KINEMATICS
Kinematics is the study of motion without consideration of Plane Circular Motion
the mass of, or the forces acting on, the system. For particle A special case of transverse and radial components is for
motion, let r(t) be the position vector of the particle in an constant radius rotation about the origin, or plane circular
inertial reference frame. The velocity and acceleration of the motion.
particle are respectively defined as
y
v = dr/dt
a = dv / dt , where et
er
r
v = the instantaneous velocity, θ s
a = the instantaneous acceleration, and x
t = time
Cartesian Coordinates Here the vector quantities are defined as
r = xi + yj + zk r = re r
v = xi + yj + zk v = rωe t
a = xi + yj + zk , where
a = ( − rω2 )e r + rαe t , where
x = dx / dt = v x , etc.
r = the radius of the circle, and
x = d 2 x / dt 2 = a x , etc. θ = the angle between the x and e r axes
Radial and Transverse Components for Planar Motion The magnitudes of the angular velocity and acceleration,
respectively, are defined as
ω = θ, and
y
α=ω=θ
v = rer + rθeθ
r = dr / dt , etc.
r = d 2 r / dt 2 , etc.
29
DYNAMICS (continued)
Normal and Tangential Components For constant angular acceleration, the equations for angular
velocity and displacement are
y α(t ) = α 0
ω(t ) = α 0 (t − t 0 ) + ω0
et
en θ(t ) = α 0 (t − t 0 ) 2 / 2 + ω0 (t − t 0 ) + θ0 , where
r
θ= angular displacement
t = time, and
v = v(t )et
t0 = some initial time
a = a (t ) et + (vt2 / ρ) en , where
An additional equation for angular velocity as a function of
ρ = instantaneous radius of curvature angular position may be written as
ω2 = ω02 + 2α 0 (θ − θ0 )
Constant Acceleration
The equations for the velocity and displacement when
acceleration is a constant are given as Non-constant Acceleration
a( t ) = a0 When non-constant acceleration, a(t), is considered, the
v ( t ) = a0 ( t − t 0 ) + v 0 equations for the velocity and displacement may be obtained
from
s ( t ) = a0 ( t − t 0 ) 2 / 2 + v 0 ( t − t 0 ) + s0 , where
t
v ( t ) = ∫ a ( τ ) dτ + v t 0
to
s = distance along the line of travel t
s(t ) = ∫ v( τ) dτ + st0
s0 = displacement at time t 0 to
θ
x
30
DYNAMICS (continued)
The equations for common projectile motion may be If the force is constant (i.e. independent of time,
obtained from the constant acceleration equations as displacement, and velocity) then
ax = 0 a x = Fx / m,
v x = v0 cos(θ) v x = a x ( t − t 0 ) + v x t0 ,
x = v0 cos(θ) t + x0 x = a x ( t − t 0 ) 2 / 2 + v x t0 ( t − t 0 ) + x t 0
ay = −g
v y = − gt + v0 sin( θ) Normal and Tangential Kinetics for Planar Problems
2
y = − gt / 2 + v0 sin( θ) t + y 0 When working with normal and tangential directions, the
scalar equations may be written as
W = mg , where 2
∑ Fn = man = m (vt / ρ)
W = weight, N (lbf),
m = mass, kg (lbf - sec 2 /ft), and Impulse And Momentum
2 2
g = local acceleration of gravity, m/sec (ft/sec ) Linear
Assuming constant mass, the equation of motion of a
particle may be written as
KINETICS
mdv / dt = F
Newton’s second law for a particle is
mdv = Fdt
∑ F = d ( mv ) / dt , where
For constant mass, The term on the left side of the equation is the linear
momentum of a system of particles at time t2. The first term
∑ F = m dv / dt = ma on the right side of the equation is the linear momentum of a
system of particles at time t1. The second term on the right
side of the equation is the impulse of the force F from time
One-Dimensional Motion of a Particle (Constant Mass) t1 to t2 . It should be noted that the above equation is a vector
When motion only exists in a single dimension then, without equation. Component scalar equations may be obtained by
loss of generality, it may be assumed to be in the x- considering the momentum and force in a set of orthogonal
direction, and directions.
a x = Fx / m, where
Angular Momentum or Moment of Momentum
Fx = the resultant of the applied forces which in general The angular momentum or the moment of momentum about
point 0 of a particle is defined as
can depend on t , x, and vx .
