INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as
Printers, CD-ROMs, Scanners, etc), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The
computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or
infrared light beams.
TYPES OF TRANSMISSION
Communication can be defined as the exchange of information. In earlier days, communication was
mainly restricted to voice via telephone networks. However, with the emergence of the computer and
data communication technologies this changed dramatically. Soon, the existing telephone networks
began to use computer networks as well.
1. Voice Communication:
In simple term, it refers to the very common form of telephonic conversations that we have with our
friends, family members, colleagues and other people. This can be for various purposes. With the
invention of the telephone, this technology emerged since become extremely popular. In addition to
the carrying of the voice conversation, this technology now also includes other services as voice mail.
Using voice mail we can allow the callers to leave a voice message for us in our absence.
COMMUNICATION MEDIA
An important aspect of the communication is the channel, which is the communication path between
two devices. A communication channel is composed of one or more transmission media.
Transmission media consists of materials or techniques capable of carrying one or more signals.
Transmission media are one of two types Physical or Wireless. Physical transmission media use wire,
cable and other tangible (touchable) materials to send communication signals, wireless transmission
media send communication signals through the air space using radio, microware and infrared signal.
Communication media is the medium through which information usually moves from one network
device to another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs. The type of
cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol, and size.
The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The EIA/TIA
(Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication Industry Association) has established standards
of UTP and rated five categories of wire.
Type Use
A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency interference.
Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments with electrical interference; however, the
extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky. Shielded twisted pair is often used on networks using
Token Ring topology.
2. Coaxial Cable
It is also called as Coax. It is an electrical cable consisting of a round conducting wire, surrounded by
an insulating layer, surrounded by a cylindrical conducting sheath, and usually surrounded by a final
insulating layer. Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides
insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield. The metal shield helps to block
any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.
It is designed to carry high-frequency or broadband signals like radio signals, video signals, and
measurement signals. The inner insulator, also called the dielectric, has a significant effect on the
cable's properties, such as its characteristic impedance and its attenuation.
Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In addition,
it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable. The two types of
coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.
Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin coaxial
cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment length being 200
meters.
Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length being 500
meters.
Terrestrial microwave systems follow a line-of sight path during transmission. A narrowly focused
beam of Electro-Magnetic Radiation (EMR) is generated by the transmitter. It is then sent from one
microwave tower to the next, until it reaches the final destination. Moreover, the signals become
weaker after travelling a certain distance and require power amplification. In order to overcome the
problem of line-of-sight and power amplification of weak signals, microwave systems use repeaters
at intervals of about 25 to 30 kms.
Microwaves are radio waves that provide high speed signal transmission. Microwave transmission
involves sending signals from one microwave station to another. A microwave station is an earth
based reflective dish that contains the antenna, transceivers and other equipment necessary for the
microwave communications. Microwaves are limited to line-of -sight transmission, which means that
microwave must be transmitted in a straight line with obstructions between microwave antenna avoid
possible obstructions, such as building or mountain , microwave station often are positioned on the
tops of buildings , tower, mountains etc.
Microwaves transmission sometimes called fixed point wireless, is used in environment where
installing physical transmission media is difficult or impossible and where line-of-sight transmission
in available. For example, a microwave transmission is used in wide open areas such as deserts or
lake between buildings in a close geographic area; or to communicate with a satellite. Current users
of microwave transmission include universities, hospitals, city, government, cable TV providers, and
telephone companies.
2. Communication Satellites
Communication Satellite systems use a satellite as a repeater. Satellite systems have receivers and
transmitters located in ground stations. The repeater is the satellite that orbits in space. A
communication satellite is a microwave relay station placed in outer space. In satellite
communication, microwave signal is transmitted from a transmitter on earth to the satellite at space.
The satellite amplifies the weak signal using a device called transponder and transmits it back to the
receiver.
