CLAY MINERALS AND

STRUCTURE OF SOILS
 Soil Structure

Study of structure is of fundamental importance.

Structure of a soil can be studied from two angles:

•Mineralogical composition of soil particles and

crystal formation in fine grained soils.

•Structural Composition of sedimented soils

 Structural Composition of Sedimented Soils
Structural composition of sedimented soils is of great importance in
understanding their physical properties.

Most important consideration of structure is the magnitude and

nature of the forces between the particles and those between soil and
water. Two types of forces are of importance

•Gravitational force.

•Inter particle force.

Due to gravity, certain amount of gravitational force acts on each soil

particle. This force is of importance in case of coarse grained soils
due to their relatively large size and is responsible for their single
grained structure when deposited. The inter particle forces that exist
due to surface charge of a particle are of importance in fine grained
soils only and these forces are responsible for honey combed
structure of these soils.
The types of structures that can result due to
sedimentation of soils are:

•Single grained structure or granular structure

•Honey combed structure

•Flocculated structure
 Single grained structure

•This type of structure exists only in granular soils. An idealization of this type
of structure is presented in Fig. (a) and (b).

A C A C
E
B D E
B D

Fig. (a) Fig. (b)

 Honey combed Structure

Consider the conditions of sedimentation in a lake,

as shown in fig.

D E

C G F

B
A
 Flocculent Structure

The particles of soil in suspension do not collide with one another due to
the some surface charge that they carry, as like poles repel each other. The
mutual repulsion of particles is removed by adding some chemical, the
particles will collide with one another and due to cohesion in soil, and
these particles will form a bigger particle called a floc. The process of
formation of flocs is called flocculation and these flocs are large enough to
stop the Brownian movement, by balancing the impact forces.
Consequently the particles will start settling too. However, the flocs are
small enough and only settle down in a honey-combed structure. The
grains group around voids larger than grain size of soil to form flocs and
these flocs group around voids larger than the flocs themselves, as shown
in fig.
 Clay Minerals

Ingredients necessary to give soil deposit cohesion
are clay minerals. The chemical elements of minerals
are composed of atoms. Atoms unite together to form
molecules and molecules with other molecules to
build up structure of substances. The forces binding
them together are:
 Primary valence Bonds
 Secondary valance bonds- two kinds
(i) Vanderwalls Forces
(ii) Hydrogen Bond
 Vanderwalls forces

+
+ -
-
- + - + - + - +
(a) (b) (c)
 Hydrogen Bond

H+ H+

105o 105o

H+ O-2 H+ O-2
Hydrogen bond
 Basic Unit-Silica Tetrahedra

Tetrahedral unit consists of a silicon atom Si+4 surrounded by four

oxygen atoms- no. of tetrahedral units combined together to form
silica sheets, commonly used in clay minerals.
 Basic Unit-Octahedral Sheet
Gibbsite sheet: Al3+
Al2(OH)6, 2/3 cationic spaces are filled
One OH is surrounded by 2 Al: Dioctahedral sheet
Brucite sheet: Mg2+
Mg3(OH)6, all cationic spaces are filled
One OH is surrounded by 3 Mg: Trioctahedral sheet
Octahedral unit Consists of six hydroxyls (OH- ) forming a
configuration of an octahedron and having one
aluminum/magnesium atom at the centre.
 Mineral -Kaolinite

Si4Al4O10(OH)8.

Platy shape

The bonding between layers are vander

Waals forces and hydrogen bonds
(strong bonding).

There is no interlayer swelling

Width: 0.1~ 4, Thickness: 0.05~2 

Mineral -Kaolinite

Platy shape
 Mineral-Halloysite
Si4Al4O10(OH)8·4H2O

A single layer of water between unit

layers.

The basal spacing is 10.1 Å for hydrated

halloysite and 7.2 Å for dehydrated
halloysite.

If the temperature is over 50 °C or the

relative humidity is lower than 50%, the
hydrated halloysite will lose its
interlayer water (Irfan, 1966). Note that
this process is irreversible and will
affect the results of soil classifications
(GSD and Atterberg limits) and
compaction tests.

There is no interlayer swelling.

Tubular shape while it is hydrated.

Mineral-Halloysite
 Mineral-Montmorillonite
Si8Al4O20(OH)4·nH2O (Theoretical
unsubstituted).
Film-like shape.
There is extensive isomorphous substitution
for silicon and aluminum by other cations,
which results in charge deficiencies of clay
particles.

n·H2O and cations exist between unit layers,

and the basal spacing is from 9.6 Å to  (after
swelling).

The interlayer bonding is by van der Waals

forces and by cations which balance charge
deficiencies (weak bonding).

There exists interlayer swelling, which is very

important to engineering practice (expansive
clay).

Width: 1 or 2 , Thickness: 10 Å~1/100 width

Mineral-Montmorillonite

Film-like shape
 Minerals-Illite (mica-like minerals)
Si8(Al,Mg, Fe)4~6O20(OH)4·(K,H2O)2.

Flaky shape.

The basic structure is very similar to the mica, so

it is sometimes referred to as hydrous mica. Illite
is the chief constituent in many shales.

Some of the Si4+ in the tetrahedral sheet are

replaced by the Al3+, and some of the Al3+ in the
octahedral sheet are substituted by the Mg2+ or
Fe3+. Those are the origins of charge deficiencies.

The charge deficiency is balanced by the

potassium ion between layers. Note that the
potassium atom can exactly fit into the hexagonal
hole in the tetrahedral sheet and form a strong
interlayer bonding.

The basal spacing is fixed at 10 Å in the presence

of polar liquids (no interlayer swelling).
Width: 0.1~ several m, Thickness: ~ 30 Å
Minerals-Illite

Flaky shape
 Specific Surface – Surface area per unit mass

Mineral Specific Surface Value

Montmorillonite 700-840 m2/gm

Illite
65-100 m2/gm

Kaolinite

10-20 m2/gm
 Isomorphous substitution

• The cations in the octahedral or tetrahedral sheet can be

replaced by different kinds of cations without change in crystal
structure (similar physical size of cations).

• For example,
• Al3+ in place of Si4+ (Tetrahedral sheet)
• Mg2+ instead of Al3+(Octahedral sheet)

• As aluminum atom has 3 positive charges whereas a silicon

atom has 4 positive charges, there would be a net unit charge
deficiency of positive charge per substitution

• Like wise Mg+2 atoms may replace in octahedral unit, causing

reduction in one positive charges.
 Charged” Clay Particles
• External or interlayer surfaces are
negatively charged in general.
- or +
• The edges can be positively or
negatively charged.
• Different cations balance charge
deficiencies.

Cation

- or +
Dry
condition
 Clay Mineral Structure

Dispersed fabric Flocculated fabric

Edge-to-face (EF):
positively charged edges
and negatively charged
surfaces
The net interparticle (more common)
force between surfaces
is repulsive
Edge-to-edge (EE)
Clay Mineral Structure