- The oldest sutures was found on the body of a twenty first dynasty mummy about
1100 BC. A physician, Sushruta details wound sutures and the materials used in a text
written in 500 B.C. The text describes many different types of needles – triangular,
round-bodied, curved, and straight needles. Different types of suture materials
included hemp, hair, flax, and bark fiber. He listed detailed account of how to perform
repair of anal fistula, tonsillectomy, amputation and rhinoplasty.
- Galen, A Greek physician, A.D. 150, treated and sutured the severed tendons of
gladiators
- The “catgut” suture came about in the 2nd century, and in the 10th century. The
manufacturing process for sutures involved harvest of sheep intestines, similar to the
strings for violins, guitars, and tennis rackets.
- A large breakthrough in suture materials came from the Muslim scholar, Avicenna
around the same time period. He realized that traditional sutures tended to break down
rapidly for the wound to close. He invented the first monofilament suture, using pig’s
bristles.
Primitive age
- East African tribes ligated blood vessels with tendons and closed wounds with acacia
thorns
-
Torn of Acacia Tree
- South American method of wound closure by using large black ants which bite the
wound edges together and the ant body is then twisted off, leaving the head in place
- Native Americans used cautery, the burning of the body to remove or close a part of it.
- These early surgical sutures were not sterilized, which presented major infection risk,
and also irritated the skin. This all changed in 1860, when Joseph Lister invented a
method to sterilize suture material. It was done with carbolic acid, then chromic acid,
and culminated in fully sterile catgut sutures in 1906 with iodine treatment.
Properties of Sutures
Tensile strength
Tensile strength is a measure of the time it takes for suturing material to lose 70% to
80% of its initial tensile strength.
Initial tensile strength is a measure of the amount of tension applied in a horizontal
plane necessary to break the suturing material
Suture that losing tensile strength within 60 days is called absorbable suture
Knots strength
A measure of the amount of force necessary to cause a knot to slip and is directly
related to the coefficient of friction of a given materials
Eg. nylon has low coefficient of friction, thus low knot strength
Capillary action
It is the ability of suture to absorb moisture & hold body fluid
Suture with higher capillary action carries higher risk of infection to the sutured wound
Memory ( Stiffness )
It is the tendency of a suture to retain its original shape or configuration after it is
removed from the package
Sutures with strong memory tend to return their former, packing form when they are
removed from their packing, during and after manipulation.
Sutures with strong memory is hard to manipulate.
Eg:
Nylon
Elasticity
Intrinsic tension generated in a material after stretching, which causes it to return to
its original length - allows the suture to expand during wound edema without causing
strangulation or cutting of tissue, and to recoil during wound retraction, thereby
maintaining wound edge apposition
Eg : Polybutester (Novafil) is “creep” resistant and can return to original form when
edema recedes.
Plasticity
Material's ability to stretch & retain a new shape
Eg: Polypropylene (Prolene) stretches to accommodate wound edema but it remains
loose when wound edema recedes
Pliability / compliance
Is the ease of handling, ability to secure and adjust knot tension (related to suture
material, filament type, diameter)
Tissue reactivity
Inflammatory response generated by the presence of suture material in the wound
Suture that cause little or no inflammation are highly inert e.g. stainless steel,
titanium suture
Natural suture (silk, catgut) based sutures cause the most tissue reaction
Classification of Sutures
1. Material Composition
- Natural (Made of natural fibres)
- Synthetic (Comprised of man made materials)
2. Physical Structure
- Monofilament
- Multifilament/Braided
3. Degradation Properties
- Absorbable
- Non-absorbable/Permanent
1. Material Composition
Natural Synthetic
Polyglactin (Vicryl),
Polyglycolic acid (Dexon/ Safil),
Polydioxine (PDS),
Polyglyconate (Maxon),
Catgut, silk, linen, cotton, steel/wire Polyamide (Nylon),
Polypropylene (Prolene),
Polyester (Mersilene/ Dacron)
Polybutester (Novafil)
Less tissue reaction
More tissue reaction
Absorbed by hydrolysis
Absorbed by proteolysis
2. Physical Structure
Monofilament Multifilament
Resists harboring organism (less infection) Harbour organisms between fibres (more
infection risk). High capillarity
Less tensile strength and flexibility More tensile strength and flexibility
3. Degradation Properties
Absorbable Non-absorbable
Undergo rapid degradation and loses tensile Degrade at slower rate and maintain tensile
strength within 60 days strength beyond 60 days
Catgut, Vicryl, Safil, Monosyn, PDS, Dexon, Silk, Nylon, Prolene, Linen, Mersilene/
Maxon Dacron, Novafil, steel/wire
Suture size
Size refers to the diameter of the suture strand.
