Basic Information For Engineering

Basic information for
Engineering & Design of
Technical Application
Prepared by:
Engineer /Misfer Mohammed Al-Dossary
1
Engineer/ Misfer Mohammed Al-Dossary(2007)
1. Mechanics
2
Mass and Weight
What is weight and what is mass? An explanation of the difference between weight and
mass
Mass and weight are two common, and often misused and misunderstood terms in mechanics and fluid
mechanics.
The fundamental relation between the mass and the weight is defined from the Newton's Second Law and can be
expressed in SI-units as
F = m a (1)
Where
F = force (N)
m = mass (kg)
a = acceleration (m/s2)
Mass
Mass is a measure of the amount of material in an object, being directly related to the number and type of atoms
present in the object. Mass does not change with a body's position, movement or alteration of its shape unless
material is added or removed.
The mass is a fundamental property of an object, a numerical measure of its inertia and a fundamental measure
of the amount of matter in the object.
Weight
Weight is the gravitational force acting on a body mass. Transforming Newton's Second Law regarding the weight
as a force due to gravity gives
w = m g (2)
Where
w = weight (N)
m = mass (kg)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
The handling of mass and weight depends on the systems of units that are used. The most common systems of
units are the
• International System - SI
• British Gravitational System - BG
• English Engineering System - EE
3
The International System - SI
In the SI system the mass unit is the kg and since the weight is a force - the weight unit is the Newton (N).
Equation (2) for a body with 1 kg mass can then be expressed as:
w = 1 (kg) 9.807 (m/s2) = 9.807 (N) (2b)
Where
9.807 (m/s2) = standard gravity close to earth in the SI system
As a result:
• a 9.807 N force acting on a body with 1 kg mass will give the body an acceleration
of 9.807 m/s2
• A body with mass of 1 kg weights 9.807 N
The British Gravitational System - BG
The British Gravitational System of units is used by engineers in the English-speaking world with the same
relation to the foot - pound - second system as the meter kilogram - force second system (SI) has to the meter -
kilogram - second system. For engineers who deal with forces, instead of masses, it's convenient to use a system
that has as its base unit's length, time, and force, instead of length, time and mass.
The three base units are the foot, the second, and the pound-force.
In the BG system the mass unit is the slug and is defined from the Newton's Second Law (1). The unit of mass,
the slug, is derived from the pound-force by defining it as the mass that will accelerate at 1 foot per second per
second when a 1 pound-force acts upon it:
1 lb = (1 slug)(1 ft/s2)
2
In other words, 1 lb force acting on 1 slug mass will give the mass an acceleration of 1 ft/s .
The weight of the mass from equation (2) in BG units can be expressed as:
w (lb) = m (slugs) g (ft/s2)
With a standard gravity 32.174 ft/s2 - the mass of 1 slug weights 32.174 lb.
The English Engineering System - EE
In the English Engineering system of units the primary dimensions are force, mass, length, time, and temperature.
The units for force and mass are defined independently:
• the basic unit of mass is pound mass (lbm)

• the unit of force is the pound (lb) alternatively pound force (lbf).
In the EE system 1 lb of force will give a mass of 1 lbm a standard acceleration of 32.174 ft/s2.
Since the EE system operates with these units of force and mass, the Newton's Second Law can be modified to
F = m a / gc (3)
Where
4
gc = a proportionality constant
or transformed to weight
w = m g / gc (4)
The proportionality constant gc makes it possible to define suitable units for force and mass. We can transform (4)
to
1 lb = (1 lbm)(32.174 ft/s2) / gc
or
gc = (1 lbm)(32.174 ft/s2)/(1 lb)
2
Since 1 lb force gives a mass of 1 lbm an acceleration of 32.174 ft/s and a mass of 1 slug an acceleration of 1
ft/s2, then
1 slug = 32,174 lbm
Example - Weight versus Mass
A car's mass is 1,644 kg. The weight can be calculated:
w = (1,644 kg)(9.807 m/s2) = 16.122,7 N = 16.1 kN
In other words - there is a force of 16.1 kN between the car and the earth.
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Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity

An introduction and definition of density, specific weight and specific gravity - formulas
with examples
Density
Density is defined as an object mass per unit volume. Mass is a property.
The density can be expressed as
ρ = m / V = 1 / vg (1)
Where
ρ = density (kg/m3)
m = mass (kg)
V = volume (m3)
vg = specific volume (m3/kg)
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The SI units for density are kg/m3. The imperial (BG) units are lb/ft3 (slugs/ft3). While people often use pounds per
cubic foot as a measure of density in the U.S., pounds are really measures of force, not mass. Slugs are the
correct measure of mass. You can multiply slugs by 32.2 for a rough value in pounds.
The higher the density, the tighter the particles are packed inside the substance. Density is a physical
property constant at a given temperature and density can help to identify a substance.
Example - Use the Density to Identify the Material:
An unknown liquid substance has a mass of 18.5 g and occupies a volume of 23.4 ml. (milliliter).
The density can be calculated as
ρ = [18.5 (g) / 1000 (g/kg)] / [23.4 (ml) / 1000 (ml/l) 1000 (l/m3) ]
= 18.5 10-3 (kg) / 23.4 10-6 (m3)
= 790 kg/m3
If we look up densities of some common substances, we can find that ethyl alcohol, or ethanol, has a density of
790 kg/m3. Our unknown liquid may likely be ethyl alcohol!
Example - Use Density to Calculate the Mass of a Volume
The density of titanium is 4507 kg/m3 . Calculate the mass of 0.17 m3 titanium!
m = 0.17 (m3) 4507 (kg/m3)
= 766.2 kg
Specific Weight
Specific Weight is defined as weight per unit volume. Weight is a force.
Specific Weight can be expressed as
γ = ρ g (2)
Where
γ = specific weight (kN/m3)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
The SI-units of specific weight are kN/m3. The imperial units are lb/ft3. The local acceleration g is under normal
conditions 9.807 m/s2 in SI-units and 32.174 ft/s2 in imperial units.
Example - Specific Weight Water
Specific weight for water at 60 oF is 62.4 lb/ft3 in imperial units and 9.80 kN/m3 in SI-units.
6
Example - Specific Weight Some other Materials
Specific Weight - γ
Product
Imperial Units SI Units
(lb/ft3) (kN/m3)
Ethyl Alcohol 49.3 7.74
Gasoline 42.5 6.67
Glycerin 78.6 12.4
Mercury 847 133
SAE 20 Oil 57 8.95
Seawater 64 10.1
Water 62.4 9.80
Specific Gravity
The Specific Gravity - SG - is a dimensionless unit defined as the ratio of density of the material to the density of
water at a specified temperature. Specific Gravity can be expressed as
SG = = ρ / ρH2O (3)
Where
SG = specific gravity
ρ = density of fluid or substance (kg/m3)
ρH2O = density of water (kg/m3)
It is common to use the density of water at 4 oC (39oF) as reference - at this point the density of water is at the
highest.
Since Specific Weight is dimensionless it has the same value in the metric SI system as in the imperial English
system (BG). At the reference point the Specific Gravity has same numerically value as density.
Example - Specific Gravity
If the density of iron is 7850 kg/m3, 7.85 grams per cubic centimeter (cm3), 7.85
kilograms per liter, or 7.85 metric tons per cubic meter - the specific gravity of iron is:
SG = 7850 kg/m3/ 1000 kg/m3
= 7.85
7
(The density of water is 1000 kg/m3)
Newton's Second Law
F = m g (1)
Where
F = force
m = mass
g = acceleration of gravity
The force caused by gravity - g - is called weight. Note! Mass - m - is a property.
The acceleration of gravity can be observed by measuring the change velocity of a free falling object:
g = dv / dt (2)
Where
dv = change in velocity
dt = change in time
If we drop an object we will observe that it will accelerate to a speed of 9,81 m/s or 32,174 ft/s in one second.
Acceleration of Gravity in SI Units
g = 9.81 m/s2
Acceleration of Gravity in Imperial Units
g = 32.174 ft/s2
Velocity and Distance Traveled of a Free Falling Object
