Pattern Making in Garment Manufacturing

Blueprints of Garments
The appearance and fit of a garment are highly dependent on each process. Patternmaking is one of the earliest steps in the development of a
garment. It is a craft that has evolved over the centuries into a skilled technical process. Today, patternmaking tools have been carefully
tailored to quickly perform repetitive time-consuming tasks, allowing apparel companies to cater to the fast-paced world of fashion. Nowadays
sophisticated software programs are used for pattern making.
APPARELPRE-PRODUCTION

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History of Pattern Making

Prior to the Industrial Revolution, the art of patternmaking was highly revered. Tailors meticulously
worked with their client’s personal measurements to customize patterns.
Clothing made by tailors was elaborate and relegated only to the very rich. With the onset of the Industrial Revolution, standardized patterns
were essential to the success of ready-to-wear clothing.
Initial attempts to create standardized patterns resulted in poorly fitting garments with little detail. Men’s suits were boxy, plain, ill-fitting
sacks. After lengthy experimentation and standardized sizing, patternmaking made a triumphant transformation from customization to
standardization.
Patterns can be formed by either a 2D or 3D process. Often a combination of methods is used to create the pattern. The most common 2D
patternmaking methods are flat, drafting and reverse engineering. In the flat method, a pattern is generated from an existing foundation
pattern called a sloper or block.
A sloper is a pattern that has no seam allowances or style lines. From a sloper, a myriad of garment styles can be generated. The
patternmaker creates a new style by adding design details such as a collar, pocket, and pleats. The flat patternmaking method is widely used in
the ready-to-wear market because it is fast and accurate.
In the drafting method, patterns are made directly from measurements taken from a preexisting garment, an individual or a body form. Using
the collected measurements, the pattern is drawn directly onto paper.
Reverse engineering is sometimes referred to as garment deconstruction or a knock-off. In the reverse engineering process, patterns are made
from an existing garment. The garment is taken apart, analyzed and the patterns pieces are made.
In the 3D patternmaking process, the pattern pieces are generated from a 3D form. Draping is one of the oldest methods used to generate a
pattern.
In the traditional draping process, a garment is produced by molding, cutting and pinning fabric to a mannequin or individual. Style lines
and constructions details of the drape are carefully marked and removed. Fabric pieces with the construction and style details are generated.
The fabric pieces are then laid flat on pattern paper and traced. The pattern is finalized by adding directional markings such as grainlines,
notches, buttonholes, correct seam and hem allowances and facings. Draping is especially helpful when developing intricate garment styles or
using unusual fabric.

Computers have been used by apparel companies since the early 1980’s.
Pattern Design Systems (PDS) have become invaluable tools to the patternmaker, assisting in much of the repetitive tasks associated with
patternmaking. PDS systems are capable of storing an incredible amount of data that can be quickly retrieved, tweaked and re-filed.
Using a mouse or stylus, patternmakers are able to swiftly add style details and make changes. There are many benefits to PDS – speed,
accuracy, and ease of data transmission being some of the most obvious. In today’s competitive environment, software companies are zeroing
in on the growing demands of the apparel manufacturer.
The ability to mass produce customized patterns according to an individual’s unique body shape could offer tremendous benefits to the
consumer, retailer, and apparel manufacturer.The textile industry continues to research this exciting field with a long-term goal of bringing
superior fit and performance to the customer.
The apparel industry is notoriously fast-paced and competitive. Innovative software companies continue to make improvements to their PDS to
enable apparel companies to better serve their customers.
Current research focuses on generating patterns that produce better fitting garments and 3D visualization tools to help fine-tune style. With
ongoing technological advances and diligent research, patternmaking software companies continue to successfully address the needs of their
customers.
Pattern Making Process
Pattern grading is the scaling of a pattern to a different size by incrementing important points of a pattern to smaller or bigger sizes.
Once a designer has completed a drawing of a garment, it is transformed into a sample pattern.
“Patternmaking” is the process of creating all the correctly sized pieces needed to make a complete garment. For many smaller manufacturers,
pattern making is still done on paper because the cost of computerized systems remains prohibitive.
The patternmaker may use one of the following techniques to develop a sample pattern. S/he may “manipulate” a new pattern by using
geometric rules to modify or alter existing pattern pieces. S/he may translate a design that has been “draped” and pinned on a dress form by
converting the shapes of the draped garment sections into paper pattern pieces.
Alternatively, s/he may pin pieces of muslin to a garment being copied and rub tailor’s chalk over the seams and darts, making a “muslin rub.”
The chalk markings are then used to create a flat paper pattern.
From this initial pattern, a sample garment is developed. The sampling process allows a designer to correct any problems inherent in translating
a one-dimensional sketch into a two-dimensional garment; it ensures that the designer’s fabric yardage specifications are accurate, and it
provides an opportunity to spot potential production problems inherent in a design.
Once the sample is made, the manufacturer makes a small batch of duplicates for its sales force to test the market. If they sell well, the
garment goes into larger volume production.
Although many firms still make patterns by hand, larger manufacturers make production patterns on a computer using CAD software. Other
systems have been developed that allow patternmakers to create patterns manually by using a life-sized, sensitized table and a stylus attached
to a computer.
As the patternmaker indicates points with the stylus, the pattern pieces are automatically entered into the CAD system where they can
immediately be accessed for grading and marking. Although pattern making is becoming increasingly computerized, patternmakers still must
learn the manual method because making patterns manually develop an advanced understanding of garment construction, the knowledge that
cannot yet be replaced by a computer.
6 Stages to Making Your Sample Production Ready
by Rebecca Clark on July 26th, 2014 in APPAREL , BUSINESS , DESIGN , MANUF ACTURING

Making a sample is an essential first step for each season, and is generally doable even with limited resources. However, taking that sample up to
and through production requires some prep work both pre and post sampling.
Before your sample, there are some key steps you can take early on to set yourself up for success- which will in turn lead to better deliveries and
happier retailers.
• It all starts with proper patterning. Take the time to true your seams and run those quick pattern shape tests to get a good idea if your sample
will work before cutting and sewing.
• Only use fabrics or trims that are from a reliable wholesale source.
• Know your calendar and meet those deadlines. Make sure your calendar clearly marks when you need to order your fabric with plenty of
time for the worst-case scenarios, give your maker all the time than they ask for to complete the project, and remember to pad each deadline for
shipping and mistakes.
• Figure out your costing for the garment early. Start with what your selling price is, then work backwards. This should tell you how much
your fabric can cost, and also how complicated you can get in your construction.
Once your sample is complete, there is no time to waste in getting it ready for production! Passing your project off to a factory can be
intimidating and it is best to make as many decisions early and prepare your style for production before your sales are in.
Pre-production work can be done in six basic steps:
Fit your garment. This is a critical first step. Find a fit model that is you’re target customer’s average body shape within your sample size.
Fit the garment on that model, then fit the same garment of other people who consider themselves that same size. Generally you should find the
same comments ring true in each fitting- and if not, take another look at that fit change.
Correct your pattern and test it for perfection. This might happen more than one time. Once your pattern is corrected, make another
sample and refit. Repeat as many times as needed in order to get a correctly fitting garment.
Keep your tech pack and cutter’s must up to date and review the seams, stitching and extra notes you may add to have the confidence that the
producer will understand each detail. Also, make your tech pack easy to read, factories may not take the time to figure out a puzzle of a tech
pack, which leaves you vulnerable to mistakes.
Grade your pattern. On your tech pack, you should include a grading chart. This is the page you should pass to your grader and is a chart of
how much your key measurements will go up or down in grading for each size. Your sample size should be marked as Zero, then as your size
goes up and down, indicate the size change with a plus/minus number in inches. It is a good idea to sample each size to ensure you’re happy with
your grading.
Create a marker– a good marker can make or break your success financially; many yards of fabric can be lost with a bad layout. Having
a marker made is generally simple and fairly inexpensive. It is very important to be clear about what pattern pieces are in which fabrics and
interfacings AND your fabric’s cuttable widths.
Make sure you have a sew-by sample to give to the factory to follow that is 100% correct. Giving a factory a sample that is not correct will
very often result in your whole production looking exactly like that sample- even if your tech pack indicates differently.
PATTERN MAKING: 2-D DESIGNS TO 3-D GARMENTS
Francesca Sterlacci - August 28, 2013 - Fashion Education

Prada patterns photographed by Brigitte Lacombe

A pattern is a two-dimensional diagram of a garment, drafted by what is known in the fashion industry as a pattern maker or pattern cutter. The
process is also known as pattern drafting, pattern cutting and flat patterning. Once a pattern is made, it is subsequently cut and sewn in fabric to
make a garment. The history of pattern making can be traced as far back as the thirteenth century concurrent with the introduction of form-fitting
clothing. Tailors and dressmakers authored guides on how to cut and sew men’s, women’s, and children’s clothing. Guilds were formed offering
apprentices the opportunity to learn techniques of the trade. By the late 1770s, publications such as Garasault’s Descriptions des Arts et
Metiers, Diderot’s Encyclopedie Diderot et D’Alembert: Arts de l’Habillement, and The Tailor’s lnstructor by Queen and Lapsiey, all contained
pattern drafts for the professional tailor, as well as the home dressmaker.

During the early 1850s, Godey’s Lady’s Book and Petersen’s Magazine began promoting small
pattern diagrams of new clothing styles. Later Mme. Demorest’s full-scale patterns were offered through mail order. Butterick & Company,
incorporated in 1863, offered its patterns in a full range of sizes, followed by McCall’s, Vogue, and Simplicity Pattern companies. Patents were
issued that included solutions for properly identifying pattern pieces. The most comprehensive solution was patented by Hannah G. Millard in
1920. Her Dressmaker’s Pattern Outfit, instructed pattern users and supplied them with an accompanying step-by-step instruction sheet and
diagram. Millard’s patent was secured as proprietary by Butterick Patterns.
 Along came the Industrial Revolution, the invention of the sewing machine
and the mass production of clothes. Clothing became cheaper to buy than to make and suited the faster lifestyle of women who were beginning to
enter the workforce, especially after WWI. Manufacturers hired pattern makers and production patternmakers to keep up with the demand.
Today, patterns can be bought from commercial pattern companies, drafted manually or, in large manufacturing companies, drafted and graded
by sophisticated computer Pattern Design Systems (PDS).

Straight Sleeve Sloper

Pattern Making

Torso Sloper to Oaktag

Pattern Making
Understanding the fashion production process
June 11, 2018

Learning the fashion production process is a challenge, especially when you are a new small fashion company entering the industry.
The type of product that you design will dictate your exact production process; however, there are commonalities across all
products.
The following is a list will acquaint you with the 12 key stages that are common to most fashion products and help you learn how to
work through them:

1. Research

All good products begin with diligent research. Make sure to check out your competition andgeneral market trends. Investigate
which shapes, colors, and fabrics are in style.

2. Product Design

This is the stage to let your artistic talent shine. Let your market research guide you or your designer to develop product designs
for the items that you want to bring to market. Of course, it is most common to have the designer's creativity block or struggle with
the choice of tools to carry out your work, but you can always reach out to Internet or books to get a little bit of inspiration.