H 0 = r × mv, or
a x (t ) = Fx (t ) / m,
t Taking the time derivative of the above, the equation of
v x ( t ) = ∫ a x ( τ) d τ + v x t 0 , motion may be written as
t0
t H 0 = d ( I 0ω) / dt = M, where
x ( t ) = ∫ v x ( τ) d τ + x t 0
t0
31
DYNAMICS (continued)
M is the moment applied to the particle. Now by integrating The potential energy stored in the spring when compressed
and summing over a system of any number of particles, this or extended by an amount x is
may be expanded to
U = k x2 / 2
t2
∑ ( H 0i ) t2 = ∑ ( H 0i ) t1 + ∑ ∫ M 0i dt
t1
In changing the deformation in the spring from position x1 to
x2, the change in the potential energy stored in the spring is
The term on the left side of the equation is the angular U 2 − U 1 = k ( x 22 − x12 ) / 2
momentum of a system of particles at time t2. The first term
on the right side of the equation is the angular momentum of
a system of particles at time t1. The second term on the right Principle of Work And Energy
side of the equation is the angular impulse of the moment M
If Ti and Ui are, respectively, the kinetic and potential
from time t1 to t2 .
energy of a particle at state i, then for conservative systems
(no energy dissipation or gain), the law of conservation of
Work And Energy energy is
Work W is defined as T2 + U 2 = T1 + U1
W = ∫ F ⋅ dr
(For particle flow, see FLUID MECHANICS section.) If non-conservative forces are present, then the work done
by these forces must be accounted for. Hence
T2 + U 2 = T1 + U1 + W1→ 2 , where
Kinetic Energy
The kinetic energy of a particle is the work done by an
external agent in accelerating the particle from rest to a W1→ 2 = the work done by the non-conservative forces in
velocity v. Thus, moving between state 1 and state 2. Care must be exercised
T = mv 2 / 2 during computations to correctly compute the algebraic sign
of the work term. If the forces serve to increase the energy
of the system, W1→2 is positive. If the forces, such as
In changing the velocity from v1 to v2, the change in kinetic friction, serve to dissipate energy, W1→2 is negative.
energy is
T2 − T1 = m(v22 − v12 ) / 2 Impact
During an impact, momentum is conserved while energy
Potential Energy may or may not be conserved. For direct central impact
with no external forces
The work done by an external agent in the presence of a
conservative field is termed the change in potential energy. m1v1 + m2 v 2 = m1v'1 + m2 v' 2 , where
Potential Energy in Gravity Field
U = mgh, where m1 , m2 = the masses of the two bodies,
h = the elevation above some specified datum. v1 , v2 = the velocities of the bodies just before impact, and
32
DYNAMICS (continued)
The value of e is such that A table listing moment of inertia formulas for some standard
0 ≤ e ≤ 1, with limiting values shapes is at the end of this section.
I z = ∫ ( x 2 + y 2 ) dm
33
DYNAMICS (continued)
I14 ∞ rA = rB + rrel
I24
I23 where, ω and α are, respectively, the total angular velocity
2 3 I34 and acceleration of the relative position vector rrel.
I12
4
1 GROUND Rigid Body Rotation
For rigid body rotation θ
34
DYNAMICS (continued)
Kinetic Energy
In general the kinetic energy for a rigid body may be written where ω n = k / m is the undamped natural circular
as frequency and C1 and C2 are constants of integration whose
T = mv 2 / 2 + I c ω2 / 2 values are determined from the initial conditions.