The velocity of a free falling object can be expressed as:
v = g t (3)
Where
v = velocity
The distance traveled by a free falling object can be expressed as:
s = 1/2 g t2 (4)
Where
s = distance traveled by the object
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The velocity and distance traveled by a free falling object:
Velocity Distance
Time (s)
m/s ft/s m ft
1 9.8 32.2 4.9 16.1
2 19.6 64.3 19.6 64.3
3 29.4 96.5 44.1 144.8
4 39.2 128.7 78.5 257.4
5 49.1 160.9 122.6 402.2
6 58.9 193.0 176.6 579.1
7 68.7 225.2 240.3 788.3
8 78.5 257.4 313.9 1,029.6
9 88.3 289.6 397.3 1,303.0
10 98.1 321.7 490.5 1,608.7
Note! The velocity is achieved without any aero-dynamical resistance (vacuum). Obviously the air resistance will
be significant for increasing velocities.
Belt
Belt driven fans are common in heating, ventilation and cooling systems.
Belt Length
The length of the belt can be calculated as
lb = ((df + dm) 1.5708 ) + (2 lfm) (1)
Where
lb = length of belt (mm, inches)
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df = pulley diameter fan (mm, inches)
dm = pulley diameter motor (mm, inches)
lfm = center to center distance of fan and motor pulleys (mm, inches)
Belt Velocity
The velocity at which a belt travels may be expressed as
v = π dm nm / 12 (2)
Where
v = velocity of belt (ft/min)
nm = velocity motor (rpm)
Belt Gearing
The relationship between the speed of the motor, the fan and their disc diameters can be expressed as
df nf = dm nm (3)
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2. Electrics
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Electrical Formulas
The most common used electrical formulas - Ohms Law and their combinations
Common electrical units used in formulas and equations are:
• Volts - The units of electrical potential or motive force. The force is required to send
one ampere of current through one ohm of resistance.
• Ohms - The units of resistance. One ohm is the resistance offered to the passage of
one ampere when impelled by one volt.
• Amperes - The units of current. One ampere is the current which one volt can send
through a resistance of one ohm.
• Watts - The unit of electrical energy or power. One watt is the product of one
ampere and one volt. One ampere of current flowing under the force of one volt
gives one watt of energy.
• Volt Amperes - The product of the volts and amperes as shown by a voltmeter and
ammeter. In direct current systems, volt ampere is the same as watts or the energy
delivered. In alternating current systems, the volts and amperes may or may not be
100% synchronous. When synchronous, the volt amperes equal the watts on a
wattmeter. When not synchronous, volt amperes exceed watts. More about reactive
power.
• Kilovolt Ampere - One kilovolt ampere - KVA - is equal to 1,000 volt amperes.
• Power Factor - is the ratio of watts to volt amperes.
Electric Power Formulas
W = E I (1a)
W = R I2 (1b)
W = E2/ R (1c)
where
W = power (Watts)
E = voltage (Volts)
I = current (Amperes)
R = resistance (Ohms)
Electric Current Formulas
I = E / R (2a)
I = W / E (2b)
I = (W / R)1/2 (2c)
Electric Resistance Formulas
R = E / I (3a)
R = E2/ W (3b)
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R = W / I2 (3c)
Electrical Potential Formulas - Ohms Law
Ohms law can be expressed as:
E = R I (4a)
E = W / I (4b)
E = (W R)1/2 (4c)
Example - Ohm's law
A 12 volt battery supplies power to a resistance of 18 ohms.
I = (12 Volts) / (18 ohms)
= 0.67 Ampere
Electrical Motor Formulas
Electrical Motor Efficiency
µ = 746 Php / Winput (5)
Where
µ = efficiency
Php = output horsepower (hp)
Winput = input electrical power (Watts)
Or alternatively
µ = 746 Php / (1.732 E I PF) (5b)
Electrical Motor - Power
W3-phase = (E I PF 1.732) / 1,000 (6)
Where
W3-phase = electrical power 3-phase motor (kW)
PF = power factor electrical motor

