T H E O R Y A N D P R A C T IC E O F

H IN D U R IT U A L
V o l. 1

Pūjā

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C o n te n ts
Theory of Ritual ……………………………………………………………..…. 3
The Dynamics of Ritual ………………………………………………………… 7
The Tripod of Spiritual Practice ………………………………………………… 15
The Practice of Ritual …………………………………………………………... 17
Classification of Rituals ………………………………………………………… 17
Offences to be avoided ………………………………………………………….. 18
Location of ritual practice ……………………………………………………… 20
Orientation during practice……………………………………………………… 20
The Basic accessories to Sādhana
1. Purity ………………………………………………………………………… 21
2. Development of the right mental state ………………………………………. 22
3. Prāṇāyāma …………………………………………………………………… 23
4. Japa ………………………………………………………………………….. 23
5. Japa-mālā — Rosary ………………………………………………………… 23
6. Praṇāma — Prostration ………………………………………………………. 24
7. Āsana …………………………………………………………………………. 24
Ritual Technology
1. Yantra ………………………………………………………………………… 25
2. Mantra ……………………………………………………………………….. 26
3. Mudra ………………………………………………………………………… 28
4. Nyāsa ………………………………………………………………………… 29
Pūjā ……………………………………………………………………………… 31
Preliminaries ……………………………………………………………………. 32
The Eight Stages of Pūjā ……………………………………………………….. 33
The Unfolding Services — upacāra ……………………………………………. 33
Accoutrements of Pūjā & their esoteric meanings ………………………….….. 39
The Four Loci of Worship
1. Kumbha ……………………………………………………………………… 40
2. Maṇḍala ……………………………………………………………………… 41
3. Bimba ………………………………………………………………………… 42
4. Agni ………………………………………………………………………….. 42
General Guidelines for Practitioners …………………………………………… 43
Substitutes ………………………………………………………………………. 45
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P a rt 1 .
T H E O R Y O F R IT U A L

All human interaction is conducted through the Ritual is defined as formal

medium of ritual. All our daily acts of living are a practices or customs; stereotyped
form of ritual. There are social rituals, company
rituals, familial rituals, national rituals and action or behaviour
interpersonal rituals. The way in which we dress, the Ritual is an essential part of
way we greet each other, the socially expected
Tantric practice in which formal
behaviour on birthdays, weddings, funerals, holidays
and all formal occasions are all conditioned by the and structured acts are engaged
traditional values, customs and structures of the society in which lead to an integration of
in which we live. the psyche.
All systems of religion consist of three parts: —
1. A theory, theology/ philosophy / soteriology1 —
the theory of everything to do with life here and
hereafter.
2. Myths — narratives which explain and
communicate the theory through stories of
creation, origination, saints, sages, gods etc.
3. Ritual which in a spiritual context is the
enactment or practical application of the
theology/soteriology component.
When spiritual ritual is done in the proper way with
awareness and serious intent then it is not merely
stereotyped action done to enhance group identity or
affirm conviction but is actually psychic technology
for the transformation of personal consciousness. It is a
participation in the cyclic rhythm of the cosmos.
In Hinduism, highly structured and complex ritual
accompanies every important bio-organic
transformation that one may undergo; such as
conception, gestation, parturition, birth, weaning, first Svastika is a symbol of auspiciousness. It
walking, puberty, and death. These rituals also mark all represents the projection and expansion of the
Cosmos.
the social transitions (saṁskāras) that one undergoes
during the course of a life time such as initiation,
commencement of education, marriage, retirement etc.
There are also the various expiation rituals for the
absolution of sins (prāyaścitta), as well as purificatory
rituals, rituals for creating sacred space in the dwelling
etc.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
1
 Soteriology is the doctrine of salvation or Liberation.
 

The purpose of all these rituals is to bring
about a real transformation of consciousness,
because Sanātana Dharma is essential a
religion of ’experience’ and action (ācāram),
rather than one based on “belief,” and the
truth of Vedanta lies not in accepting a stated
dogma or creed but in bringing about a
direct personal realisation and spiritual
transformation.
The major ontological problem today is that
of alienation. Our lives are completely
disconnected from the natural world. Our
Gregorian calendar is completely arbitrary has
nothing to do with the seasonal changes or
natural cycles of time. Few people have any
idea or the connection between source,
producer and product. For example; our food
is obtained pre-packaged in supermarkets and
children and many adults have no idea of how
the food is produced! Our day to day work is
highly specialized and we only see a small
part of the whole production process.
The natural cycle of existence consists of a
series of changes and transformations. By
adapting ourselves to these cycles of change
and transformation through the practice of
ritual we can attain a higher level of personal
integration between ourselves and the world
in which we live. Ritual also helps us to deal
more constructively and efficiently with
sudden and traumatic events as well as natural
changes in our lives.
External rhythmic cycles of the cosmos such
as eclipses, solstices, lunar cycles, seasons,
progression of the planets through the zodiac
etc,. all have subtle effects on the state of an
organism. These changes in the cosmos are
4
expressed and integrated into the life process
through ritual. Ritual activity helps one to
maintain a conscious awareness of the laws of
nature (ṛta) and one’s place in the cosmic
scheme. Ritual also expands and intensifies
one’s participation in the rhythms of the
universe.
Change is the one constant in the universe —
our personal suffering is often related to our
inability to either cope with or integrate
change into our lives. When intention is
introduced to the equation the change
becomes transformation.
Hindu ritual has 3 major sources.
Vedas
Purāṇas
Tantras/Āgamas.
Vedic ritual is seldom performed nowadays
and is only found in the sacraments
(saṁskāras).
The majority of modern Hindu ritual is based
upon either the Purāṇas or the Āgamas or a
combination of both. In fact they two are so
intertwined that it is often hard to see the
difference.
The Āgamic/Tantric System is a highly
sophisticated methodology of ritual for the
purpose of enhancing one’s personal
integration and the establishment of harmony
with the cosmos by the introduction of
intention through the medium of ritual.

The Tantra Texts
The Tantra Texts also known as the Āgamas
or Samhitas are manuals of ritual technology.
The texts consist classically of four parts;
jñāna-pāda, kriya-pāda, carya-pāda & yoga-
pāda.
1. jñāna-pāda — deals with the theory of
Knowledge, Theology, Soteriology,
Cosmology and Philosophy.
2. kriya-pāda — deals with the details of
temple construction, sculpturing of
icons, the type and form of the vessels
to be used etc.
3. carya-pāda — deals with the
consecration of temples and icons,
ritual practices used in the temples and
at home, celebration of public festivals
etc.
4. yoga-pāda — deals with the personal
spiritual life of the aspirant — the
theory and the practice of sādhana.
The fundamental theoretical basis of all the
ritual taught in the Āgamas rests upon the
teachings concerning Cosmology, Theology
and Soteriology. In order to understand the
ritual, one has to have a thorough
understanding of this theoretical basis.
Everything connected with the ritual has a
definite symbolic meaning. Only when this
esoteric meaning is understood and practiced
with full awareness, and integrated in one’s
life can a transformation in the consciousness
take place.
In this book we are attempting to present the
practical aspect of Hindu ritual and so we
cannot possibly cover the vast theoretical
foundation of Tantric Mysticism, Cosmology
and Philosophy — the keen student of Tantra
should learn about these from other sources.
5
Life as a Ritual
In Sanskrit there is no distinction between the
words for ritual action, physical action, and
mundane activities; all these are covered by
the term karma which simply means —
’action’. The Tantric view of life makes no
separation between sacred actions and profane
actions. All actions are part of the cosmic
symphony — the dance of life.
All actions involving others, whether spiritual
or secular, have moral consequences (karma)
and can either be positive or negative
depending on their target effect or the
intention behind the act. Morally neutral
actions only involve one’s self. The law of
Karma teaches us that all good done to other
beings is actually good done to oneself, and
the same applies to all pain that is caused to
other beings. The Tantra therefore teaches
that one should exert the maximum control
possible over all one’s actions in regard to
others, and one should channel them so as to
bring about the maximum universal benefit
(loka-saṅgraha). All social interaction takes
place through the medium of commonly
accepted rituals which we learn from birth
through the process of socialisation. For
example — sending birthday cards and
greetings on various occasions, giving of
gifts, cards and flowers on special occasions
etc. are all demonstrations of friendship and
affection. The way in which we greet people,
the way we dress — wearing black at solemn
occasions, formal attire, casual attire etc., and
the way in which conduct ourselves at
different social functions, are all ritual actions
dictated by society. But all these social rituals
are done unconsciously and for social benefit
alone — for acceptance by our peers and for
gratifying our basic needs for belonging,
esteem and affection.

In the Tantric scheme each and every act of daily
living should become a conscious and purposeful
ritual. Bathing, dressing, eating, studying, play,
sexual dalliance, etc., can all become forms of
worship and should therefore be accomplished
with mindfulness, order and precision.
The Need for Ritual
The Tantric position, based on the recognition
and acceptance of intrinsic individual differences,
is that everyone needs ritual in varying degrees
and of various kinds for spiritual development.
All sincere feelings need a channel for
demonstration.
Although meditation on the inconceivable,
indefinable Absolute may be the highest form of
philosophical contemplation yet this is impossible
for the average person to achieve, therefore the
use of the techniques of visualisation of deities
(Deity-Yoga) is recommended for everyone.
Thus the Tantric system achieves results more
Dīkṣa — Initiation
Because the Tantric Yoga practice is easier and
yields more rapid results than the Yoga system of
Patanjali it is also more liable to misadventure.
When using the technique of visualising and
identifying oneself with various deities there is a
greater potential for self-delusion. When doing
abstract meditation the potential for boredom and
frustration is quite marked but there is very little
potential for self-delusion. Initiation and expert
guidance is therefore considered to be the sine qua
non of Tantric spiritual advancement. No real
spiritual progress is possible without initiation and
the guidance of a competent Guru. The serious
spiritual aspirant seeks out a qualified Guru and
after testing him/her and establishing
6
efficiently and in a shorter space of time than
does Yogic contemplation on the Absolute —
devoid of all qualities, which is an “unnatural”
process.
Whatever the ritual practice, it must be suitable
to the spiritual attainment, competency and
natural disposition of the practitioner. The
dispositions, temperaments and intellectual
capabilities of each person are different, so
therefore, there are different types of devotional
practices to suite each spiritual aspirant. This is
the greatness of the Tantric tradition, and all
controversy over differing forms of religion or
devotional practice is futile, as each person is
naturally attracted to a form of spiritual practice
that is in harmony with his/her own individuality
and character. A qualified and expert Guru is
capable of discerning through intuition or
Astrology, the character and spiritual
development of the disciple and can then
prescribe a particular practice to suite one’s
individual needs.
dīkṣa
dī — dīyate jjānam
kṣa — kṣīyate pāpam
Initiation (diksha) is that which grants
knowledge and subsequently removes negative
impressions (through its application).

T
Thhee D
Dyynnaam
miiccss ooff R
The universe at large is conceived of as the
macrocosm (brahmāṇḍa) and the human
entity as the microcosm (piṇḍāṇḍa).
Everything existing in the macrocosm has its
correlation in the microcosm. All the
presiding deities and forces of the cosmos are
present within the human body. This
sympathetic correlation between the two is
the fundamental principle upon which the
efficacy of the ritual is based. Ritual is thus an
application of the subtle science of
correspondences. The value of ritual cannot
be estimated by its external presentation, but
only through the changes it brings about in
the consciousness of the practitioners. The
ultimate purpose of all Tantric ritual is
personal empowerment, the energising of
subtle psychic energies and transformation of
the consciousness of the practitioner towards
perfect enlightenment.
If one accepts the concept of oneself as a
Another concept included in this perspective
is that of Sakala and Niṣkala. There are 2
sources of Truth which contribute to our
meaningful existence — the subjective and
the objective. Everything that we can grasp
with our physical senses — the external world
of objective investigation and verification that
is dealt with by Science is called the Sakala
— which means “with parts” this aspect of
Reality is also known as Prakṛti. The
subjective realm of the mind and spirit and
the realm of the para-normal is called the
Niṣkala — “without parts” — also known as
Puruṣa. In the puruṣa sūkta of the Vedas we
are told that the Sakala universe with it’s 100
billion galaxies represents only quarter of the
In the process of the ritual, all the five senses
7
Riittuuaall
microcosm, and a tiny reflection of the
universe, then one’s way of life and daily
transactions with other members of society
take on the character of a cosmic
arrangement. In order to evolve spiritually
one must realise the innate harmony of the
universe and the inter-connectedness of all
things, and to attune oneself with it. Although
superficially the universe can be seen as
governed by the third law of thermodynamics
— everything tending towards as state of
maximum equilibrium — which means that
everything naturally and inexorably tends
towards chaos and dis-organisation. But by
observation one can easily perceive that
Nature is in fact an impressive balanced
harmony governed by cosmic laws, and
humankind is a part of nature. The laws
governing the human mind, body and activity
(Dharma) reflect and partake of the
functioning of the greater cosmic law (Ṛta).
whole, but the Niṣkala is the remaining 3
quarters.
Because of the sympathetic correlation
between the macrocosm and the microcosm,
as well as the Sakala and Niṣkala; all Tantric
rituals have a simultaneous action on the
Divine Forces which control the cosmos
(devas) and the individual.
Every Tantric ritual has two functions;
1. a cosmic one — the propitiation or
manipulation of certain deities (devas)
or forces of Nature,
2. a individual one — the psycho-spiritual
transformation of the practitioner.
and their corresponding objects which are the

means as well as the causes of disharmony,
discord and disintegration, are used and
sublimated.
With the aid of sound (chanting), forms
(icons, yantras, mandalas), smell (incense,
flowers), touch (ritualistic gestures ), taste
(food offerings) the mind of the worshipper
is diverted from its preoccupations with the
ego and the external world (sakala), into the
transcendental realm (niṣkala ) of harmony,
concord and integration, through communion
and imitation of the Deity worshipped.
Mahābhūtas — The 5 Elements
Two very important concepts pervade all
Hindu ritual — (a) the Mahābhūtas and (b)
the Guṇas. So it is important to have a good
grasp of their functionality. Ritual is the
formal interaction with the Universe on a
sakala and niṣkala level. The Scientific
Universe can be reduced to 106 elements —
none of which can be seen by the naked eye
and can contribute nothing to our daily
interaction with the universe.
Space — Ākāśa
Space or ether is the ground from which
everything arises — in which everything has its
being and into which everything recedes. Space
is not empty but is filled with vibrations or
frequencies of cosmic energy (śakti) which are
constantly washing over our bodies and minds.
Its function is to make space for and to transmit
these waves. It is therefore associated with the
sense of sound.
Key-words:— expansive, accommodating,
endless, infinity, capacious, the void.
8
discord and disintegration, are used and
Ritual is the means to achieving these goals
and is the key factor in spiritual practice
(sādhana). One cannot claim to love another
without ever demonstrating that love. The
existence of a sentiment demands an external
expression of that sentiment. So the love of
another or of the Divine (bhakti) manifests as
a desire to serve that other (kainkaryam), in
order to demonstrate one’s love and
commitment, and this mystical love is
existentially applied through ritual.
Tantra presents a much simpler user-friendly
interface in the form of the five elements
know as mahābhūtas and the three guṇas.
This simplified elemental system does not
negate anything scientific and is not in itself
“scientific” but is practical as an interface
with the complex universe of 106 elements.
Ritual deals a lot with these elements and so
this is a good time to renew our acquaintance
with them.
 9
 

Air — Vāyu
The wind is the gaseous element which arises
from space. Everything that comes into being is
pervaded by, connected by and sustained by
Wind. In the Brahmāṇḍa this universal life-force
manifests as vāyu — the wind currents, whereas
in the Piṇḍāṇḍa it manifests as prāṇa the
respiratory function.
Key words:— versatility of movement and
change, flexibility, communication, flow,
changeable, unstable, unattached, independent,
delicate, soothing.

Fire — Agni
Fire is the element which arises due to the
friction caused by the wind. Fire is the great
transformative force in the Universe. All forms
of heat within the body and in the external
universe are manifestations of this element.
This is the primary source of energy. Hunger
and digestion are both aspects of the fire
element.
Key words:— strong will, ambition,
determination, discrimination, perception, focus,
illuminating, intense, consuming.

Water — Jala
The fire produces condensation which appears
as the element water. Water is the element which
nourishes life and comprises the principle
element in the bodies of sentient beings. Water
is life-sustaining and as such is the most
purifying agent and most sacred of all the five
elements. No Tantric ceremony can be
performed without the presence of water. Water
is the form of the goddess — the mother of the
universe. Water is the great solvent, dissolving
and transporting all essential elements.
Key-words:— flowing, cool, intuition, emotions,
love, affection, compassion, empathy,
attachment.
 10  
Earth — Bhūmi
The final element to arise is Earth — the
solidification appearing within the waters. The
earth is our mother, our source of stability and
grounding. It allows growth, and produces food
whereby all beings exist. The earth is the most
condensed form of the cosmic energy.
Key-words:— sense of form, order, firm, utility,
practicality, material manifestation or physical
expression, steady and unwavering.
These five elements are found in different
proportions in everything that exists. By
discerning the qualities and proportions of the
elements we can further create harmony and
balance in our lives.

