GSI SLV Duisburg - International Welding Engineer-2015

Gesellschaft für Schweißtechnik
International mbH
Welding processes and equipment
Materials and their behaviour during welding
Construction and design
Fabrication, applications engineering
The Welding Engineer‘s Current Knowledge Edition 2015

International Welding Engineer (IWE)
Welding processes and equipment
The Document contains standards reproduced by permission of DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. The definitive version for the imple-
mentation of this standard is the edition bearing the most recent date of issue, obtainable from Beuth Verlag GmbH, Burggrafenstrasse 6,
D-10787 Berlin.
© 2015 SLV Duisburg – Branch of GSI mbH

Copyright by SLV Duisburg. All rights reserved
Topic overview SFI / IWE
Module 1: Welding Processes and Equipment
Chapter Topic
1.01 General introduction to welding technology
1.02 Oxy-acetylene welding and related processes
1.03 Electrical engineering, an overview
1.04 The arc
1.05 Power supplies for arc welding
1.06 Indroduction to gas shielded welding
1.07 TIG welding
1.08-1 MIG/MAG welding

1.08-2 Flux cored wire welding
1.09 Manual metal-arc welding
1.10 Submerged arc welding
1.11 Resistance welding
1.12-1 Other welding processes

(Laser, electron-beam and plasma welding)
1-12-2 Other special welding processes II
1.13 Cutting, Drilling and other joint preparation processes
1.14 Coating process
1.15 Fully mechanised processes and robotic welding
Welding processes and

© 2015 GSI - Gesellschaft für Schweißtechnik International mbH
equipment
Reprinting and unauthorised disclosure are prohibited and will be prosecuted in accordance with the law
Topic overview SFI / IWE
Chapter Topic
1.16 Brazing and (soft) soldering
1.17 Joining processes of plastices
1.18 Joining processes für ceramic and composites

equipment
General introduction to SFI / IWE 1.01
Welding Technology Page 1
Contents
1 General introduction into the welding technology ....................................................................... 3

1.1 What is welding technology? .......................................................................................... 3
1.2 History of Welding Technology ....................................................................................... 3
1.3 Application areas of Welding Technology ....................................................................... 5
1.4 Definitions of metal welding processes acc. to DIN EN 14610 ....................................... 7
1.4.1 Metal Welding ...................................................................................................... 7
1.4.2 Welding with pressure.......................................................................................... 8
1.4.3 Fusion welding ................................................................................................... 10
1.5 Brazing ......................................................................................................................... 12
1.5.1 Soldering............................................................................................................ 12
1.5.2 Brazing............................................................................................................... 12
1.6 Bonding ........................................................................................................................ 17
2 Basic definitions of welding processes ...................................................................................... 18
2.1 Classification according to the type of energy carrier ................................................... 18
2.2 Classification according to the aim of welding .............................................................. 19
2.2.1 Joint Welding ..................................................................................................... 19
2.2.2 Surface Welding ................................................................................................ 20
2.3 Classification according to the physical sequencing of welding. ................................... 20
2.3.1 Fusion Welding .................................................................................................. 21
2.3.2 Welding with pressure........................................................................................ 21
2.4 Classification according to the level of mechanisation .................................................. 22
3 Vocabulary definitions .................................................................................................................. 23
4 Designation, reference- and classification numbers .................................................................. 25
5 Overview of metal welding processes ......................................................................................... 27
6 Selection of welding processes ................................................................................................... 29
7 Health and Safety .......................................................................................................................... 33
8 Knowledge Questions .................................................................................................................. 34
Welding processes
and equipment
Nachdruck und unbefugte Weitergabe sind unzulässig und werden gesetzlich verfolgt
Welcome in the world of welding technology and to the course of
International Welding Engineer / Technologist (DVS / EWF / IIW ).

Welding is a type of joining that cannot be taken out from today’s world. It is being found in almost every
aspect of our life and its aim is to join separate elements of a construction or product which simply can-
not be manufactured by just one piece.
For the users of welded products welding technology is basically of less importance. They assume that
the product will safely comply with the defined functions. This way of thinking goes from dental braces to
bicycles, balcony fences to porch roofs, as well as from automobiles, ships, air planes up to bridges
houses and skyscrapers.
Welding technology comes across to us in many ways without directly being noticed.
Figure 1: Welding Technology “wherever you look“ (Bild: DVS - Deutscher Verband für Schweißen und verwandte
Verfahren e. V.)
Welding processes
and equipment
1 General introduction into the welding technology

1.1 What is welding technology?
Description: Welding technology

Welding Technology is the sum of knowledge and experience regarding the application of weld technical
processes which has been acquired and compiled by experts during many years.
Besides welding, brazing (chapter 1.16), bonding (chapter 1.18), mechanical joining and cutting plays an
important role in industrial application.
1.2 History of Welding Technology
From the Sumerians to the Laser

In the beginning there was fire! For many years and this goes back some 6000 years ago, even for weld-
ing technology this was only applicable original energy source.
At that time connecting two metallic pieces has been accomplished by forge welding. Both parts were
heated by the fire and additionally connected by means of an external force.
Source: presentation „Forge Welding“ by Stefan Griwenka
Figure 2: Forge Welding
Welding processes
and equipment
An impression of the historical development of welding technology is given by the following, however
without being completeness, chronology:
● around 4000 b. Chr. Sumerians: welded Parts (Gold to Gold)

● around 2700 b. Chr. Brazing in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
● around 2700 b. Chr. Egypt: application of forge welding during the construction of a cupper wa-
ter pipe line and during the manufacturing of jewelry and decorations out of gold.
● around 700 b. Chr. Delhi: the Kutub pillar, a welded cast iron obelisk of 16m height.
● around 79 b. Chr. Pompeji: Forged welded pipe line

● 1782 - the physicist Christoph Lichtenberg from Göttingen rather accidentally welds two metals
parts (clock spring and knife-blade) by means of electricity being generated by friction.
● 1809 - the english physicist Humphry Davy uses the electric arc as a light source and detects a
deflection by the use of magnets.
● 1867 - Elihu Thomson discovers the electrical resistance welding of steel.
● 1881 - 1887 – Nikolai Nikolaijewitsch Bernados from Russia is recognised as the inventor of
the electrical arc. Together with Karol Stanislaw Olszewski he tries out the first (electric) manual
arc welding process.
● 1890 - the most widely spreaded and accepted technic of arc welding was developped by the
russian enigneer Nikolai Gawrilowitsch Slawjanow.
● 1895 - Hans Goldschmidt develops Thermit welding (Aluminothermical welding).
● 1948 - 1950 The so called S.I.G.M.A.-process (Shielded Inert Gas Metal Arc), today’s SMA-
welding, was applied in the USA for the first time. In 1950 the introduction in Germany took place.
● 1951 - Plasma welding, the most recent independent shielded arc welding process was devel-
opped. However, the definition of thermal plasma was already introduced by physician Irving
Langmuir since 1928.
● 1951 – Development of electrical slag welding.
● 1956 – Friction welding was developed in the UdSSR and the USA.
● 1957 – Ultrasonic welding was developed.
● 1957 – First electron beam equipment in industry.
● 1961 – Laser welding was developed.
● 1970-1980 – Pulsed variants of arc welding processes were developed.
● 1990 – New high performance variants of MAG welding were developed, for example T.I.M.E.- or
"Rapid Melt"-processes. The in the early 70s developed "High Deposition Welding" was the pre-
decessor of these technics.
● 1995 – Patent publication of Friction Stir Welding (FSW) by TWI (The Welding Institute UK)
● 2003 – Arc welding is also applied in dental technics.
● ab 2005 – Development of low-energy processes like EB-Non-Vac, Hybride processes, Arc braz-
ing, CMT, Cold-Arc…….
Welding processes
and equipment
1.3 Application areas of Welding Technology
The area’s in which welding technology is being applied is very diverse. The added value of the separate
branches of welding technology in Germany reaches 21.109 Euro per year. The number of employees is
around 360.000 people.
Figure 3: Added value of welding technology (DVS-survey of 2012)
In the area of automobile construction many variants of welding technology have been widespread and
the added value is the biggest due to the quantity of manufactured vehicles.
Even a telephone card which is nowadays part of common life, shows impressively the possibility of
welding technology
Welding Technology applications can be found in almost any industry branch.
● Steel Construction
● Pressure Vessel construction
● Automobile construction
● Railway vehicle construction
● Offshore
● Machine building
● Medicine technic
● etc.
Welding processes
and equipment
Cooling vessels of stainless steel Brown coal digger in surface mining Berline’s Reichs-
tagdome
Large Millimeter Telescope on top of the extinct volcano Sierra Negra in Puebla, Mexico
Cargo Lifter Halle Foundry ladles
Ship construction of Aluminium Viaduct of Millau

Figure 4: Areas of application of Welding Technology
Welding processes
and equipment
1.4 Definitions of metal welding processes acc. to DIN EN 14610
Metal Welding:
Operation which unifies metal(s) by means of heat or pressure, or both, in such a way that there is conti-
nuity in the nature of the metal(s) which has (have) been joined. A filler metal, the melting temperature of
which is of the same order as that of the parent metal(s), may or may not be used and the result of weld-
ing is the weld.
Briefly: welding is a way of joining resulting in a positive substance, not releasable joint.
DIN EN 14610: This document defines metal welding processes, classified according to their physical
characteristics and according to the relevant energy carrier.
However welding technology is not limited to the joining of metals; plastics and ceramics can also be
joined by welding (see chapter 1.17 and 1.18).
1.4.1 Metal Welding

Is a process which joins metal(s) using heat and/or pressure resulting in a continuous inner composition
of the joined metal(s).
Metal welding is divided into two main categories – Fusion welding und Pressure welding:
Metal Welding
Fusion Welding Pressure Welding
Common fusion Resistance fusion Resistance pressure Common pressure

welding welding welding welding
- Ultrasonic welding (41)

- Gas welding (3) - Diffusion welding (45)
- Manual metal arc welding (111) - Forge welding (43)
- Gas shielded metal arc welding (13) - Resistance spot welding (21) - Oxyfuel gas pressure
- Enclosed resistance welding
- TIG welding (141) - Resistance seam welding (22) welding (47)
- Elektroslag welding (72)
- Submerged arc welding (12) - Resistance butt welding (25) - Arc pressure welding
- Laser welding (52) - Flash welding (24) - Cold pressure welding (48)
…. etc. - Friction welding (42)
- …..etc.
especially for longitudinal pipe welds:
- RoTating transformer welding (RT)

- Resistance welding with sliding
contacts (RS)
- Inductive resistance pressure welding
(RI)
Figure 5: Overview of Metal Welding
Welding processes
and equipment
Note 1:
Filler materials which have, more or less, the same melting temperature as the base metal(s) to be
joined, can be applied. The result of welding is the weld seam.
Note 2:
This definition includes coating processing.
1.4.2 Welding with pressure

Welding with pressure is a process which uses sufficient external forces in order to generate a more or
less plastic deformation on both ends of the joining faces. Generally without using filler materials (see
figures 6 to 8)
Figure 6: Stud welding
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 7: Flash welding
Figure 8: HF resistance welding (Bonden)
Remark:
Usually- but not mandatory- the fusion areas of the parts are being heated in order to establish or ease
the joining process.
Welding processes
and equipment
1.4.3 Fusion welding