3. Fabric Selection

Once you've settled on your design(s) and have a feel for current trends, order sampling fabrics and trims to inspect and choose
your favorites.

After you have completed this step you can begin to look into details such as how much fabric will you need for production and
whether the supplier's terms of quantities and delivery meet you requirements and needs.

4. Patterns

Mass production requires that you make and cut patterns for the products you wish to produce. This way each item turns out the
same every time allowing you to make high quality garments.

Traditionally, there have been two ways of creating patterns: flat pattern cutting and draping. In the first approach, the patterns are
cut on a flat surface in two dimensions; whereas the "drapping" approach consists of draping a piece of fabric onto a mannequin and
work on it until the desired design has been drafted.

5. Toiles

Toiles are the garments you make to test your patterns before you use real fabric. This stage gives you the opportunity to rethink or
adjust your designs before spending too much time and money with your chosen fabrics.

6. Product Samples

Once you have settled on your designs and tested them by making toiles, you need to cut and sew product samples. These
samples will serve as the prototypes for those who are cutting and sewing your garments. You might also find useful to create
duplicate or sale samples in different colors for marketing and sales purposes.

[ Related: How To Create A Great Apparel Tech Pack in Three Steps ]

7. Final Selection

Inspect your product samples and choose those that will be part of your collection. You may use all of your samples, or you may
decide that when you see some of your designs in their chosen fabric that you do not like them. This is also an opportunity
to rethink your design and fabric choices prior to the final stages of the production process.

8. Price Your Items/Take Orders

Calculate your final production costs so you may price your items accordingly. Once this is completed, take orders from retailers
that will be carrying your items so you know how many pieces you need to produce.

9. Size Items

Before producing your order, you need to prepare to produce your garments in multiple sizes. This is achieved by grading your
pattern for the sizes you will be producing.

10. Garment Production

After designing, choosing fabrics and creating multiple samples, you are now ready to produce your garments. If you want your
business to success, you will need to look into the less creative side of the production: logistics and manufacture. Run a thorough
research to find a reliable factory to produce your garments: You can use online tools such as databases of manufacturers or
attend local manufacturing trade shows.

11. Quality Control

In the apparel and garment industry, the quality eligibility of the products are based on several factors such as durability,
performance and perceived quality of the article of clothing. Quality control measures are found throughout the entire production
process, but you must take advantage of a final inspection of your garments prior to sending them out.

12. Package & Ship

The final stage of the fashion production process is packaging and shipping your garments to their buyers.
Pattern grading
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Pattern grading in apparel

Pattern grading is the process of turning base size or sample size patterns into additional sizes using a size specification sheet
or grading increments. This can be done manually or digitally using computerized pattern cutting software.[1] These increments are
referred to as garment grading rules. Each specific clothing market area and level has different grading rules.
Standard grading rules are given as ergonomic measurements of the body. This can be done online or in pattern grading books.
When producing a clothing line, you will need a grading system to target a specific target market.
Grading is a necessary step that must be taken before approaching sample manufacturers or factories, because they require card
sets of your specific patterns and an order of garments to be produced. Grading determines how your garments will fit in all
sizes.[2] Having a variety of sizes for each of your garments fills out your minimum garment order cost effectively. Grading will not
create shape, but will only increase or decrease size of original shape. [3]
Typically, the first pattern is developed in one size and is graded up or down. This sets it to your size standards.

Contents
1History
2Methods of Grading
3See also
4References
History[edit]
Historically, the science of grading went hand-in-hand with the advent of commercial patterns and the mass-production of pattern-
built clothing some 150 years ago.[4] To properly fit a pattern to a range of sizes, each piece needed to be graded, meaning
systematically increased or decreased.
Early sewing patterns were made to fit a specific individual. One size was created by measuring various parts of the individual's
body. The key parts of the individual's body that are measured are the bust, waist, and hip. The pattern pieces are made of the half
of the garment piece. Often the patterns cut out of paper. The patterns did not include directions for orienting the pattern pieces on
fabric, nor did they identify what part of the garment each piece represented. Re-sizing or grading the pattern was a complicated
task for even the most skilled seamstress.
It was not until the 1850s that sewing patterns were made available to a slightly larger, but still affluent, public. American women
could obtain a paper pattern custom made by a dressmaker or could purchase a pattern through a women's journal.
The advent of large-scale production of graded, practical and easier to use sewing patterns can be traced to 1867. Ebenezer
Butterick mass-produced patterns printed on tissue paper.[5] Patterns were available for purchase in a variety of sizes, one size per
package.
It was not until the 1970s, when sales were lagging, that multi-size graded patterns became available.[6] [7]
Methods of Grading[edit]
There are three basic methods of pattern grading. There is not a superior method; they are all equally capable of producing a
correct garment grade. These include:
Cut and spread: This is the easiest method, which acts as the basis of the other two methods. To perform this method, you must
cut the pattern and spread the pieces by a certain amount to grade up, or overlap the pieces to grade down. The only tools you will
need for this method are a pencil, tape, ruler, and scissors.
Pattern shifting: Pattern shifting involves increasing the overall dimensions of a pattern by moving it around at a constant distance.
After you move it, you redraw the outline in order to produce the same results as cut-and-spread.
Computer grading: Computer grading is the most recent development in grading technology. It is also the fastest method.[8] It takes
the processes of the two former methods and digitizes them.
Although, historically, computer grading software and equipment, such as a CAD machines and a plotter, were an expense that only
larger manufacturers could afford, the prevalence of compact and more powerful computers has led to the development of software
programs that even small, independent manufacturers can invest in without breaking their banks. The most sophisticated of these
programs can now run on a desktop or laptop computer, and require nothing more than a standard printer to print out the full-size
patterns. These programs allow the clothing designer to specify every element of a pattern's details and to tweak each design
element individually, until the ratios of the clothing item are in line with the designer's vision. Once a pattern is created or uploaded,
the up- or down-sizing is done automatically, rendering printable patterns in the specified sizes/grades. [9]
Making Sense of Pattern Grading
By Terry Horlamus Nov 01, 2008
The term pattern grading may conjure visions of complicated measurements and fancy rulers, but once the concept is understood, the process
of grading is easy, especially using this method. You—the home sewer, custom dressmaker, or independent designer—can do just as good a job
as Vogue, BurdaStyle, Calvin Klein, or Donna Karan.
Pattern grading 101
Why grade? The purpose of grading is to proportionally increase or decrease the size of a pattern, while maintaining shape, fit, balance, and
scale of style details (dresses shown are an original design).
I’ll explain the thought process behind grading and touch upon the three different methods used in the industry today. Then I’ll take you step-
by-step through a simple cut-and-spread grading method and provide the measurements and formulas you’ll need to get started. Whether you
want to take a beloved pattern up (or down) a size or two or you want to create a small line of clothing, pattern grading is an important tool.
Once you understand it, you’ll be able to take your sewing to the next level.
The basic concept
Historically, the science of grading went hand-in-hand with the advent of commercial patterns and the mass-production of pattern-built
clothing some 150 years ago. To properly fit a pattern to a range of sizes, each pattern piece needed to be graded, or systematically increased
or decreased. Today, pattern companies and apparel manufacturers take a middle-sized pattern (typically a size 12) and grade it up for larger
sizes and grade it down for smaller sizes (see One pattern, three sizes).
One pattern, three sizes
A base size 12 pattern (top illustration) can be graded up to a size 16 (center) using the cut-and-spread method, and similarly graded down to a
size 6 (bottom) by cutting and overlapping along specified cut lines.
Methods of grading
There are three basic methods of grading: cut and spread, pattern shifting, and computer grading. No one method is technically superior and all
are equally capable of producing a correct grade.

Cut-and-spread: The easiest method, which is the basis of the other two methods, is to cut the pattern and spread the pieces by a specific
amount to grade up, or overlap them to grade down. No special training or tools are required—just scissors, a pencil, tape, and a ruler that
breaks 1 inch down to 1/64.
Pattern shifting: Pattern shifting is the process of increasing the overall dimensions of a pattern by moving it a measured distance up and down
and left and right, (using a specially designed ruler) and redrawing the outline, to produce the same results as the cut-and-spread method.
Computer grading: The most recent development is the fastest method, but it tends to be an investment only larger manufacturers can afford.
However, sophisticated home computer software is becoming affordable.

Grading vs. alteration: What’s the difference?

