the mercy of fake luxury goods traders who
are currently rampant online.
A major existing paradox however lies
in creating and retaining the ‘desire’ and
‘exclusivity’ attributes of luxury brands on
the mass and classless Internet world and at
the same time maintaining and enhancing
the equity of the brand. Another contradic-
tion that luxury brands face online is the
task of increasing sales and the risk of over-
exposure while maintaining a fragile per-
ception of limited supply.10 These factors
are inherently peculiar to the Internet
whose central features appear to be the
opposite of luxury’s core elements. The
characteristics of the Internet and e-Retail
are a global reach; a pull marketing approach
where customers are drawn to information
and purchases, rather than a push medium
where customers are driven by advertising;
a lack of physical contact with the goods
and human contact with the sellers; a low
switching cost as it takes only one click to
switch between websites; fast and conven-
ient; more product variety and access to
viewing them; availability and accessibility
irrespective of time and location; less pow-
erful sales as it is easy to say no to a com-
puter; a universal appeal and uniform
information.11–13 These characteristics indi-
cate that the Internet as a medium of com-
munications and retail is available to a mass
consumer base, which is in direct disparity
with the niche consumer base that luxury
goods have always targeted. The second
indication is the lack of physical contact
with the goods and their sellers. Luxury
goods are regarded as sensory in nature,12
and this means that the human senses of
visuals, smell, touch and feel are considered
imperative in selling luxury goods. These
above factors imply that luxury goods
are unsuitable to be placed and retailed on
the Internet according to exiting research.
304 © 2009 Palgrave Macmillan 1350-23IX
The reality is that luxury can be successfully
positioned online1 and as a result several
luxury brands have currently adopted
e-Retail and have identified this channel as
one of their fastest growing distribution
channels. A disparity and gap between
existing literature and current business
practice has therefore been raised and
remains unexplored.
Luxury itself has always had innate char-
acteristics that are intricate to its very being
and comprise of elements that speak more
to passion than reason.1 These include
originality and creativity in product and
retail conceptualisation; craftsmanship and
precision in creation and production; emo-
tional appeal and an enhanced image in
brand presentation; exclusivity and limit in
access and high quality and premium
pricing, all for a specific clientele. The
application of all these elements often
requires an unwavering dedication to per-
fection that sometimes defies logic, and this
oftentimes requires a rather narrow
approach, which has consequences for busi-
ness management.14 The natural reaction to
any possibility of interrupting this approach
and thought process would be ‘apprehen-
sion and resistance’, which has been the
initial reaction of luxury to the advent of
the Internet.
More so, the noncorporate structure in
which luxury has been operating over the
previous centuries until the late nineties
acted as a catalyst for the narrow view of
the business activities linked to luxury
e-Business.15 On the surface, the above-
mentioned characteristics of luxury do not
seem to be compatible with the main fea-
tures of the Internet, which include mass
access and mass appeal, hence another reason
for the initial resistance to the Internet.
In addition to these luxury characteristics
that initially led luxury away from the
Internet, the Internet was also a victim of
misconceptions, which resulted in its unat-
tractiveness to the luxury sector. These
Brand Management Vol. 16, 5/6, 302–310

presumptions range from the long-held
consensus that the Internet is a channel for
the retail of price discounted products,
damaged goods and counterfeits; or that
online advertising overexposes a brand’s
image and damages its equity; or yet again
that luxury clients are not inclined to
making online purchases.1
An additional source of the initial resist-
ance is from the reality that luxury thrives
on progressive evolution in business and
creation rather than dramatic changes. This
explains the visible struggle that the industry
has been undergoing in its attempt to strike
the right balance between satisfying the
requirements of luxury in a changing
market context and consumer orientation,
driven by the Internet revolution. Fortu-
nately, modern business applications have
made it possible to develop, adapt and apply
e-Business strategies that will enable luxury
to thrive on the Internet without compro-
mising its innate qualities. The strategies,
styles, systems and applications to optimise
luxury’s positioning online have been
explored in the forthcoming book from
which this paper has been adapted, and this
article explores the challenges that luxury
companies are facing in adopting advanced
internet and e-Business practices.