The larger the suture diameter, the greater the tensile strength.
Measured in metric units (tenth of a millimeter) or by a numeric scale standardized by
United States Pharmacopeia (U.S.P) regulations.
Numerically, as the number of 0s in the suture size increases, the diameter of the strand
decreases.
U.S.P scale runs from 11-0 (smallest) to 7 (largest).
The accepted surgical practice is to use the smallest diameter suture that will
adequately hold the mending wounded tissue
This is to minimize trauma when the suture passes through the tissue to effect closure
and ensure minimal mass of foreign material is left in the body.
Absorbable Sutures
SUTURE TYPES RAW MATERIAL TENSILE ABSORPTION TISSUE
STRENGTH RATE REACTION
Catgut Plain Bovine/sheep Lost within 7- 21-42 days moderate
collagen 10 days proteolysis
Nonabsorbable Sutures
Suture Types Raw Material Tensile Absorption Tissue reaction
strength
Is necessary for the placement of sutures in tissue and carry the suture material through tissue
with minimal trauma.
Anatomy of a needle
Surgical needles are composed of :
a eye
a body/shaft, and
a point
The size of the needle may be measured in inches or in metric units. The following
measurement determine the size of a needle
Chord length
The straight line distance from the point of a curved needle to the swage
Needle length/size
The distance along the needle itself from the point to end
Radius
The distance from the center of the circle to the body of the needle if the curvature
of the needle were continued to make a full circle
Diameter
The thickness of the needle wire
The needle eye is the part where the suture is attached or threaded.
They are divided into 3 types :
1. Closed eye
2. French eye
3. Swaged
The closed eye is similar to a household sewing needle. It maybe round, oblong or square.
The french eye needles has slit from inside the eye to the end of the needle with ridges that
catch and hold the suture in place.
A swaged eye needle has its eye joins the needle with the suture together as continuous unit.
Suture is preattached. It allows faster suturing with minimal tissue trauma.
Time consuming (must be threaded manually) Minimal handling as thread are preattached
Minimal tissue trauma
Creates larger hole and trauma to the tissue
Not reusable
Reusable
Repeated use of needle causing it become New, sharp, undamaged needle with
preattached thread in every packet
blunt
Shape
Straight needle
Preferred in suturing easily accessible tissue
Used in places where direct finger-held manipulation can be easily performed
Half-curved needle
Also called ‘ski’ needle
Allows easy passage down laparoscopic trocars
Curved needle
Allows predictable needle turnout from tissue
Used most often
Requires less space for maneuvering than a straight needle
Requires manipulation by using a needle holder
Most commonly used for skin closure is the 3/8 curved needle
They are designed for used in confined space
Shape Application
GIT
Nasal cavity
Nerve
Oral cavity
Pharynx
Skin
Tendon
Vessels
Skin (rarely)
Laparoscopy
Eye
Microsurgery
Aponeurosis
Biliary tract
CVS
Dura
Eye
GIT
Muscle
Myocardium
Nerve
Perichondrium
Pleura
Skin
Tendon
Urogenital tract
Vessels
Biliary tract
CVS
Eye
Fascia
GIT
Muscle
Nasal cavity
Oral cavity
Pelvis
Peritoneum
Pharynx
Pleura
Respiratory tract
Skin
Tendon
Subcutaneous fat
Urogenital tract
Anal(hemorrhoidectomy)
Nasal cavity
Pelvis
Urogenital tract(primary application)
3 basic types
1. Cutting needles
a) Have at least 2 opposing cutting edges
b) They are sharpened to cut through tough, difficult-to-penetrate tissue
c) Ideal for skin sutures that must pass through dense, irregular and relatively thick
connective dermal tissue
2. Blunt
a) Has a taper body with rounded, blunt point that will not cut through tissue
b) It pushes tissue aside as it moves through it
c) It is used in suturing friable tissues & organs that are soft & spongy e.g. liver, spleen,
kidney