Electrical Motor - Amps
I3-phase = (746 Php) / (1.732 E µ PF) (7)
Where
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I3-phase = electrical current 3-phase motor (Amps)
PF = power factor electrical motor
Electrical Motor Efficiency

Calculating electric motor efficiencies
Electrical motor efficiency is the ratio between the shaft output power - and the electrical input power.
Electrical Motor Efficiency when Shaft Output is measured in Watt
If the power output is measured in Watt (W), efficiency can be expressed as:
ηm = Pout / Pin (1)
Where
ηm = motor efficiency
Pout = shaft power out (Watt, W)
Pin = electric power in to the motor (Watt, W)
Electrical Motor Efficiency when Shaft Output is measured in Horsepower
If the power out is measured in horsepower (hp), efficiency can be expressed as:
ηm = Pout 746 / Pin (2)
where
Pout = shaft power out (horsepower, hp)
Pin = electric power in to the motor (Watt, W)
Primary and Secondary Resistance Losses
The electrical power lost in the primary rotor and secondary stator winding resistance are also called the copper
losses. The copper loss vary with the load in proportion to the current squared and can be expressed as
Pcl = R I2 (3)
where
Pcl = stator winding - copper loss (W)
R = resistance (Ω)
I = current (Amp)
Iron Losses
These losses are the result of magnetic energy dissipated when when the motors magnetic field is applied to the
stator core.
14
Stray Losses
Stray losses are the losses that remain after primary copper and secondary losses, iron losses and mechanical
losses. The largest contribution to the stray losses is harmonic energies generated when the motor operates
under load. These energies are dissipated as currents in the copper windings, harmonic flux components in the
iron parts, leakage in the laminate core.
Mechanical Losses
Mechanical losses include friction in the motor bearings and the fan for air cooling.
NEMA Design B Electrical Motors
Electrical motors constructed according NEMA Design B must meet the efficiencies below:
Power
Minimum Nominal Efficiency1)
(hp)
1-4 78.8
5-9 84.0
10 - 19 85.5
20 - 49 88.5
50 - 99 90.2
100 - 124 91.7
> 125 92.4
1)
NEMA Design B, Single Speed 1200, 1800, 3600 RPM. Open Drip Proof (ODP) or Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled
(TEFC) motors 1 hp and larger that operate more than 500 hours per year.
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Electrical Motors and Heat Loss
Heat gain from electrical motors to the surroundings
As a rule of thumb the heat loss from an electrical motor during operation can be estimated as
Size of Motor Heat Loss

(kW) (Watts/kW)
0-2 250
3 - 15 150
15 - 150 100
150 - 80
• 1 kW = 1.34 hp
• 1 hp = 0.746 k W
Electrical Units
Definition of common electrical units as Ampere, Volt, Ohm, Siemens and more.
Ampere - (A)
The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of
negligible circular cross section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a
force equal to 2 x 10-7 Newton per meter of length.
Coulomb - (C)
The standard unit of quantity in electrical measurements. It is the quantity of electricity conveyed in one second by
the current produced by an electro-motive force of one volt acting in a circuit having a resistance of one ohm, or
the quantity transferred by one ampere in one second.
Farad - (F)
The farad is the standard unit of capacitance. Reduced to base SI units, one farad is the equivalent of one second