Grading is used to increase or decrease a size, based on an average difference between sizes. Alteration is used to make a particular size
conform to an individual’s figure.
It’s important to remember that grading only makes a shape larger or smaller and isn’t intended to change a shape. Grading also reflects the
fact that individuals of different sizes are proportionately different, not uniformly different. When we grade up or down, we don’t merely make
everything equally larger or smaller. Instead, we take into account that different body parts increase at different and proportional amounts.
Pattern vs. body measurements
The first step in any grading exercise is to accurately measure your base pattern. Sometimes you can find the key measurements you need
(bust, waist, and hip) on the pattern envelope. Or you can measure the pattern itself.
To determine the actual measurements of the sewn garment rather than the size of the paper pattern, keep two things in mind when
measuring a pattern. First, account for all design details. If a garment has a bust dart that extends to the waist, then omit the dart area when
you measure the waist; similarly, omit the volume given to pleats and gathers. Second, measure the pattern from seamline to seamline, not
cutting line to cutting line.
Once you’ve gleaned the key measurements from the pattern, you can address the difference between the pattern measurements and body
measurements. To establish your body’s bust, waist, and hip measurements, you can measure yourself or refer to the Quick reference for cut-
and-spread pattern grading. To measure yourself, wear undergarments that fit well, and hold a measuring tape snugly (but not tightly) around
your waist, the fullest part of your bust, and at hip level (9 inches below the waist). Before you record your measurements, be sure to add the
amount of ease the pattern includes (or the ease you’d prefer for that style of garment).
Establish the grade
Once you have the bust, waist, and hip measurements from the pattern and your body, you can address the basic grading dilemma: “How much
do I grade up if the pattern is too small? Or, if it’s too big, then how much do I grade down?” To establish the overall grade, or the total amount
needed to make the pattern larger or smaller, simply calculate the difference between the pattern and the body measurements. There are two
types of overall grades: an even grade and an uneven grade.
An even grade means that the bust, waist, and hip measurements change the same amount from one size to another. For example, if a pattern
measures 35-27-37 and the body measures 37-29-39, then the difference between each measurement is 2 inches, and the overall grade is an
even 2 inches. Sizes of commercial patterns and apparel always follow an even grade.
If the differences between these measurements aren’t equal, then it’s an uneven grade. This changes the shape of a garment, as well as its size,
so strictly speaking, uneven grading isn’t really grading. “Uneven grade” is synonymous with “pattern alteration.” An even grade is the type of
grade I will discuss because it’s straightforward and easy to understand. Once you master the even grade, applying the methods to the uneven
grade is the next step. See “Four ways to address an uneven grade” below for more information.
Grade the pattern using the cut-and-spread method
After you’ve determined that you have an even grade, the mechanics of cut-and-spread grading are easy. You will use your measurements to
do some easy calculations, create the cut lines on your pattern, then spread/overlap at each cut line the calculated amount. I’ve provided step-
 by-step instructions for this process, and listed the necessary formulas in the grading chart, as well as precalculated values (no math needed)
for three different overall grades (1 inch, 1-1/2 inches, and 2 inches).
The cut-and-spread method can even be used when grading large amounts up or down, for example a size 4 to a size 18. The large gaps at the
cut lines tend to be awkward, so I recommend grading incrementally instead (first grade the size 4 to a size 12 and then the size 12 to a size 18).
Insider tip (industry secrets and know-how)
There are no standard sizes in the garment or pattern industry. Each manufacturer sets its own base pattern measurements and grading
conventions based on a specific customer base.
Size-to-size grades for patterns or garments usually differ within a company’s product line. Smaller grades, 3/4 or 1 inch, are associated with
smaller numerical pattern or garment sizes. That is, a size 4 may only be graded down 3/4 inch to produce a size 2. Intermediate grades, 1-1/2
inches or 2 inches, are typical of middle numerical sizes. Larger grades, 3 inches or more, separate larger sizes. This is why one company’s size 8
can be different from another’s (i.e., different base pattern measures) and why the difference between a size 8 and 10 vary from one company
to the next (i.e., different grading rules).
Four ways to address an uneven grade
When you have an even grade, the process of grading is straightforward. Home sewers and dressmakers often, however, encounter uneven
grades, when, for example, a dress needs to be graded up 2 inches at the bust, but 4 inches at the hip. If the grade is uneven, there are four
ways to use grading to alter the pattern:
1. If the grade is uneven and you’re sizing up, then you can use an even grade equal to the value of the largest measurement difference. If
you’re sizing down, then use an even grade equal to the value of the smallest difference. This will get the pattern close to the general size you
need, then you can make minor adjustments as needed.
2. My favorite method allows for a more exact fit and is the best way to address fit problems for pear- or triangle-shaped women. Just separate
the pattern at the waist, and grade the top and bottom individually. Then rejoin the pattern, and blend the new lines at the waistline.
3. You can address an uneven grade based solely on the difference between the bust measurement of the pattern and the body. Because the
bust is the hardest part of the body to fit, many patternmakers evenly grade the pattern to fit the bust, then alter as necessary at the waist and
hip.
4. This method is specific to a common grading challenge that occurs when a body has changed in width or height, but not both. With a client
who’s gained weight, for example, just grade for circumference and forget about grading for length. Or for a teenage daughter who’s grown 6
in. taller but hasn’t filled out otherwise, ignore circumference and only grade for length.
Take it to the next level
When you first try grading, start with a basic bodice front and back, skirt front and back, and sleeve, then graduate to more complicated
designs. Remember that any pattern, no matter how “designed,” is based on one or more of the five basic pieces. Even a strapless top began
life as a basic bodice, so place the strapless bodice pattern over the basic bodice pattern and transfer the cut lines. A dress is simply a bodice
joined to a skirt, so the cut lines and spread/overlap amounts remain the same. Just match up the vertical lines on the bodice with those on the
skirt.
Grading can be as complicated or as simple as you want it to be. So when you first approach any pattern, always start with these basics. Figure
out your needs as a sewer, dressmaker, or designer; then map out your course, and grade, one step at a time.
This article was excerpted from Threads #101, June/July 2002, pp. 66-70. It was written by Terry Horlamus, founding director of Seattle’s New
York Fashion Academy. She teaches grading, pattern design, illustration, sewing, and construction.
Photos: Scott Phillips; illustrations: Linda Boston
Pattern Grading
ACTURING - I 3(1+2)
Grading
ng

rading
o basic types of grading: individual size grading for the bespoke trade and standard size grading for mass production.
size grading
imple alterations can be made to a selected standard size grade by:

c options in the pattern design menus;

ion codes applied at specific places.
the instructions to draft the pattern shape are held in the computer memory. Body pattern on a digitizer which works as an electronic grid and records special points around th
ursor. The centers of the cross hairs of the cursor are placed on the points to be recorded. When a cursor button is pressed signals are sent to the computers which are translate
cord of the shape and information for the piece. Once a basic shape, its significant features and grading information is stored in the computer memory, a pattern paper is used
production markers.
ize grading
atical information required to construct the grades is taken form:

body measurements
ment specifications
t of patterns
re calculated and applied at control points (basic points of block construction). Methods of standard size grading are given below
ethod
of patterns by computer is based on identifying where specific points on the pattern have to be extended or reduced to create a new size. These points are extended or reduced b
rdinates. The X and Y co-ordinates tell the computer the direction in which a point has to move; measurements have also to be given to identify the position of the new point.
e
is the instruction of how much a pattern increases, across a range of sizes, in X and Y co-ordinates at any control point. The grade rule can be applied at any other point that re
ease.
an be written in centimetres, millimetres or 1/10 of a millimetre. This variation is related to the type of computer system, some of which offer a choice. Example: a grade rule fo
nt
ple the points are graded in 1/10 of a millimetre. The instructions (grade rule) for the shoulder point would be X= -40 Y= 40 between size 12 and size 14.
library is compiled of numbered grade rules which will be attached to the points on the pattern which are to be graded. The rules are first recorded manually on a grade sheet a
the numbers and positions of the rules.
nsistent across a size range, the computer will repeat it automatically. Inconsistent grades across sizes have to be entered where the changes occur. Grade rule 1 is always writte
directions and is used where no grade rule is required.
des
block which has been manually graded as a nest can be digitized and stored in the system. Each grading point on every size has to be digitized. The computer will then reprodu
ically record grade rules for the pattern piece. These grade rules can be stored and applied to other size charts or garment specification. The difference between the sizes can be
co-ordinates. Two examples of sections of grade rule libraries show the different ways they may be written.
ces
method is not very flexible, it often means that more grade rules are generated than are required by an efficient standardized grading system. The facility can be useful for par
mplicated grades that are unlikely to be used again and are not required in a main grade rule library.
patterns
ompanies using CAD/CAM systems at the present time are not using the PDS (Pattern Design Systems) for pattern cutting. They cut their patterns for a design manually and t
tern on the system the perimeter of the pattern has to be fed into the computer by digitizing the contour. However the grade points and the grade rule library.
s placed on the digitizer and the pattern profile is entered into the computer by use of a cursor. The center of the cross hairs of the cursor is placed on points to be recorded. Th
nts and other points which define the curves or corners. When a cursor button is pressed, signals are sent to the computers which are translated into a numerical record of the
for the piece. The cursor has a number of buttons which allow the appropriate grade rule numbers to be ‘typed’ into the system on the relevant points as the pattern profile is d
e pattern
tern has grade points identified, whether directly onto a computer generated pattern or a digitized manual pattern an instruction can be given to grade the pattern piece. This o
omatically a nest of grades over a range of sizes using the grade rules recorded in the grade rule library. The patterns can be drawn out on a plotter either as a group or separate
chniques
icated grading techniques are now included in many programs, for example:
will proportionally grade a split pattern at the split points.
will apply grade rules that are written for horizontal or straight lines and apply them to angled lines and will compensate for the angle
will allow extra attributes to be added to grade points that will control the point movement in certain circumstances, i.e. matching checks.

Pattern Grading for Apparel

Apparel Grading Introduction to Pattern Grading

Patterns initially are made in only one size. In order to produce clothing that fits various body types and sizes, the pattern pieces must be increased or decreased
geometrically to create a complete range of sizes. The process of resizing the initial pattern is called "grading." For example, the sample size 10 patterns must be ma
larger to accommodate sizes 12, 14 and 16 and smaller for sizes 8 and 6.
Pattern grading is the scaling of a pattern to a different size by implementing important points of the pattern using an algorithm in the clothing and footwear
industry. What is the purpose of grading clothing patterns? The purpose of grading is to proportionally increase or decrease the size of a pattern, while maintaining
shape, fit, balance, and scale of the garment.
Historically, the science of grading went hand-in-hand with the advent of commercial patterns and the mass-production of pattern-built clothing some 150 years ago
properly fit a pattern to a range of sizes, each pattern piece needed to be graded, or systematically increased or decreased. Today, pattern companies and apparel
manufacturers take a middle-sized pattern (for example size Medium) and grade it up for larger sizes and grade it down for smaller sizes.
Grading apparel has primarily three different methods that are often used in the fashion industry. Whether you want to take your favorite pattern up (or down) a si
two or if you want to create new collection of clothing, pattern grading is an important process. Once you understand the nuances, you'll be able to take your sewin
the next level. With proper pattern grading techniques, a home sewer, custom dressmaker, novice, or professional fashion designer design incredibly well designed
clothing.
There are three basic methods of grading: cut and spread, pattern shifting, and computer grading.
Cut-and-spread method: The easiest method, which is the basis of the other two methods, is to cut the pattern and spread the pieces by a specific amount to grade
overlap them to grade down. No special training or tools are required-just scissors, a pencil, tape, and a ruler that breaks 1 inch down to 1/64. Or use a metric ruler
prefer.
Pattern shifting: Pattern shifting is the process of increasing the overall dimensions of a pattern by moving it a measured dis-tance up and down and left and right, (u
specially designed ruler) and redrawing the outline, to produce the same results as the cut-and-spread method.
Computer Grading: The most recent development, computer grading, is the fastest method, but tends to be an investment only larger manufacturers can afford.
However, sophisticated home computer software is becoming affordable.
Regarding the above three methods, they each have their pros and cons. Fortunately, each method works rather well for producing correct grading (if the procedur
followed properly).
It's important to understand that “grading patterns” only makes the shape larger or smaller and isn't intended to change the clothing’s shape. Grading also reflects t
fact that individuals of different sizes are proportionately different. Their body segments are not uniformly different. When a pattern maker or designer grades a s
or down, they do not simply make everything equally larger or smaller. They will actually take into account that different body parts increase at different and
proportional amounts.
Methods of Garment Pattern Grading
Methods of Garment Pattern Grading

Harshani Wijendra
Sri Lanka Institute of Textile & Apparel Technology (SLITA)
Email: harshani_bipasha@yahoo.com

Pattern Grading
Pattern Grading is the process whereby patterns of different sizes are produced from the original master pattern. This process can be performed
manually or automatically by a computerized system.Patterns are graded according to size charts which present the sizes and the
average measurementsof the population group for which the garments are intended.

Garment Pattern Grading

Methods of Grading
There are three basic methods of grading: cut and spread, pattern shifting, and computer grading. No one method is technically superior and all
are equally capable of producing a correct grade.

01. Cut-and-spread method: The easiest method, which is the basis of the other two methods, is to cut the pattern and spread the pieces by a
specific amount to grade up, or overlap them to grade down.
 Cut-and-spread method
02. Pattern shifting: Pattern shifting is the process of increasing the overall dimensions of a pattern by moving it a measured distance up and
down and left and right, (using a specially designed ruler) and redrawing the outline, to produce the same results as the cut-and-spread method.