Fusion welding is welding without external force whereby the fusion area(s) has (have) to be partly sur-
face-fused. Usually – but not mandatory – molten filler material is being added (see figure 9 to 11)
Figure 9: MAG-welding
Figure 10: Laser welding
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 11: TIG-welding
Welding processes
and equipment
1.5 Brazing
Brazing is closely related to fusion welding and is characterised by a high flexibility of the materials to be
brazed and the possible mix of base materials.
In contradiction to welding where melting of the base materials (except some pressure welding process-
es) occurs, the base materials will remain in the solid phase during brazing. The process of joining is
completely based on physical diffusion processes.
Brazing is a joining process which uses a molten solder having a liquidus temperature which is lower
than the base material’s solidus temperature. The molten solder wets the surfaces of the base materi-
al(s) and is being sucked (or in case of being pre-placed: holding position) into the narrow existing gap
between the joining parts during or at the end of heating.
Besides brazing there is soldering: for further information see chapter 1.16
Note 1:
Usually these processes are being applied for metals but it can also be applied for non-metallic materi-
als. The solder material always has a different chemical analysis as the components to be joined.
Note 2:
If the processing occurs without capillary forces they are often designated as braze welding.
Brazing / Soldering
Brazing Soldering
Abbildung 12: Unterteilung des Lötens
1.5.1 Soldering
Soldering is a joining process using solders having a liquidus temperature of 450°C or below.
1.5.2 Brazing
Brazing is a joining process using solders having a liquidus temperature above 450°.
Welding processes
and equipment
Brazing and soldering can be classified into additional variants or application technics:
Brazing and soldering
Soldering
- Soldering with soldering iron (943)
Soldering via solids - Soldering with preheated blocks
- Roll soldering
- Dip soldering (955)
- Wave soldering (951)
Soldering via fluid - Drag soldering (944)
- Ultrasonic soldering (947)
Soldering via gas - Flame soldering (942)

- Hot gas soldering
Infrared soldering (941) - SMD-Technic
- Induction soldering in air (946)

Electr.current soldering - Resistance soldering (948)
Furnace soldering (953) - Electronical plates
Brazing
- Dip-bath brazing (923)

Brazing via fluid - Salt-bath brazing (924)
- Flux-bath brazing (925)
Flame brazing (912) - Manual brazing

- Flame-area soldering equipment
- Manual arc weld brazing

Arc weld brazing (972) - TIG brazing (974)
- Plasma arc weld brazing (975)
- Laser beam brazing (913)

Beam brazing - Electron beam brazing (914)
Electr. current - Induction brazing (916)

- Induction brazing with inert atmosphere
brazing - Inductive resistance brazing (918)
- Direct resistance brazing (918)
- Furnace brazing with flux (921)
- Furnace brazing with active shielding gas
- Furnace brazing with inert shielding gas
- Vacuum brazing (922)
Figure 13: Different types of brazing / soldering
Welding processes
and equipment
In the following some examples of brazing / soldering applications are shown.
Figure 14: Soldering joint of a cable connection
Figure 15: Induction-High temperature brazing in hydrogen atmosphere
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 16: Brazing / soldering joints in a heat exchanger
Figure 17: Brazing of galvanised parts
Remark:
Pre-brazed galvanised parts via arc weld brazing. The actual brazing is executed in the furnace.
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 18: Induction brazing / soldering
Figure 19: Aluminium-soldering
Welding processes
and equipment
1.6 Bonding
Bonding is the process of making a permanent joint between parts by using a synthetic material (adhe-
sive) being strengthened via physical-chemical hardening processing, resulting in a joining of the parts
by means of as well as surface adhesion and inter- / inner molecule forces (cohesion) of the adhesive.
Note: in contradiction to welding bonding is a non-thermal processing.
Corresponding to the education of International Welding Engineers IWE according the IIW Guidelines, a
similar education for becoming a European Adhesive Engineer is available according to DVS/EWF 3309.
Figure 20 to 21 show some examples of bonding applications.
Figure 20: construction related bonding of an automobile windscreen
Figure 21: skin-cut healthcare via adhesive bonding
Welding processes
and equipment
As the adhesion processing takes place by chemical processing, the adhesive choice is important and
the following must be taken into consideration:
● What is the maximum load being applied on the adhesive? Adhesives have different strain- and
tensile strengths.
● Which materials are being used? Special adhesives with specific chemical characteristics are
designed for specific materials.
● What is the highest environmental temperature? Some adhesives attain their maximum cure level
or highest strength only at higher temperatures.
● Are there any other influences like humidity, extreme solar irradiation or gaseous atmospheres?
Under these circumstances the adhesive could lose its bonding properties very fast.
Basically a surface to be bonded must be pre-treated before the actual bonding processing is being ap-
plied. This pre-treatment includes the following:
● Surface cleaning (eventually with solvents) in order to remove dust, grease or any other particles.
● Surface roughening via grinding or brushing in order to guarantee the adhesion of the bonding
agent.
● Eventually special treatments like flame treatment, etching or pickling.
2 Basic definitions of welding processes

2.1 Classification according to the type of energy carrier
Welding processes are classified according to their type of energy carrier in standard DIN EN 14610.
Energy carrier
Physical phenomena which make it possible to have the required welding energy either to be transmitted
towards the workpiece(s) or to be transformed into the workpiece(s).
The following energy carriers with their corresponding numbering are being used in the standard:
1 Solid Body
2 Liquid
3 Gas
4 Electrical discharge
5 Radiation
6 Movement of a mass
7 Electric current
8 Unspecified
Welding processes
and equipment
Note:
During welding with solids (1), fluids (2), gas (3) or electrical discharge (4) the required energy for weld-
ing the workpiece is being transmitted from the outside. However, during welding with radiation, move-
ment of mass or electric current the required thermal energy (or mechanical energy via cold pressure
welding) will be generated by energy transition inside the workpiece.
For solids, fluids and gas the heat contents is the essential property. Electrical gas discharge and electri-
cal continuity are mechanisms which are providing the welding zone with energy of moving charge-
carriers. For the situation of electrical gas discharging this is executed by plasma or sparks and in case
of electrical current by resistance heating during which the current is being initiated either through con-
ductivity or through induction.
Radiation is energy conduction through diffusion of light waves or through energy carriers. For the
movement of mass the essential properties are force and displacement per unit time; different types of
movements are translation, rotation and oscillation.
2.2 Classification according to the aim of welding

Classification is being made here between joint welding and surface welding.
2.2.1 Joint Welding
Fusion joint welding is the generating of a permanent connection be-

tween two or more work pieces by welding.
Figure 22: Resistance spot welding as example for joint welding
For joint welding usually the following joint types are being used:
Butt welds
Fillet welds
Other welds
e.g. spot weld
Welding processes
and equipment
The type of joint is, for example, defined by:
- Type of the weld joint
- Type and scope of the preparation, e.g. joint shape
- The base material
- The welding process
2.2.2 Surface Welding
Surface welding or surfacing is the creation of a metal layer on a workpiece via welding in order to obtain
desired properties and dimensions.
Figure 23: SAW - strip (electrode) surfacing
If the base material and the surfacing material are different a distinction is made, for example, between:
Sind der Grund- und Auftragswerkstoff artfremd, wird z.B. unterschieden zwischen:
- Surfacing of armoured protection (plating)

Surfacing of a preferable higher wear resistant material compared to the base material
- Surfacing of claddings (cladding)

Surfacing of a preferable higher chemical resistant material compared to the base material.
- Surfacing of buffer layers (buffering)

Surfacing of an intermediate layer (‘black – white‘ joint)
- Surfacing for repair welding (wear)
The aim of surfacing is to create a load-resistant connection between both materials.
2.3 Classification according to the physical sequencing of welding.
Classification is being made between fusion- and pressure welding processes. Filler materials can be
applied in both processes.
Welding processes
and equipment
2.3.1 Fusion Welding
Fusion welding is welding without applying external forces whereby the fusion area(s) has (have) to be
partly surface-fused; usually – but not mandatory – molten filler material is being added
Some fusion welding processes are shown in the following able in relation to their energy carriers:
Fusion welding processes Energy carrier

Laser beam welding Radiation
Arc welding Electrical gas discharge
Gas shielded metal arc welding Electrical gas discharge
Resistance welding Electrical current
Firecracker welding Electrical gas discharge
Submerged arc welding Electrical gas discharge
Light radiation welding Radiation
Casting welding Fluid
Gravity arc welding Electrical gas discharge
Gas welding Gas
Plasma welding Electrical gas discharge
Table 1: Some welding processes and their type of energy carrier
2.3.2 Welding with pressure
Welding with pressure is welding during which sufficient external forces are being applied in order to
generate a more or less heavy plastic deformation on both fusion areas. Usually without adding filler
material.
Note:
Usually- but not mandatory- the fusion areas of the parts are being heated in order to establish or ease
the joining process.
Some pressure welding processes and their energy carriers are shown in the following table:
Pressure welding processes Energy carrier

Arc stud welding Electrical gas discharge
Friction welding Movement of mass
Flas welding Electrical current
Projection welding Electrical current
Forge welding Movement of mass
Magnetic pulse welding Movement of mass
Resistance welding Electrical current
Explosion welding Movement of mass
Resistance spot welding Electrical current
Table 2: some pressure welding processes and their type of energy carriers
Welding processes
and equipment
2.4 Classification according to the level of mechanisation
Welding processes can also be classified according to their level of mechanisation. For this purpose the
welding processes TIG and MIG/MAG are shown in the following table regarding their mechanisation
level.
Figure 24: classification of welding processes according to their level of mechanisation
Figure 25: Automatic welding with welding boom
Welding processes
and equipment
3 Vocabulary definitions
In the following some common day-to-day definitions of welding technology are shown as examples and
for the benefit of understanding:
● Burn-off / burn-out: Burn-off is defined as the loss of alloying elements due to welding
● Run-on plate: Piece of metal (or even made from any other suitable material) which
is positioned in such a way that the total weld cross-section is obtained.
● Dissimilar materials: Materials which are significantly different regarding their composition or
weldability.
● Similar materials: Materials which are insignificantly different regarding their composition or
weldability.
● Dilution: inevitable pick-up of base material, filler material or from base material of
earlier weld runs or layers in the zone of welding.
● Surfacing/cladding welding: Manufactured plating/ lining through welding.
● Run-off plate: Piece of metal (or even made from any other suitable material) which is
positioned in such a way at the end of the weld that the total weld cross-
section is supported until the end of welding in order to prevent end craters.
After welding it is to be removed neatly.
● Both-side welding: Welding in a way that the weld joint is being manufactured from both sides.
● Torch angle: Angle between the centre-line of the welding torch and a reference plane
on the workpiece being projected on a perpendicular plane in reference to
the weld direction.
● Single-run welding: Welding is such a way that the weld or plating/lining is being manufactured
in one single layer.
Note:
The actual welding may consists of one or more weld runs.
● One-side welding: Welding in a way that the weld joint is being manufactured from just one
side.
● Welding simultaneously on both-sides: Welding is being performed on both sides of the weld joint
simultaneously.
● Base/parent metal: The base material of the workpiece to be welded without consideration of
platings/ linings.
● Tack welding: Positioning of the workpieces or assemblies to be welded in a defined order

by means of weld points or short weld runs.
Welding processes
and equipment
● Multi(ple)-layer /multi-run weld: Welding in such a way that the weld or plating/ lining consist two or
more layers.
Note:
The definition could also follow the number of layers (for example: three-
layer welding).
● Step-back welding: Type of welding technique in which short welds are being welding opposite
to the main weld direction and where the end of the short weld overlaps the
starting point of the earlier weld run.
● All-weld metal: Solidified filler material after welding. Its elements can also originate from
used additives for welding purposes.
● Fusion line: Border between the, due to welding, molten base material and not-molten
base material which remained solid.
● Weld pool / molten pool: Fluid of molten filler material and base material.
● Backing strip: An welding aid made of appropriate material in order to prevent the weld
pool falling through the root opening during welding. Simultaneously it can
be used as back purging of the root pass.
● Weldability: Weldability is a material characteristic and is being influenced by the way of

