Professor Terje Haukaas University of British Columbia, Vancouver terje.civil.ubc.

ca

3D Elasticity Theory
Many structural analysis problems are analysed using the theory of elasticity in which
Hooke’s law is used to enforce proportionality between stress and strain at any
deformation level. Beams, plates, and shells are examples of such problems. Here the
general equations for equilibrium, material law, and kinematic compatibility of a 3D
continuum are established.

Equilibrium
Here we are not concerned with externally applied loads or surface forces but rather
equilibrium between the forces within a material particle. This includes stresses and
potential forces acting on the volume, such as gravity. Figure 1 shows the stresses acting
on an infinitesimally small material volume. The figure is hard to read because it includes
the changes in stress-values from one end of the cube to the opposite side. For example,
the axial stress σxx changes by dσxx from one side to the other. The volume forces are not
included in the figure but are denoted fx, fy, and fz with index indicating the direction of
the force. Equilibrium in the x-direction yields
dσ xx ⋅ dy ⋅ dz + dσ yx ⋅ dx ⋅ dz + dσ zx ⋅ dx ⋅ dy + fx ⋅ dx ⋅ dy ⋅ dz = 0 (1)

Dividing through by (dx dy dz) yields:

dσ xx dσ yx dσ zx
+ + + fx = 0 (2)
dx dy dz
Repeating the exercise in all three axis-directions produces the equilibrium equations that
all material particles that are in equilibrium must satisfy:
σ ij,i + f j = 0 (3)
Moment equilibrium of the infinitesimal cube yields the symmetry of the stress tensor:
σ ij = σ ji (4)

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Professor Terje Haukaas University of British Columbia, Vancouver terje.civil.ubc.ca

z, w y, v
σ zz + dσ zz

τ zy + dτ zy
τ zx + dτ zx
σ yy + dσ yy
τ yz + dτ yz
σ xx τ xz τ xy + dτ xy
τ yx + dτ yx
σ xx + dσ xx
τ xy τ yx
τ xz + dτ xz
τ yz
dz σ yy
τ zy τ zx dy

dx
σ zz
x, u
Figure 1: Stresses on a solid cube.

Kinematic Compatibility
Equations are here sought to relate strains with displacements. As shown in Figure 1 the
displacements in the axis directions x, y, z are u v w, respectively. Expressions for
longitudinal strains are obtained by studying an infinitesimal material cube. First consider
the x-direction. The x-direction displacement at x is u. The x-direction displacement at
x+dx is u+(∂u/∂x)dx. Defining strain as change in length divided by original length yields
⎛ ∂u ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⋅ dx ∂u
∂x
ε xx = = (5)
dx ∂x
Repeating the consideration for the other axis directions yields
∂u
ε xx =
∂x
∂v
ε yy = (6)
∂y
∂w
ε zz =
∂z
Now to the shear strains, starting with γxy visualized in Figure 2 and defining the change
in angle between originally orthogonal lines. The change in angle has two contributions:

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Professor Terje Haukaas University of British Columbia, Vancouver terje.civil.ubc.ca

⎛ ∂v ⎞ ⎛ ∂u ⎞
⎜⎝ ∂x ⎟⎠ ⋅ dx ⎜⎝ ∂ y ⎟⎠ ⋅ dy ∂v ∂u
γ xy = γ xy = ε xy + ε yx = + = + (7)
dx dy ∂x ∂ y
Here it is understood that the engineering shear strain γxy is twice the corresponding
coordinate strains. Repeating the consideration for the other two coordinate planes yields
∂u ∂v
γ xy = +
∂ y ∂x
∂v ∂w
γ yz = + (8)
∂z ∂ y
∂u ∂w
γ xz = +
∂z ∂x
∂u
⋅ dy
y, v ∂y

ε yx ∂v
⋅ dx
∂x
dy

dx ε xy

x, u
Figure 2: Shear strains.

The kinematic compatibility equations for both axial and shear strains are summarized by
1
2
ε ij =
ui, j + u j,i ( ) (9)

By means of Voight notation the kinematic equations can be written in vector notation,
with ∇ defined as a matrix differential operator:
⎧ ε xx ⎫ ⎡ ∂ ∂x 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ u, x ⎤
⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎪ ε yy ⎪ ⎢ 0 ∂ ∂y 0 ⎥ ⎢ v, y ⎥
⎪ ⎪
ε zz ⎪ ⎢ 0 ∂ ∂z ⎥⎧ u ⎫ ⎢ w, z
⎥
⎪ 0
⎥ ⎪⎨ v ⎪⎬ = ⎢ ⎥
ε=⎨ ⎬= ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ = ∇u
(10)
⎪ γ xy ⎪ ⎢ ∂ ∂y ∂ ∂x 0 ⎥⎪ ⎪ u, y + v, x
⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎩ w ⎭ ⎢ ⎥
γ yz ⎪ ⎢ 0 ∂ ∂z ∂ ∂y ⎥ ⎢ v, z + w, y ⎥
⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎪ γ zx ⎪ ⎣ ∂ ∂z 0 ∂ ∂x
⎦ ⎢⎣ u, z + w, x ⎥⎦
⎩ ⎭

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Professor Terje Haukaas University of British Columbia, Vancouver terje.civil.ubc.ca

Because the compatibility equations contain six strain components and only three
displacement components, only certain strain patterns are physically possible. For that
reason the strains-displacement equations are sometimes combined into “compatibility
equations” that give conditions for valid deformation patterns. This is done below for 2D
elasticity theory. Sometimes the terms compatibility equation and compatibility condition
are maintained even when adding material law and equilibrium equations. Such equations
are, together with boundary conditions, sufficient to determine the solution to specific
problems.