Particular Principle of Function Properties

Ether vacuity space sound
Air motion pressure sound touch
Energy luminosity expansion sound touch form
Water liquidity contraction sound touch form taste
Earth solidity cohesion sound touch form taste smell

Bhūta Ākāśa Vāyu Agni Jala Bhūmi

perception Ear Skin Eye Tongue Nose
Motor-sense Mouth Hands Feet Genitals Anus
Sensory-sense Hearing Touch Sight Taste Smell
Nature Accommodate Shift Change Merge Stabilize
Desire Create Shift Change Merge Endure
Fault Detached Restless Angry Lusty Greedy

The Elements are very important and their symbolism crops up repeatedly throughout the pūjā and
indeed all Hindu ritual.
 11  

Elements and the Chakras

Sahasrāra Cakra
Element — Space
bīja mantra — khaṃ
yantra — droplet
Viśuddha Cakra
Element — Air
bīja mantra — yaṃ
yantra — half circle
Anāhata Cakra
Element — Fire
bīja mantra — raṃ
yantra — triangle
Manipura Cakra
Element — Water
bīja mantra — vaṃ
yantra — circle
Mūlādhāra Cakra
Element — Earth
bīja mantra — laṃ
yantra — square

The Guṇas — The Qualities of Material Nature

The Universe consists of 2 Principles known in Indian Philosophy as Puruṣa and
Prakṛti.
Puruṣa
The first principle is called Puruṣa and refers
to the Self of the universe, the animating
principle of nature. Puruṣa is the subjective
aspect of nature. It is the universal spirit,
eternal, indestructible and all-pervasive; it is
the screen upon which the drama of life takes
place. It is the niṣkala aspect of being.
InTantra it is identified with the masculine
deities Brahma, Vishnu & Siva.
Prakṛti
This word is composed of the prefix pra,
“before or first,” and the root kr “to make or
produce.” This term connotes that which
existed before the Cosmos was produced, the
primary source of all things, the original
substance out of which all things have come
and to which they will eventually return. It is
also called pradhāna “primary matter,” and
avyakta, “unmanifest matter.” It is important to
note that from a Hindu perspective Prakṛti as
“matter” includes the mind.
 12
 

In Tantra, Prakṛti is identified with the Goddess — all her

manifestations are personifications of the various dynamics at
play.
All manifestation is the interaction of Puruṣa (nāma) and
Prakṛti (rūpa). Neither of these two principles has
independent function. The formless Puruṣa cannot manifest
itself because it has no vehicle; the Cosmic Substance
(Prakṛti) can have no urge to action because it is inanimate;
therefore, it is only by the union of (Puruṣa and Prakṛti that
existence can manifest. They are dependent upon one another
and come into existence by the inseparable attributes of one
another.

The Gunas
Prakṛti consists of three forces called Guṇas. These are postulated to account for the
diversity of experience. The three constituents are called Sattva Guṇa, Rajas Guṇa,
and Tamas Guṇa and each has its characteristic function.

 Sattva Guṇa
The term is derived from sat, “that which is real or existent.” It is used to connote
the force that illuminates and reveals all manifestations. It is of the nature of
pleasure (prīti). It is responsible for the lightness of things, the upward movement
of fire, and the currents of wind. It is devoid of excitement and is the cause of
equilibrium. It has no motion of its own; therefore, it is incapable of action or
reaction. It manifests itself as light (prakāśa)

Key Words —
balance, wisdom, harmony, abiding happiness, healthy, supportive,
joy, peace, tranquility, compassion, unconditional love, metabolism

 Rajas Guṇa
The term is derived from rañj, “to be clouded, affected or moved,” Here it is used
to connote that force which affects and moves the other two constituents. It is of the
nature of pain (aprīti). It is the activating and exciting potency without which the
other constituents could not manifest their inherent qualities. Its function is to move
things, overcome resistance, do work. It is responsible for all motion and change
that goes on throughout nature. It gives matter its energy and impetus.

Key Words —
action, knowledge, impetus, heat, anger, rage, drive, pursuit, motivation,
creation, pro-activity, ascent, attention to detail, construction, solution, anabolism.
 13  

 Tamas Guṇa
This term tamas means “darkness”: Here it is used to connote the force that
restrains, obstructs, and envelops the other two constituents by counter-acting the
tendency of Rajas to do work and Sattva to reveal. It’s nature is dullness (viṣāda).
Its function is to resist motion. It is responsible for the attraction and downward
pull of the earth and the tendency of water to descend. It is the cause of mass,
weight and inertia. It makes it possible for us to feel invisible air.
Key Words —
sleep, torpor, stupidity, delusion, sloth, laziness, procrastination, dull, inert,
descent, lack of motivation, negligence, destruction, dissolution, catabolism.
These three constituents are the root of all change in the empirical world. Before
the manifestation of the objective world, they exist in a state of perfect balance and
equipoise. When this condition of equilibrium is disturbed by the impetus of the
collective Karma of all beings, the evolution and projection of the phenomenal
world begins.
In the process of cosmic evolution, the three Guṇas are never separated; they co-
exist in everything. They never function separately, but one or the other always
predominates and gives the particular flavour or colouring to things. They always
support one another and intermingle with one another.
During the state of rest after involution (pralaya) the three Guṇas loose their
individual characteristics and rest in state of perfect balance however they never
coalesce, but always remain potentially ready to emerge as distinct aspects when
the conditions for the next cycle of evolution (srṣṭi) arise.

The Gītā in Chapter 17 gives some clarification about the division of ritual
according to the Guṇas:—

4. The Sattvic types worship the gods. The Rajasic types worship Yakṣas and
Rakshasas, and the others, classified as Tamasic, worship Pretas and the host of
Bhūtas.

5. Those who practice severe self-discipline (tapas) not enjoined by the Śāstras,
through ostentation and egoism, and impelled by the force of passion and
attachment;

6. These foolish people, torture the material components of their bodies and Me
also who dwell within the body — know them to be non-divine in their faith.

The Three Grades of Spiritual Practice.

11. The Sattvic yajña (sacrifice) is one that is offered by one without a desire for
reward and with the conviction that it should be performed as enjoined in the
Śāstras.

12. That yajña which is offered, O Arjuna, with an expectation of reward and for
the sake of ostentation, know that to be Rājasic.
 14  
13. That yajña which is not based upon Scriptural authority, with unsanctioned
offerings, devoid of the recitation of mantras, lacking in gifts of appreciation and
faith — that is considered to be Tamasic.

The Threefold Division of Tapas (self-discipline)

14. Adoration of the gods, the twice-born, the preceptors, the enlightened ones,
purity, rectitude, chastity and non-injury, these are said to be the physical
disciplines.

15. Speech that does not cause distress and which is true, agreeable and beneficial,
and also the recitation of the Vedas are called the verbal disciplines.

16. Peace of mind, benevolence, silence, self-restraint, perfect mindfulness —

these are called mental disciplines.

17. This threefold self-discipline, practiced with firm conviction by those who
desire no reward and are devoted — is called Sattvic self-discipline.

18. Discipline, practiced with ostentation for the sake of gaining respect, praise and
reverence, is considered to be Rajasic. It is unstable and transient.

19. That self-discipline which is practiced with foolish obstinacy by means of self-
torture or in order to injure another is declared to be Tamasic.

The Three Kinds of Charity

20. The charity that is dispensed from a sense of duty, to one who does not
reciprocate, at the proper place and time to a deserving person — that is said to be
Sattvic.

21. But that which is given as a consideration for something received or in

expectation of future reward, or grudgingly, is considered to be Rajasic

22. That gift which is given at the wrong place and wrong time to unworthy
recipients, without due respect and with derision, is considered to be Tamasic.

Brahma — Rajas Viṣṇu — Sattva Śiva — Tamas

 15  

The Tripod of Spiritual Practice.

According to the Gita Chapter 17 the basic framework of one’s spiritual practice is
comprised of three elements:—
Yajña — sacrifice
Tapas — self-discipline
Dāna — generosity.

1. Yajña
In a modern post Vedic context in which Yajñas as “Vedic Sacrifices” are
irrelevent, the concept of yajña as spiritual practice needs to be redefined. Yajña is
the exchange of energy between two different levels.
The two elements of the Yajña as spiritual practice are:
1. A sincere feeling of gratitude and appreciation for everything and every one
we have in our lives, and
2. Expression of that gratitude by making offerings, serving, blessing and
committing ourselves to the others.

This development of gratitude and its expression can best be accomplished through
the concept of the Five Great Sacrifices (pañca mahā yajñas) —
1. Parental obligations (pitṛ-ṛṇa)
2. Cultural Obligations (rṣi-ṛṇa)
3. Deity Obligations (deva-ṛṇa)
4. Social Obligations (manuṣya-ṛṇa)
5. Environmental Obligations (bhūta-ṛṇa)

1. Parental Obligations — offering libations to the ancestors in gratitude for the

benefits of our lineage as well as the care and honour bestowed upon one by one’s
parents.

2. Educational Obligations — The great sages and enlightened beings have gone
to immense trouble to gather knowledge — both spiritual and temporal for our
sakes. We therefore have an obligation of gratitude not to let their efforts go in
vain. This duty is fulfilled by studying and teaching others — the transmitting of
knowledge.

3. Deity Obligations — making offerings to the gods in gratitude for all the
material benefits of rain, food etc.

4. Social Obligations — We are all members of a societal body — as such the

welfare of the whole depends upon the wellbeing of each individual member. As
Tāntrik sādhakas we are compelled to become socially active as an outpouring of
 16  
our spiritual convictions.

5. Environmental Obligations — offering food to the animals (or ensuring their

natural habitat) in gratitude for the benefits of the ecology. An essential realisation
of spiritual practice is the interconnectedness of all things and that the world is the
“body” of the Divine, hence environmentalism is an integral part of spiritual
practice.

2. Tapas
This term is often translated as “austerity” but according to the Gita it has a much
broader application when applied to body, speech and mind: —
Adoration of the gods, the twice-born, the preceptors, the enlightened ones,
purity, integrity, chastity and non-injury, these are said to be the physical
disciplines (Kāyika Tapas). Gita 17:14
purity — by regular ablutions in water; integrity — harmony of thought and
action — hence a “physical” discipline  ; chastity — avoidance of considering
others as mere objects of pleasure; non-injury — avoidance of causing pain to any
being .
Speech that does not cause distress and which is true, agreeable and
beneficial, and also the study of the Vedas are called the verbal disciplines.
(Vācika Tapas). Gita 17:15.
The study of sacred scriptures is called a verbal discipline because it is learned
through speech and always involves chanting out aloud.
Peace of mind, benevolence, silence, self-restraint, perfect mindfulness —
these are called mental disciplines (Mānasika Tapas). Gita 17:16.
Peace of mind — the absence of anger, desire, delusion, pride, greed:
benevolence — being devoted to the good of others; silence — control of
expression; self-restraint — focusing one thought flow on the object of
contemplation; perfect mindfulness — the avoidance of reflecting upon subjects
other than the Self — these constitute the self-discipline (Tapas) of the mind.

3. Dāna
Dāna literally means “giving” or “generosity” in the broadest possible sense of the
term. Giving freely of one’s resources as well as of oneself. This is the singular
most important aspect of spiritual life in which all realisation, learning and
achievement culminates in the tireless service of all beings. It is based upon the
realisation of oneness with the cosmos as well as compassion and love for all
sentient beings.
 17  

P a rt 2 . P R A C T IC E O F R IT U A L

11.. C
Cllaassssiiffiiccaattiioonn ooff R
Riittuuaallss
1. Obligatory Ritual Duties (nitya karma)
These are rituals which comprise the daily liturgical routine and are compulsory for
brahmins and all those ‘twice-born’ (dvijas) ones who have been invested with the
sacred thread (yajñopavitam). Their performance does not produce any merit, but failure
to perform them brings demerit, these are;
1. Regular daily bathing
2. The ceremony of saluting the Sun and reciting the Gāyatri mantra (sandhyā)
3. Pañca-mahā-yajña; the performance of the five great sacrifices which are
obligatory on householders;

2. Periodic Rituals (naimittika karma)

These are voluntary rituals performed on special occasions, such as Temple festivals
(utsavas) and holy days (parvas) which are prescribed in the Āgamic treatises as well as
the periodic requiem for the dead on new and full moon etc.

3. Desiderative Rituals (kāmya karma)

These karmas are of 2 types:—
svārtha — for one’s own benefit or parārtha — for the benefit of others.

Svārtha:
These are the various vows (vratas or
puraścaranas) which are undertaken for
propitiating certain deities and obtaining some
specific reward either for oneself of for the
members of one’s family. These vratas are of
various kinds and the Puranas elaborate upon
them in great detail along with the merits
obtained by their performance, they all have
some common features which are;
• the formal resolve to undertake the vrata,
• a preparation consisting of some kind of
self discipline,
• sexual abstinence,
• eating or abstaining from of a particular
type of food or salt etc.
• a pūjā performed at the appropriate time.
Parārtha:
These are charitable social works undertaken
with the specific desire for attaining merit e.g.
building hospitals, rest homes, planting trees
and gardens, building temples, renovating
temples, sponsoring temple festivals or yajñas
etc. These have no compelling character and
are done only by those who feel a need to do
so.
According to the spiritual view of life all
wealth and resources belongs to the whole
creation and is lent to us. In order to discharge
our duty to God and to society these resources
should be used for the welfare of all beings.

In desiderative rituals the efficacy of the act
lies in the meticulous performance of all the
subsidiary parts (aṅga) of the ritual according
to the prescriptions in the Āgamas. Any
breach of the rules (vidhi-lopa) or deletion of
some rite (kriya-lopa ) or mispronunciation of
the mantras (mantra-lopa) on the part of the
priests (purohitas) or patrons (yajamāna)
renders the act fruitless. Concentration is of
paramount importance in causing the right
effect. All acts of omission or lapses are due
18
to imperfect concentration.
The realms of existence (lokas) are of many
kinds, and since the effect of the ritual is not
directly and immediately detected, (adṛṣya),
they may create some wrong contacts in the
spiritual world and have the opposite effect of
that desired. Ritual is therefore a potentially
dangerous technology and should not be taken
lightly, no changes should be made except by
skilled ritual technicians.

4. Unmotivated Rituals (niṣkāmya karma)

These are rituals done without any desire for rituals the efficacy is based entirely upon the
personal gain but merely to please the Divine. devotion of the worshipper, there is no fear of
This is the highest and most commendable loss, and all imperfections are acceptable
form of devotional service. In unmotivated (within limits of course!).

22.. O
Offffeenncceess ttoo bbee aavvooiiddeedd iinn R
Riittuuaall PPrraaccttiiccee

These are many “offences” (aparādha) which must be avoided by a ritual practitioner.
They fall into three categories:

1. Offences against the Deity (bhagavat aparādha)

These all relate to misconduct in a temple or shrine or inattention during ceremonial worship of an
Icon. They are as follows;
1. Approaching the Deity without brushing the teeth.
2. Entering the temple or shrine after touching a menstruating woman.
3. Approaching a sacred precinct after visiting the cemetery.
4. Entering a temple or shrine wrapped in a blanket.
5. Weeping or lamenting in the temple.
6. Combing the hair, or clipping nails or spitting in the vicinity of the temple.
7. Carrying an umbrella while circumambulating the temple.
8. Sleeping or eating in the temple or shrine.
9. Seeing a corpse and thereafter touching the Icon without having washed the hands.
10. Touching the Icon after having touched a corpse without having bathed.
11. Touching a sacred icon after having sex (without bathing).
12. Sitting upon an elevated seat in front of the Deity.
13. Eating meat prior to worship.
 19  
14. Drinking alcohol prior to worship.
15. Worshipping the Deity wearing unwashed garments.
16. Worshipping the Deity wearing a garment belonging to another.
17. Wearing an upper garment while prostrating.
18. Wearing shoes during worship.
19. Stretching the feet towards the Icon or turning the back towards it.
20. Interrupting the liturgical proceedings to answer calls of nature.
21. Lying, gossiping, praising or deprecating another deity or person in the presence of the Deity.
22. Using forbidden flowers in the worship.
23. Tasting the food or smelling the flowers before they are offered.
24. Refraining from prostrating or saluting with one hand.
25. Stealing or using the temple vessels or paraphernalia for oneself.

2. Offences against the Sanga/Kula members

1. Confiscating or appropriating the property of a sādhaka.
2. Wrongfully accusing a sādhaka of a crime or inventing accusations.
3. Abusing a sādhaka.
4. Assaulting a sādhaka.
5. Neglecting to show another sādhaka respect.
6. Inquiring into the caste or social status of a sādhaka or in anyway discriminating against another
on these grounds.

3. Offences against the Guru

Any offence against the spiritual Preceptor is considered the worst of all offences. They are known
as offences which is unbearable to the Lord. They are the hardest of all to forgive because the
Guru has abandoned everything for alleviating the sufferings of others. These offences which are
given in the Dharma-Śāstras are;

1. Addressing the Guru by his /her personal name, issuing instructions to him/her, requesting
service of, or treating the Guru as an equal.
2. Saluting the Guru from a seat or carriage without having descended, or greeting the Guru while
holding implements in one’s hands.
3. Wearing an upper garment in the Guru’s presence.
4. Speaking to the Guru while reclining on a bed, eating or with the face turned away.
5. Sitting on a seat higher than the Guru’s
6. Stretching out the feet towards the Guru, holding one’s knees, or clasping the hands behind the
back in his/her presence.
7. Breathing on the Guru or spraying spittle while talking to him/her in close proximity. (The
hand or hem of the garment should be held over the mouth when talking to the Guru from close
quarters).
8. Laughing in the presence of the Guru without putting the hand over the mouth.
 20  
9. Using the Guru ‘s seat, bed, books or other implements without permission.
10. Mimicking the Guru’s walk, speech or deportment.
11. Rendering service to the children or the spouse of the Guru by massaging them, assisting them
in their bath, washing or anointing their feet or arranging their hair.