d) Also used in surgery that is prone to space and visibility limitation eg in obstetric and
gynecology procedures
e) Its also used on general closure when doing procedures on high-risk patients. Eg RVD
positive patients
3. Taper/round
a) Taper point
b) Taper cut
i. Combine feature of reverse cutting edge tip and taper point needle
ii. It has 3 cutting edges extend approximately 1/32’’ back from the point and bend
into a round taper body
iii. 3 edges are sharpened to provide uniform cutting action
iv. Used in penetrate dense, tough tissue
v. The taper body portion provides smooth passage through tissue and eliminates
the danger of cutting into surrounding tissue
vi. For CVS surgery on sclerotic or calcified tissue; for suturing dense, fibrous
connective tissue--especially in fascia, periosteum, and tendon
Types
Cutting and Dissecting
Grasping and Holding
Clamps
Retraction and Exposure
Approximation and Closure
Evacuation Instruments
Specialized Instruments
Microsurgery Instruments
Blade
Blade 20/23 : longer incision, debride wound
Blade 10 : small incisions in skin & muscle
Blade 11 : used in vascular cases, to puncture aorta, to cut blood vessels
Blade 12 : ENT, tonsillectomy,suture cutter
Blade 15 used in plastic and paediatrics cases (perform biopsy, small incision, any incision
on face)
For short or fine incision, scalpel is held like a pencil & the cutting is made mostly with
the tip
strongest grip
used when need strong pressure to incise the tissue
cutting pressure applied by palm and fingers
entire arm moves to make the incision
Knife kept in horizontal position & held between thumb & middle finger while index
finger at base of blade to control the pressure.
For cutting skin in long & straight incision
Mayo Scissors
Heavy operating scissors
Straight and curved
Cutting through thick fascia and tough structures
Metzenbaum
Straight or curved
For dissection of soft delicate tissue
Iris Scissors
Small, extremely sharp and fine tip
Dissection of delicate tissue
Originally designed for ophthalmic surgery
Straight and curved
Joseph Scissors
Very sharp tip and edges
Minimal force needed to cut into tissue
Non-crushing:
Magill Forceps
Angled forceps used to guide a tracheal tube into the larynx or a nasogastric tube into
the esophagus under direct vision. They are also used to remove foreign bodies.
Lahey Forceps
Lahey Traction Forceps are perforating, finger ring forceps used to grasp fibrous tissue
The 3x3 sharp teeth provide a firm hold on the tissue and the ratcheted locking mechanism
ensures the hold is not lost.
Often used to grasp breast tissue in mastectomy procedures or tissue and glands in thyroid
surgeries.
Babcock
Allis
Non-tooth:
Mc Indoe Forceps
Adson Plain Forceps
Debakey
Atraumatic tissue forceps used in vascular procedures to avoid tissue damage during
manipulation
With teeth
Adson Tooth Forceps
Holding a forcep
Clamps
1. Spencer Wells
2. Mosquito
Haemostatic Clamps with tooth (Traumatic)
1. Kocher Haemostatic Forceps
V. Deaver Retractor
II. Weitlaner
Held by placing the thumb and the fourth finger into the loop and by placing the index finger
on the fulcrum of the needle holder to provide stability.
Evacuation Instruments
Suction instruments
1) Yankauer
2) Poole
3) Baron
4) Frazier-Ferguson
Special Instruments
1. Currette
2. Periosteal Elevator
Freer
Mitchell trimmer
7. Zimmer Dermatome
Used for expansion of split-thickness skin graft and to facilitates fluid drainage from wound
bed.
9. Weck Knife
a) Humby
b) Watson
c) Braithwaite
d) Goulian
e) Silver's
Goulin
1. Jeweler’s Forceps
2. Vessel Dilator
4. Vessel Clamps
5. Microscissors
Torniquets
A device for compression of an artery or vein; uses include stopping of the excessive
bleeding of a haemorrhage, maintenance of a nearly bloodless operative field
-- Dorland’s Medical Dictionary
History
The earliest known usage of tourniquet is dated back to 199 BC. It was used by the Roman
to control bleeding especially during amputation.