Pattern shifting
03. Computer grading: This is the fastest method, but tends to be an investment only larger manufacturers can afford. However, sophisticated
home computer software is becoming affordable.
 Computer grading
Today most manufacturers grade pattern on CAD systems. The pattern maker guides a cursor around the edges of the sample pattern on a
digitized table. At each of the key points, he or she pushes a button to record a grade point. Each point is cross referenced by a grade-rule table
stored in the computer, which enlarges or reduces the pattern automatically according to the predetermined direction. If the pattern was originally
made by computer, data are already in the computer and can be enlarged or reduced automatically.
 Basic block pattern for female
It is necessary to draw the Grade lines from where the grading is done. As from those lines the increasing or the decreasing of measurements will
be done.
 Pattern line grading
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By: Jen

9Save

Ask a Question [ no questions ]

Pattern grading is an essential skill to know when making a pattern. The patterns I’ve been making for DIY apparel projects are uploaded with
each tutorial on the blog for viewers to download and print at home. The patterns I’ve created are usually medium size (size 8-10). Because not
everyone is a size 8 or 10, I’ve decided to break down the three methods of pattern grading. With these methods you can grade a pattern up or
down for a size that fits you.
Cut-and-spread method
This method is the easiest when it comes to pattern grading. First you cut the pattern and spread the pieces to the appropriate measurement.
To grade down you overlap the pieces, and to grade up you separate them. All you need are scissors, tape, a pencil, and a ruler that breaks down
every inch.
Pattern shifting
Up, down, left, and right are the basics of pattern shifting. The new dimensions are transferred onto another sheet of paper to make the pattern
larger. To make it smaller, you will have to trim the edges to the desired dimensions.
This method is almost the same as the cut-and-spread method but without the small pieces. Either way works, it’s just a matter of preference.

Computer grading
When computer grading (CAD) first came into the industry, it was only used by major fashion labels for the production process. The program
cost thousands of dollars, which is why only major companies owned CAD.
Now, CAD is more affordable for personal use and can be purchased for under $500.00. This method is the most accurate and used by
fashion labels to produce precise, detailed patterns.
Pattern Grading Instructions
Posted by Administrator on 4/24/2014
Here are our old Pattern Grading Instructions, please use them until we finish our new Pattern Grading Resizing tutorial. Thanks and Enjoy!
Apparel Production System: Types and Process
in Garments Production
Apparel production system is the way of manufacturing process that converts the fabric into garment. It is an integration of material handling,
investment capacity, production processes, personnel and equipment that helps to plan the work flow and produce a complete garment. As
with any manufactured product, there are different ways to organize the actualproduction of garments, according to the type, the amount and
the diversity of products to be made. The type apparel of production system is determined by the quantity of production and the required rate
of delivery.
 Fig: Production system in apparel industry
Factors of garment production system:
Garment production system depends on some factors. They are:
Company affordability
Equipment that directly involved with workflow
Items of finished products
Machine or floor layout
Management philosophy
Materials handling system
Personnel training
Production processes
Principles of choosing a production system:
 Fig: Principles of Apparel production system
Types of production systems in the apparel industry:
There are three main types of apparel production system. According to different ways, they are in below:

A. Production systems that are based on order quantity

B. Production systems that are based on customer nature
C. Production systems that includes on organizational choice

A. Types of production systems that are based on order quantity:

Individual production or make through system

Batch production
Mass production
1. Individual production or make through system:
It is the traditional method. In which the entire garment is assembled by one operator like a tailor. Each product is made only once or in very
small quantities. The system requires highly skilled, experienced operator and versatile machinery. In this system tailor do the all jobs
like pattern making, fabric cutting, finally finish the garments for completing the garment order. This system also called whole garment
production system.

There are two types of whole garment production systems:

Complete whole garment and
Departmental whole garment.
2. Batch production:
It is used for larger, though fixed, quantities of identical products either for stock or to order.

3. Mass production:
Mass production means that large quantities of identical products are made continuously. The high utilization of machinery and labor allows a
high level of automation and specification.
B. Types of production systems that are based on customer nature:
Bespoke production
Industrial production
1. Bespoke Production:
This type of production system is including for individual clients or small group of peoples. A garment is made according to individual size and
requirements.

Advantages:
Cost is low.
No need of pattern.
Use one or more number of m/cs.
Low risk.
Disadvantages:
Fabric wastage is high.
More time required.
2. Industrial production:
Industrial production system is use for bulky production, they must follow standard measurement chart and maintain special requirements for
target consumer groups.

Advantages:
Cost is high.
Low fabric wastage.
Takes less time.
Disadvantages:
Pattern must be needed.
Many machines are required.
Risk is high.
C. Types of production systems that includes on organizational choice:
Manual systems
Mechanical system
Manual systems:
Manual system is the traditional methods of garment production. This type of production system is effectively use for creative garment design
and where the style variations are large. In manual system the production quantities are small.

For example - Sewing room of a boutique or fashion house.

Manual systems are divided into 6 types:

1. Section or Processes system:

In section or processes system more skilled operators are needed to sew garment part from beginning to the end. This system includes a small
influence of personnel changes and easy style changes. Sewing room has a number of sections; to complete all the operations for every
garment component required more versatile operators. When one section ends then it is passed on to the next section. But this system is
required more time. This section produce garments according to style. Some working steps are:
Pre-assembling (preparation of making small parts)
Front side making
Back side making
Main-assembly (closing, setting collar and sleeves,..)
Lining making
Setting linings
Finishing operation
2. Piece rate production system:
In piece rate production system, operators are getting their payment according to their production pieces of garment (how many pieces are
they produced). It is one of the most famous production systems for both small and large apparel factories.

3. Clump system:
In the clump system operator collect the garment part from the worktable and start the operation. After finish the work, he returns it to the
worktable. A worker for the second operation then continues the work and so on. It is the continuous process until the whole garment has
been assembled. This process is work like that

Collection – Work –Return

4. Flexible flow system:

In this system numbers of operators are needed for each operation. Number of machine are arrange according to the flow of work. It can be
planned using the accurate number of operations in sequence. For style A garment, operator 1 do his operation one then send it to operator 2.
After completing the one and second operations, operator 2 sends the both operation to the operator 3. After operation 3, the work is
continued by the two operators performing operation 4 and so on.

5. One piece flow system or Progressive bundle system:

Progressive Bundle System (PBS) is also called one piece flow system or material handling system. It is a traditional production system that
widely used in garment manufacturing from early period to still now. After complete the fabric cutting, then various components of fabric parts
are to make bundle and distributed to the sewing section. Bundle ticket is attached to cut parts. One operator is tried to perform the same
operation on all the parts in the bundle. When one operator finish his/her work then garment bundles are move from other operator. For
sewing a garment, numbers of operators are needed. Bundles are handling by the Tied bundles, Bags, Pocketed bags, Boxes and baskets,
Bundle trucks, etc

6. Straight-line or Synchro- system:

To do garment manufacturing process, different operations are divided into several parts but the fixed the same time to complete this
operation. To complete only one garment group of operators are needed. When one group of operators finish their work then it pass to the
next operator. Distribution may be done hand by hand or a conveyor belt.

In synchro- system different garment parts like collars, sleeves, cuffs, pocket etc with the same size, color can be processed together. When all
is done then all parts are send central line for assembling a complete garment.

Mechanical system:
There are 5 types of production system in the apparel industry.

1. Assembly line production system:

Assembly line production system is mainly planned for a sequential organization. Each operator is appointed only for one operation. Garment
parts are move from operator to operator.

2. Overhead production system or Unit Production System (UPS):

For apparel manufacturing, advance mechanical system like overhead production system or unit production system (UPS) is use widely. In this
system a single garment is transferred automatically via a computer-controlled overhead handling system to finish the sequence of each
operation.

Advantages:
Automatically move the garment parts from one work place to other work place.
Use one hanger that contains more clips to hang all the parts of garment.
Hanging carrier can be moving in both manual and computerized way.
Time consuming and little work-in-progress.
Number of machine can be adjusted.
Increase productivity and improve quality.
Reduced labor cost.
Disadvantages:
High investment required.
Need proper planning.
Handling equipments are highly expensive.
Special training required for labor.
3. Selective conveyor belt system:
It is the very common mechanical equipment handling system. In conveyor system automatically feed the materials or working containers to
one operator to other. This system is more popular in material handling and apparel manufacturing industries. For saving the time and quick
production this system is more effective.

A typical conveyor system is mainly three types:

Main conveyor
Top belt
Lower belt
4. Quick response sewing system:
Quick response sewing system specially use for small lot order. Every work station will assemble with 4-5 machines. Operators are completed
their all the operations in that station before it is moved to other work station. If there is abottleneck in one section, the overload is
automatically moved to other stations where operator capacity is available. All the garment parts are hanged on the hanging clamp that
attached to the trolley. It is a computer controlled and overhead trolley system.

5. Modular Production Systems (MPS):

In modular production system, group of sewing operators are work together to meet their goal effectively. Usually 4-15 labors are work in one
group. Every members of sewing team helps to each other to make a high quality garment. For getting quick production this system is more
effective. Multi skilled operators are needed to do this operation. The sewing line layout is set in U –shaped. In modular production system
work-in-progress (WIP) is less.

Advantages:
Flexibility is high.
Low wastages.
Employee absence will be low.
Produce high quality garment.
Disadvantages:
Equipment price is high.
Employee training investment is high.
Team members are depends on each other that affects on production.
The use of laser in garment manufacturing: an overview
Authors
Authors and affiliations