33.. L
Looccaattiioonn ooff R
Riittuuaall PPrraaccttiiccee

According to the Āgamas the best places for
personal spiritual practice (sādhana) are;
places of pilgrimage, river-banks, mountain
tops, confluence of rivers, in the shade of the
banyan tree, sea-shore, cattle shed, one’s own
home or that of the guru, or any place that is
isolated, free from wild animals, and naturally
inspires devotion and tranquility of mind.
Temples are of secondary importance in that
they are not places for personal spiritual
practice or the gathering of the faithful in
congregational worship, but are homes of the
incarnation of the god in iconic form. The
priests are the servants of the Deity, daily
offering the services that any royal personage
would enjoy. The devotees visit the temple as
they would the home of any great personage,
bringing gifts, paying homage and receiving
the darśana or sight of the sacred icon.

44.. O
Orriieennttaattiioonn dduurriinngg PPrraaccttiiccee

The correct orientation during ritual practice
is based upon the path of the sun as well as
the belief that each direction is ruled over by
certain deities. The individual or the site of
the ritual becomes the cosmic axis — Meru
the centre of the Mystic Universe. All
auspicious rituals take place facing the East
which is the direction of the rising sun and the
coming of the spiritual enlightenment. By
facing east the individual expresses the desire
and preparedness to receive the spiritual light
and life. South is the direction of Yama the
god of death. All inauspicious ceremonies
take place with the aspirant facing south.
North is the direction of the Rishis — the
sages whose sole purpose is the guiding of
humanity towards enlightenment. Normally
when ceremonies take place outside of a
temple the orientation followed is the natural
one, but in the temple the orientation is
always toward the deity as the rising sun.

deity faces east the practitioner sits to its right

deity faces west the practitioner sits to its left
deity faces south the practitioner sits to its right
deity faces north the practitioner sits to its left
 21  

55.. T
Thhee B
Baassiicc A
Acccceessssoorriieess ttoo ssāāddhhaannaa

1. Purity
All Tantric ritual practice is proceeded by stages of purification. By purification
(śaucam) is meant the removal of hindrances and obstacles to practice. The real
Self has two vehicles; body and mind. The body and the mind are organically
inter—related and one cannot exist and express itself without the other. Therefore a
discipline which purifies the body will automatically purify the mind as well. The
first stage is attending to the purity of the body thereafter one must pay due
attention to the environment as well as the utensils and accessories that are to be
used for the ritual.
Physical purity is achieved through taking bath and wearing clean clothes — white
for men, boys and widows, coloured for married women, and marking the forehead
with the sandal paste.
Purification of the place of worship by sweeping, washing it, sprinkling with water
mixed with turmeric, smearing with cow—dung, drawing auspicious designs in rice
flour, decorating the walls and doors with garlands and wreaths of mango leaves
and banana leaves.
Purification of the seat. This means ensuring that the seat is the appropriate one for
the ritual and that it is free from any impure substance. The seat should also be
purified by sprinkling with water.
Cleaning of the vessels and implements to be used in the ritual. The method
depends upon the substance from which they are made; metal items are scrubbed
using tamarind, salt or vinegar until they shine, wooden items are washed with hot
water, cloth items are either washed or sprinkled with water.
Ensuring that the items collected for the pūjā are of the best possible type and taken
from auspicious places. There should not be any imperfection in them, they are
purified by sprinkling with water. The Āgama also allows for substitutes to be made
in case the prescribed items cannot be obtained. In the case of the prescribed item
of inferior quality and the substitute of superior quality both being available, then it
is the prescribed item alone which is to be chosen.
Purity of mind which is freedom from fear, selfish desire and anger. The
development of knowledge, humility, renunciation and peace; the practice of truth,
non—injury, control of the senses abstaining from gossip and back—biting,
nurturing of compassion, forgiveness, resoluteness and absence of pride and envy.
Purification of the subtle elements of the body and the astral body — this is done
through breathing exercises, nyāsa, and visualisation of the Deity in one’s own
heart.
 22  
2. Development of the right mental state.
The right mental state is achieved through constant contemplation upon the Divine.
Wherever there is a subject there will be an object, wherever there is consciousness
there will be content. Knowledge without an object is inconceivable. The idea of
‘pure consciousness’ existing devoid of any content is itself inconceivable! The
first aim of ritual is to ensure that the content of thought is a good and beneficial
one. The best of all objects upon which to focus one’s mind is of course one of the
aspects of the Godhead.
According to Yoga Psychology the process of knowing is an active one, it consists
of a ray of consciousness from the mind going out through one of the five senses
and coming in contact with the object of perception in the environment. It then
reveals the object to the consciousness—taking it’s form. Thus if attention is given
completely and undistractedly to an icon of a deity, then the mind so long as it
holds the object will be transformed into likeness of the object. With complete
concentration on the Divine the mind is transformed into a likeness of That with the
mutual qualities of Being (sat), Consciousness (cit) and Bliss (ānanda).
In the Āgamas the various forms of the Deities to be meditated upon are formulated
in what are called ‘Dhyāna-Ślokas’. These are the verses recited at the
commencement of the ritual giving the details of that particular form which is being
worshipped. The worship of specific form gives a particular result to the
worshipper. These dhyāna ślokas form the basis of Iconography. One should only
meditate upon prescribed forms which were conceived through the meditation of
the ancient seers and which have stood the test of time.
The mind is extremely unsteady and the thoughts flow one after the other like
waves. The inner dialogue and commentary never seem to end, and as such the
wavering mind cannot keep itself transformed for very long, hence both intensity
and durability of transformation are required.
Whatever thought occupies the mind persistently and regularly forms what is
known as a samskāra — an impression. These impressions sink into the
subconscious mind to become vāsanas — habitual tendencies. The sum total of
these vāsanas form the character or svabhāva of the individual and condition
future births. Therefore it is very important to establish the right impressions.
Through regular spiritual practice (sādhana) all obstructing samskāras from
previous births and conditioning are eradicated and new positive ones are set up in
their place. This is the reason why the Scriptures continually repeat that a
particular ritual or hymn (stotra) ‘purifies’ the mind and eradicates obstacles to
enlightenment.
 23  
3. Prāṇāyāma
Prāṇayāma — practice of breath control. Mind, prāṇa and air are inseparably
related, and in mantra sādhana there is a strong stress placed upon breathing
exercises to purify the subtle nerve channels (nāḍis). At certain junctions of the
ritual, prāṇāyāma is prescribed, if time is not permitting then it is done symbolically
by the display of “prāṇāyāma mudra” and recitation of the prāṇāyāma mantra —
followed by touching the right ear (śrotra-ācamaniyam) for purification after
touching the nose.

4. Japa — Mantra Recitation.

All the above are really preliminaries to the actual recitation of the mantra which is
done in isolation. This recitation or japa is of three types;—
1. recited aloud. (vācika)
2. whispered but audible only to oneself. (upāṃsu)
3. mental repetition. (mānasika)
The japa should be done not too fast and not too slow, while sitting down without
moving the body and with full concentration of the mind. One should avoid,
sleeping, eating, talking, hunger, thirst, anger and agitation during the japa.
Stretching out of the legs, standing, sitting on the bare ground, or a bed or a vehicle
are also strictly forbidden during japa. When using a rosary all the rules have to be
observed but if the japa is done mentally only, then no rules apply.

5. Japa-mālā — Rosary
The rosary is also known as the japa—māla and one is enjoined not to disclose it to
others.
If the repetitions are more than 10 and less than a hundred, then one can use the
knuckles of the hands for counting, but if the number of repetitions exceeds a
hundred the use of a japa-māla is recommended.
The beads can be made from a number of substances each one having a different
effect. The best mālas consist of beads made from akṣa nuts (Eleocarpus seeds).
Tulsī beads bring liberation, a māla made of gold is used for success, prosperity
and the worship of the ancestors. A silver māla yields prosperity and good form. A
copper one gives intelligence, strength and radiance. Lotus beads bring success,
crystals give tranquility and liberation. Pearls are used in rituals for longevity,
progeny and fame while shell beads bring prosperity. Mālas of tin, lead, bell—
metal, brass and iron are used for occult rites for propitiating elementals and spirits.
The best māla consists of 108 beads, 54 is middling and 27 beads is the lowest
type. The thread should be of cotton or jute and consist of three strands. There
 24  
should be a large bead called a Meru — this is not crossed over when doing japa.
The māla should be consecrated in a proper manner before use.

6. Praṇāma — Prostration.
The act of prostrating oneself is an outward demonstration of an inner feeling of
humility and self-abnegation. It is an essential part of all sādhanas and no ritual is
complete without it. There are two forms of prostration:—
1. pañcāṅga (five—limbed)
2. sāṣṭāṅga (eight—limbed).
The former is generally done by females and consists of touching the ground with
five parts of the body — two knees, joined palms and forehead. The latter done
only by males consists of lying down full—length and touching the ground with
eight bodily parts:— feet, knees, genitals, chest, forehead and joined palms. The
sāṣṭāṅga is generally not done by females but both forms are optional. Some
devotees, as an act of extreme devotion and sincere desire to overcome the ego,
circumambulate a sacred shrine or holy place by negotiating the entire distance by
repeated and sequential full—length prostration.

7. Āsana
The āsana refers both to the posture adopted for practice and the material of the
seat that one uses. One is discouraged from sitting on the bare ground because of
the idea that certain energy fields are generated by the practice and this energy is
dissipated through the ground but is contained by the āsana. The seat as well as the
posture are conditioned by the result that one wishes to obtain from the japa. Thus,
in kāmya karma a red woolen blanket is used; for perfection of knowledge — a
deer skin; for liberation — a tiger’s skin; for long life — a seat of kusha grass; for
health — a silk cloth. In almost all other rites a plain wooden seat is preferred.
The āsana should also be purified by sprinkling with water. It should ideally
consist of a kuśa grass mat, covered by the skin, if one is being used, and then a
cloth.
The posture adopted also differs with the purpose, but for Devotional Service the
posture is either padmāsana or svastikāsana.
 25  

Padmāsana Svastikāsana

66.. R
Riittuuaall T
Teecchhnnoollooggyy

The technology of Tantric ritual consists of 5 accessories; yantra, mantra, mudra, nyāsa & upacāra
which will be discussed at length with Pūjā or Individual Worship.

1 Yantra — the Visible

This word in its most general sense means ‘an instrument’, or a device by which
something is accomplished. In worship it refers specifically to the device by which
the mind is fixed upon the object of
meditation.
Yantras are geometrical designs which represent the basic
energy forces of the universe. They are the visual equivalent of
the mantras or the thought forms of the Deity. The Deity is the
‘Self’ as it were, the mantra is the “casual body”, the yantra is
the subtle or “astral body” and the icon is the gross or
“physical body”. So every form of divinity that is worshiped
must be accompanied by these three components, i.e. mantra,
yantra and bera (icon).
The yantra is the static geometric representation of the combination of dynamic
forces which are present within a particular form of divinity. The yantras express
the subtle nature of the cosmic forces (devas), at play in creation. They are the
fundamental basis for all attempts at symbolic representation of sacred forms and
the enclosing of sacred space. They are used in all sacred architecture; for the
construction of temples, fire altars, and mandalas.
The secret of the yantras is one of the most closely guarded forms of esoteric
 26  
teaching, because the power of the yantra, when released through the proper rituals,
is thought to be limitless and has the potential for great harm as well as good.
Yantras can be drawn on paper, leaves, on the ground or engraved on different
metals, the medium and the form of the yantra varies with the Deity and the object
desired. There is also a limitation upon the time-span that a certain material can be
used with effect; gold and silver yantras can be used life long, those drawn on birch
bark can be used for 12 years, copper yantras for 6 years and any other metal for
only 3 years.
Although yantras are usually specific to each deity, there are some yantras which
are common to a number of deities, sometimes with very minor alterations.
All yantras have a common outer square called a bhūpura containing four doors,
through which the mind of the sādhaka is withdrawn from the external world and
focussed on the inner world of the mind. Meditating upon the specific form of the
Deity in the heart chakra, the sādhaka transfers it to the yantra.

2. Mantra — the Audible

This word is derived from ‘man’ which means the mind, tra means to protect. It
thus refers to a device which protects the mind from negative influences, frees it
from obstructions and transforms it into the vehicle for enlightenment and Self-
realisation.

Sound is defined as a disturbance or wave produced by a mananāt trāyate iti mantraḥ |

vibrating object in a medium such as air in which one molecule
collides with another and transmits sound. Sound waves travel “The mantra is that which
protects one from thinking”
through the air at an approximate speed of 1100 feet per second.

According to the cosmology of the Āgama – the universe is created by sonic

vibration (śabda-brahman). When the Supreme Being wills to create the universe
the first thing that happens in the primal space of Total Being (cidākāśa) is the
emergence of a tiny point of stress. From this point a subtle vibration emerges
which is the praṇava — AUM. This vibration (śabda or dhvani) undergoes several
stages of transformation before it becomes sonic vibration and finally audible
sound. All forms of vibration (spandana) whether they are audible or not — such as
the vibration caused by electrons in motion, constitute the śabda of the cosmos.
The first stage is the rising of causal or unmanifest vibration called called nāda
(para). Nāda is the first produced source of mantra. This is AUM, the source of all
cosmic life-force or prāṇa. This vibration then transforms into bindu (paśyanti)
which is a more advanced stage of manifestation but not yet polarized into
articulate sound. Bindu is the source of the three forms of cosmic energy, rajas
(revolving) tamas (centripetal) and sattva (centrifugal). The next stage in its
evolution called madhyama, śabda undergoes a bifurcation into nāma (name) &
rūpa (form). Nāma indicates the primary sound units (bījas) which as letters of the
 27  
alphabet are collectively known as matrikas. (Mothers) They manifest along with
form as (psychic) colour, hence the letters of the alphabet are also known as varṇas
(color). Sonic vibration is the quality of the ether — it is not produced by ether but
is manifest in it. Sounds give rise to definite forms within the etheric world. The
last stage is articulated and audible sound known as vaikhari, which is composed of
syllables (pāda) which in turn make up sentences (vākya) which form the
composition of mantras.
Words are “sound forms” and they are the expression of ideas which arise in the
mind. The term śabda embraces both the subtle idea, the word and its meaning. In
the intermediary stage called madhyama the thoughts arise in the form of symbols
called words (nāma) each having a specific meaning (artha or rūpa). These two
are inseparable and form the basis of the entire perceptual universe. From the
cosmic creative standpoint the mind comes first. From the mind the physical
universe is evolved. The mental meaning (mānasika-artha) precedes the
conventional meaning (śabda-artha).
The letters of the Sanskrit alphabet are also called ‘akṣara’ which means
‘imperishable’ — they are in fact nothing but the yantras of the Imperishable F
Brahman (akṣara-brahman). A mantra is composed of certain letters arranged in a
definite sequence of sounds. Not just any letter or word can be a mantra, it is only
ê`
specific sound formulae which were revealed by God when manifest in a specific ”`
Ãr€`
form that can serve to reveal that same Divine Form now. To produce the desired
effect the correct pronunciation of the sound is important, it must be intoned
according to rhythm (svara) and sound (varna). Mantras are found in the Vedas,
Tantras and Puranas.
≤`
A mantra is not the same as a prayer (sthuti, or stotra), a prayer can be composed in
whatever language or words that the worshipper chooses, it can be sung or chanted
or recited in any metre, and it’s meaning is usually quite clear. It is gross ignorance
to think that a mantra is merely a string of words expressing what one has to say to
the Deity! Therefore the only language in which mantras are chanted is Sanskrit,
they cannot be translated and rendered into any vernacular languages for use in
worship.
The efficacy of mantra practice depends on:—
1. harmony of sound and rhythm
2. feeling — devotion, love, faith, veneration
3. mental associations — knowledge & experience
All these three factors work together to arouse, intensify and transform the latent
pyschic forces within the practitioner.
A mantra may or may not convey a distinct meaning on face value. Bīja (seed)
mantras, such as aim, klim, hrim etc, have no semantic meaning according to the
 28  
use of ordinary language. They are indicitive of the Personal Form (nija svarūpa)
of the particular Deity to whom they are related.
Bīja Mantras

The basic sound units (bījas) which in their seed or latent form possess specific
powers which are enlivened and nurtured by the mantra chanting process. Each of
the devatas has his or her specific bīja mantra.