In 1718, French surgeon Jean Louis developed a screw device for occluding blood flow in
surgical sites. He named it after the French verb tourner (to turn), “tourniquet” as it is
commonly known today.
Joseph Lister is credited for being the first person to use tourniquet device to create
bloodless surgical field in 1864.
In 1873, Friedrich von Esmarch developed a rubber bandage that would both control
bleeding and exsanguinate. Named after him as Esmarch tourniquet for surgical
hemostasis.
In 1904, Harvey Cushing created pneumatic tourniquet.
Electronic tourniquet systems invented by James Mc Ewen in 1984
Types of tourniquet
Non-pneumatic Tourniquets
Pneumatic Tourniquets
Components:
An inflatable cuff wrapped around a limb
compressed gas source
Pressure gauge to maintain the desired cuff pressure
Pressure regulator
Connection tubing
Function of Tourniquet
1. Compression of arterial blood flow to reduce blood loss and create a relatively
bloodless surgical field in the extremities
2. Prevent systemic toxicity of drugs given in high dose into isolated limb e.g during
Bier’s block
3. Isolated limb perfusion with cytotoxic drugs e.g treatment of localized cancer e.g
melanoma, soft tissue sarcoma
Potential Complication
1. Nerve injury
- Range from neuropraxia to axonal disruption
- Cause - mechanical stress on the nerves under the cuff or at its edges and anoxia or
ischemia of nerves under or distal to the cuff
- Prevention: proper usage of cuff and limb protection; use only minimal effective
pressure; never use longer than recommended period
2. Post-tourniquet syndrome
- Pronounced, prolonged postoperative swelling of extremity
- Edema, stiffness, pallor, weakness without paralysis, and subjective numbness
without objective anesthesia
- Cause – prolonged ischaemia; post-ischaemia reactive hyperemia to restore normal
acid-base balance in tissue
3. Intraoperative bleeding
- Cause – under-pressurized cuff; insufficient exsanguination; too slow inflation &
deflation; loose cuff fit, calcified vessels
- Prevention – proper cuff selection; sufficient pressure and exsanguinations
4. Compartment syndrome
- Due to tourniquet ischaemia time. Prolonged tourniquet time lead to fall in tissue pH,
increase capillary permeability, and prolongation of clotting time
- The combination of external compression and an increase in compartment contents
due to either trauma or surgery, leads to compartment syndrome
- Prevention – limit tourniquet time to minimized.
5. Pressure sores, skin blisters, chemical burns
- Skin breakdown, friction or soft tissue folding under cuff; inadequate padding, faulty
application; antimicrobial prep solution seeping under cuff
- Prevention – apply cuff away from joint/ bony prominence with sufficient padding;
adhesive tape to prevent seepage; not to use rotation to adjust already inflated cuff
6. Digital necrosis
- gangrenous destruction of a finger or toe as a result of prolonged ischemia/anoxia
- patients at risk: impaired circulation, small limbs, elderly
7. Toxic reactions
- During Intravenous Regional Anesthesia; reaction to LA
- Cause – accidental deflation during administration; too early deflation (need to give
15-20 minutes for maximal tissue binding)
- Prevention – ensure tourniquet functioning well; use dual bladder cuff; avoid in LA
allergy; intermittent deflation and re-inflation to avoid large influx into systemic
circulation
8. DVT , leading to Pulmonary embolism or venous embolization
9. Tourniquet pain – hypertension, dull, aching pain throughout limb during tourniquet
use despite adequate analgesia;
10. Thermal damage to tissue
11. Hyperthermia
12. Rhabdomyolysis
13. Metabolic changes - increased PaCO2, lactic acid, and potassium, and decreased levels
of PaO2 and pH
- Factors
o Blood pressure - SBP
o Cuff design, fit and snugness of application
o Limb circumference
o Tissue status
o Vascular status – atherosclerotic
Pre-application precautions
- the pressure source, cuff, regulator, tubing, connectors need to be checked before use and
as wide a cuff as possible should be used.