to the fourth power ampere squared per kilogram per meter squared (s4 A2 kg-1 m-2).
When the voltage across a 1 F capacitor changes at a rate of one volt per second (1 V/s), a current flow of 1 A
results. A capacitance of 1 F produces 1 V of potential difference for an electric charge of one coulomb (1 C).
In common electrical and electronic circuits, units of microfarads (µF), where 1 µF = 10-6 F, and picofarads (pF),
where 1 pF = 10-12 F, are used.
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Ohm - (Ω)
The derived SI unit of electrical resistance; the resistance between two points on a conductor when a constant
potential difference of 1 volt between them produces a current of 1 ampere.
Henry - (H)
The Henry is the unit of inductance. Reduced to base SI units, one Henry is the equivalent of one kilogram meter
squared per second squared per ampere squared (kg m2 s-2 A-2).
Inductance
An inductor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of a magnetic field.
The standard unit of inductance is the Henry, abbreviated H. This is a large unit. More common units are the
micro-Henry, abbreviated µH (1 µH =10-6H) and the mille- Henry, abbreviated mH (1 mH =10-3 H). Occasionally,
the nano-henry (nH) is used (1 nH = 10-9 H).
Joule - (J)
The unit of energy work or quantity of heat done when a force of one Newton is applied over a displacement of
one meter. One joule is the equivalent of one watt of power radiated or dissipated for one second.
In imperial units, the British thermal unit (Btu) is used to express energy. One Btu is equivalent to approximately
1,055 joules.
Siemens - (S)
The unit of electrical conductance S = A / V
Watt
The watt is used to specify the rate at which electrical energy is dissipated, or the rate at which electromagnetic
energy is radiated, absorbed, or dissipated.
The unit of power W or Joule/second
Weber - Wb
The unit of magnetic flux.
The flux that, when linking a circuit of one turn, produces in it an electromotive force (Emf) of 1 volt as it is
reduced to zero at a uniform rate in one second.
• 1 Weber is equivalent to 108 Maxwells
Tesla - T
The unit of magnetic flux density. The Tesla is equal to 1 Weber per square meter of circuit area.
Volt
The Volt (V) is the Standard International (SI) unit of electric potential or electromotive force. A potential of one
volt appears across a resistance of one ohm when a current of one ampere flows through that resistance.
Reduced to SI base units, 1 V = 1 kg times m2 times s-3 times A-1 (kilogram meter squared per second cubed per
ampere).
17
Frequency and Speed of Electrical Motors
The velocity of 2, 4, 6 and 8 poles electrical motors at 50 Hz and 60 Hz
The velocity at which an induction motor will operate depends on the input power frequency and the number of electrical
magnetic poles in the motor.
Speed (RPM)
Frequency 50 Hz Frequency 60 Hz
Poles
Synchronous Full Load Synchronous Full Load
2 3,000 2,850 3,600 3,450
4 1,500 1,425 1,800 1,725
6 1,000 950 1,200 1,150
8 750 700 900 850
KVA
Real and reactive power
Total electrical power consumption depends on real power - electrical energy consumption, and reactive power -
imaginary power consumption, and can be expressed as
W = Wapplied + Wreactive (1)
Where
W = total power (Kilovolt Amps)
Wapplied = true applied power (Kilowatts)
Wreactive = apparent reactive power (Kilovolt Amps reactive)