3. Mudra — the Tangible

Mudras are gestures and manipulations of the hands and
fingers during certain phases of the liturgy in order to
supplement the power of the mantras. Mudras are shown at
the time of invocation, valediction, making offerings, doing
japa, bathing, homa, establishing of viśeśa-arghya, naivedya
etc. There are different mudras which are specifically used for
each deity.
The word mudra has several meanings; — seal, imprint,
passport, badge, mystery, code language and gesture. Panini
the grammarian derives the word from the root ‘mud’
which means ‘to please’.
The word is severally derived as follows:—
1. mud + rā = to afford pleasure (to the gods), or
2. mud + dru = mudam drāvayati — giving pleasure to the gods and making
their minds melt with compassion.
3. mudṛ = to seal or to stamp — just as a seal guarantees the authenticity of a
substance or document on the material level, on a spiritual level the mudra
eliminates any possibility of error and “seals” the efficacy of the ritual act. It is
a sign of a solemn contract which binds the sādhaka to the spiritual world and
which permits one to become integrated into it.
Mudras are a non-verbal mode of communication and self-expression which cause
a subjective reaction in the mind of the sādhaka. Mudras are archetypal symbolic
gestures, taking the place of speech or supplementing the spoken word.
On the subtle level they are used to invoke within the mind of the sādhaka certain
ideas of cosmic forces, in order to intensify concentration. They are also used to
reinforce the mantra recited at the time of showing the gesture.
Both mudras and nyāsas are external expressions of an inner conviction, and this
has been supported by modern psychology which has established that non-verbal
communication is more forceful than the verbal and in fact about 60—70% of our
daily communication is non-verbal. There are over 100 mudras used in the Āgamas
accompanying almost every stage of the ritual.
 29  

Representation of the hands

The right hand represents the Sun and the left hand the Moon; the right hand
represents the spiritual world and the left the mortal world; and this symbology is
extended to encompass all the pairs of opposites of which the cognitive world is
composed. The fingers carry the following associations;

Finger Element Sense Upacāra Deva Graha Kośa

Little earth smell gandham Indra Mercury annamaya

Ring water taste naivedyam Sūrya Sun prāṇamaya
Middle fire sight dīpam Prajāpati Saturn manomaya
Index air touch dhūpam Vāyu Jupiter vijñānamaya
Thumb space hearing puṣpam Agni Maras ānandamaya

4. Nyāsa — Transformative
The term Nyāsa is derived from the root ’nyas’ which means ‘ to place’, it refers
to the placing of the tips of the fingers and palm of the hand on various parts of the
body while reciting certain mantras. The purpose of this practice is to prepare the
physical body for the reception of the divine presence of the Deity.
The body itself has to be properly consecrated and sanctified for communion with
the Divine. The Deity is first invoked within the heart and then transferred to the
yantra or the Icon. The bīja mantras of the Deity are the jewels as it were, which the
sādhaka places on various parts of his body and then with vyāpaka nyāsa one
disseminates the presence of the deity over all the body. One thus becomes
permeated by the divine presence, and attains a identification with the Divine
Essence.
Nyāsa is also used for the distribution of the five prāṇas, or etheric energy forces, in
their respective places so as to avoid disharmony and distraction during the
worship. Nyāsa is very important for production of the right state of mind (citta-
śuddhi). Transformation of thought is transformation of being — this is the
essential rational basis of nyāsa.
Nyāsa has three variations:—
Sṛṣṭi nyāsa — disintegration or ‘projection-of-the-universe’ is used by
brahmacaris (unmarried students).
Sthiti nyāsa — conservation or ‘protection-of-the-universe’ is the variant used by
grhastis or married householders.
Samhāra nyāsa — reintegration or ‘withdrawal-of-the-universe’ is that used by
sanyasis or renunciates.
30  
 31  

PPūūjjāā —
—WWoorrsshhiipp

The actual act of worship is called by various names such as pūjā, arcana,
arādhana or upāsana — all are synonyms with different shades of meaning.
The term arcana is generally used for that form of worship which is offered in a
temple, the term pūjā usually refers to worship done in the home or worship in
general, while the term ārādhana can be used for either, and upāsana usually
refers to one’s own intimate Deity-Yoga practice, but the terms are
interchangeable.
Pūjā is a complex and elaborate art, it is ceremony performed by the individual
(svārtha) or priest acting on one’s behalf (parārtha), using various materials
according to time, place, availability and the financial & spiritual circumstance of
the individual.
In the Āgamas there are always three standards given for all acts that are
enjoined;—
uttama — the best,
madhyama — the middling,
adhama — the lowest or the irreducible minimum.
These three are then further divided into three sub-standards each i.e.
uttama-uttama — best of the best,
uttama-madhyama — the middling of the best,
uttama-adhama — lowest of the best etc.
If possible one should always aim for the best of the best, but circumstances not
permitting one can settle for one of the middling or lower standards. After
describing a certain standard the texts then usually give alternatives and
substitutes or simply state — ‘according to your ability’. It is better to start with a
lower standard and slowly improve with time, circumstance and place.
uttama uttama-uttama uttama-madhyama uttama-adhama
madhyama madhyama-uttama madhyama-madhyama madhyama-adhama
adhama adhama-uttama adhama-madhyama adhama-adhama
 32  

PPrreelliim
miinnaarriieess
The main liturgy is always preceded by three essential preliminaries;

1. Purification
The first step in performing any ritual is purification and sanctification, it is
indispensable and the Āgamas place great emphasis upon it. (see 5:1)

2. Removal of Obstacles: (bhūta-apasāraṇam)

Obstacles in the form of elementals (bhūtas) and negative thoughts rising from the
subconscious mind are dispersed by ringing of the bell, sprinkling the holy water
and by invoking Ganeśa the embodiment of wisdom at the commencement of the
practice.

3. Saṅkalpaḥ — Statement of Intent.

Every ritual act is preceded by the recitation of the saṅkalpaḥ. The saṅkalpaḥ is
the statement of intent and purpose of the ritual about to be undertaken. It is the
complete focusing of the mind of the participants upon the purpose of the ritual —
a clarification of intent. Intent is the factor that causes a probability to materialise
as a definite event. Intent is the factor which interlaces and joins events in our
lives into a tapestry of coherence. Intent is the factor by which change becomes
transformation. Intent is the factor which determines the positive or negative ethics
of an act. If intent is absent, there is no meaningful connection between our life’s
experiences, and the cosmic dynamic of change in which we unwillingly participate
appears random, capricious, and even chaotic. Events only become meaningful to
us as the result of an intent which rises from a vision of a goal, path or direction in
which we intend moving. When the intent is clear and focused, paths will
automatically appear.
The saṅkalpa consists of: —
(a) the statement of the spacio-temporal factors which limit and confine the
ritual activity,
(b) the type of ritual and
(c) the purpose or expected outcome of the ritual.
The practitioner, sitting cross-legged, performs prāṇāyāma in order to purify the
channels of the subtle body and to clear the mind, one then holds the hands in the
pose (mudra) known as brahma-āsana — the right hand clasped in a fist resting
downward on the upturned left palm which has been placed on the right knee. This
represents the pose of the Creator Brahma sitting upon the lotus which issued from
the navel of Lord Vishnu at the time of creation. The Vedas declare that in the
beginning the Creator conceived of the universe in his mind before projecting it
into a concrete reality. The practitioner is now participating in the on-going act of
 33  
creation by mentally conceiving of an event that will be projected into time and
space.
After thrice invoking the name of the Supreme Being the practitioner calls to mind
the time and the astrological data for the day. She mentions the location of the
ritual with reference to the Axis Mundi — Mount Meru. She then states the type of
ritual and the purpose; whether it be for material or spiritual benefits or merely as
an act of service to the Supreme Being
The recital of the saṅkalpa concentrates the mind of the practitioner on the activity
at hand and clarifies the purpose. The entire Universe is mano-sambhava —
created from the mind of the Godhead. The ritual is an enactment of that original
creation through sacrifice and is an active participation therein and so it starts with
a mental resolve.

TThhee EEiigghhtt SSttaaggeess ooff PPūūjjāā

1. nyāsa; placing the bīja (seed mantra) of the Deity upon the various parts of the
body.
2. dhyāna; visualisation of the Deity — consists of reciting the dhyana sloka or
descriptive verse of the Deity and his/her paraphernalia.
3. āvāhanam; invocation of the deity requesting him/her to be present in the icon
out of boundless compassion and to receive the offerings.
4. mānasika -pūjā; offering of mental worship to the Deity with imagined objects
5. upacāra; offering of services which are of four kinds.
6. japa; silent recitation of the particular mantra of the Deity.
7. stotra; chanting of verses in praise of the Deity.
8. visarjanam; valediction — the formal requesting of the Deity to forgive the
imperfections of the worship and bidding the Deity to depart from the icon.

TThhee U
Unnffoollddiinngg SSeerrvviicceess —
—UUppaaccāārraass
āvāhanam — visarjanam (Invocation & Valediction)
Invocation is preceded by the visualisation of the Deity in the lotus of one’s own
heart while holding a flower in the kurma mudra close to the heart (anāhata cakra)
or by holding the uddharini with water and a flower in the left hand, covering it
with the right hand and holding close to the third eye (ajña cakra). After the
visualisation and recital of the dhyāna śloka a flower is placed in front of the icon,
with the request that the Deity who resides in the lotus of the heart be present
within the icon for the purpose of receiving the worship. The Deity is thus projected
from within to the icon which acts like a mirror. Certain mantras are recited and
 34  
the five invocatory mudras are shown.

After the worship is complete the Lord is dispatched — valedicted, and returned to
the lotus of the heart. This act is known as visarjanam. With the nirvana mudra the
flower that was placed at the feet of the deity when invoking is picked up and
smelt, then cast aside. The Deity whose tangible presence is now felt in the icon is
offered the services that one would offer to any special guest or a lover. These
services which are offered are called upacāras. All these elements have an esoteric
symbolism as well as the social function. There are different degrees of
elaboration:—

Tri-upacāra —
1. puṣpam — flower — representative of the destruction aspect śiva
2. dhūpa — incense — representative of the creative aspect brahma
3. jalam — water — representative of the preservative aspect viṣṇu

Pañcopacāra —

1. gandham — scent (usually sandal-paste or candana)

2, puṣpam — flowers
3. dhūpam — incense
4. dīpam — lamp
5. naivedyam— victuals (fruit or cooked food)

Daśopacāra —
1. arghyam — a libation2
2. pādyam — water for washing the feet.
3. ācamanam — water for sipping
4. snānam — bathing
5. vastram — clothing
6. gandham — sandal paste
7. puṣpam — flowers
8. dhūpam — incense
                                                                                                               
2  consisting of scented water (scents, flowers, sandal wood paste, sesame seeds, tulsi, kusha grass etc.)  
 35  
9. dīpam — light
10.naivedyam — food offering

Ṣoḍaśopacāra —
1. āvāhanam — invocation
2. āsanam — enthronement
3. arghyam — scented water
4. pādyam — washing of the feet
5. ācamanam — sipping of water
6. snānam — bathing
7. vastram — clothing
8. upavītam — sacred thread.
9. ābharanam — adornment
10. candanam — sandal paste
11. puṣpam — flowers
12. dhūpam — incense
13. dīpam — light
14. naivedyam — food offering
15. tāmbūlam — betel leaf & nuts
16. nirājanam — offering camphor flame
This is about the most elaborate that an average pūjā will become and is the
standard format. In the temples, according to the dictates of the Āgamas 108 or
even 1008 services can be offered, all according to time, place, desire and of course
financial ability. The more elaborate form of pūjā being known as Rajopacāra —
the Royal services.
Although the pūjās are known technically as Threefold, Fivefold, Tenfold.
Sixteenfold etc., they are only guide lines and the actual practice does vary
somewhat. Extra offerings of ācamanam are done following bath (snānam) incense
(dhūpam) and lamp (dīpam) as well as food (naivedyam). Some practitioners offer
ācamanam after vastram and upavītaṁ as well. There is always the nirājanam
(camphor flame) offered at the end with mantra-puṣpam. These upacāras can be
accompanied by Vedic mantras, Puranic verses or Tantric mantras according to the
desire of the sādhaka.
A elaboration of the liturgy involving the 16 upacāras is as follows:
1. āvāhanam — invocation — this rite includes the stages of Saṅkalpa,
prāṇāyāma, rishi nyāsa, anga-nyāsa, dhyānam and āvahanam or invocation
proper with the display of the five invocatory mudras. The deity is first
visualized within the heart of the sādhaka and then through the process of
invocation is transferred into the icon.
2. āsanam — enthronement — this upacāra involves a twofold process:—
 36  
(a) svāgata or reception and welcoming
(b) the offering of a bejeweled throne (ratna-simhāsana). In actual practice akṣata
alone is offered while visualising a golden throne.
3. arghyam — scented water for washing the hands — one spoonful of scented
water is touched to the hand of the icon and thrown into the phela (receptacle).
When offering arghya, in the vessel containing the water Akṣata is made by mixing raw
to be used for that purpose, all or as many as one can white rice grains with turmeric
afford out of the following eight articles are to be included and a little water. It can be
in it, viz. curds, whole grains of rice, tips of kuśa grass, mixed either in a bowel or
plastic bag. By adding a pinch
milk, dūrva (lawn grass), honey, barley grains and white
of quicklime (calcium
mustard seeds. The arghya which is offered to Viṣṇu by
carbonate) a lovely red colour is
means of a conch should be water mixed with sandalwood
produced. Once mixed the
paste, flowers and whole grains of rice. In the water for akṣata should be dried in the
ācamana are mixed cardamom, cloves, uśīra grass and Sun and then stored ready for
kakkola or as many of them as possible. use.

4. pādyam — washing of the feet — two spoonfuls of water are touched to the
feet of the icon and thrown into the phela.
5. ācamanam (or acamanīyam) — sipping of water — three spoonfuls of water
are touched to the mouth of the icon and thrown into the phela. In the water
for ācamana are mixed cardamom, cloves, cinnamon, mace, nutmeg and green
camphor (parimala-dravya). In actual practice this is added to all the water
being offered and no difference is made between arghya and ācamaniyam.
6. snānam — Bathing — water is taken with a flower and sprinkled upon the
icon as a bath followed by three spoonfuls of water as ācamanam.
The snāna or abhiṣekam (bath) of images is done with five Pañcāmṛta is made by
materials called pañcāmṛta (five ambrosial things) viz. milk, first melting a table-
curds, clarified butter, honey and sugar. The image is to be bathed spoon each of ghee,
with these five in the order stated, so that sugar coming last honey and sugar – mixing
them together and then
removes all effects of oiliness. After these a bath with pure water
slowly adding about half
follows. If one cannot afford these, one may bathe the image
a cup of yoghurt followed
with water in which the leaves of the basil plant (tulasī) are mixed by half a cup of milk.
up, as that plant is deemed to be the favourite of Viṣṇu.
The water used in the bath of the image of a God is regarded as very sacred and
it is used for ācamana by the worshipper and members of his family and
friends and is called tīrtha (it is also sprinkled over one's head).
7. vastram — clothing — akṣata is offered upon the head of the icon in lieu of
clothing.
8. upavitam — sacred thread — akṣata is offered upon the head of the icon in
lieu of a sacred thread.
9. ābharanam — adornment — akṣata is offered upon the head of the icon in
 37  
lieu of ornaments.
10. gandham — sandal paste — sandal paste is applied to the forehead of the
icon followed by kumkum and akṣata. As regards the unguents to be offered
(anulepana or gandha) numerous rules are laid down (vide Pūjā-prakāśa pp.
39-41). The Viṣṇu Dh. S. (66.2) says that unguents should be one or more out
of sandalwood, pine tree paste, musk, camphor, saffron, nutmeg.
11. puṣpam — flowers — a flower garland is offered or in lieu thereof a single
flower is offered at the feet of the icon. This is followed by the offering of
flower petals with the recitation of the 108 names of the deity — or at least 10
names.
12. dhūpam — incense — a few sticks of incense are waved around in a
clockwise direction in front of the icon.
13. dīpam — light — a lamp is shown to the deity followed by three spoonfuls
of water ācamanam. Lamps are to be made with ghee or sesame oil.
14. naivedyam — food — either cooked food or some fruit; a coconut and two
bananas are offered. One can also offer some dried fruit. For naivedya no food
is to be offered which is declared unfit in the śāstras for eating, nor the milk of
a she-goat or she-buffalo though they are allowed for food, nor the meat of the
five-nailed animals nor the flesh of the wild boar nor fish. The general rule is
stated by the Ramayana as — 'whatever food a person eats the same is the food
to be offered to his deities’.3
15. tāmbūlam — betel — a wad of betel-leaf and areca nut are offered. The
Nityācāra-paddhati (p. 549) quotes verses showing that tāmbūla comprised
nine ingredients viz. betel-nut, betel leaves, quicklime, camphor, cardamom,
cloves, kankola, desiccated coconut, the matuluṅga fruit. In modern times
pieces of almond, nutmeg, mace, saffron and catechu are used.
17. nirājanam — camphor flame — this rite consists of waving a camphor flame
around in a clockwise direction in front of the icon followed by three spoonfuls
of water. This ceremony called ārātrika or ārati (waving lights round the
image) performed with several lights or pieces of camphor placed in a broad
vessel which is held in both hands and waved round an image and over its
head. It can become very elaborate using lamps with 2, 3, 5, 9 wicks. 27 wicks
comprise a nakṣatra dīpam and a meru-dīpam is tiered with 108 wicks.
18. The ceremony is then brought to a close by the offering of puṣpāñjali — a
rite in which flowers are held in the cupped palms with the recitation of certain
vedic mantras, and then offered at the feet of the icon. This is usually followed
by pradakṣina — circumambulation and a full-length prostration . If there is

                                                                                                               
3
Yad-annaḥ puruṣo bhavati tad annās-tasya devatāḥ — Ayodhya kanda 103:30 & 104:15
 38  
not enough room to actually negotiate around the altar then each person simply
turns around three times on the spot and then prostrates.