manufacturing and to a certain extent by the type construction.
● Both-side single-run welding: Welding of a joint on both sides with just one single run each.
● Welding speed / travel speed: Speed of the welding in the direction of the joint to be weld.
● Weld metal: The solidified material after welding consisting base material or filler mate-
rial and base material. Its elements can also originate from platings/ clad-
dings and/or from used additives for welding purposes.
● Weld(ing) time: Time interval during the actual welding processing.
● Weld / seam: Area of the welding joint which comprises the total joining of the work-
piece(s).
● Welding process: The activity/operation of welding.
● Weld run sequence: The sequence of the weld runs being applied in the weld joint or in the ap-
plied surfacing/ cladding.
● Weld joint: Is the area through which the parts are being joined. The type of joint is
determined by the constructive layout of the parts.
● Weld zone: Local, limited area in which the material is being melted during welding and
in which the actual joining is being established
● Filler metal: Metal which contains the filler material.
Welding processes
and equipment
● Preheat temperature (Tp): The actual temperature of the workpiece in the welding zone just immedi-
ately before the start of the weld processing.
Note:
Usually it is being specified as minimum value and is more or less identical
to the interpass.
● Heat-affected zone (HAZ): Area of the non-molten base material suffering microstructural changes due
to the thermal energy that has been put in.
● Gas backing / purging gas: Gaseous welding aid which prevents the root backside from getting oxi-
dised and which helps to reduce the chance of weld pool falling through
during welding.
● Pickup /pick-up: Difference between the (lower) element analysis of the filler material before
welding and the (higher) element analysis of the pure weld metal after
welding.
● Two-layer welding: Welding of the weld joint or surfacing / cladding by means of two weld lay-
ers.
● Interpass temperature (Ti): The actual temperature of the workpiece in the welding zone just immedi-
ately before the start of the weld processing of the next run.
Note:
Usually specified as a maximum value (see ISO 13916)
4 Designation, reference- and classification numbers
For the purpose of harmonising the European Market and due to the existing diversity of national desig-
nations and abbreviations regarding welding and brazing/soldering processes, the ISO/TC 44 Technical
Committee established an international valid system of reference numbering for all welding and brazing/
soldering processes.
The valid reference numbers of the welding processes are defined in DIN EN ISO 4063
All welding procedures starting with number 1 belong to the arc welding process.
Processes starting with number 11 do belong to metal arc welding without gas protection, for example
111: manual metal arc welding.
All submerged arc welding do have the number 12, for example:
121 Submerged arc welding with solid wire electrode,
122 Submerged arc welding with strip electrode.
Welding processes
and equipment
The welding processes of gas-shield metal arc welding do have the number 13, for example:
131 MIG welding with solid wire electrode
135 MAG welding with solid wire electrode
136 MAG welding with flux cored electrode
All resistance welding processes start with number 2 and the resistance spot welding processes start
with number 21.
In the following table some welding processes are shown with their corresponding USA designation and
reference numbers according to DIN EN ISO 4063:
Designation Reference number

Welding process DIN EN 14610
(USA) acc.to DIN EN ISO 4063
Metal arc welding without gas
- 11
protection
Manual metal arc welding SMAW 111
Self-shielded tubular cored arc
FCAW 114
welding
Submerged arc welding SAW 12
Gas-shielded metal arc welding GMAW 13
MAG welding with solid wire
MAG 135
electrode
MIG welding with solid wire elec-
MIG 131
trode
Gas-shielded arc welding GTAW 14
TIG welding with solid filler
TIG 141
material (wire/rod)
Plasma arc welding PAW 15
Laser welding LBW 52
Electron beam welding EBW 51
Resistance welding RW 2
Resistance spot welding RSW 21
Projection welding PW 23
Resistance stud welding - 26
Wire seam welding RSW 22
Flash welding FW 24
Resistance butt welding UW 25
Electroslag welding RES 72
Friction welding FR 42
Explosion welding EXW 441
Table 3: Examples of fusion and pressure welding processes
Welding processes
and equipment
5 Overview of metal welding processes
Below you see a detailed overview of fusion welding processes.
Fusion Welding Processes
Electron beam Light radiation Resistance fusion

Flow (liquid) welding Gas welding Arc welding
welding welding welding
Metal arc welding

Liquid heat transfer Aluminothermic Gas-shielded arc Submerged arc
without (shield)gas Electroslag welding *
welding welding welding welding
protection
Gas-shielded metal Gas-shielded arc welding

Manual metal arc Self-shielded tubular
Gravity welding Firecracker welding with non-consumable
welding cored arc welding arc welding
electrode
Gas-shielded narrow (Wolfram) Plasma Atomic-hydrogen

Electrogas welding Plasma welding MIG welding MAG welding TIG welding
gap welding welding welding
CO2 welding Mixed gas welding
Manual metal arc welding (111) Submerged arc welding (12) Electron beam welding (51)
Laser welding (52) Gas-shielded metal arc welding Gas welding (3)
(13)
Figure 26: examples of schematic representation of fusion welding processes
Welding processes
and equipment
Below you see a detailed overview of pressure welding processes.
Pressure Welding Processes
Cold pressure Oxyfuel gas pressure Diffusion welding

Friction welding Forge welding Resistance welding Arc pressure welding
welding welding
High (mechanical)
Ultrasonic welding Electroslag welding * Electroslag welding *
energy welding
Resistaqnce butt Resistance spot

Explosion welding Flash welding Projection welding Resistance seam welding
welding welding
Foil butt-seam welding
Explosion welding (441) Resistance seam welding (22) Indirect spot welding (211)
Friction welding (42) Indirect projection welding (231) Direct spot welding (212)
Flash welding (24) Resistance butt welding (25)

Figure 27: examples of schematic representation of pressure welding processes
Welding processes
and equipment
6 Selection of welding processes
For selecting the appropriate welding process the following aspects should be considered:
Accessibility
Component‘s
Geometry
Requirements
Fixtures / Choice of
equipment welding Work safety
process
Economics
Base material
Welding position
Weld location
● Quantity: In particular the quantity and the level of weld process mechanisation determines the se-
lection.
Welding processes
and equipment
● Base material: Specific base material combinations can only be welded through certain welding
processes.
● Geometry of the component: In particular the size of the component is a very important criteria for
the selection of the welding process
● Economic efficiency: Costs of investments, production, filler- and auxiliary materials.
Welding processes
and equipment
● Facility layout: considerations whether or to what extent a welding process can be executed by
appropriate facilities /layouts.
● Requirements: considerations of operating- and environmental requirements.
Welding processes
and equipment
● Accessibility: In case of limited accessibility the selected welding process must fit to the required
weld quality conditions.
● Weld position: Not all welding processes can be applied in any welding position.
A restriction of the application areas of the welding processes can be applied according the following
considerations/ influencing factors:
 acc. to the base materials to be welded

 acc. to the shape of the component (Geometry, sizes)
Plate- or weld size areas
 acc. to the Economic efficiency
Efficiency in weld length/ time
Deposition efficiency
Manufacturing costs
 acc. to the quantity / time (required quantity)
 acc. to manufacturing considerations or to the available technic level of the equipment
single-production, series-production, mass-production
 acc. to technological considerations
(Quality requirements, scope of testing, reliability)
 acc. to structural considerations, acc. to the type of loading (predominantly static, dynamic, ser-
vice-life, reliability)
Welding processes
and equipment
DVS Leaflett 2938 „TECHNISCHE UND WIRTSCHAFTLICHE KRITERIEN ZUR AUSWAHL DER
FUEGEVERFAHREN IM FEINBLECHBEREICH BIS 3 MM EINZELBLECHDICKE“ shows which tech-
nical and economic considerations are to be taken into account for thin sheet manufacturing.
7 Health and Safety

As in many other working areas, many risks jeopardize the welder’s health and physical condition. The
acute risks of injury by heat, electric current or crushing hazards are to be seen in a similar way as the
long term health risks by fumes, gases and dust but also the possible negative influences of radiation
and electromagnetic emissions to the welder’s health. See also chapter 4.05.
Welding processes
and equipment
8 Knowledge Questions
(1) In which standard is „metall welding“ being defined?
 DIN EN 14610
 DIN 1910, Teil 2
 DIN EN 4711-1
 DIN EN 12345
 DIN 1901, Teil 1
(2) Which of the following statements regarding welding are correct?
 A filler material is always used during welding

 During pressure welding a filler material is never being used
 During pressure welding a filler material is always being used
 Welding is the joining of materials with the frequent application of heat and/ or force with or
without filler material
 The use of welding additives can ease or establish the welding process
(3) Which of the following statements regarding brazing/soldering are correct?
 The Solidus temperature of the base material will be exceeded

 The Solidus temperature of the base material will not be exceeded
 One of the applications of brazing/soldering is the surfacing of a base material
 Brazing/ soldering cannot be used for the surfacing of a base material
 Brazing/ soldering is a thermal processing for the positive substance joining and surfacing
(4) Which statements regarding DIN EN 14610 are correct?
 In this the definitions regarding work processing of welding are being determined
 In this the processes of metal welding are being listed
 In this only the pressure metal welding processes are being listed
 In this only the fusion metal welding processes are being listed
 In this the processes for fusion- and pressure metal welding are being separated
(5) In which way are the movement- and working sequences being defined for TIG welding and
MIG/MAG welding?
 Mechanical torch positioning

 Manual torch positioning
 Manual filler material feeding
 Mechanical filler material feeding
 Manual work piece positioning
Welding processes
and equipment
(6) Which of the following statements regarding the reference numbers of welding processes are
correct?
 All arc welding processes start with reference number 3

 All arc welding processes start with reference number 1
 All gas-shielded metal arc welding start with reference number 13
 All gas-shielded metal arc welding start with reference number 32
 All submerged arc welding processes start with reference number 12
(7) Which designations letters are being used for the classifications of resistance welding?
 R
 FW
 WS
 RW
 RP
(8) Which of the following welding processes are fusion welding processes?
 Gas welding
 Friction welding
 manual metal arc welding
 Submerged arc welding
 Flash welding
(9) The arc is being used as energy carrier for the following welding processes?
 TIG welding
 Resistance seam welding
 Resistance spot welding
 Gas welding
 Metal arc welding
(10) Typical pressure welding process representatives are:
 Resistance spot welding

 Resistance projection welding
 Gas-shielded metal arc welding
 Forge welding
 Oxyacetylene welding
(11) The applied welding process can be selected according to which criteria?
 Dimensions of the manufacturing location

 Geometry of the component
 Qualification of the welding coordinator
 Economic efficiency of the welding process
 Accessibility of the weld
Welding processes
and equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
Oxy-gas welding and related processes Page 1
Chapter 1.02: Oxy-gas welding and related processes
Contents
1 Welding gases ..................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Acetylene (C2H2) ............................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Propane (C3H8) ............................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Methane (CH4) ................................................................................................................ 5
1.4 Hydrogen (H2) ................................................................................................................. 5
1.5 Ethylene (C2H4) .............................................................................................................. 5
1.6 Propylene (C3H6) ........................................................................................................... 5
1.7 Oxygen (O2) .................................................................................................................... 6
1.8 Handling of pressurised-gas cylinders ............................................................................ 7
2 Oxy-acetylene flame ............................................................................................................ 8
2.1 Setting the flame ............................................................................................................. 8
3 Pressure regulator (DIN EN ISO 2503) ............................................................................... 9
4 Hoses and hose connections for gases .......................................................................... 10
5 Welding torch (injector or injector pipe) DIN EN ISO 5172 ............................................ 10
5.1 Design and operating principle ..................................................................................... 10
6 Safety Devices ................................................................................................................... 13
Outlet safety devices for cylinder battery systems ............................................................... 13
Protection of single cylinders ............................................................................................... 14
7 Oxy-acetylene welding ...................................................................................................... 15
7.1 Cost-effective area of application.................................................................................. 15
7.2 Techniques (LW/RW welding) ...................................................................................... 15
7.2.1 Leftward welding ................................................................................................ 15
7.2.2 Rightward welding.............................................................................................. 15
7.3 Welding rods for gas welding (DIN EN 12536) ............................................................. 16
7.4 Designation of gas welding rods ................................................................................... 16
7.5 Marking ......................................................................................................................... 16
7.6 Joint type with gas welding ........................................................................................... 17
8 Related processes ............................................................................................................. 18
8.1 Flame straightening ...................................................................................................... 18
8.1.1 Working rules for flame straightening................................................................. 19

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
8.2 Soldering and brazing ................................................................................................... 22