3. Bluetooth
A proposed Radio Frequency (RF) specification that many portable devices will use for short range
wireless communication is called Bluetooth. With Bluetooth devices such as laptop computers, hand
held computers, cellular telephones, pagers, fax machines and printers can wirelessly communicate
with each other, desktop computers, a network or the internet. To use Bluetooth technology each
device must include a transceiver chip and be within a specified range (about 10meters but can be
extended to 100meters with additional equipments)
The broadcast area for cellular radio is divided into honeycombed shaped cells, each of which covers
a specific geographic area and has its own base station. The base stations communicate with a mobile
telephone switching office (MTSO), which sends and receives a voice and data traffic to and from the
public switches telephone network.
Every cellular telephone has a transceiver that spends and receives radio signals from the base station
in a particular cell. As a person with a cellular telephone travels from one cell to another, the radio
signals are transferred from the base station in one cell to a base station in another cell. Occasionally,
this change in base station will cause an interruption or even the loss of the signal.
Personal communication services (PCS) is a set of technologies used for completely digital cellular
devices, which can include handheld computers, cellular telephones, pagers, and fax machines. The
most popular PCS technology today is CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) because of its fast
transmission speed and lower cost.
5. Infrared
Infrared (IR) is a wireless transmitting media that sends signals using infrared light waves. Like
microwaves, infrared transmission requires a line-of-sight transmission that is, the sender and
receiver must be align so that nothing obstructs the path of infrared light wave.
Many computers and devices such as printers, docking station and digital cameras have an IrDA port
that enables the transfer of data from one device to another using infrared light waves. A laptop
computer and printer also can use IR transmission to communicate with other device on the network.
Medium Speed
Twisted pair 1 to 128 Mbps
Coaxial cable Up to 200 Mbps
Fiber-optic 100 Mbps to 2 Gbps
Broadcast radio Up to 2 Mbps
Microwave radio 45 Mbps
Communications satellite 50 Mbps
Cellular radio 9,600 bps to 14.4 Kbps
Infrared 1 to 4 Mbps
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
The term topology in the context of communication network refers to the way the computers or
workstations in the network are linked together. According to the physical arrangements of
workstations and
Each computer or device in a network is called a node. The geometrical arrangement of computer
resources, remote device, and communication facilities is known as network topology
1. Bus Topology
In a bus network, each computer is connected to a single communications cable and every computer
can directly communicate with every other computer or device in the network. In bus topology all
workstations are connected to a single communication line called bus. This topology is commonly
used along with the Local Area Network. Transmission from any terminal travels the length of the
bus in both directions and can be received by all workstations.
Bus topology
2. Ring topology
In a ring topology, several devices or computer are connected to each other in a closed loop by a
single communication cable as shown in figure below. A ring network is also called loop network. In
the ring network, data must travel around the ring to each station until they arrive at the required
station.
A ring can unidirectional or bi-directional. In a unidirectional data moves in one direction only and in
a bidirectional ring, data moves in both directions, but in only one direction at a time.
3. Star Topology
In a star topology several devices or computer are connected to one centralize computer as shown in
figure below. The disadvantage of star network is that node of the other computers can communicate
with each other if the central computers breaks down. If it is desired to transmit information from one
computer to another, it can be done by sending the details to the central computer, which in turn sends
them to the destinations. A star topology is used in banking sector for centralized second keeping in
an on-line branch office environment.
4. Tree topology
In a tree network, several devices or computers are linked in a hierarchical fashion as shown in the
figure below. Tree topology is also known as hierarchical network. This type of distribution system is
commonly used in the organization where headquarters communicate with regional offices and
regional offices communicate with district offices and so on.
Tree Topology
Advantages of the tree topology
1. It is easy to extend
2. It is possible to disconnect whole branches of the network from the main structure. This
makes it easier to isolate a defective node.
5. Mesh Topology
A Mesh Topology has point connection between every device in the network as shown in figure
below. Mesh Topology are not usually considered practical.
Advantages
1. Nodes are not affected by media failure.
2. Faults are identity easily and can isolate the affected link.
Disadvantage
1. Mesh topology are difficult to install because each device must be linked directly to all other
devices
2. Mesh topology are difficult to reconfigure for the same reasons that they are difficult to
install.
Ring - System provides equal access for all - Failure of one computer can impact the rest of the
computers. network.