Summary Table of Upacāras

Upacāra Translation Offering Symbolic/Substitute

1. āvāhanam Invocation Mudras
2. āsanam Enthronement A throne a flower or akṣata
3. arghyam Libation 1 spoonful of water
4. pādyam Washing of feet 2 spoonfuls of water
5. ācamanam Sipping 3 spoonfuls of water
6. snānam Bathing bathing with various ingredients sprinkling with water
ācamanam Sipping 3 spoonfuls of water
7. vastram Attire Clothing akṣata/ a cotton thread
ācamanam Sipping 3 spoonfuls of water
8. upavītam Sacred thread Thread akṣata/ a cotton thread
ācamanam Sipping 3 spoonfuls of water
9. ābharaṇam Adornment Ornaments akṣata/ flower
10. gandham Unguents Sandal paste & kumkum
11. puṣpam Flowers Flowers akṣata/leaves
12. dhūpam Incense Incense akṣata
13. dīpam Light Lamp akṣata
ācamanam Sipping 3 spoonfuls of water
14. naivedyam Repast Cooked food akṣata/ dried fruit & nuts
ācamanam Sipping 3 spoonfuls of water
15. phalam fruit fruit dried fruit
ācamanam Sipping 3 spoonfuls of water
16. tāmbūlam betel leaf & nuts betel leaf & nuts just a betel nut or a silver one
17. nirājanam Waving of a flame Camphor flame akṣata
ācamanam Sipping 3 spoonfuls of water
18. puṣpāñjali Handful of flowers flowers leaves or silver flowers
19. pradakṣiṇam Circumambulation
20. namaskāra Prostration
22. visarjanam Valediction

When several deities are worshipped, there are two methods in which the upacāras may be offered.
One may offer the upacāras from āvāhana to namaskāra to one deity or the principal deity and
then the same upacāras to the other deity or deities one after another. This method is called
kāṇḍānusamaya.
The other method occurs when āvāhana is done for the several deities in order, then āsana for all,
then pādya for all and so on up to namaskāra. This is called padārthānusamaya. This method is
generally preferred.
 39  

A
Accccoouuttrreem
meennttss ooff PPuujjaa &
& tthheeiirr eessootteerriicc m
meeaanniinnggss

Water: used at every stage of the pūjā, it is an instrument of purification and also, as the element
which pervades all the universe and the beings within it, is symbolic of pervasiveness of
divine consciousness. Water is also symbolic of life.
Pādyam; The water offered to wash the feet of the Deity indicates existence-consciousness-bliss
(sat-cit-ānanda) pervading and supporting all names and forms — all duality is a reflection
of the Absolute Unity.
Arghyam; (libation or respectful offering of water) represents the Ultimate Reality pervading the
entire cosmos.
Ācamanam; (water for sipping) represents the inner witness — the perception of perception itself.
Snānam; the bathing reminds us of sat-cit-ānanda pervading all the three guṇas or constituents of
the material universe. The entire cosmos is being bathed by the radiation of the Divine
Consciousness.
Ornaments: the ornaments symbolise the various predominant attributes of the Deity and the good
qualities we should strive to manifest.
Akṣata — Rice-grains: rice being symbolic of the nutrition principle which is the basis of all life
forms indicates the all-pervading underlying substratum of all existence. Brahman is
described in the Vedas as the ground-of-all-being — as the food principle from which all
beings arise, by which they live and into which they ultimately dissolve.
Scent (Sandal paste): represents the element earth — smell being the predominant attribute of
earth.
Flowers: represent the element ether. They also symbolise certain virtues such as; compassion,
harmlessness, forgiveness etc.
Incense: symbolizes the element air. It also symbolises the sweet smell of Dharma and the wish
that the influence of the Dharma may pervade the entire earth like the smell of the incense.
Lamp: represents the element fire. Fire also symbolizes knowledge. The spiritual wisdom which
dispels the darkness of ignorance.
Food: symbolizes the principle of immortality (amṛta). The coconut symbolises the offering of
oneself in an act of self-surrender (Prapatti). The two bananas symbolise male and female
and all the other pairs of opposites of which the world is comprised.
Nirājanam: — waving of the camphor flame affirms the wish that all beings throughout the three
spheres of existence may attain enlightenment and liberation — just as the camphor melts
into nothingness may all beings become free from the limitations of material nature and
realise their true essence.
 40  

T
Thhee FFoouurr L
Looccii ooff W
Woorrsshhiipp
Catus-sthāna Arcana

The Āgama teaches that there are four principle Loci (places) for invoking and worshipping the
Divine. These Loci are technically known as the Catuḥ-sthāna — The Four Places.

1. Kumbha
The kumbha is the indespensible accessory to all Tantric
worship where invocation is performed. This jar is also known
as kalaśa and comprises of a metal or clay jar decorated with a
string of three colours — red, white and black; it is filled with
water and then spices (parimala dravya) are added along with
precious stones (or a coin), herbs, and a betel leaf & nut. The
mouth of the kumbha is covered with five leaves from the five
sacred trees or just five leaves from one of the sacred trees. A
coconut coloured yellow with turmeric is placed over the
mouth of the jar. There are four dots (bindus) placed at each of
the cardinal points on the outside of the kumbha, a kūrca
[bunch] of 24 darbha blades is placed in the jar and another
kurcha of five blades tied with a special knot (brahma-granthi)
is placed over the top of the whole kumbha. This decorated
kumbha is then placed on a bed of raw rice on a lotus design.

Symbolism of the Kumbha

This jar represents the axis mundi — the Holy Mount Meru which is the axis of
the universe. A miniature model of the entire cosmos. The water represents the
oceans and the all—pervading Supreme Consciousness. It symbolises the
primordial ocean of cosmic unity from which creation arises. The kalaśa contains
within it all vegetable matter represented by the tulasi leaf, all mineral matter
represented by the precious stones (or coin). And all herbs symbolised by the
spices.
The triple-coloured thread (white, red & black) represent the three qualities
(guṇas) sattva, rajas & tamas — centripetal force, centrifugal force and the
revolving force. The five leaves symbolise the five primordial elements or the
five states of matter — fire, water, earth, air & ether — gaseous, liquid, solid,
energy & space. The coconut symbolises the human entity which is the highest
form of being in the creation. The Self in encased according to the Yoga Shastra
in three sheaths;
 41  
1. physical body (sthūla-śarīra) symbolised by the external husk of the
coconut.
2. astral body (sūkṣma-śarīra) symbolised by the white kernal.
3. causal body (kāraṇa-śarīra) or the “body” of Karma, symbolised by the
coconut milk.

A kūrca — bunch of five blades of darbha grass tied with a special knot
called the brahma granthi in placed over the top. This symbolises the five
primary functions of the Godhead — projection of the universe,
sustentation, withdrawl, administering the law of Karma and granting
liberation. Another kūrca consisting of 24 blades is sometimes placed in the
kumbha symbolising the 24 tattvas or primordial factors of which the
universe is composed. (The five senses the five organs of action, the five
primordial elements, the five subtle elements, mind, consciousness, intellect,
and ego-sense.)
When complete, the Kumbha is placed upon a bed of raw rice representing food
which is the basis of all life forms from Brahma to an amoeba. And the lotus
diagram upon which the whole apparatus rests, represents the lotus of the
spiritually awakened mind.

2. Maṇḍala
Maṇḍalas are sacred diagrams
which are drawn on the ground
with coloured grains, sand or rice-
flour. According to the Āgamas,
when the Supreme Being
incarnates, all the associates from
the spiritual realm accompany
him/her. So the Maṇḍala is a
diagrammatic representation of
the abode of the Supreme Being
manifested in the mundane realm.
Some Maṇḍalas are specific and
some are for general liturgical use.
For example the Chakrābja Maṇḍala is used in most of the Vaiṣṇava Pañcarātra
rituals, and in the consecration of temple priests. The Navapadma Maṇḍala is used
in some forms of Vaiṣṇava initiation and for the worship of Lakṣmi. Sarvatobhadra
Maṇḍala is one used in the worship of any deity. The Saiva Āgamas of course
have their particular Maṇḍalas such as Lingatobhadra Maṇḍala and others. The
 42  
most important aspect of the use of Maṇḍalas is the invocation and location of the
various attendant deities (parivāra-devatas) in relation to the Principle Deity
invoked in the centre.
The seeing and ritually (meditatively) entering into a Maṇḍala are considered as
very efficacious ways of destroying the obstacles to enlightenment and speeding up
one’s spiritual progress.
After the invocation and worship the maṇḍala is “dissolved” and the elements from
which it was made are ceremonially thrown into runing water — a river or the sea.

3. Bimba — Icon
According to the Tantra, the Godhead by a ray of its divine potency takes up
abode in the icon which is constructed strictly according to the dictates of the
Scriptures and consecrated accordingly. Such a descent (arca-avatāra) takes place
for receiving the service of the devotees and for bestowing grace upon them in
return.
The purpose of the icon is to represent, through a
combination of forms and proportions, some
fundamental aspect of the cosmos and its
presiding consciousness which is not directly
perceptible by our senses.
The Godhead is all-pervading and intimately
close, through the power of mantras and mudras
the Divine Essence is invoked into the icon and
She, through her infinite mercy condescends to
take residence in the gross object for the purpose
of receiving the worship of the devotees. The
image is thus transformed into a living entity
although its actual shape and ornamentation are symbolic and convey meaning in
every single aspect. Once the invocation ceremony (prāṇa-pratiṣṭha) has been
completed, the icon is no longer regarded as merely symbolic but as a murti which
means a materialisation.

4. Agni — Fire
Fire is the only element, the nature of which is to rise upward only. Fire represents
illumination — wisdom and is the antithesis of darkness — i.e. ignorance
(nescience). Fire symbolises the power of wisdom which incinerates the effects of
ignorance and sin. Agni is the gateway through which human beings can
communicate with higher states of being and spheres of existence and with the
 43  
devas. It is through fire that one takes part in the cosmic symphony and co-operates
with the devas. It is only through the medium of fire that the devas can be reached.
Agni is the foremost amongst the devas, the messenger of the devas, manes and
other celestial beings and the one who carries the oblations and the prayers to the
respective deities. He is the most ancient and the most sacred object of worship as
well as being the first priest according to the Vedas. He is also the most universal
aspect of worship; all religions have some sacred connection with fire.

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR PRACTITIONERS

1. During pūjā one should never turn one’s back on the sacred fire, or an icon, or a
guru.
2. The chest or at least the right shoulder should always be exposed when in
proximity to the sacred fire, an icon or guru. Obviously in cold climates this is not
practical.
3. Never salute or prostrate to the deity with the upper body covered (males).
4. The oleander flower must not be offered to the Lord Viṣṇu. The reason is that the
flower is poisonous and in the worship of Viṣṇu the prasāda is sacred water thus the
water could become contaminated. In the worship of Ş́iva the prasāda is sacred ash
(vibhūti) and this cannot be contaminated.
5. One should not break tulasi without having bathed. Some gurus suggest that only
flowers should be offered repeating the name ‘tulasi’.
6. A votary lamp should not be extinguished or used for any other purpose.
7. A lamp should never be lit from another lamp.
8. Barley is also called “akṣata”. On the Salagrāma barley should
never be offered. Tulasi is never offered to Ganeśa and dūrva (lawn
grass) is never offered to Devi. The bilva leaves are never to be
offered to the Sun and one must never offer the arka flower to Lord
Vishnu.
Arka Flower
 44  
9. Flowers kept in the hand and sandal paste kept in a copper vessel become
impure.
10. After bathing in preparation for pūjā one should never dry oneself with the
garment that was previously worn, otherwise another bath is recommended.
11. In images the most important thing is bathing and decorating, in maṇḍalas the
most important thing is the invoking locating of the various divinities in their
respective places, with the specific mantras, and in fire; the oblations soaked in
ghee are the most important.
12. A thing once offered cannot be offered to another deity, even a lamp, this is the
general rule. But the exception is in the case of ‘parivāra devatas’; e.g. the food
offering to the Lord Vishnu is also offered to Lakshmi, Bhudevi, and all the
entourage of the Lord. Lord Shiva’s naivedyam can be offered to all of His family
as well.
13. Ācamanam must always be done after the following acts; sneezing, sleeping,
eating, drinking, bathing, spitting, dressing, relieving oneself or walking on a high
road.
The substitute form of ācamanam is touching the mouth with the right hand and
then touching the right ear, this is repeated three times. [Ganga resides within the
right ear.]
14. Before all religious rites tilak must be applied; if the clay or sandal paste is not
available then simply apply water.
15. During pūjā, homa etc a pavitri — a ring of kuş́a grass must be worn on the ring
finger of the right hand, if this is not available then a gold, silver or copper ring can
be used instead.
16. At every ceremony, and the termination of study, gratuity — guerdon [dakṣina]
must be offered to the guru or the officiating priest, otherwise all the merit accruing
from the ceremony goes to the priest and not to the host (yajamāna).
17. To a priest who performs the homa, a pair of garments; dhoti and aṅga-vastra
should be given in addition to the sacrificial fee.
18. Flowers are offered with the ring and middle finger of the right hand, avoiding
touching then with the thumb.
19. Flowers are always offered with the palm turned upwards [over-hand], rice
grains etc with the palm downwards.
20. All offerings are made with both hands; i.e. with the right hand and the left
hand touching the right forearm or elbow, except when ringing the bell which is
done with the left hand.
21. The bell should always be rung when offering bath, incense, lamp, food, and
decorations as well as during the nirājana rite.
22. One must never smell the food, incense and flowers intended for the Deity.
23. One must always stand or sit to the right of the Deity during worship. In a
temple the men should stand to the right of the Deity and the women to the left.
24. When leaving the shrine one must not turn the back to the icon, one should
leave walking backwards.
 45  

SSU
UBBSST
TIIT
TUUT
TEESS —
— pprraattiinniiddhhii
saṃkhyābhāve yathālābhaṃ sarvālābhe tu mānasam |
jalābhāve tu manasā kalpayennitya karmaṇi ||
If the correct measure is lacking use whatever is
available, if everything is missing then do mentally. If
there is no water then the daily rituals are to be done
mentally only. (Nāradīya Saṃhita 22.) Palasha leaf
The Śāstra is so accommodating that almost everything prescribed can be substituted by something
else. The general rule is that we try our best to acquire the recommended item. A bad quality item is
better than a good quality substitute.

Vastu Pratinidhi Vidhānam Summary

If the spice mixture for the arghya is unavailable then add only siddhārthakam (white mustard seeds).

Missing Ingredient Substitute

Gems – of all types Pearl
Fruits variety unavailable Bananas are the best, but any seasonal fruit will do.
Five Metals Gold – the substitute for gold is ghee or even something golden
like a coin.
Scents of all kinds Cardamon
Rice for akṣata Barley
Ghee Oil, preferably coconut oil or sesame oil or even sugar water
Coconut milk Cows milk
Śānti vastu Tulasi
Mangala vastu Lotus
Flowers Leaves
Leaves various sorts Palāśa leaf
Fruit Flowers or dried fruit
Naivedyam (cooked food) Dried fruit and roast nuts.
Incense Lamp
Seeds (for nava-dhanyam) Mung-beans, rice or barley
Kurca Cloth or thread
Aṅkūra Twigs
Toranam (banners) Strips of coloured cloth
Aṣṭa-mangalams Mudras
Havis (cooked rice for homa) Diced Fruit or nuts.
Bell Drum
Vīna Singing
Kuṇḍa (Copper or brick) Sthaṇḍila — a sand altar approximately one cubit square.
Sruc (offering ladle) Sruva or a mango leaf
Kuśa grass Kāśa or straw
T H E O R Y A N D P R A C T IC E O F
H IN D U R IT U A L
V o l. 2

Yajña

B
Byy PPaaṇṇḍḍiitt SSrriirraam
maa R
Raam
maannuujjāāccāārrii
ssrriim
maatthhaam
m..ccoom
m
1166ttthhh A
Apprriill 22001133
 2  

C o n te n ts
The Vedic Background ……………………………………..……….….…….. 3
Yajña - Symbol & Rite ……………………………………..………….…….. 4
Agni — Fire ……………………………………..…………………….……… 7
The fire hearths ……………………………………..………………….……… 9
Agni-manthana – Kindling the sacred fire …………………………………….. 10
Samidhas, Offerings & Soma ……………………………………..…………… 10
The Five Great Sacrifices ……………………………………..………………. 11
The Officiating Priests ……………………………………..…………………. 12
Types of Vedic Sacrifices ……………………………………..………………
Grihya Sacrifices — Domestic Rituals ……………………………………..… 14
Śrauta Sacrifices — Community Rituals ……………………………………... 14
The 7 Havir & 7 Soma Yajñas ……………………………………..…………. 15
Rāṣṭriya Yajñas — National Rituals …………………………………………... 16
Primary and Secondary Yajñas ……………………………………..…………. 16
Yajñāyudhas — Implements of Sacrifice …………………………………….. 18
Yāga Śālā — Sacrificial Pavillion ……………………………………..……… 23
Dakṣiṇa — The Sacrificial fee ………………………………………………… 25
 3  

T
THHE
EVVE
EDDIIC
CBBA
ACCK
KGGR
ROOU
UN D11
ND
Definition of "Veda"
The word 'Veda' (cognate with 'video' in Latin, 'Vede' in old Slavic and 'Wessen' in German) is
derived variously from the roots, 'vid' meaning 'to know', and 'vidlṛ' - 'to obtain'. The obtainment
referred to is the pursuit and fulfilment of the three values in life, righteousness (dharma), material
well-being (artha) and enjoyment of sensual pleasures (kāma), together known as the 'trivarga' or
the three objectives of human aspiration (puruṣārtha). To this group of three was later added
'Liberation' (mokṣa), which in effect was the other polarity of the group of three, and hence was
described as 'apa-varga' ("outside the group").

Definition of "Dharma"
Dharma (from the root dhṛ, which means 'to support', 'to prop up') is the individual and collective
conduct that is regarded by common consensus as ideal and imperative.

It provides direction to our actions, framework for the values we must adopt and nurture, and goals
to be achieved within the limits set by the society. This is what is meant by the Pūrva-Mimāmsa
definition of dharma as 'codanā-lakṣaṇārtha'; and by the explanation that it contributes to social
welfare as well as Liberation ('yatobhyudaya-nihśreyasa-siddhiḥ).