In recent years and particularly in the last
3 years, the luxury sector has shown signs
of commitment towards advancement in
e-Business and regaining its position as a
truly innovative industry. For example,
Louis Vuitton’s launch of the Soundwalk,
the first digital product by a luxury com-
pany introduces a new chapter to the
extension of luxury product categories
beyond physical products to virtual prod-
ucts. Giorgio Armani’s reconstruction of its
Milan flagship store in the virtual world,
Second Life; Cartier’s creation of Internet
downloadable music and films and Ritz-
Carlton’s launch of Internet-based short
movie series shot in its different hotel loca-
tions are all testimonies to the luxury indus-
© 2009 Palgrave Macmillan 1350-23IX Brand Management
Sustaining the luxury brand on the Internet
try’s increased efforts towards adopting new
digital technology (Club e-Luxe Quarterly,
Issue 0011).16
However, luxury on the Internet has not
come of age. In fact, online luxury is still
very much in its infancy and as a result, the
industry at large draws its references from
sectors like telecommunications, automo-
biles, FMCGs and publishing although
these sectors do not necessarily have the
culture, values and mechanics of luxury.
For example, luxury brands draw their ref-
erences from independent retailers like
Net-A-Porter.com, Amazon.com and
Apple.com in e-Merchandizing and e-retail
models and rely on others like My Space
and Face Book for online community
models. The disparity between all these
references could explain the general con-
sensus that the digital world does not nec-
essarily have added value for luxury brands
beyond their websites.2 The luxury industry
still lacks standard feasible procedures in
e-Business areas practices ranging from the
choice of digital marketing techniques for
products, brands and categories; the choice
of websites for advert placements; the type
of advertisements to display; the measure-
ment of online advert effectiveness;
approaches to Web 2.0. platforms, such as
blogs and social networks; the development
of e-Boutiques and its e-Merchandising and
e-Customer Relationship Management
(e-CRM) tools and other multiple issues.
However, these challenges will be over-
come through a reorientation as a result of
the recognition of the power and influence
of the Internet on the industry. This power
is currently influencing behavioural change
in the online consumer society as they drive
their own online experiences particularly
in the current context of the economic
slowdown.
In order to create an online luxury expe-
rience, luxury first requires an under-
standing of the scope and extent of the
digital world. The cyberspace is a world of
Vol. 16, 5/6, 302–310 305
 Okonkwo
hyper-interconnectivity, thanks to the
Internet whose platforms now go beyond
the computer to include Smart Phones,
PDAs, MP3 Players and other peripheral
devices. With Internet penetration rates
increasing annually and the functions of the
Internet expanding beyond information
exchanges to include services and commu-
nities, a new social order has been born
online.17 The average consumer is now
only a click away from being connected to
thousands of people throughout the world
sharing the same passions, values, tastes,
ideas and lifestyles.
The question of selling luxury goods
online should no longer be raised as the
rapid rate of Internet penetration and
e-Retail in different global markets empha-
sises the existence of an online consumer
base. 18–20 In addition to these, flexible
payment systems such as credit cards and
special in-house customer accounts have
substantially contributed to the diffusion of
luxury products and have led to increased
luxury goods purchases.21–23 These, in
addition to the closure of the information
gap, have led to an unprecedented thirst
for information and acquisition of luxury
by increasingly informed wealthy clients.
Also, the continuous growth in standards
of living and increasing consumer
product knowledge has given rise to access
to luxury goods and services by more
consumers,18–20 and several of them are
exposed to luxury online.
Currently, more than 171 billion
e-mails are sent daily, more than 180
million websites exist in the cyberspace
and more than 112.8 million blogs exist
in multiple languages.24 This signifies that
the Internet is not only a powerful tool
that influences millions worldwide but that
it is also currently being driven by users
who now have the clout to control mar-
keting communications and messages from
companies and to influence the way fellow
consumers interpret them – something
306 © 2009 Palgrave Macmillan 1350-23IX
that several luxury brands are still strug-
gling to accept.