- Performance is even despite many - Problems are hard to isolate.
users. - Network reconfiguration disrupts operation.
Star - Modifying system and adding new - If the centralized point fails, the network fails.
computers is easy.
- Centralized monitoring and
management are possible.
- Failure of one computer does not affect
the rest of the network.
Mesh System provides increased redundancy System is expensive to install because it uses a lot
and reliability as well as ease of of cabling.
troubleshooting. System is difficult to
expand.
TYPES OF NETWORK
We can classify the computer network into two basis.
1. On the basis of architecture
a. Peer-To-Peer based network
b. Client-Server based network
2. On the basis of geographical location of computer
a. Local Area Network (LAN)
b. Metropolitan Area Network(MAN)
c. Wide Area Network(WAN)
LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers or workstations. The
resources to be shared can include hardware (e.g. a printer), software (e.g. an application program), or
data. One of the computers may be given a large capacity disk drive and become a server to the other
clients. Software can be stored on this central server and used as needed by the whole group. The size
of the LAN may be determined by licensing restriction on the number of users per copy of software,
or by restrictions on the number of users licensed to access the operating system.
Chapter 6/Network and Communication/Page No.10 Er. Subash Dangol
Modern Nepal College, Bagbazar, Kathmandu.
In addition to size, LANs are distinguished form other types of networks by their transmission media
and topology. The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star. Traditionally, LANs have
data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, however, speeds are increasing and can reach 100 Mbps.
Advantages
The reliability of network is high because the failure of one computer in the network does not
affect the functioning for other computers.
Addition of new computer to network is easy.
High rate of data transmission is possible.
Other computers can share peripheral devices like disk drive, printer etc.
Disadvantages
If the communication line fails, the entire network system breaks down.
User authority and users identification is poor.
Use of LAN
Followings are the major areas where LAN is normally used:
File transfers and Access
Word and text processing
Electronic message handling
Remote database access
Personal computing
Digital voice transmission and storage
One example of a MAN is the Nepal Bank Limited Network located in Kathmandu. It connects all of
the branches situated in Kathmandu valley to a centralized mainframe at the New Road Headquarter
office of the bank by using dedicated phone lines, coaxial cabling, and wireless communications
providers.
This network may be across the town, between different cities, countries or continents. The purpose
of a WAN is to allow an organization to share data and hardware throughout all its locations in order
to minimize the company's data processing investment. The largest WAN is existence is the Internet.
WAN is usually limited to use by the large organizations and government agencies due to high costs
involved in building and maintaining them. A wide area network provides long-distance transmission
of data, voice, image, and video information over a large geographical area that may comprises a
country, a continent or even the whole world.
In contrast to LAN (which depends on their own hardware for transmission), WANs may utilize
public, leased or private communication devices, visually in communication and can therefore span
an unlimited number of miles. A WAN that is wholly owned and used by a single company is often
referred to as an enterprise network.
Local area networks works well but have physical and distance limitation. Because they are not
adequate for all business communication, there must be connectivity between LANs and other type of
environment. A network can support data communication over a state, a country or even a globe.
When a network does this it is called a Wide Area Network. WAN is expanded over a very big
geographical area. Using a WAN, a person in Kathmandu can communicate with places like Tokyo in
a matter of minutes, without paying enormous phone bills. A good example of a WAN is the Internet.
NETWORK PROTOCOL
Network Protocol
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a network. These
rules include guidelines that regulate the following characteristics of a network: access method,
allowed physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed of data transfer.
Also Network protocol determines the following:
1. The type of error checking to be used.
2. Data compression method, if any.
3. How the sending device will indicate that it has finished sending a message.
4. How the receiving device will indicate that it has received a message.
Protocols are software and must be installed in network components. Computers can communicate
only if the protocol used by a computer in the network is compatible with the protocol used by
another computer.
The most commonly used protocols today are:
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
IP (Internet Protocol)
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
POP (Post Office Protocol)
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)
TCP/IP
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol. TCP/IP is actually a collection of
protocols, or rules, that govern the way data travels from one computer to another across networks.
The internet is based on TCP/IP. TCP/IP has two components: TCP/IP.