Thus the Vedic tradition aims at instructing the people about the proper conduct (dharma).

Ṛta — The Universal Law

Ṛta (cognate with Greek 'arti', Latin 'artus', and German 'Recht' and the English 'right') signifies
the eternal and immutable, universal and existential order and law, which needs to be reflected in
each individual life as well as in the community.

Violation of 'ṛta' is termed — enas, anṛta, durita and is often translated as “sin”. Ṛta is the
underlying foundation of life, for leading a life in conformity with 'ṛta' would be the way to
overcome suffering and rebirth.

The 'ṛta' as the 'right' way of life was accomplished by yajña.

The yajña was the way to purify and harmonise not only the individual but the environment as well,
it includes prayers and purifications, consecrations and empowerments.

The yajña as the 'ṛta' in action was a human responsibility: it was meant to unfold the spiritual
potential in the human being and also to secure prosperity and welfare.

The Vedic tradition (the Mahāyāna) was from early times approached by some in terms of:—

karma-khāṇḍa — the way of life that ensures prosperity and welfare

jñāna-khāṇḍa — the wisdom that liberates.

                                                                                                               
1
Adapted from Principles of Yajña Vidhi by Prof. S.K. Ramachandra Rao.
 4  

Y
YAAJJÑ
ÑAA -- SSY
YMMB
BOOL
L&&R
RIIT
TEE
Terms
'yajña', derived from the root 'yaja' and has several closely related meanings:— adoration,
worship, prayer, praise, offering, presentation, oblation, consecration and sacrifice.

'yāga' means nothing more than a sacrificial rite where offerings are made ('ijyate havir dīyate
atra').

Synonymous expressions emphasising the aspect sava, makha, iṣṭi, savana & homa;
of offering are:—
Expressions emphasising invocation of the gods āhava, and havana;
('ijyante devata atra')
'adhvara' means a sacrifice, where violence is avoided (a-dhvara, hiṁsā-karma).

'Yajña'2 is a word which evokes many images, and is rich in symbolic associations. It suggests the
role of divinity not only in human affairs but in the very creation of the world. It is an expedient
invented by the gods themselves for projecting all things and beings in the world, and adopted by
human beings for securing their wealth and welfare. It is a sacred 'rite' inherent in all creation, and
natural to man.

And it is not merely a rite; it is also an attitude, a Yajña also connotes three acts:—
resolve, a device, an initiation, an instrument and an act. yajana — oblation, offering, giving
It involves the whole being of the person who is yācana — requesting, receiving
engaged in the act, and transforms his psycho-physical yujana — creating harmony and balance –
form into a vehicle of divinity. rectification of ṛta.

All sacrifices have three aspects: —

! uddeśa (intention or direction), viz. the god for whom the sacrifice is meant;
! tyāga (what is given up); viz. the offerings or the havis; and
! prakṣepa (the prescribed spot or particular fire where the offerings are delivered).

! The Purpose of Yajña

In Śukla Yajur Veda-Saṁhita (chapter 18;1;2 and 6) there is a detailed account of the various
benefits that result from the performance of a sacrifice (yajñena kalpantām). Among such benefits
are abundance of food (vāja), wealth (prasava), efficiency in work (prayati), mental acuity (dhiti),
enlightenment (jyoti), physical vigour (ojas), longevity (dirghāyu), health (anāmaya), tranquility
(śarma), fearlessness (abhaya), friendship (anamitram), and sound sleep (sukham śayanam). The
sacrificer prays that his life may become fulfilled by the sacrifice that he performs (ibid 9, 21 'ayur
yajñena kalpatam').

                                                                                                               
2  Yajña as a rite is defined as offering oblations in the name of gods ('devatoddeçena havis-tyaga¿') while specific
mantras are being recited (samantraka-dravya-tyåga). Jaiminiya-sûtra (4;2;;27) explains that it is an act which is
of the nature of giving up of articles for the sake of pleasing the gods (devatoddeçyaka-dravya-tyåga-rûpa-kriyå').
The important sequence in a yajña is the offering of oblations into the fire ('havi¿-prakßepåtmaka vyåpåra¿).
 5  
The ostensible goal of the yajña is the attainment of 'svarga' (heavens, bliss), by means of the
unprecedented meritorious potency (apūrva - 'never-before') that is acquired through the
performance of the yajña.
In the injunction — mdarśapūrṇamāsābhyāṁ svarga-kāmo yajeta
Bhaṭṭa-Kumārila's commentary — Tup-ṭīkā (6,1,1) explains that svarga is that which an individual
likes most ardently —('ekasya prītiḥ svarga-śabda-vācyā'). It does not, however, refer to the things
that cause happiness or liking (prītimad-dravya) but to beatitude itself.
The Symbolism
We read in Rig-Veda (10, 90, 16, the celebrated Puruṣa-sūkta) that the gods (viz. the beings of light
— devāḥ) who were first created performed a sacrifice (through their will and contemplation) and
worshipped the sacrifice itself (viz. Viṣṇu in the form of yajña). They offered the Supreme Being
himself as an oblation and thus performed the first of the sacrifices ('yat puruṣena haviṣa deva
yajñam atanvata').

The sacrifice was for them an instrument as well as their objective (yajñena yajñam ayajanta
devah'); and out of this primordial sacrifice, the first principles of life were formed ('tāni dharmāni
prathamānyāsan).

Śatapatha-Brāhmaṇa (11:1:8:3) has a related imagery; the gods offered sacrifice to secure the
favour of Prajāpati, the creator; and Prajāpati, pleased with their devotion offered himself as a
sacrifice to them. This is how Prajāpati became the yajña, creating a model of himself.

The concept of sacrifice is based upon self-sacrifice; giving oneself up, but for purposes of more
effective re-generation. We have in the same text another account (3;9;4;23) explaining the
significance of yajña; —
“They (the priests) kill during the sequence of crushing (abhiśava), and create again during
the subsequent sequence. While it is being destroyed, it is born again, and this is yajña.”

There is a story in Kālika-Purāṇa (chapter 30), which describes the creation of the world from the
body of Viṣṇu as Yajña-varāha (the primeval boar symbolising sacrifice). After the earth was
recovered from the depths of the waters by Varāha incarnation of Viṣṇu, the gigantic body of the
divine rescuer had to be disposed of. Śiva assumed the form of Śarabha and undertook to strike at it,
cutting it into pieces. Yajña emerged from the body of the Bhū-varāha. As soon as Siva tore the
body of Varāha, the gods Brahma, Viṣṇu, Siva and others with all their attendants, carried the body
(which had fallen into the waters) into the sky, and there Viṣṇu cut the body into pieces by his
discus. From the joints of the organs of the body, separate yajñas flashed forth.

Jyotiṣṭoma emerged from the joint between the eyebrows and the snout, Agniṣṭoma from the joint
between the jaws and the ears; Vrātyaṣṭoma from the meeting place between the eyes and
eyebrows; Paunarbhavaṣṭoma from the spot where the snout meets the lips; Vṛddhaṣṭoma and
Brhaṣṭoma from the root of the tongue; Atirātra from under the tongue; the five great yajñas of the
householder (pañca-mahā-yajña) from the neck-joint; Aśvamedha, Mahā-medha, Puruṣa-medha
and all other sacrifices which involve violence from the foot-joints; Rājasūya, Kāriśa, Vājapeya and
the Graha-yajñas — from the hind parts; Pratiṣṭarga-yajña, Dāna-śrāddha and Sāvitri-yajña from
the joints in the area of the heart; Prāyaścitta-yajña from the joints in the penis region; Rākṣasa-
satra, Sarpa-satra, Go-medha and all the abhicārika (infernal) rites from the hooves of the feet;
Mayeṣṭi, Parameṣṭi and all other annual and occasional yajñas from the tail-joint; and so on. In all,
one thousand and eight yajñas- were thus produced.
 6  
Not only the different yajñas, but the various vessels and implements, articles of oblation and
structural details were also produced from the dismembered carcass of Varāha; the ladle known as
sruk from the snout, another variety of ladle known as sruva from the nostrils, Prāgvaṁsa from the
neck region, the sacrificial stake (yūpa) from the tusks, the kuśa-grass from the hair, the Puroḍāśa-
cake from the brain, Karṣu from the two eyes, and yajña-ketu from the hoof.

The middle portion of the animal's body became the

sacrificial altar (vedi); the back of Varāha changed
into the shed for the performance of sacrifice
(yajñālaya); the penis got converted into the fire-pit
(kuṇḍa); and from the heart of Varāha issued forth the
yajña ('hṛtpadmād yajña eva ca').

The story continues to narrate that on the same

occasion, three associates of Varāha were also killed:
Suvṛtta, Kaṇaka and Ghora. Brahma the Creator
produced the fire known as Dakṣināgni from the body
of Suvṛtta, Viṣṇu, the Preserver the fire called
Gārhapatyāgni from Kaṇaka's body, and Siva the
Destroyer the fire āhavanīyāgni from the body of
Ghora. These three fires fill the entire universe (etais
tribhiḥ jagat vyāptam); all the worlds come out of
them (trimūlam sakalam jagat); and where the three
fires are tended, all the gods abide ('yatra trayam etat
nityam, tiṣṭanti samasta devatās tatra'). An important
detail of the legend is that the sacrifice was an act of
self-immolation on the part of Viṣṇu, who is the
creator as well as the preserver.

After the Goddess Earth (Bhūdevī) was recovered from the clutches of the demons of the waters,
Varāha in his beastly nature began copulating with her, thus causing untold harm to all creation.
Viṣṇu thereupon resolved to give up this incarnation ('varāham kāyam tyaktum icchāmi'). As a
preparation for winding up the Varāha incarnation, Viṣṇu engaged himself in deep contemplation,
as a result of which the radiance and might of Varāha began to be withdrawn in slow measure.

Viṣṇu had thus to prevail over one of his own incarnations and invite Siva the destroyer to smite his
own body (as Varāha incarnation). Further, he dismembered his own body into fragments by his
own discus, as a result of which act of primal sacrifice the other sacrifices which human beings
perform came into being. This account of how Varāha's body was transformed into a yajña ('yajña-
varāhasya śarīram yajñatām agāt') has been introduced by the claim that all the gods abide in
yajña, that all things in the world are founded upon yajña, and that it is by yajña that the firmament
is borne and the people are preserved.

It also describes the yajña which was created by Prajāpati or the creator ('prajāpatir yajñam
atanuta', 18, 3, 41) as the first to come into existence and as continuing for all time ('sa yajña
prathamo bhuto bhavyo ajāyata', 13, 2, 55), and as the source for all things in the universe.

The entire earth was the sacrificial altar, and the directions were the boundary sticks ('urvīr āsan
paridhayo vedir bhūmir akalpayat', 13, 1). The priest who sacrifices must think of the earth itself as
the first faggot that is put into the fire, the heavens as the second faggot, and the mid-regions as the
third; with these faggots, girdle, toil and austerity he sustains the worlds (9, 5, 4).
 7  
The yajña that the human beings are required to perform is the re-enactment of the cosmic creation
and regeneration by self-sacrifice and dismemberment of ones own constitution. It assumes the
form of a rite which is highly symbolic. While yajña is described as a method of worshipping the
gods, yajña is itself regarded as a god in Yajur Veda (16;1;31); it eliminates all sins and purifies the
performer of the yajña; it bestows on him strength, vigour and agility by sanctifying the food that he
eats and the water that he drinks (ibid, 1, 20); it causes health, happiness and wealth.

All types of yajña involve the installation, invocation, and worship of Agni, the fire god. The
relevance of Agni is based on the assumption of his being the leader of all the gods ('agnir vai
devānām mukham'), the fore-runner ('agranir bhavati', Nirukta, 7;14;4) and the first divinity to
arrive in sacrifices ('agram yajñeṣu praṇīyate').

A
Aggnnii —
— FFiirree
The very first mantra in Rig-Veda is in adoration of Agni,
who is described as 'the god of the sacrifice' ('yajñasya
devam') and as one who readily secures the welfare of all of
us ('puro-hitam'). All the gods come to the place of sacrifice
only in the form of Agni; hence the saying that Agni is all the
gods ('agnis sarva devatāḥ').
Agni was brought from the high heavens to the earth, and he
is hidden in the earth; he is the inner controller of all things;
and indeed he becomes the visible god when the sacred fire
(yājakāgni) is set up on the sacrificial platform (vedi). Agni
was one of the high gods of the Vedic pantheon along with
Varuna and Indra.
In the sacrifice, it is said that the Agni kindles the Agni (Rig-
Veda;1;12;6, 'agnināgnis samiddhyate'), which is
symbolically enacted in kindling the āhavanīya-fire from the
gārhapatya-fire.
Agni is all-pervading and ever present; he has three principal forms, according to Rig-Veda (1, 95,
3, 'trīni jānā pari-bhuṣaty asya'):—

! baḍavānala — the fire in the centre of the earth,

! āditya — the Sun in space
! vidyutagni — lightning in the atmospheric-region.
The Ten Forms of Agni
There are 10 forms of Agni — 5 natural and 5 ritual.

1. Agni as the common earthly fire (laukika agni).

2. Indra (or Vayu) the power of the lightning the source of conflagrations and
forest fires (dāvāgni)
3. Sūrya as the celestial fire (divya-agni)
4. Vaiśvānara — the inner power of digestion which makes it possible for all
living things to ingest and digest food. It is the support of life.
 8  
5. The fire of total destruction — Agn’s most fearful form
and remains hidden under the sea ever ready to destroy the
planet. bāḍava-agni or vāḍava (“to dive”). It lies dormant
in the mouth of a volcano.
6. Brahma-agni — fire-of-the-immensity. This fire is born
when the churning of the fire-sticks (araṇi) occurs.
7. prajāpatya-agni — fire-of-the-lord-of-progeny. This fire is
given to the brahmacāri when he is invested with the
sacred thread and has to offer daily samidha-dānam.
8. The fire of total destruction — Agn’s most fearful form
and remains hidden under the sea ever ready to destroy the
planet. bāḍava-agni or vāḍava (“to dive”). It lies dormant
in the mouth of a volcano.
9. Brahma-agni — fire-of-the-immensity. This fire is born
when the churning of the fire-sticks (araṇi) occurs.

10. prajāpatya-agni — fire-of-the-lord-of-progeny. This fire is given to the

brahmacāri when he is invested with the sacred thread and has to offer daily
samidha-dānam
11. gārhapatya-agni — fire-of-the-housholder. This is the fire which is kindled
at the time of marriage and brought home to be worshipped every day for
the rest of one’s life.
12. dakṣiṇā-agni — fire-of-the-ancestors. This is the fire into which offerings
are made to the ancestors and rituals of excorcism (abhicāra-yajña) are
performed.
13. kravyāda-agni — fire-of-the-cremation. Is lit when the body is cremated —
it should always be respected but avoided.

The Five types of Vedic fires — pañca mahāgni

1. gārhapatya; established in the west of the yāga-śāla.
2. daksināgni [anvāhārya-pacana] established in the south
3. agnīdhrīya (optional)
4. āvasathya; established in the north.
5. āhavanīya; established in the east.

The gārhapatya is to kept alive always by the agnihotrin, and the others are kindled by transference
when the occasion arises.
 9  
The Fire Hearths (Kuṇḍas)
Kuṇḍas come in various shapes and sizes depending on the ritual that is being performed.

In some temples a designated sacrificial hall (yāga-śālā) is built in which a permanent brick kuṇḍa
is constructed. For domestic use usually a copper moveable kuṇḍa is in vogue. If a copper kuṇḍa is
unavailable one may use a sthaṇḍila which is a sand altar – constructed either in the courtyard or
home – one may use a board or a metal tray upon which sand has been spread.

In most large scale Vedic Yajñas three brick kuṇḍas are

required:—
1. The first one (in the west) for the gārhapatya-fire
which is established by the friction of the fire-
sticks from the aśvattha or śami trees:
2. the second one (in the east) for the āhavaniya-fire,
which is kindled from the gārhapatya-fire;
3. the third one (in the south) for the dakṣināgni,
which is also kindled from the gārhapatya- fire
(according to Sankhayāna-sūtra).

According to the prescription of the śulba-sūtra , the kuṇḍa for the gārhapatya-fire must be
circular in shape, the āvahanīya — square, and the dakṣināgni — half-moon shaped (ardha-
chandra, or of the form of the bow, dhanurākṛti) or of the shape of a winnow-basket (śūrpa).

1. The gārhapatya 2. The āhavanīya- 3. The dakṣināgni

Round Square Half-circle/or shurpa
The domestic fire Sun (sūrya) wind-god (Vāyu — cosmic life force) or Moon
(Soma)
human beings The gods The manes (pitṛ) and elementals
 10  

Agni-manthana — The Kindling of the

sacred Fire
The fire for the Vedic sacrificial purpose is best
produced by churning (agni-manthana) using
the fire sticks (araṇi) made from trees like śami
and aśvattha. (Taittiriya Brāhmaṇa, 1;1;9;1 )
One araṇi is placed above the other, and
churned by using a rope (rasanā). The lower
araṇi (ādhāra-araṇi) is called Urvaśī (a nymph)
and the stick which is on top (uttara-araṇi) is
called Purūravas (Indra).

Samidhas — Faggots
Among the trees that are permitted for the purpose of providing faggots (samidha) for kindling and
maintaining the fire are khadira, palāśa, aśvattha, nygrodha, śami and āmra (mango). But in practice
any wood from local trees can be used.