- wider cuffs provide better transmission of tissue compression and lower cuff pressures are
required to compress the artery and hence minimize potential pressure related complication
- the cuff should not directly overlie bony prominence like head of fibula/malleoli as there is
risk of direct nerve compression
-recommended that the edge of tourniquet should be at least 2cm proximal to the malleoli in
case of calf cuffs
- the length of cuff should be individualized, according to the size and circumference of the
patients limb, it should be the minimum to assure overlap around the limb sufficient to fully
engage the fasteners.
- recommended the shape should allow a snug fit at both proximal and distal edge
- the width should be the widest possible but should not encroach upon the surgical site
-the cuff should overlap at least 3 inches, but not more than 6 inches as it may cause
generation of high pressure
-thigh tourniquet shouldnt be inflated with the knee in flexed position followed by leg
straightening as this fixates the sciatic nerve to the femur and cause extreme traction on the
nerve
- safe duration and pressure for tourniquet use remain a controversy. No strict guidelines have
been laid down.
- a safe time limit of 1-3 hours has been described. Horlocker et al 2006 have found a strong
correlation of nerve injury with prolonged total tourniquet time with an approximate 3 fold
increase rish of neurological complication for each 30min increase in tourniquet inflation. Use
of tourniquet for > 2h and pressure of >350mmhg in lower extremity and >250mmhg in upper
extremity increase the risk of compression neuropraxia.
- if >2h is required, the tourniquet should be deflated for 5min for every 30min of inflation
time.
Contraindications
- Open fractures
- Previous vascular surgery on the involved limb
- Severe crushing injuries
- Severe hypertension
- Skin grafts
- Peripheral arterial disease
- Diabetes mellitus
- Calcified femoro-popliteal system
- Compartment syndrome
- Malignant tumour
Drains
It is a mechanical conduit that allows fluid or gas to flow from a body space/operative site to
the exterior
Purpose of drainage
1. Postoperative drainage
- Drainage of infected foci (abscess cavity, infected cyst)
- Collapse dead space after extensive dissection & elevation of skin flaps (mastectomy
and AC) prevent seroma
- Detect anastomotic leak or bleeding (bowel, vessel anastomosis)
- Assist re-expansion of lung after pulmonary lobectomy
- Aid healing e.g. bladder/ urethral surgery, oesophageal surgery
2. Therapeutic drainage
- Drainage in haemo/pyo/pneumothorax
- Intestinal obstruction/ ileus
- Percutaneous drainage of deep abscesses
- Acute urinary retention
3. Prophylactic drainage
- NG tube to anticipate post-op ileus
Classification of drains
1) Open drains
- Drainage into dressings or wound drainage bag
- Do not employ suction
a) Packs and Wicks
i. Sterile cotton gauze inserted/packed into the cavity or shallow wound
ii. Fluid tracks along material
iii. Require regular change
iv. May interfere with granulation tissue formation
b) Corrugated Drain
i. Can be used for deep and superficial drainage
ii. Usually sutured in position
iii. Induces little tissue reaction
c) Yeates drain
i. Consists of series of 2mm diameter capillary tubes
ii. Similar in nature with corrugated drain
d) Penrose Drain
i. Consists of a thin-walled rubber tube
ii. Soft compared to corrugated or Yeates drain
iii. Also drains passively to surrounding absorptive dressing material
2) Closed Drain
- tube draining into bottle/bag; reduced risk of infection
a) Active drain : drained by suction (close suction drain)
- Uses negative pressure
-Ideal to obliterate potential dead space
Eg:
-Negative Pressure Wound Therapy
-Blake drain
- Bellovac Drain
Active drain
Advantage Disadvantage
High negative pressure may injure tissue
Efficient fluid removal, keep wound dry
Drain clogged by tissue
Can be placed anywhere
Minimizes ascending infection
Help appose skin to wound bed, accelerate
wound healing
Allows evaluation of volume and nature of
fluid drained
b) Passive drain
-Dependent on gravity (Siphon effect) and pressure differences
Eg:
a) T- tube
c) Chest Drain
Advantage Disadvantage
Ideal Drain
1. Efficient in drainage fluid or air
2. Easy to insert and remove