Rajkishore Nayak
Rajiv Padhye

1.
Open Access
Review
First Online: 01 March 2016
7kDownloads

8 Citations
Abstract
Laser is being used in apparel industry from nineteenth century for various garment manufacturing applications. There are several advantages
of using laser over the conventional processes in cutting, engraving, embossing, denim fading and other applications. In addition, product
damage potential is reduced, no/less consumables are needed and no problem of toxic by-product disposal as found in some processes.
Today’s laser equipment is a result of continuous research and development of earlier products, which has undergone several changes. The
initial laser systems were cumbersome, hard to run and difficult to maintain. However, the modern laser systems are simpler in operation and
maintenance. Furthermore, the earlier systems were involved with more safety issues and needed the gasses to be constantly replenished. The
garment manufactures around the globe should take the advantage of laser application in the post multi-fibre agreement regime to make their
products more competitive. This review focuses on the technology of laser including various classifications. In addition it includes the
applications of laser in garment manufacturing, their potential hazards and health related concerns.
Keywords
Laser Fabric cutting Denim fading Mass customization Engraving
Introduction
Laser is being used in apparel industry from ninenteenth century. Recently the use of laser in apparel industry is increasing in
cutting garment patterns, patterning designer neckties, 3D body scanning, denim fading and engraving leather (Nayak and
Khandual 2010; Istook and Hwang 2001; Simmons and Istook 2003; Ortiz-Morales et al. 2003; Ozguney 2007; Bahtiyari 2011).
The major reasons for wide application of laser in garment industries may be due to reduced cost, flexibility and anti-
counterfeiting (Kovacs et al. 2006; Tarhan and Sarıışık, 2009; Yuan et al. 2012). For example the artwork of high-end necktie
producers are digitally stored rather than physical patterns to lower the theft risk. When needed, the digital patterns are
converted into physical samples using lasers (Lucas et al. 2015; Kan 2015). Recently, the application of laser in denim engraving
is increasing rapidly for value addition by replacing the traditional denim-distressing technics, which will take the denim
segment to a height of sophistication that can never be realised by non-laser methods (Kan 2014a). The unique nature of the
garment manufacturing industry needs laser applications, which combines performance with reduced cost by eliminating the
handling systems used in non-laser workstations.
Laser is an energy source, whose intensity and power can be precisely controlled. The laser beam can be focused to a desired
object at specific angle depending on the application. Laser can help to cut a variety of objects ranging from flexible fabri c to
rigid and strong metal (Belli et al. 2005; Ondogan et al. 2005). Laser equipment are becoming widely popular in textile, leather
and garment industries due to the advantage of accuracy, efficiency, simplicity and the scope of automation (Kan et al. 2010; Lu
et al. 2010; Sutcliffe et al. 2000). For example the conventional cutting tools such as band blades, discs and reciprocating knives
suffer from the limitations especially on delicate materials as the cutting force can displace the material, which can lead t o
inaccurate cutting (Nayak and Padhye 2015b). The traditional cutting methods often require an operator with full attention
(Vilumsone-Nemes 2012). Hence, there is a trade-off between the maximum speed of cutting and the accuracy. In addition, other
limitations include intricacy of the cut components, tool longevity and machine downtime during tool servicing. These
limitations are not present in laser devices, which helps to achieve improved efficiency and reduced cost.
Laser cutting with processing speed, high precision, simple operation and other advantages, so in most industries can b e used to,
but it is in the clothing industry, leather processing plays a different role, can quickly cut leather graphics and draw prec ise
clothing model (Potluri and Atkinson 2003; Ready et al. 2001). The benefit of laser cutting operations involve highly collimated
beam that can be focused to a very fine dot of extremely high energy density for precise cutting. Garment industry pay attention
to the size of the garment when processing precision, the purpose is to achieve high efficiency, exquisite tailoring, it is b etter than
the traditional manual cutting by spectrum.
Although there are several applications of laser in apparel manufacturing, there are limited publications on this. Hence, an
attempt was made in the current article to perform a thorough review that covers various applications and rec ent developments
in laser that can provide guidelines for future directions. In addition, a systematic description has been done on the techno logy
of laser including various types of laser. In addition, this review includes the applications of laser in garment manufacturing,
their potential hazards and health related concerns.
Laser technology
LASER is light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. Laser is an electromagnetic radiation, produced by the atoms
due to energy states are changed in some materials (Dowden 2009). The atoms promoted to higher energy states emit laser in the
form of light by the process known as “stimulated emission”. Subsequently, this laser is being amplified in a suitable lasing
medium with the help of mirrors. The final laser delivers from the equipment as a stream similar to light. The colour of the laser
depends on its wavelength. The most widely used unit used to express the wavelength of a laser is in nanometre (nm).
Laser light (Fig. 1) emitted from a laser has four fundamental characteristics: Intensity, Coherency, Monochromaticity, and
Collimation, which distinguish it from natural light. A high energy concentration per unit area of the beam is present in the laser.
A laser beam can be of very high intensity with 1–2 mm of beam diameter and an output power of some milliwatts (mW). All the
lasers are not powerful in spite of the light with high intensity as intensity is estimated from the power output/area.

Open image in new window

Fig. 1
An ordinary light and a Laser beam
From Fig. 1 it can be observed that the ordinary light (from a thermal source) is incoherent, i.e., light waves are generated at
different times and propagate in all possible directions randomly. However, laser is coherent as shown in the figure due to t he
waves are in phase while they propagate. Ordinary light is composed of all the colours in the visible region, but laser light is of a
single colour or monochromatic. The coherent nature in addition to the monochromaticity results in highly collimated laser. A s
all the waves propagate in same phase in parallel lines, there is almost no divergence as observed in light. This property of laser
helps in achieving high intensity even after travelling a long distance. The energy concentration of the beam can be increase d by
manifold when the beam is focused as a point with the help of optical lens.
For the production of the laser beam a lasing material is stimulated with electric discharge in an enclosed container. A numb er of
partial mirrors help in multiple internal reflections that lead to obtain the desired coherency and power output. Mirrors or other
optical devices help in focusing the laser to a lens, which then reflects the laser to the working zone. In order to enable t he
cutting action by a laser away from the edge, it should be pierced before the laser cut using a high-power pulsed laser beam.
Classes of lasing media
A substance, which can be excited by input energy, is called a lasing media. The lasing media have the ability to stay in a
metastable state. It is generally transparent to light. The substance used as lasing media can be a solid, gas, liquid dye or
semiconductor. Solid lasing media is used for producing solid-state laser. Due to the high density of lasing atoms, solid-state
lasers can generate higher power output per unit volume compared to the gaseous-state lasers. A single gas or gaseous mixture
can be used to produce gaseous-state lasers. Gaseous-state lasers are produced by passing the electric discharge in the gaseous
lasing medium. The most common type of gaseous laser is produced from helium–neon (He–Ne). This laser is mainly used in
teaching laboratories, at construction sites and supermarkets.
Liquid dyes can also produce laser by using ultraviolet (UV) light. These liquid dyes can be prepared by dissolving the solid dye
particles in suitable solvent. The dyes and solvents with similar energy levels are selected, that help to form a continuum for
achieving high energy output with wavelengths of visible light. Better tunability is the unique feature of a dye laser, which
distinguishes it from the solid laser. A single dye produces a single wavelength whereas dyes can be mixed to obtain a range of
wavelengths. Semiconductors can also be used to produce laser with the help of electric discharge. These lasers are character ised
by their efficiency, miniature size and durability.
Laser classification based on hazards
Since the early 1970s, lasers were being classified into four classes and some subclasses depending on their wavelength and
maximum output power. This classification was based on the severity of the damage to a person when exposed to laser. These
classes can be from 1 to 4. A Class 1 laser is absolutely not dangerous when used, whereas the Class 4 laser is the most dang erous.
The existing system was the revised system since 2002, prior to that the old system was used. In the new system amendments
have been done to certain types of lasers having a lower hazard than mentioned in the old system. Based on the output power i n
a specific wavelength, lasers are classified. It is essential the correct information on the laser class, potential hazards and safety
instructions are specified by the equipment manufacturers. In the classes 1–4 laser, there are the sub-classes 1M, 2M, 3A and 3B.
The new system currently in use (shown in Table 1) uses Arabic numerals (1–4), whereas it was classified with Roman numerals
(I–IV) in the old system.
Table 1
The new system for laser classification
Laser Features
class

Class 1 The Class 1 laser is the safest under normal use. These lasers may pose a risk when viewed with a telescope or microscope of
sufficiently high aperture
 Laser Features
class

Class The Class 1M laser is safe during normal use. However, when passed through a magnifying device such as a microscope can pose
1M hazard. A laser falls in this class if the power that can pass through the pupil of a naked eye is lower than the accessible emission level
(AEL) for Class 1

Class 2 A Class 2 laser is the visible-light laser (400–700 nm). It is safe as the blink reflex will limit the exposure time lower than 0.25 s.
However, intentional holding of the blink reflex could lead to potential eye injury. Several measuring instruments and laser pointers
are based on Class 2

Class This class laser is safe as the blink reflex if not viewed through optical instruments. Similar to Class 1M, this class laser lights are with
2M a large divergence, the light passing through the pupil should not exceed the specifications for Class 2

Class This laser class is safe if handled carefully. The maximum permissible exposure (MPE) can be exceeded, which is associated with a
3A low injury risk

Class This class is hazardous if exposed directly to the eye. Protective eyewear must be used where direct viewing is needed or may occur.
3B The equipment with Class 3B lasers must be fitted with a safety interlock and a key switch

Class 4 This class is the most dangerous among all lasers. This laser can cause permanent eye damage or burn the skin as a result of direct,
diffuse or indirect beam viewing or contact. These lasers may cause a fire risk as they can ignite combustible materials. Several laser
used in scientific, industrial, military and medical applications fall in this category. The equipment with Class 4 lasers must be fitted
with a safety interlock and a key switch
Classification based on generating media
Based on the generating media, lasers can be classified into three groups: (1) carbon dioxide (CO 2) lasers, (2) neodymium (Nd)
lasers and (3) neodymium yttrium-aluminium-garnet (Nd-YAG) lasers (Thawari et al. 2005; Mathew et al. 1999;
Schuocker 1989). The CO2 lasers can be used for boring, cutting and engraving (Chow et al. 2012; Kan 2014b). CO2 lasers can be
of the four types: (a) fast axial flow, (b) slow axial flow, (c) transverse flow and (d) slab lasers (Powell 1993). In fast axial flow, a
mixture of CO2, nitrogen (N2) and helium (He) is used at high speed by a turbine. A simple blower is used for slow axial flow and
transverse flow lasers. Slab lasers need no pressurization as they work in static condition.
The Nd lasers and Nd-YAG lasers, although similar in style, they are applied in different areas (Schuocker 1989). The former is
used for boring, whereas the later is used for engraving. All the laser classes can be used for welding.
Generally, CO2 lasers are produced by passing the electric discharge through a gaseous mixture excited by direct current (DC)
with radio frequency (RF) energy. This method is widely used as the DC-excited designs need electrodes inside the cavity, due to
risk of erosion. Industrial cutting of steel, aluminium, paper, plastics, wood, and fabrics can be performed by CO 2 lasers. For
cutting metals and ceramics; and scribing Nd-YAG lasers are used.
The laser generator and external optics need cooling while in use (Choudhury and Shirley 2010). This can be achieved by a
coolant such as water by circulating through a chiller in the laser equipment. The use of water cools the material and remove s the
debris. In addition, it helps to achieve parallel kerf and multi-directional cutting at high dicing speeds.
Another type of solid-state laser known as “fibre laser” is now becoming popular in metal cutting industry. This laser is produced
from a solid gain medium without the use of any liquid or gas. The major advantage of fibre laser is the extremely small spot size.
Fibre lasers, with a wavelength of 1.064 µm, can produce an extremely small spot size, which makes it ideal for cutting reflective
metals.
Application of laser in apparel industry
As an all-new process, there are several applications of laser in apparel industry. Laser engraving and cutting technologies now
being widely applied in many garment industries, fabric production units, other textile and leather industries (Choudhury and
Shirley 2010; Nayak and Khandual 2010). Various applications of laser are discussed in the following section.
Fabric fault detection
When fabric is received at the stores of a garment production unit, the faults in the fabric can be detected with morphologic al
image processing based on laser (Mallik-Goswami and Datta 2000; Ribolzi et al. 1993; Mursalin et al. 2005). Laser-based optical
Fourier transform analysis can be used for fault detection in the fabric as the pattern is repeated at regular intervals. The fabric is
focused with a laser and the diffraction gratings obtained from the periodicity of longitudinal and transverse threads in the fabric
are superimposed. A Fourier lens is used to produce the diffraction pattern of the fabric. A second Fourier lens with same focal
length magnifies and inverts the test sample image. A charge-coupled device (CCD) camera is used to capture the image. The
data is transferred and stored in a computer. The computer programming helps in comparing the acquired images with the
stored images by converting the image into binary mode. A fault is reported when the measured parameter is deviating from the
standard. The severity of the fault depends upon the amount of deviation from the standard.
Laser cutting
After they were introduced in the 19th century, the fashion designers are widely adopting laser cutting in garment manufacturing
(Petrak and Rogale 2001). In synthetic fabrics, laser cutting produces well-finished edges as the laser melts and fuses the edge,
which avoids the problem of fraying produced by conventional knife cutters. Furthermore, use of laser cutting is increasingly
used for leather due to the precision of cut components. In fashion accessories such as jewellery, laser cutting can be used to
produce new and unusual designs to produce a fusion of apparel design and jewellery style.
In laser cutting a laser is used to cut the fabric into the desired pattern shapes. A very fine laser is focused on to the fa bric
surface, which increases the temperature substantially and cutting takes place due to vaporization. Normally gas lasers (CO 2) are
used for cutting of fabric. The cutting machine (Fig. 2) includes a source of laser, a cutting head fitted with mirrors to reflect the
laser beam to the cutting line, a computer to control the entire system and a suitable mean for removing the cut parts. The
application of inert gases (N2, He) during cutting prevents the charring and removes debris and smoke from the cutting area.
Like the mechanical cutting devices, a laser beam does not become blunt and need sharpening. Automatic single ply laser cutte rs
are faster (30–40 m/min) than automatic multiple ply knife cutters (5–12 m/min). However, while cutting multiple plies, knife
cutters are faster per garment cut and also cheaper.