Reactive Power
Reactive Power - Wreactive - is measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAR) and is the power stored in and discharged
by the inductive motors, transformers or solenoids.
18
Reactive power required by inductive loads increases the amount of apparent power - measured in kilovolt amps
(kVA) - in the distribution system. Increasing the reactive and apparent power causes the power factor - PF - to
decrease.
Power and Horsepower in Electrical Motors

Electrical power is rated in Horsepower or Watts.
Electrical power is in general rated in Watts or Horsepower. A horsepower is a unit of power equal to 746 watts or
33,000 lb.ft per minute (or 550 lb.ft per second).
A watt is a unit of measure equal to the power produced by a current of 1 amp across the potential difference of 1
volt. A watt is 1/746 of 1 horsepower.
Even if the watt is the base unit of electrical power, its common to rate motor power is in either horsepower or
watts.
Power in Watts
Electric power of a motor can be expressed as:
Pw = ηm U I (1)
where
Pw = power (W, watt)
ηm = motor efficiency
U = voltage (V)
I = current (A, amps)
Power in Horsepower
Horse power of a motor can be expressed as:
Php = Pw / 746 (2)
Or
Php = ηm U I / 746 (2b)
Where
Php = horsepower (hp)

Example - The Horsepower of an Electrical Motor
The horse power of a 230 V electrical motor with 85% efficiency pulling 10 amps can be calculated as:
Php = 0.85 (230 V) (10 amps) / 746
= 2, 62 hp
19
Power Factor for a Three-Phase Electrical Motor
A Power Factor definition and the Power Factor for a three-phase electrical motor
The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the active (true or real) power to the
apparent power.
• Active (Real or True) Power is measured in watts (W) and is the power drawn by the electrical
resistance of a system that does useful work.
• Apparent Power is measured in volt-amperes (VA) and is the voltage on an AC system multiplied by all
the current that flows in it. It is the vector sum of the true and the reactive power.
The third component of the AC power flow, the
• Reactive Power, is measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAR). Reactive Power is the power stored in
and discharged by the inductive motors, transformers or solenoids.
The reactive power required by an inductive load will increase the amount of apparent power - measured in
kilovolt amps (kVA) - in the distribution system. Increasing the reactive and apparent power will cause the power
factor - PF - to decrease.
Power Factor
It is common to define the Power Factor - PF - as the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current - or
the "cosφ". The power factor defined by IEEE and IEC is the ratio between the applied true power - and the
apparent power, and can in general be expressed as:
PF = Wactive / Wapparent (1)
where
PF = power factor
Wactive = active (true or real) power (Watt)
Wapparent = apparent power (VA, volts amps)
A low power factor is the result of inductive loads such as transformers and electric motors. Unlike resistive loads
creating heat by consuming kilowatts, inductive loads require a current flow to create magnetic fields to produce
the desired work.
Power factor is an important measurement in electrical AC systems because
• an overall power factor less than 1 indicates that the electricity supplier need to provide more generating
capacity than actually required
• the current waveform distortion that contributes to reduced power factor is caused by voltage waveform
distortion and overheating in the neutral cables of three-phase systems
International standards such as IEC 61000-3-2 have been established to control current waveform distortion by
introducing limits for the amplitude of current harmonics.
20
Example - Power Factor
A industrial plant draws 200 A at 400 V and the supply transformer and backup UPS is rated 200 A × 400 V = 80
kVA.
If the power factor - PF - of the loads is only 0.7 - only 80 kVA × 0.7 = 56 kVA of real power is consumed by the
system. If the power factor was close to 1, the supply system with transformers, cables, switchgear and UPS
could have been done considerably smaller.
A low power factor is expensive and inefficient and some utility companies may charge additional fees when the
power factor is less than 0.95. A low power factor will reduce the electrical system's distribution capacity by
increasing the current flow and causing voltage drops.
Power Factor for a Three-Phase Motor
The total power required by an inductive device as a motor or similar consists of
• Active (true or real) power (measured in kilowatts, kW)

• Reactive power - the nonworking power caused by the magnetizing current, required to operate the
device (measured in kilovars, kVAR)
The power factor for a three-phase electric motor can be expressed as:
PF = Wapplied / [(3)1/2 U I] (2)
where
PF = power factor
Wapplied = power applied (W, watts)
U = voltage (V)
I = current (A, amps)
21
3. Combustion
22
Chimney Sizing
Calculating chimney draft and chimney area
The capacity of a chimney depends on the potential chimney draft - the pressure difference created by the inside
and outside air temperature difference - and the chimney area and height.
The pressure difference will force air and fuel gas from the boiler or fireplace through the chimney and out of the
building.
Chimney Draft
The difference pressure draft in a chimney can be expressed as:
dpch = h (ρo - ρi) g (1)
Where
dpch = pressure draft in the chimney (Pa)
h = height of chimney (m)
ρo = density of outside air (kg/m3)
ρi = density of inside air (kg/m3)
g = 9.81 - gravitation (m/s2)
(1) can alternatively be expressed as:
dpch = 0.0465 dt h (2)
Where
dt = temperature difference between inside and outside air (K, oC)
Chimney Area
The design velocity of air and flue gases in a small furnace should be below 2 m/s. The design velocity of a large
furnace should be below 10 m/s.
The chimney area can be calculated as
A = Q / v (3)
Where
A = cross-sectional area of chimney (m2)
Q = volume of flue gases at chimney temperature (m3/s)
v = velocity (m/s)
It is a general rule to provide 1100 mm2 chimney area per 1 kW boiler rating.
23
Combustion Efficiency and Excess Air
Optimizing a boilers efficiency is important to minimize fuel consumption and unwanted
excess to the environment
To ensure complete combustion of the fuel used, combustion chambers are supplied with excess air. Excess air
increase the amount of oxygen and the probability of combustion of all fuel.
• when fuel and oxygen in the air are in perfectly balance - the combustion is said to be stoichiometric
The combustion efficiency will increase with increased excess air, until the heat loss in the excess air is larger
than the heat provided by more efficient combustion.
Typical excess air to achieve highest efficiency for different fuels is
• 5 - 10% for natural gas