For motion in the xy plane this reduces to If the initial conditions are denoted as x(0) = x0 and
2 2 x(0) = v0 , then
T = m(vcx + vcy ) / 2 + I c ω 2z / 2
x(t ) = x0 cos(ω n t ) + (v0 / ω n )sin(ω n t )
For motion about an instant center,
T = I IC ω 2 / 2
35
DYNAMICS (continued)
It may also be shown that the undamped natural frequency The solution may now be written in terms of the initial
may be conditions
expressed in terms of the static deflection of the system as θ(0) = θ0 and θ(0) = θ0 as
ω n = g / δ st θ(t ) = θ0 cos(ω n t ) + (θ0 / ω n )sin(ω n t )
Torsional Vibration The torsional stiffness of a solid round rod with associated
polar
moment-of-inertia J, length L , and shear modulus of
elasticity G is given by
kt = G J / L
kt
Thus the undamped circular natural frequency for a system
with a solid
I round supporting rod may be written as
ω n = GJ / I L
θ
36
Figure Mass & Centroid Mass Moment of Inertia (Radius of Gyration)2 Product of Inertia
y M = ρLA
xc= L/2
I x = I xc = 0 rx2 = rx2c = 0
yc=0 I xc yc , etc. = 0
z c I yc = I zc = ML2 12 ry2c = rz2c = L2 12
zc=0 I xy , etc. = 0
A = cross-sectional area of I y = I z = ML2 3 ry2 = rz2 = L2 3
L x rod
ρ = mass/vol.
y M =
2πRρA
xc =
R = mean radius I xc = I yc = MR 2 2 rx2c = ry2c = R 2 2
I xc yc , etc. = 0
yc =
R = mean radius I zc = MR 2 r22c = R 2
cR zc 0= 2
I zc zc = MR 2
I x = I y = 3MR 2 rx2 = ry2 = 3R 2 2
A =
cross-sectional area of I xz = I yz = 0
z ring I z = 3MR 2
rz2 = 3R 2
x ρ = mass/vol.
y
R M = πR2ρh
xc = 0 (
I xc = I zc = M 3R 2 + h 2 12 ) (
rx2c = rz2c = 3R 2 + h 2 12 ) I xc yc , etc. = 0
37
c yc = h/2 I yc = I y = MR 2 2
ry2c = ry2 = R 2 2
I xy , etc. = 0
h zc = 0 (
I x = I z = M 3R 2 + 4h 2 12 ) rx2 = rz2 = (3R 2
)
+ 4h 2 12
ρ = mass/vol.
z x
y
R2
(
M = π R12 − R22 ρh ) I xc = I z c
(
rx2c = rz2c = 3R12 + 3R22 + h 2 12 )
xc = 0 (
= M 3R12 + 3R22 + h 2 12 ) = (R )2 I xc yc , etc. = 0
( ) ry2c ry2 2
R1 c = 1 + R22
yc = h 2 I y c = I y = M R12 + R22 2
rx2 = rz2 I xy ,etc. = 0
h zc = 0 Ix = Iz
z x
ρ = mass vol. (
= M 3R12 + 3R22 + 4h 2 12 ) (
= 3R12 + 3R22 + 4h 2 12 )
y 4 3 I xc yc , etc. = 0
M = πR ρ
3 I xc = I x = 2MR 2 5 rx2c = rx2 = 2 R 2 5
R xc = 0
c I yc = I y = 2MR 2 5 ry2c = ry2 = 2 R 2 5
yc = 0
I zc = I z = 2MR 2 5 rz2c =r 2z = 2 R 2 5
DYNAMICS (continued)
z x zc = 0
ρ = mass/vol.
Housner, George W. & Donald E. Hudson, Applied Mechanics Dynamics, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton, NJ, 1959. Table reprinted by permission of G.W. Housner & D.E. Hudson.