Open image in new window

Fig. 2
A laser-cutting machine
The limitation of laser cutting is the number of lays of the fabric that can be cut by the beam. Best result is obtained whil e cutting
single or a few lays, but the accuracy and precision is not obtained with several plies. In addition there is a chance of the cut
edges to be fused together especially in case of synthetics. In some cases the sealing of the edges of cut patterns and sewn
garment parts is essential to prevent fraying, where the laser plays the role. As in garment production facilities emphasis is given
in multiple lay cutting, the laser cutting seems unlikely to become widespread. However, it is successfully used in cutting o f sails
where single ply cutting is the norm and a slight fusing of the edge of synthetics and woven materials is desirable. In addition,
laser cutting is used in some areas of home furnishing.
Laser cutting is cheaper compared with the traditional cutting methods (Mahrle and Beyer 2009). Furthermore, as the laser
cutting doesn’t have mechanical action, high precision of the cut components at high cutting speed are feasible (Mathew et
al. 1999). The laser cutters are safer and include simple maintenance features, which can be operated for longer duration. The
laser cutters can be integrated to the computer technology. It can produce the products at the same time when designing in the
computer. Laser cutting machines have faster speed and simpler operation.
Laser cutting machines are suitable for cutting textile fabrics, composites and lather materials (Caprino and Tagliaferri 1988;
Steen et al. 2010; Cenna and Mathew 2002). They can operate for a wide range of fabric, which is not possible with die cutters.
Hence, laser cutting machines are gradually been accepted in garment manufacturing. The features of laser applications include:
Laser marking, laser engraving and laser cutting combined in one step
No mechanical wear, hence good quality
No fixation of material is required due to force-free processing
No fabric fraying in synthetic fibres due to formation of fused edges
It is clean and lint-free
Simple process due to integrated computer design
High quality raw materials and significant cost saving
Extremely high precision in cutting contours
High working speed
Contactless, wear-free technique
No chips, less waste
Objective evaluation of seam pucker
Garment appearance greatly influences garment quality. Seam pucker negatively affects the garment appearance (Nayak and
Padhye 2014b, 2015a; Nayak et al. 2010, 2013; Fan and Liu 2000). There are several methods to measure seam pucker, but the
conventional rating system developed by American Association of Textile Chemists and Colourists (AATCC) is mainly used. The
laser beam can measure the degree of puckering in garments by geometrical models. In this method a seam in the garment is
scanned by a 3D laser scanner by putting the garment on a dummy. The laser head can be moved to any 3D space within a
confined place by an operator. It is possible to scan the target object from different angles. A pucker profile of the scanned seam
can be obtained by processing the image with a 2D digital filter. Physical parameters such as log σ 2 (σ is variance) can be
obtained from the pucker profile, which can then be linearly related to grade for seam pucker. From the objectively measured log
σ2, the pucker grade can be objectively evaluated.
Mass customization
The term mass customization is used when custom-fit garments are obtained depending on the body dimensions and individual’s
choice. The very first thing to mass customize garments is the accurate measurements of individual’s body (Nayak and Padhye e t
al. 2015a). Laser scanning technology is one of the many techniques used for measurement. Laser scanning technology uses one
or multiple thin and sharp stripe lasers to measure body size. Cameras are also used to acquire the scene and assist the laser
scanner. The body measurements are derived by applying simple geometrical rules (D’Apuzzo 2007; Tong et al. 2012; Ashdown
et al. 2004). In order to confirm the harmlessness of the beam, only eye-safe lasers can be used. Additional optical devices such
as mirrors can be used to assist a single laser beam. The laser scanning unit (Fig. 3) consisting of light sensors and optical
systems focuses on the human body for digitisation. The number of light sensors and optical systems can vary as per the
positions of the body. For example, Vitronic1 body scanner consists of three scanning units th at can synchronously move
vertically along three pillars.

Open image in new window

Fig. 3
3D body scanning by Laser scanner
Laser-based denim fading
Now the age of fading of denim by sandblasting is becoming older as the new technology of laser fading is replacing it (Ortiz -
Morales et al. 2003; Tarhan and Sarıışık 2009). In laser fading, a computer drives the laser beam to the material where marking
or fading is required. The laser beam decomposes the dye and the resulting vapors are vented away. The material fades only
where the beam impacts on the fabric. Commercially two types of lasers are being used: solid based (wavelength of 1 μm) and gas
based (wavelength of 10 μm). The desired degree of fading depends upon the wavelength, power density, and pulse width of the
laser beam. The method of marking or fading by laser is more environmental friendly as compared to acid washing or
sandblasting (Kan et al. 2010). A laser-faded denim sample is shown in the Fig. 4.

Open image in new window

Fig. 4
Denim faded by laser
Laser engraving
In laser engraving laser is used to mark or engrave an object. The process is very complex, and often computerised systems ar e
used to drive the laser head (Kan et al. 2010; Juciene et al. 2013). In spite of the complexity, very precise and clean engravings
can be obtained with high rate of production. The technique does not involve physical contact with the engraving surface, hen ce,
no wear and tear. The marks produced by laser engraving are clean, crisp and permanent. In addition, lasers are faster than
other conventional methods used for product imprinting, which provides greater versatility in material selection. One machine
can be used to cut through thin materials as well as make engravings on them. Laser engraving is used to engrave the printing
screens, for hollowing, for creating pattern buttons, to engrave leather, denim etc. (Fig. 5). Pictures, flower patterns and even
personalized signatures can be engraved on leather shoes, leather bag, wallet, leather belt, leather sofa and leather clothes,
greatly increasing the added value of products. In addition laser engraving is used to create embroidered pattern in the fabr ic by
colour fading and burning the fabrics. The low cost sealed CO 2 lasers are preferred for laser engraving.
Open image in new window

Fig. 5
Laser engraving items: a engraving machine, b denim, c garment, d buttons, e leather and f embroidery
Denim engraving is another fast-growing application of laser using sealed CO 2 lasers (Juciene et al. 2013; Kan 2014a). The laser
is used to create minute designs and patterns on denim fabric as well as finished denims. This technic can be used in place of the
traditional techniques such as sandblasting and acid washing. The accuracy and design flexibility is very wide, which can’t b e
achieved by the traditional methods. Lasers can produce 3D effects by techniques such as embroidering, embossing, or even
apparent cuts, tears and mends. Any image that is created in a computer aided design (CAD), can be transferred to denim by
suitable laser process. While using lasers, features such as good mode quality, high power stability, real-time control of laser
power and fast pulse rise-time are the important parameters that can lead to colour change without charring or other damage to
the fabric. Such damage could reduce the product life and cosmetically unacceptable. The advantages of laser engraving over
traditional methods include:
High working speed without mechanical contact
No wear and tear of components
Reduced waste
Complete exhaust and filtering
Exact contours possible
Welded garment production
Welding is an alternative process of joining fabrics for garment production where the thermoplastic materials are joined toge ther
by the application of heat. The heat can be supplied by ultrasonic or by high powerful laser (Petrie 2015). The welded garment
though weaker than the sewn counterpart, gives better appearance as it does not contain bulky seam and is m ore flexible.
Bar code scanning
The scanners used to scan the barcodes for product identification typically uses helium–neon (He–Ne) lasers. The laser beam
bounces out of a rotating mirror while scanning the code. This sends a modulated beam to a computer, which contains the
product information. Semiconductor based-lasers can also be used for this purpose. However, some of the recent manufacturers
are using Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) based tags instead of barcodes due to certain advantages (Nayak and
Padhye 2014c). The RFID tag can be processed quickly and it avoids the physical handling of the product as in barcode systems
(Nayak et al. 2007, Nayak et al. 2015b; Nayak and Padhye 2015b). The mechanism of a bar code scanner is shown in Fig. 6.
Open image in new window
Fig. 6
A laser bar code scanner
Laser marking
Laser can also be used in marking on various surfaces. The advantages of laser marking include fast, high precision and clear
marking on products of varying contour and hardness. It can also be used for a wide range of organic polymers where precessio n
can be obtained even with complex designs. Laser marking is durable and can be applied in clothing, leather and metals. Laser
marking is considered to be the best choice for branded clothing and marking fashion accessories during processing.
Miscellaneous uses
There are many other applications of laser in apparel industry as discussed below:
In some stitching machines (e.g., automatic welt pocket attaching machine) laser beam is engaged for automatic and accurate
positioning of the welt and to make a slit across the fabric.
In some metal detection machines laser beam is employed to find if any needle part is there in the final finished garment.
Laser-engraving machine can engrave any decoration on the surface layer of any material, making the products looking high
grade and exquisite.
Laser technology is gaining impetus in garment finishing which can produce various surface ornamentations without any wet
processing. This technique is very accurate and can work fast with good repeatability and reproducibility (Hung et al. 2011; Kan
et al. 2010).
The application of antimicrobial finishes into textiles has significantly improved compared to the past (Nayak and Padhye 2014a;
Nayak et al. 2008). Laser treatment was used for durable antibacterial properties on cotton fabric using silver nanoparticles by
Nourbakhsh et al. (Nourbakhsh and Ashjaran 2012).
Hazards by laser and their control
Electrical shock
More people are being killed by electrocution from the laser electronics than blinded from exposure to a laser beam
(Sliney 1995). Lethal voltages are present in the power supplies of lasers. If one is not experienced working with high voltages in
general and laser power supplies in particular, then the person should not be allowed to carry out any work with the laser.
During maintenance, the power supply should be unplugged from its electrical outlet.
Eye injury potential
Eye is the most vulnerable body part to a laser beam (Henderson et al. 2003; Buckley 2010; Barkana and Belkin 2000). With
certain lasers severe damage can be caused due to the high concentration of laser energy on retina (Wyrsch et al. 2010). Class 4
lasers can damage the tissues in the eye interior. The class and duration of laser exposure are the deciding factors in the e ye
injury. For example, no injury is be expected while working with the laser with wavelength in the visible spectrum (400–
700 nm). Lasers of Class 3B or Class 4 can lead to an eye injury before the aversion response can protect the eye.
Tables 2 and 3 describe various types of laser hazards and precautions to be taken as specified by American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
Table 2
Nature of hazards and precautions for various classes of lasers
Laser Nature of hazard (ANSI and OSHA) Precautions
class