Offerings
According to the substances offered, sacrifices are sometimes divided into vegetable and animal
sacrifices.
Vegetable Substances Animal Substances
taṇḍūlaḥ raw rice payaḥ (kṣīra) milk
piṣṭāni flour dadhi (sarpi) yoghurt
phalīkaraṇāḥ husk ājyam Ghee (goat’s)
puroḍāśaḥ cakes ghṛtam Ghee (cow’s)
odanaḥ cooked rice amikṣā curds
yavāgūḥ rice gruel vapā omentum
pṛthukāḥ rice boiled and pressed tvacaḥ skin
lājāḥ popped rice māṁsam flesh
dhānāḥ parched barley lohitam blood
caru Boiled rice/barley vājinam whey

Soma
Soma, the juice of which is one of the principle things offered in
many yajñas is a creeper (valli), the precise identity of which is
uncertain; it is usually taken to be Sarcostemma viminale or
intermedium, and its Vedic description is that it is dark in colour
(syāmalābha), leafless (niṣpatra), milky (kṣīriṇī) fleshy on surface
(māṁsula) and sour to taste.
It as a twisting semi-shrub with a series of leafless shoots which contain an acidulous milky juice.
It symbolises the nectar in the moon (celestial moon, in contradistinction to the terrestrial moon,
 11  
which provides youth, health and strength. It is also described as the 'dew of the dawn ' ('Soma
moves at the head of the dawns').
It is an hallucinogen, which is said to inspire the sages to
compose hymns and provide stimulation generally. But the
Vedic references regard it as a god in its own right, and as
the monarch (rāja).
Preparation of soma during the sacrifice is an elaborate
ritual. The sequence begins with the initial act of procuring
the soma-creepers from the vendors who bring it from
mountains and forests — known as soma-vikrayaṇa. This
is followed by the ceremonial bringing of soma to the yāga-
śāla (soma-praṇayana). The juice is then extracted from
the plant with elaborate rituals and chants and then offered
into the sacred fire, the remainder is drunk by the priests,
first by the hotri and then by the others. It is usual for
puroḍāśa cakes and caru to be offered as oblation along with
soma. In some sacrifices, another intoxicating drink called
sura is used.
It is usual for most sacrifices to involve the offering as
oblation and subsequent partaking by the priests of the
puroḍāśa cakes (puroḍāśa-bhakṣaṇa) and soma-juice (soma-pāna), and the ceremonial sacrifice of
an animal (paśvālambhana). Such public sacrifices became in due course less popular and fell into
desuetude, giving way to the domestic sacrifices which were much simpler, being little more than a
simple fire-sacrifice (Agni-hotra).

The Five Great Sacrifices

There are five daily 'great' sacrifices (pañca-mahā-yajña) prescribed for a householder;
1. brahma-yajña (studying and teaching the Scriptures),
2. pitr-yajña (libations for the manes),
3. deva-yajña (fire-ritual or agni-hotra),
4. bhūta-yajña (feeding animals and birds, caring for the environment) and
5. manuṣya-yajña (honouring the guests and visitors).

The concept of yajña was widened in scope, and the sacrificial ritual
of the Vedic times survived in the form of a 'homa' or 'havan' that
the householder performed as a part of the daily deva-yajña.
Nowadays very few householders continue with this practice.
Very few of the elaborate and expensive sacrifices prescribed in
Yajur Veda were performed even in the medieval period; and even
fewer still are performed in our day.
 12  

The Officiating Priests

Specialists of the three (and later four) Vedic
Saṁhitas function as officiating priests,
called ṛtviks because they propitiate the gods
ceremonially (ṛtau yajati) and they are chosen
by the sponsors the sacrifice (yajamāna). The
priests are paid in cash or kind (dakṣina) at
the end; they are in this sense, and in this
sense alone, ’hired’. But their decision on all
major and minor details are supreme and
unquestioned. They act independently,
although each one of them has his tradition-
bound role to play and co-operates with
others, so that the ritual progresses in the
prescribed manner. The conduct of a sacrifice
is compared in Rig-Veda (2, 5, 4) to the
natural growth of tree with branches
appearing one after another according to a
pre-ordained order ('vaya ivānurohate').

The four classes of priests (ṛtviks):

1. The adhvaryu is the chief priest who is directly responsible for the conduct of the sacrifice
('adhvaram yunakti'). He belongs to the Yajur Veda and attends to all details of the sacrifice. He is
the priest who actually offers oblations in the fire. He prompts the hotṛ and the udgātṛ to recite or
chant their portions by means of the praiśa mantras,
His assistants are known as prati-prasthātṛ, neṣṭṛ and unnetṛ.
2. The hotṛ (the "invoker") who chants hymns (called Śatras) from the Rig-Vedic Saṁhitas
suitable to the occasion (like prātar-anuvāka, yājyā-puronuvākya etc.), when called upon to do so
by the chief priest, adhvaryu.
He has three assistant priests known as maitra-varuṇa, acchāvāka and grāvastut.
These priests are required only to recite the necessary mantras, which should accompany the acts of
the chief priest, adhvaryu; they do not offer oblations into the fire themselves.
3. The udgātṛ (the priest who raises his voice and sings) is a specialist in Sāma-Veda, whose
function is to chant the Sāman hymns (called Stotras) during the sacrifice when gods have to be
invoked. There can be no sacrifice without the singing of Sāma hymns ('ayajño vā eṣa yo-asāma').
His assistants are prastotṛ, prati-hartṛ and subrahmaṇya.
4. The fourth priest is known as Brahmā, and his role is as the master of ceremonies. Some (e.g.
Śatapatha-Brāhmaṇa 11;5;5;8) hold that he must be well versed in all the three Vedas, and ensure
that everything is done correctly. Others view him as a specialist in Atharva-Veda.
While the others perform the sacrifice in actuality; he performs the sacrifice mentally. His
responsibility is to see that no commissions, omissions or errors occur in the chanting (mantra) or in
the performance of rituals (tantra). He corrects the mistakes whenever they are made and suggests
the rites of expiation (prāyaścitta) immediately.
His assistants are:— agnīt (or agnīdra whose job is to tend the sacrificial fire and keep them
continually burning), potṛ (who attends to the errors and to their rectification) and
Brāhmaṇācchaṁsi (who takes care of the sacrificial vessels & implements).

Ritvig-varaṇa (The selection of the priests)

Qualifications;
The priests should be selected according to the degree to which they possess the following
qualifications:—
 13  
1. Learning — the priests should be tested for their learning.3
2. Eloquence — the priest should be able to explain the ritual and direct the proceedings in a
lucid manner.
3. Youth — Some of the yajñas are extremely taxing and so a younger healthy priest is
preferred to an old one.
4. Good conduct — the better a priest is in personal good conduct and adherence to the
Dharma the more preferred he is.
Disqualification;
1. Deformed or deficient limbs
2. Chronic illness
Āpastamba lays down that pious Brāhmaṇas who are descendants of respected sages and who are
knowledgeable with regard to the sacrifice must be chosen. Further, they must be experts in their
respective Vedas, and must be able to recite or sing the hymns clearly and correctly; their voice
must be pleasant and vigorous. They must neither be youngsters nor very old. They must be free
from physical defects and diseases.
Four or sixteen such ṛtviks are selected. And the yajamāna in the soma-yāga sends a messenger
(called soma-pravāka) to bring them to the place of sacrifice, and as soon as they arrive they are
honoured with madhuparka (a mixture of honey, yoghurt and ghee). The yajamāna should mentally
chant a hymn in which the hotṛ is identified with Agni (Fire god), the adhvaryu with āditya (Sun
god), the udgātṛ with Parjanya (Rain god) and the brahmā with Candrama Moon god), before he
recites the mantra beginning with 'asau-mānuṣah'.
agnirme hotā'dityo me'dhvaryuścandramā me brāhmā parjanyo ma udgātā ||

The Yajamāna — The Host of the Yajña

In Vedic times only those who had undergone the rite of initiation (upanayana) and were
householders (i.e. married) were entitled to commission yajñas. This meant members of the three
varṇas — Brahmins, Kṣatriyas and Vaiśyas only but we find in practice it was mainly kṣatriyas of
the ruling class and wealthy merchants who actually commissioned them because of the financial
cost involved. Some of the texts mention the giving away of 100 cows which in modern terms
would amount to about $100,000 in fees alone!
Nowadays every one and any one can commission a yajña to be performed. But all gṛhya yajñas
require the yajamāna to be married.
If the yajamāna has undergone the sacrament of upanayana and has some knowledge of Sanskrit
then he will be required to repeat the mantras after the priests, otherwise at the beginning of the
yajña the yajamāna gives the power of attorney to the chief priest who does the entire ritual on his
behalf.
The wife of the yajamāna (yajamāna-patnī) always sits to his right during the yajña and for the
blessings stands to his left.

                                                                                                               
3  The yajamāna should not choose a priest who is unlearned in the Veda nor one who haggles about his fee. —
Āpastambha Smṛti ii;5;10;8
 14  

Female Priests
Although female priests are not expressly mentioned in the gṛhya sūtras there are hints that they
could if they wanted to.
P.V. Kane, in the History of Dharmasastra, afforded this topic three-and-a-half pages. Writes Kane:
"An interesting question is whether women ever had upanayana performed, or whether they had to
wear the sacred thread. Harita Dharmasutra, as quoted in the Smriti-candrika, says, 'There are two
sorts of women. Those who are bramavadinis (students of sacred lore) and those that are
sadyovadhus (who marry straightaway). Out of these, brahmavadinis have to go through
upanayana, keeping fire, Vedic study and begging in one's house (under the parents' roof). But in
the case of sadyovadhus, when their marriage is
drawing near, the mere ceremony of upanayana should
somehow be performed and then their marriage should
be celebrated. Therefore bramavadini women had
upanayana performed in the eighth year from
conception, then studied Vedic lore and finished
student-hood at the age of puberty.”
Nowadays there are a number of ashrams in Pune and
Banares that are training young women to become
priests and they are quite popular among the devotees.
(Vide picture — Pt. Chitra Lele)

There are three possible objections to female priests:—

Objection Solution
1. Menstruation — she will be out of Women generally know when they are due and
commission during her period which will lead to the organized priestess will ensure that she does
inconvenience to the yajamānas who often need not take any bookings closs to those dates.
to book months in advance.
2. Contact with males — she will have to touch She can tie the thread to the wife’s hand and she
the male-yajamāna when she ties the kankanam can tie it for her husband. (Women already tie it
(protective thread) to his wrist during for their brothers on Rakṣa-bandhana day)
ceremonies.
3. She will not be allowed to receive dakṣiṇa or She can receive the dānam or dakṣiṇa from the
dāna from the yajamāna as receipt of gifts from hands of the wife of the yajamāna.
a married man would constitute an act of
adultery.
 15  

T
TYYPPE
ESS O
OFF V
VEED
DIIC
CYYA
AJJÑ
ÑAASS
There are a number of variations in the classification of Vedic Yajñas by the various authorities.
The Vedic sacrifices can be classified into three broad types according to those performed by the individual
for himself, community sacrifices involving all members of a particular community and those of national
import affecting the whole nation.

1. Grihya Sacrifices — Domestic Rituals.

These are quite simple and involve oblations of boiled rice (caru) offered into the household fire
(gṛhyāgni) — hence also called pāka-yajñas (sacrifices of cooked food)
According to Apastamba-Paribhāṣa-sūtra the 7 varieties of gṛhya-yajñas are;
! aupāsana-homa — daily offerings into the domestic fires
! vaiśvadeva — daily offerings of cooked rice to various deities.
! pārvana — monthly offerings
! aṣṭaka — Performed for the ancestors in the Kṛṣṇa pakṣa aṣṭami and navami in
the month of Magha.
! māsi-śrāddha — This is the prototype (prakṛti) for all the other śrāddhas for the
manes performed every month on amāvāsya (new moon).
! sarpa-bali — This is the sthāli-pāka ceremony in the month of śrāvana
(July/August) – performed after sunset. Also called sarpa-bali. It is continued
every night until the pūrṇimā of Agrahāyaṇa (Dec/Jan). Removes the curse of
infertility.
! īśāna-bali — Performed for Rudra on the purṇimā of Caitra at the cross-roads at
night.
Other texts (like Gautama-Dharma-sūtra, 1;8;10) mention aṣṭaka, pārvana, māsi-śrāddha, śrāvani,
āgrahāyaṇī, caitrī and aśvayuji as the seven saṁsthās (or kinds) of this yajña.
The darvi-homas are minor varieties where the offerings are made with mantras ending with
'svāhā', without employing the invocations and eulogies of gods (known as yājya—puronuvākya)

2. Śrauta Sacrifices — Community Rituals

The Śrauta-yajñas are of two major kinds: havir-yajñas and soma-yajñas
In havir-yajñas the oblations are clarified butter (ājya), boiled preparations of rice, barley or wheat
(caru), the faggots of selected trees (samidha) etc.,
In the soma-yajñas the oblation is the soma-juice, which is also drunk later by the yajamāna and
the ṛtviks.
Also included in this category are:—
(a) pitru yajña; — funeral sacrifices (b) bṛhaspati-sava; — consecration of a purohita.
 16  
The 7 Havir-Yajñas
The seven Vedic sacrifices which are made by the householder; these are mentioned in the wedding
ceremony during the sapta padi rite and are as follows:—
! Agni-ādhāna – Agnyādheya (iṣṭhi) — The rite of setting up the sacrificial program for the
first time after marriage. Lasts for 2 days. Day 1 is called Upasad — preliminaries
performed. Day 2 the main ritual. There are 4 priests, 3 fires and agni-manthana. First the
gārhapatya agni is lit and from this the āhavanīya is lit and the gārhapatya. Offerings of
ghee and caru are made.
! Agni-hotra — Twice daily rite in which fresh milk is offered. The milk is heated and then
allowed to cool. Morning offerings are made to Sūrya and Prajāpati, evening offerings to
Agni and Prajāpati.
! Darśa-pūrṇamāsa (New and Full Moon rites) — performed over 2 days, requires 4 priests.
Preliminaries performed on the Full or New Moon day (upavasatha) and the main rite on the
pratipada. Offerings to the pitris are done only on Amavāsya. Following the Purnima
offerings are made to Agni & Indra and Agni. Following Amavāsya offerings are made to
Agni, Prajapati, Agni-Soma, and Indra.
! āgrayaṇa. — This is the celebration of the first harvest of the season. The first grains are
offered into the sacred fire and thereafter used by the householder.
! Caturmasya — These are four-monthly sacrifices each marking the advent of a particular
season and performed on the full-moon days. In the spring the Vaiśvadeva is performed, in
the rainy season the varuna-praghāsa is done, in the autumn the śākamedha.
! Nirūḍha paśu bandha — These are four-monthly sacrifices each marking the advent of a
particular season and performed on the full-moon days. In the spring the Vaiśvadeva is
performed, in the rainy season the varuna-praghāsa is done, in the autumn the śākamedha.
! Sautrāmaṇi — a particular sacrifice in honor of Indra which is described in the Yajur Veda.
It is said that by performing this yajña, one obtains a place in the heavenly realms. Although
drinking wine is forbidden for brahmanas, this yajña involves the acceptance of wine in a
manner that does not result in a brahmana’s downfall.