3. Easy to monitor output
4. Non-irritant
5. Does not damage surrounding tissue
6. Does not increase risk of infection
Principles
-Not to be too rigid or too soft
-Non irritant material
-Wide bore enough to function
-Left for sufficient time so that when drain is removed there is minimal drainage
-When used prophylactic-ally, drain should be left in situ as long as the risk factors still exists
-Drain should exit from a separate wound, closed system and short duration to minimize
infection
Drain Materials
Rubber drains:
-Soft
-Triggers inflammatory reaction
PVC drains:
- Inert and less reactive
- Firm and tends to harden
Silicon drains:
- lease reactive
- most pliable
- no tendency to harden on prolonged use
Drain Insertion
-Should be directed to the sites of collection
-Tip should be free in the cavity to be drained
-Tip should not be in contact with vital structures
-Brought out through different stab incision which should permit free drainage
-Brought out by shortest route
-Route should not be tortuous
-Anchored to skin
Managing Drains
-Daily volumes and types of fluid drained
-Re-secure drain if loose or displaced
-Adequate suction
-Is it blocked, kinked or leaking
-Need for removal
Complications
During drain placement
- Injury to nearby structures
- Bleeding
Drain in-situ
- Leakage and surrounding skin excoration
- Infection
- Damage to anastomosis
- Retraction into the wound
- Pain
- Risk of being dislodged
- Decreased mobility
After Drain Removal
- Re-accumulation of collection
- Herniation at drain site
- Scar
Surgical Diathermy
Electrosurgery
Eletrocautery
Alternating current
Direct current
Current does not enter body; only heated wire Current enters body; patient is included in the
circuit
comes in contact with tissue
Principles of electrosurgery in OT
1. Bipolar
- Both active electrode and return electrode functions are performed at the site of surgery
- Uses 2-tined bipolar forceps to perform the active and return electrode function
- Only the tissue grasped is included in the electrical circuit
- Patient return electrode is not needed
- Advantage: lower current, current does not pass through the rest of the body, does not
interfere with cardiac pacemaker
- disadvantage: cannot be used for cutting & will not coagulate tissue held by surgical
forceps
Patient plate:
Should be in contact at least 70 cm2, so that current density at plate so low as to
cause minimal heating (misapplied --> high density current --> diathermy burn)
Dry surface, surface free of oil, lotion
avoid kinking
Shaved skin (thigh or back)
Avoid bony prominence & scar tissue (poor blood supply ⇒ poor heat distribution)
Avoid areas where there are metal prostheses (e.g., total hip replacement)
Available in infant and adult sizes
Infant size: follow manufacturer’s recommendation for appropriate weight range
Never cut a grounding pad to fit a patient, always use appropriate size pad
Place it as close to the surgical site as possible
Entire surface of the pad should be in uniform contact with pad site
Dangerous Return Electrode Contact with Current Concentration
- If the surface area contact between the patient and the return electrode is reduced, or the
impedance of that contact is increased, the current flow become concentrated at the reduced
contact area causing the temperature at the return electrode increased, results in burn on the
patient
Diathermy Modes
Cutting
Continuous waveform
Produces High temperatures rapidly, vaporize tissue fluid causing cells to explode
forming a gap in the tissues
The edges bleed freely & so the coagulation effect is poor
Coagulation
Pulsed waveform
Causes generator to modify the waveform so that the duty cycle(on time) is reduced.
The intermittent delivery produce less heat causing coagulum instead of vaporization-
-> cell desiccation & distort vessel wall --> sealing the vessel
3 types
- Dessicate: low voltage contact coagulation suitable in laparoscopic & delicate tissue
work
- Fulgurate: non-contact coagulation in most applications
- Spray: for coagulating large tissue areas with superficial depth of necrosis
Blend
- a blended current is not a mixture of both cutting and coagulation current but rather a
modification of the duty cycle. Divided into blend 1, 2, 3.
- from blend 1 to blend 3 the duty cycle is progressively reduced.