• 5 - 20% for fuel oil
• 15 - 60% for coal
Carbon dioxide - CO2 - is a product of the combustion and the content in the flue gas is an important indication of
the combustion efficiency.
24
An optimal content of carbon dioxide - CO2 - after combustion is approximately 10% for natural gas, and
approximately 13% for light oils.
Normal combustion efficiencies for natural gas at different amounts of excess air and flue gas temperatures are
indicated below:
Combustion Efficiency (%)
Excess % Flue Gas Temperature (oF)
Air Oxygen 200 300 400 500 600
9.5 2.0 85.4 83.1 80.8 78.4 76.0
15 3.0 85.2 82.8 80.4 77.9 75.4
28.1 5.0 84.7 82.1 79.5 76.7 74.0
44.9 7.0 84.1 81.2 78.2 75.2 72.1
81.6 10.0 82.8 79.3 75.6 71.9 68.2
Flue Gas Loss Combustion Oil
The relationship between temperature difference flue gas and supply air, CO2 concentration in the flue gas, and
the efficiency loss in the flue gas combustion oil, is expressed in the diagram below.
25
Combustion Testing
Combusting testing of fuel oil and gas burners
To secure safe and efficient operation of gas or fuel oil burners it is common to test for
• carbon dioxide
• smoke
• excess air (O2/CO2)
• stack temperature
• draft
• NOx
Carbon Dioxide - CO2
When the CO2 content of the flue gas is low, less than 8 percent, heat is lost up the chimney and the operation is
inefficient.
Low carbon dioxide content may be caused by
• to small burner nozzle

• air leakage into the furnace or boiler
• under firing in the combustion chamber
26
When the CO2 content of the flue gas is too high it is common with excess smoke in the flue gas. High carbon
dioxide content may be caused by
• insufficient draft
• over fired burner
Smoke (only fuel oil burners)
Smoke in flue gas indicates poor burner performance. The amount of smoke can be measured with a smoke
tester where smoke particles set on a filter paper are interpreted according a Bacharach scale.
Smoky combustion can be caused by
• soot formation on the heating surfaces

• insufficient draft, incorrectly adjusted draft regulator, improper fan delivery
• poor fuel supply, malfunctioning fuel pump
• defective firebox
• oil-burner nozzle defect, wrong size
• excessive air leaks in boiler or furnace
• wrong fuel-air ratio
Stack Temperature
The "net stack temperature" is the difference between the flue gas inside the chimney and the room temperature
outside the burner. Net stack temperatures above 700oF are in general to high. Typical values are between 330 -
o
500 F.
High stack temperatures may be caused by
• undersized furnace
• defective combustion chamber
• incorrectly sized combustion chamber
• excessive draft
• over fired burner
• draft regulator improperly adjusted
• soot formation on the heating surfaces
27
Energy Content some Common Sources
Common energy sources and their energy content
The energy content in some common energy sources can be found in the table below:
Energy Source Unit Energy Content (BTU)
Electricity 1 Kilowatt-hour 3,412
Coal 1 Short Ton 20,681,000
Crude Oil 1 Barrel - 42 gallons 5,800,000
Diesel Fuel 1 Gallon 139,000
Gasoline 1 Gallon 124,000
Natural Gas 1 Cubic Foot 1,026
Heating Oil 1 Gallon 139,000
Propane 1 Gallon 91,000
Residual Fuel Oil 1) 1 Barrel - 42 gallons 6,287,000
1)
Residual Fuel Oil - The liquid or semi-liquid, high-boiling fraction of residue from the distillation of crude oil.
BTU - British Thermal Unit
The unit of heat in the imperial system - the BTU - is
• the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through 1 degF (58.5oF -
59.5oF) at sea level (30 inches of mercury).
• 1 Btu (British thermal unit) = 1055.06 J = 107.6 kpm = 2.931 10-4 kWh = 0.252 kcal = 778.16 ft.lbf =
10
1.05510 ergs = 252 cal = 0.293 watt- hours
An item using one kilowatt-hour of electricity will generate 3412 BTU.
28
Flash Point - Fuels
Some common fuels and their flash points
The flash point of a chemical is the lowest temperature where it will evaporate enough fluid to form a combustible
concentration of gas. The flash point is an indication of how easy a chemical may burn. Materials with higher flash
points are less flammable or hazardous than chemicals with lower flash points.
• T(oC) = 5/9[T(oF) - 32]
Fuel Gases - Heating Values

Heating values of more or less common fuel gases as acetylene, blast furnace gas,
ethane, biogas and many more
• 1 Btu/ft3 = 8.9 kcal/m3 = 3.73x104 J/m3