101010 IP
101010 101010
adsasd ----
-----
101010
101010
101010 101010
100100
101010
100100
Network
100100
101010 100100
101010
101010
101010
100100
Fig: TCP/IP
Note: Following is Not Needed for the exam but for your knowledge
NETWORK HARDWARES
Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface cards and other equipment needed
to perform data-processing and communications within the network.
Concentrators/Hubs
Hub is a device with multiple ports for connecting different computers on the networks. It accepts
data, amplify them and then transmit. It is used to split network segments and propagate signals
through it. Its big disadvantage is that it can’t filter network traffic and it imposes limitation to the
number of computer that can be connected.
A concentrator (also called as a hub) is a device that provides a central connection point for cables
from workstations, servers, and peripherals. In a star topology, twisted-pair wire is run from each
workstation to a central concentrator. Hubs are multislot concentrators into which can be plugged a
number of multi-port cards to provide additional access as the network grows in size. Some
concentrators are passive, that is they allow the signal to pass from one computer to another without
any change. Most concentrators are active, that is they electrically amplify the signal as it moves from
one device to another. Active concentrators are used like repeaters to extend the length of a network.
Concentrators are
Usually configured with 8, 12, or 24 RJ-45 ports
Often used in a star or star-wired ring topology
Usually installed in a standardized metal rack that also may store net modems, bridges, or routers
Repeaters
Since a signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, it is often necessary to boost the signal with a
device called a repeater. The repeater electrically amplifies the signal it receives and rebroadcasts it.
Repeaters can be separate devices or they can be incorporated into a concentrator.
A good example of the use of repeaters would be in a local area network using a star topology with
unshielded twisted-pair cabling. The length limit for unshielded twisted-pair cable is 100 meters. The
most common configuration is for each workstation to be connected by twisted-pair cable to a multi-
port active concentrator. The concentrator amplifies all the signals that pass through it allowing for
the total length of cable on the network to exceed the 100 meter limit.
The bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum performance on both sides of the network. You
might say that the bridge is like a traffic cop at a busy intersection during rush hour. It keeps
information flowing on both sides of the network, but it does not allow unnecessary traffic through.
Bridges can be used to connect different types of cabling, or physical topologies. They must,
however, be used between networks with the same protocol.
It is a device, which connects different network segments and passes data with the same
communications protocols. It is the connecting device between two or more hubs. Bridges are more
intelligence than hubs because they can see the address and forward data looking at them.
Routers
A router translates information from one network to another; it is similar to a super intelligent bridge.
Routers select the best path to route a message, based on the destination address and origin. The
router can direct traffic to prevent head-on collisions, and is smart enough to know when to direct
traffic along back roads and shortcuts.
While bridges know the addresses of all computers on each side of the network, routers know the
addresses of computers, bridges, and other routers on the network. Routers can even "listen" to the
entire network to determine which sections are busiest -- they can then redirect data around those
sections until they clear up.
If you have a college LAN that you want to connect to the Internet, you will need to purchase a
router. In this case, the router serves as the translator between the information on your LAN and the
Internet. It also determines the best route to send the data over the Internet.
Routers can
Direct signal traffic efficiently
Route messages between any two protocols
Route messages between linear bus, star, and star-wired ring topologies
Route messages across fiber optic, coaxial, and twisted-pair
MODEM
Modem (modulator and Demodulator) is a device, which has responsibility of modulating (coding)
the data before transmission and demodulating (decoding) the same data with the same rule at the
receiving end. It is used in Internet to transmit data because copper wire can transmit only analog
signals but the signals produced by a computer is digital.
Data communication over analog telephone lines is possible with a device called modem. A modem
simply connects a digital computer with an analog telephone line and establishes a link between two
separate points.
The modem, at the sender's end, translates the digital signals into analog signals that can travel over
standard telephone lines. In its modulation phase, the modem turns the computer's digital signals into
analog signals.
At the receiving end the reverse takes place- called demodulation. In demodulation phase, the modem
receives analog signals from telephone line and translates them back to digital signals. The data, now
in digital form, are compatible for storage in the computer.