8.3 Oxy-fuel flame cutting ................................................................................................... 23
8.4 Flame heating ............................................................................................................... 23
8.5 Flame cleaning ............................................................................................................. 24
8.6 Cutting with the oxygen lance ....................................................................................... 25
9 Knowledge questions ....................................................................................................... 26
10 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 28

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
The oxy-fuel gas technology includes all working procedures, in which materials are exposed to the
reaction of an oxy-fuel gas flame or an air-fuel gas flame.
Welding gases are all fuel gases and pure oxygen used in oxy-fuel technology.
1 Welding gases
1.1 Acetylene (C2H2)
Acetylene can be used as fuel gas for all operations in oxy-fuel technology. For gas welding only
acetylene is used. The reasons for this are the high flame temperature and the high flame efficiency of
the gas. Further advantages are the concentrated heat input and the reducing (carburising) effect of the
flame.
Acetylene is a chemical compound of carbon and hydrogen. It occurs when calcium carbide is brought
together with water. The by-product is lime sludge. Acetylene is increasingly being made from mineral oil.
Properties and hazards during handling of acetylene
Acetylene is a colourless, non-toxic, but slightly narcotic gas. In its pure state, it is odourless.
Commercial acetylene contains traces of impurities which give the gas its garlic-like odour. Under
conditions of increased temperature and pressure, it tends to decay into its components carbon and
hydrogen. The maximum overpressure in supply lines is therefore limited to
Maximum 1.5 bar over pressure
Acetylene is explosive at a concentration of 2.4% to 80% in air. It is lighter than air and rises. It reacts
with copper and copper alloys with over 70% copper content as well as with silver and silver alloys.
Storage of Acetylene
Acetylene is broken down at higher pressure into its components carbon and hydrogen, and must
therefore be stored differently to any other fuel gases. To prevent the decay, acetylene must be stored in
several small chambers. This is achieved by a porous mass that is installed in the steel cylinder. To
increase the storage ability further, acetone is added to this porous mass in which acetylene dissolves.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
Acetylene Cylinder
Table 1: Delivery types (high-pressure gas cylinders, solvent acetone)

Protective cover
Cylinder valve
Type Volume Weight with Filling Acetylene
Outlet connection (litres) filling Pressure content
Red ring (kg) (bar) (kg)
Identification colour 10 10 23 18 1.6

20 20 42 18 3.3
40 40 74 18 6.3
48 40 76 19 8.0
Highly porous mass
50 50 77 19 10.0
The dissolving power of acetone depends on the pressure and
the temperature. 1 litre of acetone dissolves approx. 25 litres of
acetylene at 15°C and 1 bar pressure. At a pressure of approx.
20 bar, 1 litre of acetone can dissolve up to 500 litres of
acetylene. In addition to pressure, the dissolving power also
depends on the temperature.
Low temperatures: High dissolving power

High temperatures: Low dissolving power
Consequence:
Change in gas pressure for same content. The gas pressure of
e.g. a newly filled acetylene cylinder falls from approx. 19 bar at
20°C to approx.12 bar at temperatures below 0°C. An indication
Figure 1: Acetylene cylinder of the actual content via the cylinder pressure is only possible to
a limited extent.
Working rules
 The consumption rate during continuous operation is limited to 500 – 700 l/h.
Briefly (up to 20 min.) 1,000 l/h may be consumed. (The indicated values refer to a 40l cylinder).
 If you exceed the maximum permissible consumption rate, the solvent cannot release acetylene fast
enough. The solvent is drawn out of the cylinder and damages pressure regulators, safety devices
and the fuel gas hose.
 If a larger amount of acetylene is required, several single cylinders are to be connected via cylinder
connectors. Care should be taken to ensure almost the same contents pressure and the same type
of solvent. Alternative: Use cylinder bundles.
Sample calculation for extraction:

Formula: Average value of the welding torch x 100
E.g. torch size 4-6:

(4+6)
= 5 x 100 = 500 l/h
2 size 20-30
torch
E.g. torch size 20-30:
(20 + 30)
= 25 x 100 = 2,500 l/h
2
As in the final example the permissible consumption rate of a single cylinders is exceeded considerably,
4 cylinders are to be connected together in continuous operation.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
1.2 Propane (C3H8)

Propane is a colourless, non-toxic, but slightly narcotic gas. Propane is primarily generated from crude oil.
It is easy to handle because it can be stored in liquid state at room temperature under its own vapour
pressure of only 7 bar. Propane cylinders must not be exposed to high temperatures. At high temperatures
the gas expands and fills the entire cylinder volume. There is a risk of the cylinder bursting. Propane has a
higher heat value than acetylene, but it has a considerable lower flame efficiency when welding, which is
particular important during welding. It is therefore not suitable for welding. The flame temperature is lower
than that of the oxyacetylene flame and the oxygen quantity required for combustion is almost four times
higher than with acetylene. Propane has a low explosion limit and a high density. Leaking gas collects in
low-lying areas.
1.3 Methane (CH4)

Natural gas consists mainly of methane. The composition depends on the natural gas deposits, so the
combustion properties are also different. Natural gas is mainly used for heating purposes. It can be
stored in compressed form in cylinders, but is usually supplied to the buyer directly via pipelines.
Methane is a light gas and its lower explosive limit is higher than that of most other gases. The heat
value is low and little heat is generated by the primary flame.
1.4 Hydrogen (H2)

Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless and non-toxic gas. It is the lightest of all gases. It is a highly
inflammable gas and burns with an invisible flame. Hydrogen is manufactured industrially by the
electrolysis of water. It is transported as a gas under high pressure in cylinders or in liquid state.
1.5 Ethylene (C2H4)

Ethylene is a colourless gas with sweetish, slightly mouldy smell. It is slightly toxic. It can be used for
flame cutting and similar processes. The heat value is approximately the same as with acetylene, but
less heat is generated by the primary flame.
1.6 Propylene (C3H6)

Propylene is a colourless gas with a slightly sweetish smell. It is a non-toxic, but has a slight narcotic
effect. It can be used for flame cutting and similar processes. Propylene is supplied as a liquefied gas.
The properties are similar to those of propane.
Table 2: Physical Properties of fuel gases
Fuel gas Heat value Combustion Flame Flame power Density Explosion
velocity temperature limits in air
2 3
MJ/m3 m/s °C kW/cm kg/m %
Hydrogen 10.8 8.9 2,500 13.98 0.08 4.0…74.5
Acetylene 57.0 13.5 3,150 42.74 1.09 2.4…80.0
Propane 93.2 3.7 2,750 10.27 1.88 2.0…9.5
Natural gas 36.0 3.3 2,770 8.51 0.67 5.0…15.0

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
1.7 Oxygen (O2)
Oxygen production/properties/storage
The manufacture of oxygen is carried out almost exclusively by air liquefaction with subsequent
decomposition of the air into its components. This occurs due to the different boiling points of the
individual components. The oxygen extracted in this way has a purity of 99,999% (5.0). The standard
purity of oxygen filled into cylinders is 99.5% (2.5).
Properties and hazards when handling oxygen
Oxygen is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas with a density of 1.43 kg/m 3 (thicker than air).
Combustion reactions occur faster than in air even with slightly increased oxygen levels. Above an
oxygen concentration of 30%, these can be explosive.
 Oxygen under pressure coming into contact with oil or grease may result in spontaneous ignition.
 The maximum consumption rate depends on the cylinder size and the maximum flow rate of the pressure
regulator. Excessive consumption rates lead to the icing up and freezing of the pressure regulator.
 Open oxygen cylinder valves slowly, otherwise internal ignition in the pressure regulator may be
caused as a result of the pressure surge.
 Never use oxygen to ventilate containers, rooms etc. In comparison to air the following effects of
oxygen are to be considered:
 Required ignition energies are considerably lower,
 The ignition temperature of the materials is lower,
 The combustion temperature and combustion velocities are higher.
Storage of oxygen
Oxygen is stored under high pressure in gaseous state in steel cylinders. State of the art gas cylinders
predominantly have a filling pressure of 200 bar. Newer cylinders have 300 bar.
Protective cover
Cylinder valve
Outlet connection
Identification
colour
Table 3: Steel cylinders for gaseous oxygen
Type Cylinder volumes Cylinder pressure Oxygen quantity

(litres) (bar) (litres)
50 50 200 10,000
40 40 150 6,000
10 10 200 2,000
The maximum consumption rate depends on the cylinder size and
the maximum flow rate of the pressure regulator.
Base ring
Figure 2: Oxygen cylinder

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
Storage can also be in liquid form in thermally insulated tanks. In an evaporator liquid oxygen is
reconverted into gaseous oxygen. 1 litre of liquid oxygen produces about 850 litres of gaseous oxygen.
Figure 3: Cold gasifier system
1.8 Handling of pressurised-gas cylinders
 Pressurised-gas cylinders must not be thrown, struck or rolled when lying.

 Only transport, store and deliver with a safety cap attached.
 Protect from falling using chains or clamps.
 Do not install in corners or near to stairs or narrow passages.
 Do not open oxygen cylinders abruptly (stored heat).
 Protect against strong heating.
 Refilling from large to small cylinders requires specialised knowledge and is therefore not
permissible.
 When transporting gas cylinders, national and international regulations regarding the transport of
hazardous goods via road, rail and inland waterways must be observed.
 Pressurised-gas cylinders must be regularly inspected.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
2 Oxy-acetylene flame
The flame results from ignition of the gas mixture which flows out of the torch nozzle. The flame is
composed of the flame cone and the outer flame. In the flame cone, a partial combustion of acetylene
takes place with the oxygen supplied from the cylinder. In the outer flame, the complete combustion of the
gas takes place with oxygen from the air. The maximum temperature is approx. 3,200°C at a distance of
2 - 5 mm after the flame cone. The welding flame not only has the task of melting the surfaces to be joined
and the filler material but also of protecting the weld pool against negative influences from the air.
Figure 4: Oxy-acetylene flame
2.1 Setting the flame
 For the welding of ferrous metals an acetylene/oxygen ratio of 1:1 is set (normal flame).
 Excess acetylene has a carburising and hardening effect.
 Excess oxygen leads to the oxidisation (combustion) of the material.
 The flame can be adjusted to be hard or soft depending on the setting of different gas volumes using
the regulating valves.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
3 Pressure regulator (DIN EN ISO 2503)

The pressure regulator has the task of reducing the gas pressure to the working pressure and keeping it
constant when consuming gas.
Primary (Cylinder) Pressure Pressure Manometer for
Manometer working pressure
Regulator
valve
Blow-off valve Non-
return
Recoil spring valve
Cylinder
connection
Regulator
Housing pin
Dirt filter
Diaphragm Hose
Membrane connection
Regulator
valve
spring Spring cap
Relief bore
Adjusting screw
Figure 5: Pressure regulator
Design characteristics
 Oxygen pressure regulators must be resistant to internal ignition, all parts must be kept oil and grease
free.
 Acetylene pressure regulators must be designed and manufactured such that the maximum back
pressure of 1.5 bar cannot be exceeded.
 A dirt filter must be integrated.
Table 4: Recognition features of pressure regulators
Inscription Oxygen Acetylene Propane

Code letter O A P
Cylinder connection R ¾" Right-hand thread Clamp connection W 21.8 x 1/14" left-hand thread
Hose connection Right-hand thread Left-hand thread Left-hand thread
Working method
The pressure regulator is a membrane-controlled valve. When the adjusting screw is turned in, the
regulator valve is being adjusted via the regulator valve spring, diaphragm and regulator pin lift. The
adjusting screw is therefore used to set the working pressure. The flowing gas exerts a back pressure on
the membrane. During gas consumption equilibrium occurs at the membrane between the force of the
set spring and the gas back pressure and the force of the regulator valve spring.
Working rules
 Before connecting the pressure regulator check the cylinder connection for cleanliness (blow out)
and check the seal.
 The adjusting screw must be relieved if the pressure regulator is not in operation.
 Leak detection spray is to be used to check the seal. Soap solution is not permitted with oxygen due
to the possible grease content.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
4 Hoses and hose connections for gases
Table 5: Identification colour codes and nominal parameters of gas hoses
Features Oxygen Acetylene, hydrogen Propane, natural gas Shielding gases
Internal diameter
4.0; 5.0; 6.3; 8.0; 10.0; 12.5; 16.0; 20.0;
in mm
Identification colour blue red orange black
Examples
Right-hand thread Left-hand thread with Left-hand thread with Right-hand thread
surface notch surface notch
Connections
Working rules
 Burned and porous gas hoses must be replaced.