The luxury industry faces both multiple
challenges and opportunities on the Internet,
which are not immediately apparent, as
their identification requires a strategic and
systematic approach as well as profound
understanding. The Internet serves as an
ample breeding ground for the evolution
of luxury, both in the creative aspect as
well as in communications and business.
Before understanding these opportunities,
it is important to evaluate the main chal-
lenges of luxury online.
The principal challenge and main draw-
back that luxury companies face in their
move towards adopting Internet strategies
is that of corporate orientation. As already
mentioned, the intricate features of man-
aging a luxury business means that luxury
companies are structured and accustomed
to functioning in a manner that is unac-
customed to radical change. However, the
arrival of the Internet has created an imper-
ative need for a change of corporate orien-
tation from rigidity to reception of the
undisputed transformation brought about
by digital technology. The struggle that the
luxury industry has been undergoing is less
in changing existing corporate strategies
and more in acknowledging that operating
on the web platform requires a new way
of thinking and re-thinking existing prac-
tices across all business aspects.17
This change of orientation also means
recognising the important place of the
Internet and new technologies in the overall
corporate strategy and allocating the appro-
priate place for this channel in corporate
planning. This means incorporating a core
Strategic Business Unit with a focal point
on the Internet and dispensing the multiple
functions of the department to suitably
qualified personnel who would in turn
liaise with annex departments. Several
established luxury companies currently do
not have Internet departments and those
Brand Management Vol. 16, 5/6, 302–310

that do have assigned personnel with solely
technical competence to this department
although managing a luxury e-Business
function requires competence in business,
techniques and creativity. The reality is that
technicians may be skilled in ensuring that
a website functions properly and may also
monitor web traffic but they are in most
cases ill-equipped to make strategic deci-
sions linked to e-Communications,
e-Commerce, e-Branding, e-Marketing
and e-CRM. The e-Business unit should
ensure that the extensive functions linked
to these activities are integrated in a depart-
ment designed to function as a complement
to the marketing, branding and communi-
cations business units and executed by
skilled and capable managers. Majority of
both established and emerging luxury com-
panies are still struggling to understand the
scope of the Internet and how to allot a
place for it within the internal organisation.
Others are trying to overcome the wide-
spread practice of internal competition
between departments for sales revenue and
clients.
The second fundamental challenge facing
luxury companies in their approach to
e-Business is the unfounded consensus that
the Internet is simply a channel of com-
munications through websites and adver-
tisements or of distribution through
e-Commerce. Thus, several brands end up
approaching the Internet as another adver-
tising medium that is evaluated the same
way as other media like magazines, televi-
sion and newspapers. The Internet is not a
single or dual channel that serves one or
two business purposes but it is a multidi-
mensional channel that serves multiple pur-
poses including communications, branding,
customer services, design, retailing, con-
sumer analysis, client networks or congre-
gation, marketing, customisation and
product development, as well as managing
logistics, supply chain and operations. Dig-
ital technology enables the assembling of
© 2009 Palgrave Macmillan 1350-23IX Brand Management
Sustaining the luxury brand on the Internet
these multiple aspects for the optimisation
of efficiency and performance.
Although the Internet was introduced
with the principal role of communications,
it has evolved beyond the communications
function. However, in order to effectively
communicate online, a luxury brand is
required to first separate advertising from
communications because advertisements
are one-way and the Internet now requires
interactive communications where the
receiver is engaged in a 360° conversation
with the brand through one click of the
mouse. Therefore, understanding how to
approach e-Communications both through
the brand’s own website and other appro-
priate websites goes far beyond advertise-
ments. Luxury brands currently need to
understand how to ‘converse with’ their
publics because the Internet has evolved
beyond being a channel of information and
retail to becoming a real ‘world’ that
includes the social web where consumers
also congregate, connect and communicate
among themselves in an independent way
that excludes both the luxury brands’ direct
participation and the influence of online
magazines. This was proved to Cartier in
2008 when the brand decided to launch an
online community on MySpace.com.