• 1 Btu/lb = 2,326.1 J/kg = 0.55556 kcal/kg
Heating Value
The gross (high) and net (low) heating values
The heating value is
• the amount of heat produced by combustion of a unit quantity of a fuel
We differentiate in gross and net heating values:
Gross (or high, upper) Heating Value
The gross or high heating value is the amount of heat produced by the complete combustion of a unit quantity of
fuel.
The gross heating value is obtained when
• all products of the combustion are cooled down to the temperature before the
combustion
• the water vapor formed during combustion is condensed
Net (or lower) Heating Value
The net or lower heating value is obtained by
• subtracting the latent heat of vaporization of the water vapor formed by the
combustion
from the gross or higher heating value.
29
‫ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺮ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺿ‬
Common Units
Common units used for heating value are
• 1 Btu/lb = 2,326.1 J/kg = 0.55556 kcal/kg

• 1 J/kg = 0.43 Btu/lb = 2.39x10-4 kcal/kg
• 1 kcal/kg = 1.80 Btu/lb = 4,187 J/kg
Natural Gas Consumption

Natural gas consumption in some common equipment as boiling pans, ovens, cookers,
kettles and more
Approximate natural gas demand for common appliances can be found in the table below.
Heat
Natural Gas Consumption Dissipated
Type of Consumer
(m3/s
(ft3/h) (liter/s) (Btu/hour) (kW)
x 10-6)
Small broiler 30000 9
Large broiler 61000 18
Boiler and roaster, combined 68000 20
30 - 230 - 0.23 - 27000 - 8-

Wash Boiler
50 400 0.40 51000 15
Furnace 120000
Storage water heater, 50 gallon (115 - 190

50000
liter)
• 1 kW = 3,412 Btu/h
30

Basic Information For Engineering

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Basic information for

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Engineer /Misfer Mohammed Al-Dossary

g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)

w = 1 (kg) 9.807 (m/s2) = 9.807 (N) (2b)

9.807 (m/s2) = standard gravity close to earth in the SI system

The British Gravitational System - BG

w (lb) = m (slugs) g (ft/s2)

The English Engineering System - EE

• the basic unit of mass is pound mass (lbm)

gc = (1 lbm)(32.174 ft/s2)/(1 lb)

1 slug = 32,174 lbm

Example - Weight versus Mass

A car's mass is 1,644 kg. The weight can be calculated:

w = (1,644 kg)(9.807 m/s2) = 16.122,7 N = 16.1 kN

Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity

Density is defined as an object mass per unit volume. Mass is a property.

The density can be expressed as

vg = specific volume (m3/kg)

The density can be calculated as

= 18.5 10-3 (kg) / 23.4 10-6 (m3)

m = 0.17 (m3) 4507 (kg/m3)

Specific Weight is defined as weight per unit volume. Weight is a force.

Specific Weight can be expressed as

γ = specific weight (kN/m3)

g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)

Ethyl Alcohol 49.3 7.74

Gasoline 42.5 6.67

Glycerin 78.6 12.4

Mercury 847 133

SAE 20 Oil 57 8.95

Water 62.4 9.80

ρ = density of fluid or substance (kg/m3)

ρH2O = density of water (kg/m3)

SG = 7850 kg/m3/ 1000 kg/m3

Newton's Second Law

The force caused by gravity - g - is called weight. Note! Mass - m - is a property.

Acceleration of Gravity in SI Units

Acceleration of Gravity in Imperial Units

Velocity and Distance Traveled of a Free Falling Object

The velocity of a free falling object can be expressed as:

The distance traveled by a free falling object can be expressed as:

s = distance traveled by the object

1 9.8 32.2 4.9 16.1

2 19.6 64.3 19.6 64.3

3 29.4 96.5 44.1 144.8

4 39.2 128.7 78.5 257.4

5 49.1 160.9 122.6 402.2

6 58.9 193.0 176.6 579.1

7 68.7 225.2 240.3 788.3

8 78.5 257.4 313.9 1,029.6

9 88.3 289.6 397.3 1,303.0

10 98.1 321.7 490.5 1,608.7

The length of the belt can be calculated as

lb = ((df + dm) 1.5708 ) + (2 lfm) (1)

lb = length of belt (mm, inches)

dm = pulley diameter motor (mm, inches)

The velocity at which a belt travels may be expressed as

v = velocity of belt (ft/min)

nm = velocity motor (rpm)

Common electrical units used in formulas and equations are:

Electric Power Formulas