 Tying wire must not be used for fastening.
 Gas hoses must not be hung over the cylinders.
 For the joining of gas hoses double hose coupling nipples are to be used.
 With acetylene no copper or copper-bearing materials with more than 70% copper may be used.
 The minimum length of the gas hoses is three metres.
5 Welding torch (injector or injector pipe) DIN EN ISO 5172
In the welding torch acetylene and oxygen are mixed. The mixture ratio is kept constant. The flow rate of
the gas mixture is adapted to the ignition speed and the flame cone is formed.
5.1 Design and operating principle
The welding torch is made of the main parts handle (with hose connections and torch valves) and the
welding attachment (with injector, mixer, mixing tube and welding nozzle). The injector consists of the
pressure and the suction nozzle.
The oxygen flows through the pressure nozzle at an operating pressure of 2.5 bar. Oxygen causes a
suction effect in the area of the suction nozzle due to its high flow rate when escaping from the pressure
nozzle. Acetylene flows with a pressure of 0.2 to 0.7 bar into the suction nozzle and is drawn into the
mixing hose by the oxygen stream, mixed with oxygen in the mixing tube and ignited at the outlet of the
welding nozzle.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
Figure 6: Welding Torch
Circular channel
Oxygen
Fuel gas
Welding attachment Suction nozzle Handle

Union Nut Pressure
Nozzle
Figure 7: Injector area of an injector-type blowpipe (detail A)
Inscription  = Manufacturer's mark

A = Gas type (Acetylene)
i = Injector-type blowpipe (suction blowpipe)
1 = Size 1, workpiece thickness of 0.5 - 1 mm which is welded with this welding attachment
S 2.5 bar = Working pressure to be set for oxygen
Malfunctioning of the injector-type blowpipe
Popping
Characteristic: Banging noise, explosive spraying of the weld pool.

Cause: Discharge speed lower than ignition speed (flame set too small);
blowpipe nozzle expanded.
Remedy: Replace blowpipe nozzle, set flame larger.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
Backfiring
Characteristic: Sudden extinguishing of the flame, clear, shrill whistling, strong heating of the
welding attachment.
Cause: Too strong heating of the welding attachment, several blow outs as a result,
Loose welding nozzle (torch nozzle).
Remedy: Immediately close both valves on the handle and the let the torch cool.
Flashback
Characteristic: Loud explosive bang, bursting of the acetylene hose in several locations,
strong soot generation, peculiar smell.
Cause: Serious reduction in the flow rate in particular with large torches,
continuing backfiring, leaking connection between handle and welding attachment,
e.g. loose union nut.
Remedy: Close both cylinder valves immediately. Remove pressure regulator from the
acetylene cylinder and check the cylinder.
Testing the torch (suction test)
The function of the torch can be tested by means of a suction test.
Procedure:
1. Make the oxygen ready for operation, i.e. set the pressure.
2. Shut off acetylene supply (close cylinder).
3. Unscrew acetylene hose from the handle.
4. Open the acetylene and oxygen valves on the handle.
If the welding torch is functioning correctly, a clear suction effect can be felt at the acetylene connection
of the handle.
Working rules
 Firmly tighten the union nut on the handle.

 Set pressures correctly (oxygen in accordance with marking, acetylene approx. 0.4 bar.)
 Sequence when igniting the flame:
First open the oxygen valve at the handle, then open the acetylene valve, ignite the flame and set it.
 Sequence when extinguishing the flame:
First close the acetylene valve, then close the oxygen valve.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
6 Safety Devices
Incorrect operation or defective servicing of welding or cutting equipment can cause flashbacks from the
torch into the fuel gas cylinder. It can result in internal ignition in pressure regulators and pressure
equipment which causes bursting of the hose, destroying of the welding torch or the cylinder to explode.
The reasons for the flashbacks are for example dirty torch nozzles, loose connections between welding or
cutting torch head and handle or defective gaskets in the area of the torch.
These faults cannot always be ruled out, so appropriate safety devices are required. The accident
prevention regulations stipulate that each outlet for consuming equipment (e.g. welding torch) in which
acetylene is burned with oxygen or compressed air is to be equipped with a safety device. This means that
there are different requirements for acetylene cylinder battery and individual cylinder systems.
Outlet safety devices for cylinder battery systems
At each outlet of an acetylene cylinder or an acetylene cylinder battery system safety devices must be
installed.
They must prevent:

 Flashbacks from the torch into the supply system
 Return of oxygen into the supply system for fuel gas
 Continuing flow of fuel gas following a flashback
The safety devices are equipped with a flame arrester (Sinter Metal), a gas back-flow nozzle and
a cut-off valve.
Temperature controlled Pressure con-

trolled
Dirt filter
Warning lever
Flash-back arrester
(Pressure controlled)
Back Flow Nozzle
Flame arrester
(Sinter metal)
Flash-back arrester
(temperature controlled)
Pressure-relief valve
Figure 8: Outlet safety devices

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
Protection of single cylinders
If only one individual consuming device is connected to an acetylene cylinder, a single cylinder safety
device can be used in place of the outlet safety device. It protects against back-flow and flash, but has
no flashback arrester.
Back Flow Nozzle
Figure 9: Single cylinder safety device Flame arrester

(Sinter metal)
Installation types
Single cylinder safety devices can be integrated
 immediately after the pressure regulator

 in the hose
 directly on the handle
Single cylinder safety device

Figure 10: Single cylinder fuse on the handle
Supply of several consumers from a single cylinder
Taking into account the permissible consumption rate of an acetylene cylinder (max. 700l/h under
continuous operation) it is possible to connect for example two welding torches to one acetylene
cylinder. Protection against flashbacks is provided with two outlet safety devices.
Single cylinder safety devices are not sufficient here.
Figure 11: Supply of several consumers from one acetylene cylinder
Periodic testing of safety devices

According to current standards, safety devices against flash-back must be tested at least once a year for
gas flow-back, tightness and flow rate.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
7 Oxy-acetylene welding
Description of the welding process
The heat source for welding is a flame which is created with the fuel gas acetylene and pure oxygen. The
gases flow through the welding torch with a mixing ratio of 1:1. Acetylene is ignited and burned after
emerging from the welding torch. The flame temperature is approx. 3,200 °C. To burn acetylene
completely, oxygen from the air is required. The filler material required for welding is additionally added.
7.1 Cost-effective area of application
 Welding of sheet metals and pipes made from non-alloyed steels up to approx. 5 mm
 Repair welding
 Pipeline construction, installation sector
1 = Oxygen Cylinder
2 = Acetylene Cylinder
3 = Outlet safety devices
4 = Oxygen hose
5 = Acetylene hose
6 = Handle
7 = Welding rod
8 = Welding nozzle
9 = Workpiece
10 = Welding flame
Figure 12: Component parts of a single-cylinder system
7.2 Techniques (LW/RW welding)

There are two techniques for producing welded joints:
7.2.1 Leftward welding

Guide welding torch in a straight line, move the welding rod in a dabbing action (the welding torch follows
the welding rod).
Advantages: Smooth or only slightly scaled weld surface; favourable use up to 3 mm workpiece
thickness.
Disadvantages: Easily moulded weld pool, complete fusion difficult to control.
7.2.2 Rightward welding

Guide welding torch in a straight line, move the rod in a circular motion (the welding rod follows the
welding torch).
Advantages: Targeted heat input, ensured complete fusion, lower cooling speed, better
protective effect of flame.
Disadvantages: Difficult to use below 3 mm workpiece thickness. High requirement for the manual
skill of the welder.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
7.3 Welding rods for gas welding (DIN EN 12536)

For the joint welding of general structural steels and heat-resistant steels the welding rods are divided
into six rod classes.
Information on which steel grades are to be coordinated with the respective rod classes is given in the
following table.
Table 6: Allocation of gas welding rods to different base materials
Steel tubes for pipelines

General structural steels
according to DIN EN 10025
according to DIN EN 10208
Pipes according to DIN
Sheet metal and strips
heat-resistant steels
Steel type
DIN EN 10028
according to
EN 10216
made of
10CrMo9-10
13CrMo4-5
Steel type
1)
16Mo3
16Mo3
S 185
S 235
S 275
S 355
P 235
P 265
P 235
P 265
P 295
L 235
L 245
L 290
L 360
I X X
II X X X
Suitable welding III X X X X X
rod class IV X X X X X X X X X X
2)
V X
2)
VI X
1)
Weldability of steel S185 is limited
2)
Multi-pass welding.
Note: Gas welding of heat-resistant steels, e.g. 13CrMo4-5 etc., no longer corresponds to the state of the art. The
allocation of the relevant rods is therefore rather theoretical in nature.
7.4 Designation of gas welding rods
The designation comprises of the name, the DIN EN number, the designation for gas welding and the
welding rod class.
Example: Welding rod DIN EN 12536 - O III
7.5 Marking
The welding rods must be provided with a permanent, clearly recognisable class designation (labelled
with Roman numerals). An additional colour marking at the rod ends is possible

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
7.6 Joint type with gas welding
The joint type to be selected depends on
 Material
 Material thickness
 Welding process
 Welding position
 Accessibility
DIN EN ISO 9692 contains the types of joint preparation for welding processes.
Table 7: Joint forms for butt welds, welded on one side Measure in mm
Weld joint Joint type

Dimensions:
Designation
Work- Angle Gap Root Flank

piece Symbol Represen- face height
Cross-section Remarks
thick- tation height
ness  b c h
Usually
t2 Butt - - - - without filler
weld material
-
t4 Square - b=t - -
butt
weld
t>4 Single-V 30°    b4 c2 -

butt weld 60°
Table 8: Types of groove weld for fillet welds, welded on one side Measure in mm
Weld seam Joint type

Dimensions:
Workpiece
Thickness
Designation Symbol Representation Cross-section Angle Gap
 b
t1 > 2 Fillet weld, b2

t2 > 2 T-joint 70 °    100 ° (target is b = 0)
t1 > 2 Fillet weld, b2


t2 > 2 Lap joint (target is b = 0)
t1 > 2 Fillet weld,

t2 > 2 Corner joint 60 °    120 ° b2

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
8 Related processes
8.1 Flame straightening

Formation of shrinkages and stresses in the workpiece
If a metal is heated uniformly, it expands and becomes larger. The subsequent cooling shrinks it again.
When the initial temperature is reached, it has its initial dimensions again. It does not shrink beyond the
initial level. The workpiece behaves differently if expansion is prevented or the component is only partly
heated. During heating the softest point – the point of heating – upsets (deforms). When cooling the
workpiece, shrinking occurs around the deformed area. Bending (angular distortion) or tension results if
the material is clamped.
L = Longitudinal shrinkage
Q = Transverse shrinkage
D = Thickness shrinkage
W = Angular shrinkage
Figure 13: Shrinkage types
Straightening process
With flame straightening, the component is quickly, specifically and locally heated into the plastic range.
The temperature at which plastic deformation occurs is approximately 550°C for steel and, for aluminium
and its alloys around 350°C–400°C. Upsetting occurs due to obstructed thermal expansion (an important
requirement for flame straightening). In order to achieve upsetting, auxiliary materials are required, which
prevent expansion. During cooling, the workpiece shortens around the deformed area which leads to the
desired length or shape change. Contrary to mechanical straightening in which the “short side” is
stretched, with flame straightening there is a shortening of the “long side”. The final result of
straightening only becomes visible on reaching the ambient temperature.
Four factors cause flame straightening:

Heating  Prevented expansion  Upsetting (deformation)  Reduction in
length during cooling
Figure 14: Heating and prevented expansion

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
8.1.1 Working rules for flame straightening
1. Measuring
Shape and size of dimensional deviation are determined by measuring the workpiece.
With flame straightening workpieces can be only shortened. Welds contract after welding and are shorter
than their surroundings. For this reason, never heat on the weld seam.
Determine flame straightening and its position and where necessary mark it.
2. Prevention of thermal expansion
During the heating process the workpiece expands. In order to achieve good straightening results,
expansion must be prevented. This can take place through the component's own weight and shape or by
additional measures.
3. Selection of fuel gas and torch
Acetylene is recommended as the fuel gas. Other fuel gases, such as propane or natural gas have a too
low flame efficiency and flame temperature to achieve quick and concentrated heating. Areas next to the
straightening point are also heated. Bulges can occur as a result. The torch size depends on the size of
the structure, the material and the material thickness.
4. Create locally limited heat accumulation
Successful straightening depends on local and targeted heat accumulation. The areas are to be kept
small. Several small patterns figures work better than one large pattern figure. Heat wedges must be
strictly limited.
At the flame straightening point the material must be plasticised. In the plastic range, the yield point is
very low, and the material in the heated area is upsetted. During cooling the material shrinks and
achieves the desired deformation.
5. Shrinkage
The material shrinks as long as it has not yet reached its ambient temperature. Clamping means which
are used to prevent expansion are gradually released. The straightening process can be accelerated,
but not improved, by cooling with compressed air or water. This straightening must be checked by
measuring. Only after this, any necessary new straightening points are determined.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
Prevention of thermal expansion
The upsetting (deformation) of the straightening point is a precondition for straightening. If the
component is not rigid enough, additional measures must be put in place to prevent thermal expansion
during the heating procedure. An additional prevention of thermal expansion from the outside is
particularly important in less rigid components.
Figure 15: Prevention by own weight Figure 16: Prevention by the Figure 17: Prevention by
inherent rigidity additional restraint
Heat patterns with flame straightening
In order to achieve optimal straightening results, different heating patterns are used depending on the
component and the deformation. Heat can be applied as a heat point, heat line, heat wedge, heat oval or
as a combination of several heat patterns.
Heating point
The heat point is preferably used for flame straightening thin plates, for the removal of buckling. It must
be small. The workpiece is heated through in order to achieve two-dimensional shortening of the
component. Many small points are more effective than one large one. The workpiece is heated from the
outer area to the centre.
The straightening of components can be performed with the help of perforated plates. The prevention
of expansion takes place by clamping the component between a perforated plate and a counterplate.
The bores in the perforated plate determine the distance between the individual heating points.
Figure 18: Heating points

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
Heat oval
Pipes can be straightened simply and effectively with the flame. The main use is the elimination
of deformations, which result from one-sided connecting of pipe branches. This deformation is repaired
by applying oval-shaped heat spots on the other side of the pipe connection. The tube wall is
heated through.
The basic rule is: the long side of the oval is always in the pipe longitudinal direction.
Figure 19: Heat oval
Heat lines for the elimination of angular distortion
Angular distortion is the most frequent and the most distinctively visible deformation type. It can be
removed in many cases by one or more parallel heat lines drawn on the opposite side. It is particularly
effective if only 1/3 of the workpiece thickness is heated to the flame straightening temperature. Sheet
thicknesses above 4 mm are straightened with 3 parallel lines. Five-line heat flows are used for sheet
thicknesses above 8 mm.
Heat lines
Figure 20: Heat lines

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
Wedge-shape heating
The heat wedge is the heat pattern with the greatest straightening effect. It is mainly used on profiles and
vertical ribs to achieve major deformations. The component is always exposed uniformly from the wedge
tip outgoing up to the baseline. It is necessary to ensure that the form and the size of the wedge is set to
size of the component (1). The heat wedge contour must be strictly defined, sharply pointed and long.
The height of the wedge is to be chosen in such a way that the wedge tip just crosses the bending line of
the profile (3). With this procedure the rigidity of non-heated material areas is used to prevent expansion.
Baseline of the
heat wedge
Bending line
Figure 21: Heat wedge
It is recommended to mark the shape of the heat wedge on both sides of the component in order to
ensure an as exact as possible opposite heating. Heating is performed from the wedge tip to the
baseline of the wedge (best upsetting).
8.2 Soldering and brazing
Soldering and brazing are thermal processes for joining and surfacing materials with the help of a molten
filler material - the solder and if necessary flux.
The working temperature of the solder is below the melting temperature of the materials to be joined.
The solder diffuses into the grain boundaries. Adhesion and a type of alloy formation between the base
material and the solder occurs. The strength of the solder joint mainly depends on the type of the joint,
the properties of the solder and the base material.
In soldering technology, we distinguish between soldering, brazing and high-temperature soldering in
accordance with the working temperature of the solder.
For further information see chapter 1.16.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
8.3 Oxy-fuel flame cutting
Oxy-fuel flame cutting is a thermal cutting process, in which the main part of the energy required for the
process is obtained from the heat released by the combustion of the material. The material to be cut
is locally heated by the oxy-fuel gas flame to ignition temperature at the workpiece surface and is then
burned by the oxygen stream. The heat resulting from the combustion of the material allows a
continuous combustion into the depth and into feed direction. Oxy-fuel flame cutting has the largest
application in terms of workpiece thickness. Standard torches are generally suitable for the range of 3 -
300 mm, special torches up to 1,000 mm and more. For further information see chapter 1.13.
8.4 Flame heating
The term “flame heating” means all applications in which the flame induces heat in a workpiece without
melting it.
In flame heating, the workpiece is heated to change its characteristics, for example, to reduce
deformation resistance. It is also used for preheating when welding, cutting etc.
Flame heating is also used during hot-forming, e.g. for bending and flaring of pipes, etc. Here the area to
be deformed is locally heated to the correct temperature. The hot-forming temperature is approx. 900°C.
Simple welding torches and special torches are used. When heating very large parts the torches are
often water-cooled and the ignition and extinguishing processes are effected automatically.
Flame heating can be carried out both by manually and mechanised. The measurement of the
temperature is performed using temperature indicating crayons, spring- or contact thermometers.
When selecting the fuel gases for the different processes certain factors must be considered:
 Is a fast and concentrated heating process of importance?

 Is heating through of the workpiece of importance?
 Does the water vapour content of the flame play a role?
Table 9: Flame temperatures and water vapour content
Type of flame Flame temperature Water content of flame

°C %
Acetylene/oxygen 3,150 approx. 3.5
Acetylene/compressed air 2,300
Propane/oxygen 2,800 approx. 30
Propane/compressed air 1,925
Methane/oxygen 2,770 approx. 40

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
8.5 Flame cleaning
With flame cleaning undesired layers are removed using fuel gas/oxygen torches, e.g. rust scale,
paint etc.
Following setting, the flame cleaning hand torch is set down on the surface to be worked. The torch head
slides on the steel or concrete.
with the mechanised torch the nozzles are at a distance of about 1.2 to 2 cm from the surface.
The flame cleaning torch must have an inclination angle of approx. 45 degrees to the surface and the
tips of the flame cones must touch the surface.
Figure 22: Flame cleaning
Working method
The flame cleaning torch may not be applied at an angle. The flame must have an even effect across
the entire width of the torch. With steel, inclination of the torch is necessary in the feed direction, but not
with concrete.
The torch feed rate for steel is 3.0 to 5.0 m/min, for concrete 1.0 to 3.0 m/min.
Training
Technical personnel for flame cleaning can be trained according to guideline DVS 1147 – flame cleaning –.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
8.6 Cutting with the oxygen lance
Flame boring with the oxygen lance is a thermal cutting process. It is used for the flame boring of mineral
or metallic materials. For flame boring, oxygen core lances or oxygen-powder lances are used, with core
lances primarily being used.
Equipment and accessories
Figure 23: Oxygen lance
Working method
After ignition (ignition temperature approx. 1,200°C) the oxygen core lance is pressed against the
material (concrete, stone metal) with the help of a welding or a cutting torch. Through the constant
combustion of the iron by the oxygen flow sufficient heat is available to melt the material locally. The
emerging iron oxide forms (e.g. molten stone) a fluid slag with the material that is carried away by the
oxygen flow. In this way a bore is created which can be integrated to any depth.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
9 Knowledge questions
(1) Acetylene decomposes down at higher pressure. Which value must the working pressure
therefore not exceed?
 1.5 bar (overpressure)

(2) Why is acetylene used as a fuel gas for welding?
 Because of its good ignitability

 Because of the low ignition temperature
 Because of the high flame intensity
 Because of the low density
(3) Which consequences should be expected if large amounts of oxygen are taken from the cylinder?
 The cylinder valve and pressure regulators can freeze

 The acetone is carried away
 The cylinder is heated strongly
 There are no negative consequences
(4) What should you do in the case of backfiring in the welding torch?
 Close the acetylene and oxygen cylinders

 Allow the torch to whistle
 Build in outlet safety devices
 Immediately close both valves on the handle and the let the torch cool
(5) What is the purpose of the outlet safety device?
 Ensure an even gas flow

 Allow a normal flame setting
 Prevent flame back-fire and gas backflow
 Extinguish a hose fire
(6) How can acetylene decomposition be initiated?
 Too low gas consumption rate

 By too strong external heating of the cylinder
 By abrupt opening of the cylinder valve
 By too large gas consumption rate

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
(7) Which of the following straightening patterns is particularly good for flame straightening
of profiles?
 Heat point
 Heat lines
 Heat wedge
 Heat oval

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
10 Bibliography
/1/ DIN EN ISO 2503: Pressure regulating valves for gas cylinders for welding, cutting and
related processes.
/2/ DIN EN ISO 5172: Gas welding equipment; torches for welding, heating and cutting.
/3/ DIN EN 12536: Rods for gas welding of non-alloyed and heat-resistant steels.
/4/ DVS leaflet 0201: Technical gases for welding, cutting and related processes: Oxygen.
/5/ DVS leaflet 0202: Technical gases for welding, cutting and related processes: Acetylene.
/6/ Flame straightening: Werksbilder Linde AG (basics of flame straightening.)