The 7 Soma yajñas

Also known as Kratu. These are yāgas in which Soma is offered and a sacrificial post Yūpa is
installed. They are of seven types and all include:—
a. pressing and offering Soma
b. animal sacrifice
c. chanting of sāmans

! agniṣṭoma — Lasts for five days and is performed annually in the spring. The others are all
variant forms of the same sacrifice, there are 12 sastras and 12 stotras. This is the prakṛti for
all the other soma yajñas.
! Atayagniṣṭoma — 13 soma libations, 13 sastras and 13 stotras additional victim for Indra
! Uktya — 15 storas, 15 sastras one victim of Indra and one for Agni
! ṣoḍaśin — modification of uktya extra sastra and stotra added in the evening libation of
soma to Indra
 17  
! vājapeya — lasts for 17 days, 17 stotras & sastras and 17 animal sacrifices, 17 cups of
Soma. There is a chariot race the distance of which is fixed by 17 successive arrow shots, 17
drummers, 17 bags of salt tied to the yūpa.
! Atirātra — performed over 24 hours; 29 stotras and sastras
! Āptoryāma — modification of atirātra 33 sastras and stotras

3. Rāṣṭṛiya Sacrifices — National rituals

There are sacrifices which only the ruling princes (rājanyas or kṣatriyas) may perform;-
! aśva-medha — performed by an emperor to attain absolution of his sins
and achieve sovereignty,
! rāja-sūya — performed by the ruler to assert his superiority in the realm,
! sarva-medha — performed by one who is the sole monarch or eka-rāṭ,
and who gives away in gift all his accumulated wealth,
! puruṣa-medha — involving symbolic human sacrifice (there is no
evidence that actual human sacrifice was ever performed as a part of
Vedic sacrifices.)
! aindra-mahābhisheka — for obtaining special energy and extraordinary
qualities and
! vājapeya — which is meant to confer upon the performer superior
strength and divinity.
The last mentioned sacrifice is permitted for Brāhmaṇas also.

gṛhya yajñas śrauta yajñas rāṣṭriya

pāka-yajñas Havir-yajñas Soma-yajñas
Aupāsana-homaḥ Agni-hotram Agniṣṭomah rājasūya
Vaiśva-devam darśa-pūrṇamāsau Atyagniṣṭomah aśvamedha
Pārvanam āgrayaṇam Ukthyah rājasūya
Aṣṭakā Cātumasyāni ṣoḍaśī sarva-medha
Māsi-śrāddham Nirūḍa-paśu-bandhaḥ Vājapeyaḥ puruṣa-medha
Sarpabaliḥ Sautrāmaṇī Atirātraḥ aindra-mahābhiṣeka
īśānabaliḥ Piṇḍa-pitri-yajñaḥ Āptoryāmaḥ vājapeya

Primary (prakṛti) and Secondary (vikṛti) yāgas

Another method of classifying sacrifices is to divide them into primary (prakṛti-yāga) and
secondary (vikṛti-yāga). The 'prototype' or 'model' sacrifices in each of the groups
mentioned above, gives rise to derived and elaborated or adapted forms.
In a prakṛti-yāga (basic prototype) all the aṅgas (parts) are clearly described.
In vikṛti-yāga only the special aṅgas (viśeṣāṅgas) for specific rituals are mentioned,
leaving the other details to be borrowed from the prakṛti-yāga on the principle of extended
application (atideśa).
 18  
Agniṣṭoma, for instance, is the 'primary 'or 'model' sacrifice for all soma-yāgas. It is an
'ekāha' (lasting for one day). In this sacrifice the udgātṛ and his three associate priests sing in
all twelve 'Stotras' (viz. the Sāman chants); after each Strotra singing, the hotṛ and his three
associates recite a Śastra-mantra (viz. the ṛks). The oblations are offered three times:
morning (prātas-savana), with the chanting of the bahiṣpavamāna-stotra, at noon
(madhyāndina-savana) with the four prastha-Stotras and the arbha-pavamāna-stator and in
the evening (trtīya-savana), when the agniṣṭoma-Sāma is chanted. The last Sāma gives the
sacrifice its name.
Thus a total of twelve Stotras will be chanted during the three savanas. If, in addition to the
above twelve, three uktha-Stotras (as also the Śastra-mantras) are chanted the sacrifice
becomes a 'derived one' (vikṛti), known as Ukthya. And when another stotra-mantra is added
to the ukthya. the sacrifice which is also a 'derived one' will be known as 'ṣoḍasī' (ie. having
sixteen stotra-Śastras) In another 'derived' sacrifice called 'ati-rātra', these sixteen stotra-
Śāstras will be supplemented with an additional twelve stotra-Śāstras, thus totalling 28
(according to the Aitareya recension, however, the total would be 30) The sacrifice is called
'ati-rātra' because the rituals are continued throughout the night.
With agniṣṭoma as the prototype, we have ukthya, atyagni-ṣṭoma, ṣoḍaśi, vājapeya, atirātra
and āptoryāma as 'derived' or alternate forms (vikṛti). Among them atyagniṣṭoma, vājapeya
and āptoryāma have not been performed for a long time. Some other sacrifices which are
well-known are aśva-medha, rāja-sūya, pauṇḍarīka, mahā-vrata, sarvatomukha, brhaspati-
sava, abhijit and āṅgirasa.

1. Yāga — offering of suitable substances to the Devas lasting three or more days.
2. Homa — simple offering of oblations. These are classified as of two kinds;
• tiṣṭhad [yajati]4 which is performed standing and accompanied by the
exclamation of 'vasaṭ' and
• upaviṣṭa [juhoti] performed in a seated posture accompanied by the
exclamation of 'svāhā'.

                                                                                                               
4
The verb yajati — “he offers” and the juhoti which means the same thing in English refer to the two
different types of offering – either standing or sitting.
 19  

Y A JÑ Ā Y U D H A
Implements of Sacrifice
The vessels or utensils and implements used in a yajña are collectively called 'yajñāyudha' (lit. 'the
weapons used in yajña') and are mostly made from wood.
There is a story in Aitareya- Brāhmaṇa (34, 1) that explains —
In the beginning Prajāpati created yajña, and consequently brahma (the priestly functions or spiritual
sovereignty) and kṣatra (the temporal sovereignty) came into being. (Owing to some reason), the yajña fled
from them, but they pursued the yajña, with their own weapons. Now what were the weapons of brāhma (or
the priests) ? The utensils and implements used in the yajña. And the weapons of kṣatra (or the princes)
were horses, chariots, armours, arrows and bows.
When the kṣatra pursued the yajña with its weapons of warfare, the yajña ran faster, being scared, and the
kṣatra had to return without catching up with the yajña. But the brāhma pursuing it was successful: it
reached the yajña and prevented its further flight. Yajña, however, looked at the 'weapons' that the brahma
carried, and recognised them as its own 'weapons'; it consented to stay with the brāhma.
This is how the yajña has settled down with the priestly class. The princelings approached the priests and
desired also to possess yajña for their own benefit. The priests thereupon counselled them to put aside their
weapons of warfare and approach the yajña as priests with its own 'weapons' (viz. the yajñāyudha) The
princelings accordingly cast aside their weapons of warfare and assumed the form of priests, carrying the
priestly weapons and obtained the yajña.

1. Kapāla
Small thin clay saucers round in shape on which the puroḍāśa cakes are baked for offering.
Puroḍāśa is prepared by taking four fist-fulls of paddy which are cleaned in a wicker basket
(nirvāpa), it is then pounded (avaghāta), husked, and ground; it mixed with water and laid flat on
the kapāla in the shape of a tortoise (viz circular in shape). The kapāla is placed on the fire, and the
puroḍāśa is baked.
The baked puroḍāśa is stored in a container called 'īḍa'. While making oblations, clarified butter
(ājya) is poured on the cakes.
Different gods are presented with puroḍāśa.-offerings separately on kapālas. Texts prescribe the
number of kapālas for each god: Varuṇa, for example, is eligible for one kapāla, the Aśvins two
kapālas, Viṣṇu three, Agni eight, Agna-vaiṣṇava (Agni and Viṣṇu together) eleven, and Agna-
śomiya (Agni and Soma together) also eleven.
2. Śūrpa
Flat winnowing basket square in shape with two corners on
one side rounded off, for holding the grains. This is used for
cleaning the grains before they are ground and powdered.

3. Kṛṣṇājina
The black antelope's hide used for the sacrificer to sit upon,
and for the mortar (ulūkhala) and pestle (musala) for
pounding grain to be placed on. It also figures during the
consecration (dīkṣā) of the sacrificer in soma-yāga.
 20  
4. Ulūkhala & 5. Musala
A wooden mortar and pestle used for pounding the grains or
crushing soma shoots

6. Dṛṣad & 7. Upala

Dṛṣad is a large stone slab (paṭṭah) on which are
placed the soma-creepers, to be crushed or ground
(peśaṇārtha) with the help of upala. It is also
called a grāva.

The upala also called adri, it is a smaller elongated mill-stone resting on the dṛṣad; it is used for
crushing or grinding the soma-creeper, placed on the dṛṣad. These two are used in the soma-rituals,
and also for pounding the grains for the puroḍāśa-cakes.

8. Sphya
A wooden sword used for cutting the darbha-grass to the
required size, for marking the lines in the sacrificial ground
and for stirring the boiled oblations, removing the surface soil
viz. removing the upper layer of mud, digging the earth and
marking the area of the altar.

9. Śamyā
A wooden peg or, stick or staff, shaped like a mace.
It is a measuring device, used along with sphya.

LADLES
The most common ladles used in yajña for oblating liquids are sruk and sruva.
Sruk
Sruk is a long ladle, a bāhu (36 aṅgulas), an aratni (24
aṅgulas) or a pradeśa (12 aṅgulas) in length, made of
a sacrificial wood. It has a bowl or depression
(puṣkara) on top of it at one end with a beak (Shaped
like elephant's lips or swan's beak) for the liquid to be
poured out (prasecana); the tail portion of the ladle (or
handle) will be in the form of crow's tail (vāyasa-
puchha).
The Sruk represents the female principle or Prakṛti.
 21  
Sruva
Sruva is a smaller ladle used for offering liquids. It is an
aratni (24 aṅgulas) in length, and the bowl (puṣkara) is a
small one, its diameter being not more than the tip of the
thumb of the sacrificer's hand.
The Sruva represents puruṣa or the male principle.

Vasordhārā
A variety of ladle (which means 'the flow of wealth') used in Agni-chāyana and is meant for
continuous and uninterrupted offering of melted clarified butter (ājya) into the fire for a specific
duration (represented by the chanting of the mantras).

VESSELS
Praṇīta
The Praṇīta is a wooden vessel in which consecrated water is
kept. While making puroḍāśas, water from this vessel is mixed
with the flour. The vessel is also meant to store soma-juice. The
vessel is square in shape.

Prokṣaṇī
The Prokṣaṇī is the vessel has a depression shaped like a lotus-
leaf (padma-patrākrti) or lotus-bud (kamalāmukulākrti). It holds
the holy water, used for consecrating (prokṣaṇam, — aspertion)
the articles and the oblations. Into the water are dropped the
darbha blades (Saccharum cylindricum) to make the water holy.

Droṇa-Kalaśa
This is a large vessel made of strong and hard wood like vāraṇa or vikankata for storing the soma-
juice; it is a trough (droṇa), square or circular in shape, with a handle (daṇḍa-yuta). It may
alternately be shaped like a boat (naukākara).
Daśāpavitra
The device to strain the soma-juice. It is a fringed strainer, made from a piece of cotton cloth to
which in the centre is attached or woven a round piece of woollen cloth. This is placed on the
droṇa-kalaśa and Soma-juice is poured into it; the strained soma-juice collects in the droṇa-kalaśa.
Grahas
The nine wooden cups which contain the soma-juice are made in various shapes, but generally,
they resemble the form of a hour-glass, a span high, but narrow in the middle.
 22  

Camasas
These are the soma-offering cups. Ten of these cups are
mentioned, one for each of the priests who offer soma-juice
as oblation. Their shapes differ so that the cup meant for the
priest is easily identified. They are generally square in shape
and have handles.
Sthāli
Various kinds of clay bowls. Agnihotra-sthāli which holds
the fresh milk (go-dohana) is prescribed to be made by the
hand of the sacrificer or one of the officiating priests. Ājya-
sthāli is for holding the ghee; likewise there are caru-sthāli,
dhruva-sthāli and āgrayaṇa-sthāli.
Śapha
The tongs (two of them, śaphau) are also made of udumbara wood and are shaped like claws; they
are long in shape and meant only to hold the mahāvīra vessel.
Araṇis
The fire that is used in the sacrifice must be produced by friction of
sticks of the aśvattha tree (Ficus religiosa) which has grown in close
association with the śami tree (Prosopis spicigera or Mimosa suma).
Both these trees are invested with great spiritual significance; śami
especially is regarded as the 'mother of fire'. The tree called araṇika
(Premna spinosa) is also mentioned as suitable for this purpose. The
expression 'araṇi' suggests the process of producing fire by 'turning
round' (or by 'fitting one stick into another', viz. the stick-and-groove
method). The fire may be produced by friction or contrition, by rubbing one stick over another, or
by a simple apparatus such as the fire-drill. All references are to two araṇi's which are described as
the two mothers of Agni, who is 'dvimātr' ("having two mothers", Rig- Veda, 1;31; 2); the
symbolism is of the two births of Agni, who is 'dvi-janma' ('born twice'), one in the heavens and the
other on earth. The lower araṇi signifies the female aspect, while the upper one is male. The
kindling of fire is thus an act of procreation.

Miscellaneous Implements
Upaveśa
The stick, which is used to stir the fire — shaped like an extended palm (hastākṛti)
Dhāvitra
The fan used to fan the fire. It consists of a stick of bamboo to which is fastened a piece of black
antelope's hide.
Mekṣaṇa
This is a rice-stirring spatula also used for offering oblations to the manes. It is either made of
sacrificial wood or metal.
 23  
āsandi
A high throne upon which the Soma creepers are stacked in the yāga-śāla after purchase (soma-
vikraya). Soma, the philosophical concept as well as the actual creeper, play an important role in
yajña. Soma is regarded as 'rāja' — the monarch and is thus installed upon the throne. During the
coronation ritual, the earthly ruler imitates Indra, the lord of the celestial beings and is seated upon
a wooden throne called āsandi and is duly consecrated. The āsandi used for the soma-creepers is
thus called rājāsandi. It is placed at the southern side of the āhavanīya kuṇḍa. It is made of
udumbara wood (ficus glomerata), the four legs of the seat as high as the sacrificer's navel ('nabhi-
daghnah pādāni) and the portion above being an aratni (viz. 24 aṅgulas) high (aratni-matrani
śirṣāni'). The seat is prepared by muñja-grass ropes (Saccharum sara). It is covered by black
antelope's skin (kṛṣṇājina). A slightly taller āsandi, known as samrāḍ-āsandi, is placed to the east
or north of rājāsandi; and on this are kept the mahāvīrā pots, the upayamani ladle and other
articles.
Kūrca
"Kūrca" strictly means a bunch of kuśa-grass (Poa cynosuroides). But the kūrca used in a sacrificial
ritual is a small elongated plate made of kuśa-grass made in the shape of a tortoise (kurma), or
dolphin (makara). It is kept on the western side of the āhavanīya hearth; and the sacrificial ladles
(sruca) when not used are placed upon it.
Yūpa
In sacrifices where animals are killed, the yūpa (sacrificial stake) is used. It
is a pillar carved out of khadira wood (Acacia catechu), bilva wood (Aegle
marmelos), palāśa (Butea frondosa), aśvattha wood (Ficus religiosa),
udumbara wood (Ficus glomerata) or kramuka wood (Areca faubel). The
height of the yūpa varies according to the yajña.
The base of the yupa is one aratni in height and is buried underground;
this part may also be equipped with an iron ring called yūpa-kaṭaka. The
yūpa may either be cylindrical in shape or square or it may be octagonal.
The yūpa is so called because the sacrificial animal is fastened to it. One
top of the yūpa is a detachable mount made of wood or prepared out of
wheat flour called 'caśāla'. The yūpa represents the Axis Mundi or centre
of the universe.

Sruk Sruva

Upaveśa Sphya
 24  

Y
YĀĀG
GAA--ŚŚĀ
ĀLLĀ
Ā——T
Thhee SSaaccrriiffiicciiaall PPaavviilllliioonn
The yajña is where all the gods reside; the pavilion in which the yajña is conducted represents the
empire of Indra and the golden throne of Agni, the pleasure-grove of Soma and the place of rest for
Varuna. It is the nave of the earth.

The altar on which the sacrifice is conducted is known as the 'vedi'. It is consecrated ground, where
ritualistic cleaning, digging and other details of construction are carried out.

The Vedic yāga-śālas are laid out differently according to each yajña. One of the basic designs is
that of the Darśa-pūrṇamāsa. The only yajñas which are not done in a pavillion with a roof covering
are those done for the dead — cremations and associated ceremonies.

Modern Yāga-śālās are usually quite simple and are based upon the Tantric model rather than the
Vedic one. Most Āgamic temples in India have a dedicated yāga-śālā, and temporary ones are
constructed as per the requirement of the ceremony.
 25  

Āgamic yāga-śālā for a mahā-yajña

D A K Ṣ IṆ A – H O N O R A R IU M
(Sacrificial Fee)
Dakṣina is said to be the wife of Yajña — the two can never be separated and so a yajña without the
giving of Dakṣiṇa is fruitless.
Giving Dakshina to the priests is an act of generosity (dāna) which is integral to all religious
ceremonies. Through giving dakṣina one is supporting the priests who in turn are the upholders and
the teachers of the Dharma. It is upon the householders that the priests and the monks depend for
their livelihood and ability to continue their work of teaching and promoting the values of Sanātana
Dharma. Householders should express their heartfelt love of the Dharma and appreciation of the
work of the priests and gurus through giving generously according to their financial means.
1. Now they injure the yajña, whenever they perform it; actually when they press out the Soma
they injure it; when they suffocate the victim they kill it; and with the mortar and the pestle
they injure the grain offering (when they pound it).
2. Having been injured in this way the yajña was no longer vigorous. By means of dakṣinas it is
invigorated; hence the name dakṣina is derived from the root dakṣay ‘to invigorate’. Whatever
failing there may be in yajña, that is invigorated by gifts to the officiating priests. Then only
does the yajña become successful; for this reason the yajamān must make gifts to the priests.
3. Now at the havir yajña indeed the fee is 6 or 12 cows, but no Soma sacrifice should have
dakṣinas of less than a hundred (cows).
4. Now truly there are two kinds of gods. The devas are the heavenly gods, and the learned
brāhmaṇas are the earthly gods. And the sacrifice to the gods is twofold, oblations being the
yajña to the devas and the dakṣina is the yajña to the earthly gods (Bhūsura), the brāhmaṇas
versed in sacred lore. These two kinds of gods when gratified convey the yajamāna to the
heavenly world.
 26  
5. It is indeed to the officiating priests that the dakṣina belongs; for they prepare for the
yajamāna another identity; — the yajña becomes his identity in the other world. Considering the
priests to have regenerated him (in a spiritual sense) the yajamāna should give gifts to the
officiating but not to the non-officiating priests.
6. Now there are four kinds of dakṣina to the priests; gold (money), cows, cloth and horses.
śatapatha brāhmaṇa; iv khāṇḍa 3 adhyāya 4 brāhmaṇa

Dakṣiṇa however little it may be should always be given to the brāhmins and the devotees during
the performance of yajñas, because any religious activity that is performed without sacrificial fees
becomes fruitless and vain. Therefore a yajamāna should give according to his means with faith and
devotion because dakṣina is a segment of the yajña. (Pancarātra - Pādma Samhita 11;267 - 269.)