Class 1 Low power, safe to view No potential hazard

Class 1M Low power, hazardous when viewed directly for longer than Do not view directly with optical instruments
1000 s

Class 2 Low power, hazardous when viewed directly for longer than Do not stare into the beam
0.25 s

Class 2M Medium power, nonhazardous when viewed directly for less Do not stare into the beam, do not view directly with optical
than 0.25 s instruments

Class 3A Medium power (0.5 W), are hazardous when viewed directly Avoid direct eye exposure
 Laser Nature of hazard (ANSI and OSHA) Precautions
class

Class 3B Medium power (0.5 W), are hazardous when viewed directly Avoid direct eye exposure

Class 4 High power (>0.5 W), produce ocular, skin and fire hazards Avoid eye or skin exposure to direct or scattered radiation
Table 3
Harmful effect of laser radiation on eye and skin
Laser type Wavelengths (nm) Impacts on eye Impacts on skin

Excimer laser 100–315 Cornea ignition Sunburn, accelerated aging

He–Ne laser 315–380 Lens opacity Increased pigmentation

Nd-YAG laser 380–780 Violation of the retina Darkening of pigment, burns

High performance diode laser 780–1400 Lens opacity, violation of the retina Burns

CO2 laser 1400–3000 Lens opacity, burning of the cornea Burns

CO2 laser 3000–10,000 Burning of the cornea Burns

Various standards are devised around the world for the laser related hazards. The standards devised by ANSI are shown in
Table 4.
Table 4
Various ANSI standards dealing with laser hazards
Laser standards Description

ANSI Z136.1 (safe use of lasers) This standard is the foundation of laser safety programs for industry, military, research and
development and higher education (universities)

ANSI Z136.2 (safe use of optical fibre This standard provides guidelines for the safe use, maintenance, service and installation of
communication systems utilizing laser diode optical systems utilizing laser diodes or light emitting diodes operating at wavelengths between
and LED sources) 0.6 µm and 1 mm

ANSI Z136.3 (safe use of lasers in health This standard provides guidelines for individuals working with Class 3B and Class 4 lasers and
care) laser systems in health care

ANSI Z136.4 (recommended practice for This standard provides guidelines for measurement procedures necessary for the classification
laser safety measurements for hazard and evaluation of optical radiation hazards
evaluation)

ANSI Z136.5 (Safe use of lasers in This standard provides guideline for organisations and implementation of laser safety and
educational institutions) training programs. In addition, it privides graphics for entryway controls, laser installations and
laser laboratory layouts

ANSI Z136.6 (safe use of lasers outdoors) This standard provides guidelines for the safe use of lasers in an outdoor environment such as
construction, light shows, scientific, research and military

ANSI Z136.7 (testing and labelling of laser This standard provides guidelines on the test methods and protocols used to provide eye
protective equipment) protection from lasers and laser systems

ANSI Z136.8 (safe use of lasers in research, This standard provides guidelines on the safe use of lasers and laser systems found in research,
development, or testing) development or testing environments, where safety controls common for commercial lasers may
either be missing or disabled

ANSI Z136.9 (safe use of lasers in This standard provides guidelines for laser exposures when lasers are used in manufacturing
manufacturing environments) environments. This also includes policies and procedures for safety in both public and private
industries as well as product development along with testing
Skin injury potential
The injury to the skin due to laser radiation is less severe compared to the eye. However, the chances of exposure of skin is
higher than that of the eye due to its greater surface area (Yashima et al. 1991; Sliney 1995). The eye injury is more significant
than the skin as the loss in the vision is irreparable. In normal laser working condition there is very less chance that a la rge area
of the skin is exposed. The injury to the skin due to laser exposure can be divided into two categories: (a) thermal injury a nd (b)
photochemical induced injury. The former is caused by the high power laser beams, whereas the latter is caused by e xposure to
scattered ultraviolet (UV) laser radiation (Bernstein et al. 1997). Direct contact or exposure to the laser beam can lead to thermal
injuries. Although these injuries are painful, usually they are not serious and proper beam management and hazard awareness
can prevent these. In addition, specular or even diffused reflections can lead to photochemical injury over time.
The objective of hazard control methods is primarily stop the laser contacting the skin or entering into the eye (Protection 1996).
These control methods can be grouped into three sections such as: (a) administrative controls [labels, signs, standard operating
procedures (SOPs), etc.], (b) engineering controls (barriers, blocks, etc.) and (c) protective controls (eyewear, uniform, et c.).
Administrative controls
The management should only allow the trained persons to work on laser equipment. The operator should follow the instructions
as in SOPs. The laser equipment should be switched off while not being used. All laser equipment of Class 3B or Class 4 lasers
need to be labelled with “Danger” symbol, specifying the laser class. A Class 3B laser device should mention “LASER
RADIATION-AVOID DIRECT EXPOSURE TO THE BEAM”, which must be written above the tail of the sunburst. A Class 4 laser
device should mention “LASER RADIATION-AVOID EYE OR SKIN EXPOSURE TO DIRECT OR SCATTERED RADIATION”
above the tail of the sunburst.
Engineering controls
The possibility of accidental exposures to laser hazards can be best controlled by engineering controls. All the Class 3B and Class
4 laser equipment should prevent the access of unauthorized personnel in the working area while laser is operational. All the
Class 3B and Class 4 lasers should have a non-flammable cover sufficient to hold the excitation device and the beam. The laser
systems can be fitted with key switches or password protected for better safety. In the laser chamber, the setting should
guarantee no direct eye contact. The most hazardous aspect of laser use is the beam alignment, where most eye injuries occur.
Hence to avoid this, the instructions described in the SOP must be understood. The lowest visible beam power should be used for
beam alignment.
Protective equipment controls
The user of laser equipment should wear appropriate personal protective clothing/device for eye and s kin protection during
initial setting as well as the normal working (Nayak et al. 2015c). The skin covering and the eyewear protect the skin and eye,
respectively from direct exposure.
Conclusions and future directions
Laser technology can be used for various applications on materials ranging from metals to textiles with noncontact patterns. In
garment production, it can be applied onto different products ranging from home textiles to fashion accessories. In garment
manufacturing, CO 2 gas lasers have wide and successful applications. Laser technique, is entirely different from traditional
textile processes, as it has the flexibility in design and operation without any pollution or waste material. There are several other
advantages of using laser over the conventional methods in cutting, engraving, embossing, denim fading etc. In addition, lase r
involves lower risk of product damage, use of low consumables and free from disposing of toxic by-products, as there may be
with some methods. The laser equipment of today has gradually evolved from those used in early days. The old laser equipment
were difficult to run, cumbersome and hard to maintain. However, the modern equipment are easy to operate, simple to learn
and easy to maintain. Furthermore, the earlier equipment had several safety issues and they needed replenishment of gasses at
regular intervals. The garment production units should take the advantage of applying laser in the post multi-fibre agreement
regime to produce more competitive products.

Education-Socialization Benefits
Supporters of school uniforms commonly cite improved discipline, increased self-esteem, and more school pride.
Learning, rather than being distracted by "fashion wars," becomes the focus of schooling (though some schools have
adopted more casual styles for uniforms, which might include blue jeans). Peer pressure is reduced. Embarrassment
from not being fashionable, teasing, and bullying is mitigated. Moreover, any pedagogical practice that encourages
students to find their sense of self-worth in something other than outward appearance is highly welcomed by parents.
Administrative Benefits
Some teachers and administrators claim they have witnessed a decline in disciplinary problems while they have seen an
increase in solidarity and camaraderie in schools since everyone appears to be on the same "team." Additionally,
uniforms make it easier for school staff to identify who belongs on campus, thereby enhancing safety.
Social Engineering
School uniforms act as "social equalizers," hiding the differences between the "haves" and "have-nots." Moreover,
because parents do not have to contend with purchasing new clothes to keep up with constantly changing fads,
educational expenses are kept down.
Arguments Against School Uniforms
Reasons against uniforms are fewer than those for, and usually include arguments about how uniforms dampen freedom
of expression and inhibit individuality. Some complain that, at schools with a uniform policy, teachers are burdened with
being "fashion police." There are also legal issues: Opponents contend that dress codes violate the constitutional right
of freedom of expression (though court decisions have generally upheld the constitutionality of dress codes). Others
argue that the push for uniforms is a superficial response to serious problems and distracts from more pressing
educational needs, such as lack of adequate school funding, dilapidated facilities, and drug use.
There are significant legal implications between dress codes and uniforms that involve students' rights and freedom of
expression. A dress code usually stipulates what cannot be worn (proscription), while a uniform policy stipulates what
must be worn (prescription). In the United States, the courts have viewed the former more positively. However,
mandating the wearing of school uniforms faces more of a constitutional challenge (see DeMitchell, Fossey and Cobb;
Starr).
Some policy-makers in support of school uniforms report dramatic declines in suspensions, fighting, sub-stance abuse,
robbery, and assault on teachers in schools in which uniforms have been adopted. Despite these success stories,
research on the results of school uniforms is still inconclusive. Indeed, several studies have argued that there is no
empirical evidence that uniforms have a positive effect on student behavior or academic achievement. More
sophisticated studies are needed that factor in sociological variables such as type of school, composition of student
body, class size, and socioeconomic level of school districts.
School Uniforms in Japan