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
Electrotechnics, a review Page 1
Chapter 1.03: Electrotechnics, a review
Contents
1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 2
2 Ohm’s law, circuit resistance, series connection ............................................................. 2
3 Parallel circuit, electrical power ......................................................................................... 4
4 Electrical Work (energy), heating (joule) effect of current ............................................... 5
5 Capacity, capacitor.............................................................................................................. 6
6 Inductivity, Coil .................................................................................................................... 7
7 Electromagnetism ............................................................................................................... 8
8 Transformer ......................................................................................................................... 9
9 Force-effect on Current-Carrying Conductors in Magnetic Fields (Motor Principle) .. 10
10 Induction of Movement (Generator Principle) ................................................................. 10
10.1 Generation of a Sinusoidal Alternating Voltage .................................................................... 11
11 Characteristic Values of Alternating Current and Voltage ............................................. 12
12 Effective Value of Current (r.m.s.) .................................................................................... 13
13 Outputs (power) of alternating current circuits, cos .................................................... 15
14 Three-Phase Alternating Current ..................................................................................... 19
15 Diode and rectifier ............................................................................................................. 21
16 Thyristor and Transistor ................................................................................................... 23
17 Hazards to persons via contact with electric voltage and current, occupational
safety .................................................................................................................................. 25
18 Literature ............................................................................................................................ 27
19 Knowledge questions ....................................................................................................... 28

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
1 Introduction
The process heat required for welding is largely achieved by means of electrical energy. Consequently,
knowledge of the electrical principles involved is of great importance in order to understand the
behaviours in the arc, the welding circuit and the power sources. By means of simple examples the
welding coordinator is given some “handholds” for the understanding regarding the contents of the
chapters “Welding processes and Equipment” and for the area of measuring and testing as part of
“Manufacturing and Application Technic”.
2 Ohm’s law, circuit resistance, series connection

The explanation of the mentioned subjects via some simple calculation example.
A grass field should cut by means of a lawn-mower. The lawn-mower is connected to the power supply
of U0230V via a cable drum of 100m.
Is it possible that the fall of voltage over the extension cable is so big that the voltage that “reaches” the
engine is too low?
Sketch
Figure 1: Series connection
For common extension cables the single conductor’s cross-section is 1,5 mm2 .
The line is made from copper with a conductivity of cu = 56 [m/Ω*mm2]
The Schuko plug socket contains a mains voltage of Utot = 230 V
RL1
1,00 A
Rm=engine resistance
Rm RL1=resistance of the way-to line
230 V Utot RL2=resistance of the way-back line
RL2
Figure 2: Series connection with three resistances

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
The addition of the separate voltage-drops over the resistances equals the “driving” voltage.
Utot  U RL1  U Rm  U RL 2
The current in a series connection equals the sum of the values through each branch resistance.
 ges   RL1   Rm   RL 2
The total resistance equals the sum of the separate resistances

Rtot   RL1   Rm   RL 2
In this way the voltage drop over the way-to line can be calculated according the ohm’s law.
U
I  U fall  I tot  ( RL1  RL 2 ) ( RL1  RL 2 )  total resistance of the extension cable
R
The cable resistance can be calculated according:
total length of line

resistance of line  Length=  m 
conductivity  cross-section
Cross-section (area)=  mm 2 
l  m 
RL= Conductivity  (kappa)= 
A    mm 
2
The conductivity  is the value of the specific resistance. The specific resistance specifies the
magnitude of the resistance in a line of 1m length having a cross-section of 1mm2 at an ambient
temperature of 20°C.
The problem of unallowable large voltage drops in a series connection could lead to a decrease of arc-
power within the welding circuit. Examples of such appearances are (too) high resistances at the current
transmission in the contact tip, wrongly laid-out secondary lines as well as charred or not correctly fitting
main supplies.
Cable Cross-section=70mm2
Figure 3: voltage losses over the welding lines depending to the line length under several current intensities.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
3 Parallel circuit, electrical power

Three electric users should be all connected to one main supply secured by a wire-fuse of I=13A.
The identification plates show the following:
Cement mixer P1=1000W
Radiant Heater P2=1500W
Spotlight P3=500W
+
-
Figure 4: Parallel circuit consisting three resistances
Parallel connection of three resistances
Question: is the wire-fuse of 13 A sufficient for the total current I tot ?
The electrical power Pel is calculated via the multiplication of the actual voltage and the current draw.
Pel  U    W
In a parallel circuit: equal voltages over all resistances
U tot  U R1  U R 2  U R13
The total current equals the sum of all single (branch) currents
1 1 1 1
  
Rtot R1 R2 R3
The value of the total resistance is less than the lowest value of one of the separate resistances.
Is the total current more than 13A?
U tot P1  P2  P3
I tot    .... A respectively I tot    .... A
Rtot U tot

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
4 Electrical Work (energy), heating (joule) effect of current
Energy is the capability to execute work
If one elevates or moves a body, mechanical work is being executed. This work Wmech is related to the
applied force F and the covered distance s .
Similar considerations are leading to the definition of electrical work. If charge carriers with an electric
charge Q (Q / Time  current) are being moved by the force of the electrical voltage U , work is being
executed; electrical work Wel
A vessel with a weight force of F=4186 N is to be lifted over 1m (s=1m)
Figure 5: Electrical work, Mechanical work, heating effect of current.
For achieving this the generator has to deliver a voltage of U=230V and current of I=1A during a period
of t=18,2 sec.
Electrical work Wel = U    t  Ws

With an equal energy amount of Wel  4186 Ws a water mass of 1kg can be heated for 1K. The required
amount of heat equals 1kcal or 4186 Joule.
Amount of (current )heat Q  I2  Rt J 

0,001 kWs
1Ws ˆ 0,001 kWs ˆ  0,278  10 6 kWh
3600 s

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
5 Capacity, capacitor
A capacitor is formed by two differently charged geometrical bodies which are located in a defined
distance from each other. Usually the “bodies” are two parallel plates. The capacitor has the ability to
store electrical energy by means of an electrical field for a limited period of time. Its capacity and the
amount of the applied voltage determine the level of energy to be stored. The capacity itself depends on
the size of the plates, the distance between both plates and on the type of material in between.
If a voltage is being applied no electrical current is running through the capacitor except a charging
current.
In terms of time, current and voltage are running opposite to each other during processing. The current
is leading in phase!
After charging the capacitor has the same voltage as the power source.
Figure 6: Capacitor charging curve
Term: Capacity
Abbreviation: C
Unit: Farad, F[As/V]
Symbol: ┤├
Figure 7: Capacitor

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
6 Inductivity, Coil
When applying DC to a coil an electric current is flowing through the coil which produces a magnetic
field. The coil has the ability to temporarily store electrical energy by means of an electrical field.
Switching off the feeding current results in a collapse of the magnetic field. The energy being stored in
the coil will be set free again. In terms of time, current and voltage are running opposite to each other,
but reverse to the situation in a capacitor.
The current is lagging (following in phase)!
Figure 8: Inductivity in DC circuit
Term: Inductivity
Abbreviation: 
Unit: Henry, H[Vs/A]
Symbol:
Figure 9: Coil

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
7 Electromagnetism
In every conductor through which a current is running (=moving electrical charges) a magnetic field is
deployed which surrounds the conductor in a circular shape (ring)
Figure 10:
Distribution of magnetic field lines around a
current-carrying conductor
If the conductor is shaped like a coil a magnetic field is generated similar to the one of a bar-magnet.
Figure 11:
Distribution of magnetic field lines in a coil
Two parallel current-carrying conductors will produce a force-effect.

CURRENT  MAGNETIC FIELD  FORCE
Between conductors with the same current flow direction, attraction forces become effective
In the case of conductors with opposite current flow directions, repulsion forces become effective.
inverse current flow direction same current flow direction
Figure 32: Force effect between parallel current-carrying conductors

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
8 Transformer
Magnetic flux
Every current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field.

The intensity of the magnetic field, the magnetic flux (density)  is calculated as follows:
 Z
Φ
Apparent impedance
Magnetic Flux
[Ω]
[Vs]
I1 Primary current [A]
I2 Secondary current [A]
U1 Primary voltage [V]
U2 Secondary voltage [V]
N1 Number of primary windings
N2 Number of secondary windings
A
Rm Magnetic resistance  Vs 
 
f Frequency [Hz]
4,44  2  

U2  N2
t
Figure 13: Transformer (principle)
VOLTAGE  CURRENT  MAGNETIC FLUX  VOLTAGE
U    N    
U1  1  1   1 1  U2  N 2 or U 2  4, 44     N 2  f
Z  Rm   t 
Induced Voltage
A voltage is being induced inside a coil when the magnetic flux  is being changed.
U 2 induced Voltage  V
 change of magnetic flux  Vs
t Time s
N 2 Number of turns on the secondary side
General transformer relation:
U1 N 
 1  2
U 2 N 2 1
Figure 14: Display of the electromagnetic values

of a transformer

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
9 Force-effect on Current-Carrying Conductors in Magnetic Fields (Motor Principle)

Current-Carrying conductors will be deflected in a magnetic field.
F = Deflecting force [N]
B = Magnetic flux V  s 
density  2
 m 
l= Effective length [m]

F  Bl  of conductor
= Current [A]
Figure 15:Deflection of a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field
10 Induction of Movement (Generator Principle)
If a conductor is being moved inside and perpendicular to the magnetic field direction, a voltage is being
generated (induced) during this movement.
Voltmeter Voltmeter U = induced [V]

voltage
V  s
B = magnetic  m2 
 
flux density
m 
U  Bl v s
v = speed  
l= effective [m]
conductor length
Weight in motion
Wire loop stationary Wire loop in motion
Figure 46: Voltage generated through movement of a conductor inside the magnetic field

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
10.1 Generation of a Sinusoidal Alternating Voltage

The most important way to generate a sinusoidal voltage is given by the principle of motion induced
voltage in which mechanical work is converted into electrical energy. To achieve this, a conductor has to
be rotated inside a magnetic field.
Example angle of rotation 60°:

The conductor loop moves
almost vertically to the field lines; [V]
the current is approx. 87% of the u = Momentary voltage
maximum voltage.
û = Peak voltage
u  uˆ  sin  (read: “U-roof”)
[V]
sin  = sine of the angle

of rotation
Figure 57: Generating a sinusoidal alternating current (AC)
If a conductor loop (= 1 winding) is rotated continuously in a homogeneous magnetic field, the induced
voltage and the height of the induction current is changing equally to the sinus of the rotation angle.
Figure 68: Induced momentary voltage in relation to the angle of rotation of the conductor loop

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
11 Characteristic Values of Alternating Current and Voltage
Amplitude, Momentary Value

u, i
u, i
u, i
u, i
Figure 79: Amplitude and momentary values during sinusoidal alternating voltage
The peak value (maximum value) defines the highest value of a sinusoid. It is usually marked as “ û ”.
Momentary values (instantaneous) value is the exact value measured at the given moment. Momentary
values are marked with “ u ”. Similar considerations are valid for the related currents.
Period, frequency, phase
Figure 20: Period and duration of period of a sinusoidal alternating voltage
Period, Duration of Period
One complete course of a sinusoid, consisting of both positive and negative half-waves, is called ”1
cycle” (you may also find: 1 period)
The time used to complete one cycle is called period ”T”. It is measured in seconds.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
Frequency
The frequency indicates the number of cycles that are completed within one second
Its unit is ”hertz” (abbreviated Hz).
The following applies:

1 Hz is one swing in one second
f=Frequency [Hz]
T=Duration of period [s]
1 1
1 Hz = f=
s T
12 Effective Value of Current (r.m.s.)

The root mean square value of an alternating current is the value which produces the same heat as an
equal constant current would produce.
The amount of heat produced inside a resistance equals: Q = 2  R  t
and can be illustrated graphically. For calculation reasons a resistance value of R=1Ω and certain time
interval of t=time of period T will be used.
Figure 21: Determination of direct current / alternating current- amount of produced heat
The area of the rectangular  2  t symbolises the amount of heat energy being generated by the direct
current I generated inside the resistance R during a time period of t=T

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
Alternating Current – amount of heat energy
Figure 1: representation of the pro- Figure 2 & 24: Repositioning of the alternating current area
duced amount of heat by an into a rectangular having the same sur-
alternating current face content for the area (=amount of
heat) of a direct current the the Um-
legen der Fläche der Wechselstrom-
Wärmearbeit in einem Rechteck mit
dem gleichen Flächeninhalt wie bei der
Gleichstrom Wärmearbeit
For sinusoidal alternating current: Generally:

iˆ T
 eff   0,707  iˆ 1
i
2
2  eff   dt
T
o
Another way of determining the mean value of a current’s path is by the arithmetical mean value:
 1T
  i  dt
T0
Alternating Current (AC) values are determined by r.m.s. (effective value), Direct Current (DC) values in
an arithmetical way.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
13 Outputs (power) of alternating current circuits, cos
An ideal transformer with a thermal efficiency of 100% (no thermal losses), a ratio of n=100 and
cos  0.84 is connected to a power supply of U=100V
Figure 25: Installation circuit set-up for determination of the cos value
The electrical output which is converted into heat via the resistance in the secondary circuit, can be cal-
culated as follows:
P   2  R  10 A  0,1   10 W P  Active Power W 

2
or
P    U  10 A  1 V  10 W
The transformer’s power consumption (primary) is:
S  U    100 V  0,119 A  11,9 VA S  Apparent Power VA
Since the transformer does not have heat losses there has to be another reason for the difference be-
tween consumption (11,9VA, primary) and output (secondary).