Material Law
The theory of elasticity is founded on the assumption of a homogeneous isotropic linear
elastic material. For a material particle, the relationship between a uniaxial stress and the
corresponding uniaxial strain is give by the modulus of elasticity, sometimes called
Young’s modulus, E, formulated in Hooke’s law:
σ = E ⋅ε (11)
The strain in the transversal direction is defined by Poisson’s ratio, ν:
εt σ
ν≡ ⇒ εt = ν ⋅ ε ⇒ ε t = −ν ⋅ (12)
ε E
where εt is the transversal strain. Strain expressions that account for transversal strains in
the orthogonal directions yield the three-dimensional version of Hooke’s law:
σ xx σ yy σ
ε xx = −ν ⋅ − ν ⋅ zz
E E E
σ yy σ σ
ε yy = − ν ⋅ xx − ν ⋅ zz (13)
E E E
σ σ σ yy
ε zz = zz − ν ⋅ xx − ν ⋅
E E E
There are only two independent parameters in the general Hooke’s law. However, a
special material constant named the shear modulus, G, which is related to E and ν,
defines the relationship between shear stresses and shear strains:
τ ij = G ⋅ γ ij , i≠ j (14)

To determine the relationship between G, E and ν, consider an infinitesimally small two-

dimensional material particle subjected to pure shear τ. Mohr’s circle for this case is
centred at the origin with radius τ. Consequently, the principal stresses are -τ and τ with
axes at 45o. The deformation of the particle is shown in Figure 3.

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Professor Terje Haukaas University of British Columbia, Vancouver terje.civil.ubc.ca

# " & l !"

l ! sin % ( )
$ 2' 2

!
2

! 2 !
l
2 !l

Figure 3: Derivation of the expression G.

The quantity Δ can be expressed in two ways. In the pure shear state:

⎛ l ⋅γ ⎞ l ⋅γ
2

Δ = 2 ⋅⎜ ⎟ = (15)
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
In the rotated state of pure axial stress:
⎛τ (−τ ) ⎞
Δ=ε⋅ ( )
2 ⋅l = ⎜ −ν ⋅
⎝E E ⎠
⎟⋅ ( 2 ⋅l ) (16)

Equating the two expressions for Δ yields:

⎛ E ⎞
τ =⎜ ⋅γ (17)
⎝ 2 ⋅(1+ ν ) ⎟⎠
!#"#$
≡G
Hence, together with Eq. (13) the following equations complete the general Hooke’s law:
τ xy = G ⋅ γ xy , τ yz = G ⋅ γ yz , τ zx = G ⋅ γ zx (18)

In Voight notation it reads εi=Cij-1σj or ε=C-1σ:

⎧ ε xx ⎫ ⎧ σ xx ⎫
⎪ ⎪ ⎡ 1 −ν −ν 0 0 0 ⎤⎪ ⎪
⎪ ε yy ⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪ σ yy ⎪
⎪ ⎢ −ν 1 −ν 0 0 0 ⎥⎪
⎪ ε zz ⎪⎪ 1 ⎢ −ν −ν 1 0 0 0 ⎥⎪ σ zz ⎪⎪ (19)
⎨ ⎬= ⋅⎢ 0 0 2(1 + ν ) ⎥⎨ ⎬
⎪ γ xy ⎪ E ⎢ 0 0 0
⎥⎪ τ xy ⎪
⎪ γ yz ⎪ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 2(1 + ν ) 0 ⎥⎪ τ yz ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 2(1 + ν ) ⎥⎪ ⎪
⎪ γ zx ⎪ ⎣ ⎦⎪ τ zx ⎪
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭

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Professor Terje Haukaas University of British Columbia, Vancouver terje.civil.ubc.ca

Or, inversely σi=Cijεj or σ=Cε:

⎡ (1 − ν ) ν ν 0 0 0 ⎤
⎧ ⎫ ⎢ ⎥⎧
σ xx ⎢ ν (1 − ν ) ν 0 0 0 ⎥ ε xx ⎫
⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ν ⎥⎪ ⎪
⎪ σ yy ⎪ ν (1 − ν ) ε yy ⎪
⎥⎪
0 0 0
⎢
⎪ σ zz ⎪ ⎢ 1 − 2ν ⎥ ⎪⎪ ε zz ⎪⎪ (20)
⎪ ⎪ E 0 0 0 0 0
⎨ ⎬= ⋅⎢ 2 ⎥⎨ ⎬
⎪ τ xy ⎪ (1 + ν )(1 − 2ν ) ⎢ ⎥⎪ γ xy ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎢ 1 − 2ν ⎥⎪
τ yz ⎢
0 0 0 0 0
⎥⎪ γ yz ⎪
⎪ ⎪ 2 ⎪
⎪ τ zx ⎪ ⎢ ⎥ γ zx ⎪
⎩ ⎭ ⎢ 1 − 2ν ⎥ ⎪⎩ ⎭
0 0 0 0 0
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦

In index notation with the original strain and stress tensors, Hooke’s law is written
σ ij = λ ⋅ ε kk ⋅ δ ij + 2 ⋅ µ ⋅ ε ij (21)

where δij is the unit matrix and λ and µ are the Lame parameters:
νE
µ=G λ= (22)
(1 + ν )(1 − 2ν )
In addition to E, ν, G, µ, and λ, the bulk modulus, K, is employed in the study of volume
change under hydrostatic pressure. Let εkk=ε11+ε22+ε33 denote the dilatation, i.e., the
change in volume of an infinitesimally small cube. The pressure, p, is εkk/3. The bulk
modulus relates the pressure to the dilatation: p=-K.εkk, where
E
K= (23)
3(1 − 2ν )

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