Major themes emerged from a study of the views of Japanese student on uniforms.
Unity, Integration and Solidarity
The most common terms that came up in discussions about student uniforms were "integration," "unit life" ( shûdan
seikatsu), and "solidarity." McVeigh relates that students commented on the feeling of unity, esprit des corps, school
identity, and, later corporate identity enhanced by uniforms.
Social Control and Order
Notions of social control and order were evident in how some students explained that uniforms make it easy to identify
one's social role and to which unit one is affiliated. Additionally, students learn to follow rules, a benefit for when they
enter society.
Suppression of Individuality
On the negative side, McVeigh notes that a number of students tapped into the debate about how a dress code infringes
upon their "human rights" and "freedom," denying them "expression of personality" and diminution of individuality.
Institutional Face
Many students made a strong association between uniforms and a school's "image." Being a student means wearing the
"institutional face" of a school off-campus. Others explained that uniforms made them proud of their school and that a
uniform is the "school's face."
Being Observed and Monitored
Some students reported that uniforms gave them a "consciousness of rules" and being under control (person as
mannequin). Uniforms allow teachers to keep an eye on students who can thus be more easily monitored in public.
Class Distinctions and Discrimination
Not a few students felt that uniforms were important not for only instilling a sense of solidarity, but also for hiding class
differences that might lead to jealousy. One student reported liking to wear uniforms in middle school, "But when I
entered high school, I noticed that low- and high-ranked high schools all had their uniforms. If one attended a lower-
ranked school, people had a biased view of you. So I think high schools shouldn't have uniforms" (McVeigh 2000).
Ethnonational Identity
Though it is very difficult to gauge to what degree uniforms construct ethnonational identity, it is worth at least noting the
linkages. McVeigh relates that one student explained how wearing a uniform made her "proud of being Japanese" while
another said "uniforms protect Japanese culture." Some students linked uniforms to supposedly Japanese "virtues" and
"tradition" such as harmony, unity, and politeness.
The "Consumerist Revolution"
The "who" and "why" of clothing guidelines changes the debate about uniformization. Militaries have used uniforms
since ancient times, and policing and security forces have been more recently uniformed, while those subject to extreme
control or sanction, such as criminals, paupers, and the mentally incapacitated, have been increasingly regulated during
the last two centuries. Such practices of bodily regimentation are more or less uncontroversial. However, debates and
discussions about the uniformization of youth are more contentious and will not soon disappear.
From a more scholarly perspective, student uniforms are significant because they implicate a number of concerns that
still require investigation. These include how to disentangle-or link up-socialization, power, personhood, and self-
presentation. Such topics deserve attention since they come together in what may be termed the "consumerist
revolution." This is the emergence since the nineteenth century of what seem to be two contradictory trends that
nevertheless mutually reinforce each other: (1) the desire or right to have choices over one's consumerist practices
(wearing or not wearing certain articles of clothing; person as self-governing agent); and (2) the imperative to signal
one's allegiance using clothing to the politico-economic machinery that produces these very choices (person as
mannequin). As an instance of material culture, school uniforms offer a visible, concrete manifestation of this
paradoxical historical development. Herein lies their significance.
See also Academic Dress.
Bibliography

Uniforms and Nonuniforms: Communication Through Clothing

Brunsma, David L., and Kerry A. Rockquemore. "Effects of Student Uniforms on Attendance, Behavior Problems, Sub-
stance Abuse, and Academic Achievement." Journal of Educational Research 92, no. 1 (September/October 1998): 53-
62.
Cunnington, Phillis, and Anne Buck. Children's Costume in England. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1965.
DeMitchell, Todd A., Richard Fossey, and Casey Cobb. "Dress Codes in the Public Schools: Principals, Policies, and
Precepts." Journal of Law and Education 29 (January 2000): 31-50.
Joseph, Nathan. Uniforms and Nonuniforms: Communication through Clothing. New York: Greenwood Press, 1986.
McVeigh, Brian J. Wearing Ideology: State, Schooling, and Self-Presentation in Japan. Oxford: Berg, 2000.
Nunn, Joan. Fashion in Costume, 1200-1980. London: The Herbert Press, 1984.
Starr, Jennifer. "School Violence and Its Effect on the Constitutionality of Public School Uniform Policies." Journal of Law
& Education 29, no. 1 (January 2000): 113-118.
Tanioka, Ichiro, and Daniel Glaser. "School Uniforms, Routine Activities, and the Social Control of Delinquency in
Japan." Youth and Society 23, no. 1 (January 1991): 50-75.
Wade, Kiley K., and Mary E. Stafford. "Public School Uniforms: Effect on Perceptions of Gang Presence, School Climate,
and Student Self-Perceptions." Education and Urban Sociology 35, no. 4 (August 2000): 399-420.
Internet Resource
"School Uniforms: Where They Are and Why They Work." U.S. Department of Education. Available from
http://www.ed.gov/updates/uniforms.html .
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Education-Socialization Benefits
Supporters of school uniforms commonly cite improved discipline, increased self-esteem, and more school pride.
Learning, rather than being distracted by "fashion wars," becomes the focus of schooling (though some schools have
adopted more casual styles for uniforms, which might include blue jeans). Peer pressure is reduced. Embarrassment
from not being fashionable, teasing, and bullying is mitigated. Moreover, any pedagogical practice that encourages
students to find their sense of self-worth in something other than outward appearance is highly welcomed by parents.
Administrative Benefits
Some teachers and administrators claim they have witnessed a decline in disciplinary problems while they have seen an
increase in solidarity and camaraderie in schools since everyone appears to be on the same "team." Additionally,
uniforms make it easier for school staff to identify who belongs on campus, thereby enhancing safety.
Social Engineering
School uniforms act as "social equalizers," hiding the differences between the "haves" and "have-nots." Moreover,
because parents do not have to contend with purchasing new clothes to keep up with constantly changing fads,
educational expenses are kept down.
Arguments Against School Uniforms
Reasons against uniforms are fewer than those for, and usually include arguments about how uniforms dampen freedom
of expression and inhibit individuality. Some complain that, at schools with a uniform policy, teachers are burdened with
being "fashion police." There are also legal issues: Opponents contend that dress codes violate the constitutional right
of freedom of expression (though court decisions have generally upheld the constitutionality of dress codes). Others
argue that the push for uniforms is a superficial response to serious problems and distracts from more pressing
educational needs, such as lack of adequate school funding, dilapidated facilities, and drug use.
There are significant legal implications between dress codes and uniforms that involve students' rights and freedom of
expression. A dress code usually stipulates what cannot be worn (proscription), while a uniform policy stipulates what
must be worn (prescription). In the United States, the courts have viewed the former more positively. However,
mandating the wearing of school uniforms faces more of a constitutional challenge (see DeMitchell, Fossey and Cobb;
Starr).
Some policy-makers in support of school uniforms report dramatic declines in suspensions, fighting, sub-stance abuse,
robbery, and assault on teachers in schools in which uniforms have been adopted. Despite these success stories,
research on the results of school uniforms is still inconclusive. Indeed, several studies have argued that there is no
empirical evidence that uniforms have a positive effect on student behavior or academic achievement. More
sophisticated studies are needed that factor in sociological variables such as type of school, composition of student
body, class size, and socioeconomic level of school districts.
School Uniforms in Japan
Major themes emerged from a study of the views of Japanese student on uniforms.
Unity, Integration and Solidarity
The most common terms that came up in discussions about student uniforms were "integration," "unit life" ( shûdan
seikatsu), and "solidarity." McVeigh relates that students commented on the feeling of unity, esprit des corps, school
identity, and, later corporate identity enhanced by uniforms.
Social Control and Order
Notions of social control and order were evident in how some students explained that uniforms make it easy to identify
one's social role and to which unit one is affiliated. Additionally, students learn to follow rules, a benefit for when they
enter society.
Suppression of Individuality
On the negative side, McVeigh notes that a number of students tapped into the debate about how a dress code infringes
upon their "human rights" and "freedom," denying them "expression of personality" and diminution of individuality.
Institutional Face
Many students made a strong association between uniforms and a school's "image." Being a student means wearing the
"institutional face" of a school off-campus. Others explained that uniforms made them proud of their school and that a
uniform is the "school's face."
Being Observed and Monitored
Some students reported that uniforms gave them a "consciousness of rules" and being under control (person as
mannequin). Uniforms allow teachers to keep an eye on students who can thus be more easily monitored in public.
Class Distinctions and Discrimination
Not a few students felt that uniforms were important not for only instilling a sense of solidarity, but also for hiding class
differences that might lead to jealousy. One student reported liking to wear uniforms in middle school, "But when I
entered high school, I noticed that low- and high-ranked high schools all had their uniforms. If one attended a lower-
ranked school, people had a biased view of you. So I think high schools shouldn't have uniforms" (McVeigh 2000).
Ethnonational Identity
Though it is very difficult to gauge to what degree uniforms construct ethnonational identity, it is worth at least noting the
linkages. McVeigh relates that one student explained how wearing a uniform made her "proud of being Japanese" while
another said "uniforms protect Japanese culture." Some students linked uniforms to supposedly Japanese "virtues" and
"tradition" such as harmony, unity, and politeness.
The "Consumerist Revolution"
The "who" and "why" of clothing guidelines changes the debate about uniformization. Militaries have used uniforms
since ancient times, and policing and security forces have been more recently uniformed, while those subject to extreme
control or sanction, such as criminals, paupers, and the mentally incapacitated, have been increasingly regulated during
the last two centuries. Such practices of bodily regimentation are more or less uncontroversial. However, debates and
discussions about the uniformization of youth are more contentious and will not soon disappear.
From a more scholarly perspective, student uniforms are significant because they implicate a number of concerns that
still require investigation. These include how to disentangle-or link up-socialization, power, personhood, and self-
presentation. Such topics deserve attention since they come together in what may be termed the "consumerist
revolution." This is the emergence since the nineteenth century of what seem to be two contradictory trends that
nevertheless mutually reinforce each other: (1) the desire or right to have choices over one's consumerist practices
(wearing or not wearing certain articles of clothing; person as self-governing agent); and (2) the imperative to signal
one's allegiance using clothing to the politico-economic machinery that produces these very choices (person as
mannequin). As an instance of material culture, school uniforms offer a visible, concrete manifestation of this
paradoxical historical development. Herein lies their significance.
See also Academic Dress.
Bibliography

Uniforms and Nonuniforms: Communication Through Clothing

Brunsma, David L., and Kerry A. Rockquemore. "Effects of Student Uniforms on Attendance, Behavior Problems, Sub-
stance Abuse, and Academic Achievement." Journal of Educational Research 92, no. 1 (September/October 1998): 53-
62.
Cunnington, Phillis, and Anne Buck. Children's Costume in England. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1965.
DeMitchell, Todd A., Richard Fossey, and Casey Cobb. "Dress Codes in the Public Schools: Principals, Policies, and
Precepts." Journal of Law and Education 29 (January 2000): 31-50.
Joseph, Nathan. Uniforms and Nonuniforms: Communication through Clothing. New York: Greenwood Press, 1986.
McVeigh, Brian J. Wearing Ideology: State, Schooling, and Self-Presentation in Japan. Oxford: Berg, 2000.
Nunn, Joan. Fashion in Costume, 1200-1980. London: The Herbert Press, 1984.
Starr, Jennifer. "School Violence and Its Effect on the Constitutionality of Public School Uniform Policies." Journal of Law
& Education 29, no. 1 (January 2000): 113-118.
Tanioka, Ichiro, and Daniel Glaser. "School Uniforms, Routine Activities, and the Social Control of Delinquency in
Japan." Youth and Society 23, no. 1 (January 1991): 50-75.
Wade, Kiley K., and Mary E. Stafford. "Public School Uniforms: Effect on Perceptions of Gang Presence, School Climate,
and Student Self-Perceptions." Education and Urban Sociology 35, no. 4 (August 2000): 399-420.
Internet Resource
"School Uniforms: Where They Are and Why They Work." U.S. Department of Education. Available from
http://www.ed.gov/updates/uniforms.html .
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