- a lower duty cycle produces less heat
- blend 1 causes tissue vaporization(cutting) with minimal hemostasis
- blend 3 is less effective in cutting but has maximum hemostasis
Monopolar tips
Complication
1. Burns
- Accidental burn at patient plate or other body parts
- More common in monopolar
- Cause: long current path offers opportunities of alternative unwanted passage of
current to earth
2. Fire & explosion
- Alcohol based skin preparation may pool under surgical towels, ignited by sparks from
active electrode
- May ignite intraluminal gas inside distended bowel
- Precaution: avoid alcohol based skin preparation
3. Smoke
- Surgical smoke: consists of 95% steam and 5% cellular debris, containing variety of
toxic mutagenic chemicals including hydrogen cyanide and benzene. Viruses can also
be transmitted in the smoke
- Viable bacteria including mycobacterium tuberculosis
- Precaution:
o Smoke evacuation system
o Surgical filtration mask
4. Cardiac pacemaker
- Interfere with function, cause arrhythmia and cardiac damage
- Precaution:
o Avoid using diathermy
o Bipolar preferred
o If use monopolar, plate & active electrode as far from heart or pacemaker
o Cutting diathermy avoided, coagulation diathermy only in short bursts
o Heartbeat monitored throughout surgery with defibrillators on standby
o Standby external pacing device in case of internal pacemaker malfunction
5. Unintentionally high current density in pedicles
- Monopolar diathermy
- High current density crosses pedicles causing disastrous heating effect, tissue
destruction and necrosis
- Precaution:
o Monopolar should not be used on organs attached by small pedicles e.g. testis
Suturing technique & knots
-The needle should only be grasped with needle-holders in 2/3 of the needle length.
- Incorrect placement of the needle in the needle holder may result in a bent needle, injury to
the tissue or undesirable angle of entry into the tissue
- The needle holder should not be tightened excessively as this may cause damage to both
needle and needle holder
Placement of suture
- Ideal skin suture should form a rectangle, penetrating the epidermis and dermis
perpendicular to the skin surface, then turning at a right angle to traverse the depth
of the wound parallel to the skin surface, and then turning again to emerge from the
opposite skin edge perpendicular to the skin surface
- Requires coordinated use of forceps and needle holder
- Far skin edge is elevated with the forceps in the left hand, while the right hand is
pronated to prepare the needle in taking the first “bite”
- Tip of the needle should penetrate the skin perpendicularly about 5-10 mm from the
wound edge, and the needle should be rotated all the way through the epidermis and
dermis by supinating the right hand to rotate the needle through its arc
- The key is to maintain the position of the skin edge while releasing the needle from
the needle holder
- Needle is released from the needle holder, the right hand fully pronated before
regrasping the needle
- “Bite” can then be completed by supinating the right hand in order to complete the
rotation of the needle through the skin
- The forceps then elevate the near skin edge in preparation for the second “bite”
- Needle is passed upward through the near skin edge by supinating the right wrist in
order to keep the body of the needle perpendicular to the tissue it is passing through
at all times
- Good suturing technique should eliminate dead space in subcutaneous tissues, minimize
tension that causes wound separation. Approximated wound edges should be everted.
Cutaneous sutures
1. Simple interrupted
2. Continuous
3. Mattress
-Vertical
-Horizontal
4. Locking continuous
5. Figure of 8
Simple interrupted sutures
- Greater tensile strength
- Less potential for wound oedema and impaired cutaneous circulation
- Tend to cause wound inversion if they are not placed correctly which can prevented
by placing the suture in the flask-like configuration
Pulley sutures
- Facilitates greater stretching of wound edges
- Useful when beginning closure of wound under significant tension
- Used in wounds under high tension, provides strength and wound eversion
- May be used as temporary stay suture to approximate wound edges
- May be placed prior to a proposed excision as a skin expansion technique to reduce
tension
- Disadvantage: suture marks, high risk of tissue strangulation and wound edge necrosis
if too tight
Half-buried horizontal mattress/ 3-point corner/ army-navy/tip sutures
- Position the corners and tips of flaps and to perform M-plasties and V-Y closures
- Provides increased blood flow to flap tips, lowering risk of necrosis and improving
aesthetic outcomes
Procedure : The needle enters the skin from the healthy skin and emerges subdermally. The
suture is passed intradermally in the flap edge or corner and exits from the dermis. It is
reinserted in the dermis of the healthy skin to be brought out for knotting. Thus the suture
lies between subdermal and subepidermal plexus, without compromise of either. The fascial
plexuses lie undisturbed under the stitch and are uncompromised.