The third challenge facing luxury’s
e-Business integration in the virtual envi-
ronment is related to effectively repre-
senting the brand essence online through
its own website. There have been several
articles and debates on how to effectively
translate the brand characteristics and core
identity of a luxury brand onto its web-
site.5,25 The current pattern that luxury
website creation has been following places
an emphasis on strong visuals through flash
animations, product images, videos, music
and more recently, downloads. Although
these represent essential design elements of
website creation, they are insufficient in
brand image projection, and they cannot
exist in isolation without an integrated
Vol. 16, 5/6, 302–310 307
 Okonkwo
website design approach. Luxury website
design includes having a balanced approach
towards other web design dimensions like
usability and functionality, content and
relevance, design and aesthetics as well as
creating a luxurious webmosphere (web +
atmosphere). This is why on some websites
like Van Cleef & Arpels, the webmosphere
is enhanced at the expense of content,
whereas on other websites like Dolce &
Gabbana, the content is more developed
than the usability and webmosphere.
Fourth, the luxury sector is facing the
challenge of understanding that the cyber-
space includes an entire universe comprising
a virtual world that exists beyond a com-
pany’s website. Although the development
of a website remains essential, applying an
integrated strategy that will ensure the
appropriate positioning of a luxury brand
in the cyberspace has become imperative.
The cyberspace includes not only the world
of websites but also that of forums, blogs,
communities, networks and 2D and 3D
platforms. Luxury brands currently require
to be appropriately positioned in the cyber-
space beyond their own website as the con-
trol of the brands’ image online is currently
shared with online consumers.
The fifth area of challenge for luxury
companies as they navigate their way in the
virtual world is linked to the luxury con-
sumers, who are apparently the reason why
several luxury brands were forced to go
online in the first place. For a long time,
majority of luxury companies were reluc-
tant to adopt the Internet until it became
apparent that the wealthy segment of the
consumer population had embraced the
Internet and was using it not only beyond
information search but also for shopping,
converging, sharing and influencing others.
Several luxury brands however mistakenly
believed that wealthy consumers would
stay the same after a decade of being
exposed to the Internet. The reality is that
the Internet has changed the orientation,
308 © 2009 Palgrave Macmillan 1350-23IX
behaviours, attitudes, value systems and
interests of luxury clients worldwide. This
behaviour change is reflected in the way
they interact with luxury brands both online
and offline and their evolving expectations.
The vastness of the cyberspace and the pro-
lific way that luxury clients use the Internet
have also resulted in an additional challenge
of segmenting and profiling them online
(quantitative); understanding how their
online attitudes are reflected in their offline
relationships with the brands (qualitative).
Wealthy clients currently congregate and
participate in online exchanges through dis-
cussions, debates and events linked to
luxury brands, on websites like A Small
World and Luxe-Mag.Com.26,27 They go
as far as validating or rejecting luxury brands
for several reasons, and in the process, influ-
encing thousands, if not millions of clients
and potential clients.
The sixth challenge facing luxury online
is related to e-Retail, which is directly con-
nected to revenues and one of the measures
of the success and growth of a luxury brand.
Two fundamental questions linked to
luxury e-Retail are ‘What to sell?’ and ‘How
to sell?’ The former is related to under-
standing whether all the product range in
each category should be displayed in the
e-Boutique or not. If not, then there is the
additional question of whether the choice
of the appropriate products should be based
on price, product category, geographical
market, client segment, demand, competi-
tion, logistics and so on. In addition, the
question of making access to the website
open or restricted has been raised. There is
also the issue of catering to different geo-
graphical markets and possibly different
languages, and managing the distribution
and logistics systems from different storage
locations. The second fundamental ques-
tion of ‘how to sell’ is linked to the devel-
opment of the e-Boutique and in designing
the selling space beyond strong aesthetic
elements but also to feature an enhanced
Brand Management Vol. 16, 5/6, 302–310

webmosphere and optimised e-Merchan-
dising and e-CRM tools that would lead
to a memorable experience. This is appli-
cable to both luxury companies selling
products and those selling services online.
Understanding how to re-create the store
design and atmosphere online and pre-
senting the products in such a way that the
clients are immersed in the brand universe
and forget that they are staring at a screen
is a definite challenge. Only a few luxury
brands have been able to achieve this online,
notably Viktor & Rolf’s website, Cartier’s
website for its Love collection and Chris-
tian Lacroix’s dedicated website for his col-
lection for La Redoute.
The final challenge that luxury brands
need to overcome to ascertain appropriate
online positioning is their approaches to the
Social Web also known as Web 2.0. This
encompasses the phenomenal changes
taking place in all manners of use-to-user
communities such as blogs, vlogs, plogs,
mlogs, chat groups, social networks, virtual
worlds and other 2D and 3D platforms that
congregate consumers. The evolution
towards the social media and the blogo-
sphere has put the phrase ‘The consumer is
king’ permanently in marketing vocabulary.
In this world, the consumer is in total con-
trol of not just receiving and interpreting
messages from luxury companies but also
of deciding their legitimacy, endorsing
them (or not), spreading this endorsement
(or worse still, condemning the brand) and
generating discussions about the brand
while influencing millions around the
world in a matter of hours and in some
cases, even minutes. This phenomenon also
shows that the Internet is rapidly becoming
the most important and critical marketing
medium, and this will be even more prev-
alent in the near future as the social web
goes into full bloom. But the challenge for
luxury companies remains how to approach
the social web and engage luxury clients in
a strong dialogue at this critical early stage
© 2009 Palgrave Macmillan 1350-23IX Brand Management
Sustaining the luxury brand on the Internet
before the clients settle into the inevitable
life pattern on their chosen online social
communities.
Although the Internet has been in con-
stant evolution and that online behaviour
has been in constant transformation, the
core purpose of the Internet, which is to
converse, remains unchanged even as the
technology, attitudes and behaviour evolve.
The same applies to the core of luxury,
which has remained unchanged although
the luxury sector itself has undergone
several transforming evolutions over the last
two centuries.
The crucial questions linked to the chal-
lenges luxury brands are facing online are:
— How has the Internet evolved to this
point where the consumer has taken
the lead in online brand perceptions
and relationships?
— What are the real challenges and oppor-
tunities that this evolution has brought
to the luxury sphere?
— How is this remarkable online eco-
nomic revolution going to re-define
luxury management practices?
— What impact would it have on the per-
ception that future consumers will have
of luxury?
— And what can be done about all of
these?
Their answers and solutions may be attained
through a strategic integration of specific
tools, techniques and applications that strive
to enhance the brand value and equity
while creating exceptional online experi-
ences. The pointers, indicators, strategies
and general guidelines that will enable the
advancement of luxury e-Business lie in
understanding the core of luxury and how
to approach the Internet and digital tech-
nology in the current competitive market
context and challenging economic climate.
The Internet remains a key source of value
for the positioning of luxury brands on a
Vol. 16, 5/6, 302–310 309
 Okonkwo
vantage point both in its present state and
in the course of its continuous evolution.
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FURTHER READING
Bourdieu, P. (1984) Distinction: A Social Judgment of
Taste, Translated by R. Nice. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Coyler, E. (2007) Luxury Brands Confront Web 2.0,
Brandchannel.com.
Holt Douglas, B. (2002) Why do brands cause
trouble? A dialectic theory of consumer culture
and branding. Journal of Consumer Research 29(1):
70–90.
Keller, K. (2003) Building, Measuring and Managing
Brand Equity. New Jersey: Pearson Education.
www.chanel.com.
www.hermes.com.
www.louisvuitton.com.
www.christianlacroixpourlaredoute.com.
www.viktorandrolf.com.
www.prada.com.
www.ritzcarlton.com.
www.brandchannel.com.
Vol. 16, 5/6, 302–310