-An important use is in insetting of limberg and random flaps, where flap tip necrosis is to be
avoided.
Figure of 8
Hemostatic suture
Dermal-subdermal sutures
- Maximizes wound eversion
- Placed by inserting the needle parallel to the epidermis at the junction of the dermis
and the subcutis
- Needle curves upward and exits in the papillary dermis, again parallel to the
epidermis
- Needle inserted parallel to the epidermis in the papillary dermis on the opposing edge
of the wound, curves down through the reticular dermis, and exits at the base of the
wound at the interface between the dermis and the subcutis and parallel to the
epidermis
Dermal suture
- Reduces tension on the subsequent cutaneous suture
- Ensure good apposition and eversion of skin edges on subsequent cutaneous suture
- Should enter deep reticular dermis no incised edge of the wound
- Pass superficially into papillary dermis
- For skin eversion, useful in areas with high tendency for inversion e.g. neck
- For reducing spread of facial scar
- Advantage: smoother, flatter scar
- Disadvantage: tissue strangulation if too tight
Running subcuticular sutures
Procedure: It is initiated by placing a needle through one wound edge. The opposite edge is
everted and the needle is placed horizontally through the upper dermis. This is repeated on
alternating sides of the wound
- Eliminates crosshatching
- Does not provide significant wound strength
- Buried form of running horizontal mattress sutures
- useful to enhance the cosmetic result and is useful for closing wounds with equal
tissue thickness and in which virtually no tension exists
Suture removal
- Average wound usually achieves approximately 8% of its expected tensile strength 1-2
weeks after surgery
- Prompt removal reduces risks of suture marks, infection, tissue reaction
- Should not be removed too soon to prevent dehiscence and spread of scar
- Face: 5-7 days
- Neck: 7 days
- Scalp: 10 days
- Trunk & upper extremities: 10-14 days
- Lower extremities: 14-21 days
Procedure
- The interrupted suture is grasped with fine forceps at the knot and is cut on the side
opposite the knot at the suture entry point into the skin.
- Next, the suture is gently pulled out by pulling toward the wound edge.
- A running suture is removed by cutting its every other loop and grasping the
intervening loop with forceps and pulling it out.
- A running sub-cuticular suture is removed by cutting the knot at one end and pulling
the suture out slowly from the other end to minimize the risk of suture breakage in the
wound.
Knot tying
Simple knot:
1. incomplete basic unit
2. Square knot: completed knot
3. Surgeon's or Friction knot: completed tension knot
- Tied suture has 3 components:
o Loop – maintains approximation of divided wound edges
o Throw - wrapping or weaving of two strands
o “Ears” – insurance that the loop will not be untied because of knot slippage
General Principles of Knot Tying
1. The completed knot must be firm, and so tied that slipping is virtually impossible. The
simplest knot for the material is the most desirable.
2. The knot must be as small as possible to prevent an excessive amount of tissue
reaction when absorbable sutures are used, or to minimize foreign body reaction to
nonabsorbable sutures. Ends should be cut as short as possible.
3. In tying any knot, friction between strands ("sawing") must be avoided as this can
weaken the integrity of the suture.
4. Care should be taken to avoid damage to the suture material when handling. Avoid
the crushing or crimping application of surgical instruments, such as needleholders and
forceps, to the strand except when grasping the free end of the suture during an
instrument tie.
5. Excessive tension applied will cause breaking of the suture and may cut tissue.
Practice in avoiding excessive tension leads to successful use of finer gauge materials.
6. Sutures used for approximation should not be tied too tightly, because this may
contribute to tissue strangulation.
7. After the first loop is tied, it is necessary to maintain traction on one end of the strand
to avoid loosening of the throw if being tied under any tension.
8. Final tension on final throw should be as nearly horizontal as possible. 9
9. Do not hesitate to change stance or position in relation to the patient in order to place
a knot securely and flat.
10. Extra ties do not add to the strength of a properly tied knot. They only contribute to
its bulk. With some synthetic materials, knot security requires the standard
surgical technique of flat and square ties with additional throws if indicated by
surgical circumstance and the experience of the surgeon.
Granny knot