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
Power at active load (current flow by ohmic resistance)
Current and voltage curves are phase balanced, the p = u .i

zero cross-overs occur simultaneously.
If the corresponding instantaneous values of current
and voltage are multiplied, instantaneous values of
efficiency are received. To receive the actual power the
arithmetic average has to be calculated. u
u
p
i
i
Active power P  U  R t
Figure 86: Current, voltage and

power curve with active load
Power at ideal coil (inductive load)

Current and voltage are out of phase, zero-crossover p = u. i L
takes place at different times. Current is “lagging
behind” voltage by 90°.
u
The power curve shows positive and negative iL
power/time areas.
As the positive power is:
iL
u
p
 equal to electrical power supplied to the
circuit / drawn from the mains,
negative power corresponds to:

 the power utilized in the circuit / returned to Figure 97: Current, voltage and
the mains. power curve with inductive load
The power taken from the mains for a short time (“borrowed” from the mains), serves for the creation of a
magnetic field of the coil.
The power which is later “given” back is being created through the depletion of the magnetic field.
The energy swings therefore back and forth between the generator and the consumer. This power which
cannot be used effectively (such as to produce heat or light, etc.) is called inductive reactive power.
The arithmetic mean of the power curve (p(t)) is 0 which means that the real power consumption is 0.
Inductive reactive power QL

QL  U  L QL = inductive reactive power [var] var=volt-ampere-reactive
IL = inductive current [A]
The inductive current being used for the calculation of the inductive reactive power is lagging the primary
voltage by 90°. If capacitors are being applied capacitive current will occur. Multiplication of this
capacitive current  C with the voltage U gives the reactive power Q C
Capacitive Reactive power QC

QC  U  C
QC = capacitive reactive power [var]
IC = capacitive current [A]

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
Power during loading with active and inductive resistance
Using the example of a transformer fed with 100 V

the mains are loaded by active- (resistance R) and p = u.i
reactive power. The resulting power consumption
is called apparent power.
S  U 
u
p
i
i
Even in this case current and voltage are not in u
phase and, the zero crossings are not simultane-
ous. Abbildung 3: Current, voltage and power
The current is lagging the voltage by a phase shift curve of a lossy coil
of 0° <  < 90°.
The power curve shows positive and negative areas with different sizes and proceeds mainly in the posi-
tive area of the diagram. Therefore, active and reactive power can be found. Calculating the arithmetic
mean of the power curve the part of active power is obtained.
The apparent power can be calculated as follows:
S Apparent power [VA]

S  P2  Q2 P Active power [W]
Q Reactive power [VAr]
All kinds of power can be displayed graphically.

In this triangle the angle C , to be more precise, the cos, has a special meaning.
This value is called the power-factor of the circuit.
Figure 10: Power triangle
As the welding power can, more or less, be equated with the active power and the apparent power with
the connected load of the power source, a power-factor cos  approaching 1 is a good utilisation of the
mains supply.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
Active
S1 power
Welding current
circuit
Q1
In the example of the transformer fed with

100V the cos 
P 10,0 W
cos     0,84
S 11,9 VA
This value results in a phase shift between 1,8 ms

current and voltage of:
20 ms
cos   0,84 ˆ   32
Figure 30: Phase shift between current and voltage
20ms 360
1,8ms 32

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
14 Three-Phase Alternating Current

The three-phase supply network is being used between the energy producer (Power Plant Generator)
and the energy user (for example: welding power source). At the very beginning there is the three-phase
alternating current generator.
fixed part of the

generator
moving part
of the genera-
tor
Figure 31: Typical basic circuit of alternating current generator
When rotating a magnetic field, in three coils displaced by 120°, three sinusoidal AC-voltages displaced
120° to each other are generated.
In a pure 3-phase alternating current circuit originally 6 wires are to be used. This is called an ”un-
chained” or ”open” 3-phase-circuit.By concentrating (interlinking) the wires a star-connection is
formed that requires only 3 or 4 wires.
Figure 11: unchained 3-phase-circuit Figure 123: producer (generator) and user (load) in star-
connection circuit

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
Voltage
Note:
 All 3 phases have the same frequency.
 All 3 phases have the same peak value.
 All 3 phases have a phase-shift of 120°
to each other.
Figure 34:Diagram of three-phase Alternating Voltage

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
15 Diode and rectifier

Diode
Diodes are comparable to non-return valves in a water circuit. They are semiconductor components
which allow the current to flow into one direction only while blocking the current flowing into the reverse
direction.
Figure 13: Diode - symbol
With the simplest rectifier circuit with only one diode, only the positive half-wave is delivered to the load
resistance R, while no current flows through the load during the negative half-wave. The ripple w is
largest in this circuit. This type of circuit is not suitable for arc welding.
w > 100%
Figure 14: Half-wave rectifier circuit
AC Bridge Rectifier
With the three-phase current bridge rectifier the negative half wave of the AC is ”bend upwards” by the
DC rectifier and turns therefore into a positive current time area by the load (user).
w ~ 48%
Figure 15: Bidirectional rectifier circuit, bridge rectifier (Graetz bridge)

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
Three-Phase Current Bridge Rectifier
For the arc a current is used containing only a small portion of the alternating current. The
”remaining ripple” should stay low. The “remaining ripple” is defined as the relation between
 AC
the alternating current share  AC to the direct current share  DC : W  %
 DC
The smaller the numerical value of the remaining ripple, the better the rectifier works which
is around a numerical value of 48 % for an AC-bridge rectifier circuit. In arc welding power
sources three-phase current bridge rectifier circuits are being used. The remaining ripple is
only just 4.2 %.
Figure 16:Three-phase bridge rectifier, rotary current bridge rectifier

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
16 Thyristor and Transistor

Thyristor
Like diodes thyristors can be compared to non-return valves, but have the
ability to control the current flow. Therefore, they are semiconductors with an
“On – Off” switch function. If there is a control voltage at the thyristor AC can
flow at the positive half-wave of the AC.
The time when the control voltage is applied can be chosen (ignition time).
Therefore the electric power can be controlled quickly, continuously varying
and nearly without losses. The negative half-wave is always blocked
Cathode
Control
Figure 4: Thyristor circuit Figure 5: Supply voltage UAC, Arc-ignition control currentIG , load current IL
Transistor
Transistors can be compared to extremely fast adjustable hydraulic valves. They are
controllable semiconductors which are able to switch up to 300 A in a period of a few
microseconds (per transistor). They also can be used as variable resistances.
In switched power sources transistors are used as fast On/Off-switches.
Collector
Control
Figure 6: Transistor circuit Figure 7: Supply voltage UDc, control current IB, load current IL
The "basic" version of the transistors is the so-called bipolar types that distinguish themselves by their
easy way to be controlled.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
The field effect transistors (FET) belong to the unipolar transistors. Their input resistance is that high that
their output can be controlled. There is practically no flow of control current, only a gate voltage is ap-
plied at the input. In the modern current sources IGBT`S (insulated gate bipolar transistors) are used.
They are a mixture of the bipolar transistors with a special field effect transistor (MOS-FET).
Their main field of application is higher voltages (starting from several 100 V), high power (switched cur-
rents max. up to 4 kA), operating frequencies up to 200 kHz.
Figure 82: picture of a IGBT ABB 5SNA 2400E120100 (Voltage VCE = 1200 V, Current  c = 2400 A)

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
17 Hazards to persons via contact with electric voltage and current,

occupational safety
On this subject, there is a separate SFI course unit that covers the hazards and occupational health and
safety regarding to welding.
Danger due to electrical Voltage Danger due to electrical Current

• Running through the human body • For DC-currents almost no risk if no por-
• AC more dangerous than DC tion of alternating current is availabel (<
dI/dt)
Risk prevention
 Protective Work Clothing!! • Alternating current (AC) with high frequen-
 creates an increase of the human re- cy ratios  larger dI/dt
sistance Rhuman resulting in for example Current impuls >> 10 kA
for example Resistance welding > 60 kA
 a decrease of the current  human
Risk prevention
through the human body.
• Reading of operating manuals
Keep distance to /away from current-
carrying parts!
• magnetic field force H ~ 1/l², l = distance
from conductor. The field force reduces
quadratic with the distance. Often it is al-
ready sufficient to hold a distance of a few
cm for risk prevention.
Voltage U Rhuman
Ihuman
Transformatorprinzip
a. Risk of electrical voltage b. Risk of magnetic fields
Figure 9:Electrical hazards for humans

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
Symbol Units
Voltage U V
Current I A
Ohmic resistance R 
Specific electrical conductivity  l
 * mm 2
Active power Pel W
Electrical work Wel Ws oder kWh
Heat Q Joule oder kJ
Capacitance C Farad F [As/V]
Inductance L Henry H [Vs/A]
Apparent impedance Z 
Magnetic flux  Vs
Magnetic resistance Rm A/Vs
Frequency F Hz
Magnetic flux density B Vs/m2
Apparent power S VA
Reactive power Qel var
cos phi cos 
Period duration T s
Relations
U g  U1  U 2  U3
Series circuit
 g  1  1   2
R g  R1  R 2  R 3
Parallel circuit Ug  U1  U2  U3
 g  1   2   3
1 1
R Ges  
G Ges 1 1 1
 
R1 R 2 R 3
R1  R 2
RG 
R1  R 2
R1  R 2  R
R G  0,5  R
Ohm's law U
I=
R
Cable resistance
RL 
l

I [ ]
A A
Active power Pel = U*I [W]
Electrical work Wel = U*I*t [Ws], [J]
Amount of heat Q = I2 * R *t [J]
Induced voltage  [V]
U2  
t
Induced voltage U2  2 * *  * f * N2 [V]

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
Transformer main equation N1 U 1 I 2

ü * *
N 2 U 2 I1
Frequency 1 [Hz]
f 
T
Square mean 1 T2
(effective value)  eff  0 i  dt [A]
T
Arithmetic mean 1 T
I 0 i  dt [A]
T
Rectified value 1 T
III  0 IiI  dt [A]
T
Power factor cos ,  cos  
P

P  for 50 Hz
S S  for > 50 Hz
Power in the DC circuit (5) P w
 U  Ι  cos [W]
Reactive power Q el  U    sin  [VAr]
Apparent power S = U I [VA]
Apparent power S  P 2  Q2 [VA]
18 Literature
/1/ Heinz Meister: Elektrotechnische Grundlagen; Vogel Buchverlag Würzburg

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
(1) What are the most important electrical variables in a basic electrical circuit?
 Voltage U
 Ohm's law
 Current I
 The welding circuit
 Resistance R
(2) Electrical resistance is...
 power.
 the quotient of current and voltage
 is reduced in line with the increasing cross-sectional area. The cross-section.
 proportional to the flow of the gas in the hose package.
 increases the longer a welding cable is.
(3) A serial circuit of 4 different resistors…
 is the sum of all resistances.

 The voltage drop across all resistances is the same.
 The same current flows through all resistors.
 is the sum of all conductivity values.
 the total resistance is less than the lowest single resistance.
(4) The parallel connection of 2 different resistors…
 at the same resistances the total resistance is R/2.

 is the sum of all resistances.
 the total resistance is lower than the lowest single resistance.
 the voltage is the same over all resistances.
 at the same resistances the total resistance is 2R.
(5) The magnetic field….
 surrounds a current-carrying conductor.

 around an electrical conductor is proportional to the voltage drop via the conductor
 A force (F = BXJ) acts on a current-carrying conductor in the magnetic field.
 can be generated by rubbing a rubber rod on fur.
 around an electrical conductor is proportional to the current that flows into the conductor.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
(6) Which statement on electric work is correct?
 The “counter” provided by power supply companies indicates the electric power consumed.
 The electric power can be calculated based on the indication of W el = 40 kWh and the
corresponding time indication t = 30 min.
 The heat produced by the current can be calculated using the following formula: Q = I²•R•t
 The numerical values of the units Ws, Joule and Nm can only be compared with each other
with the aid of conversion factors.
 The heat produced by the current can be calculated using the following formula: Q = U²•R•t
(7) Which of these statements are incorrect?
 Direct current always flows in one direction

 Direct current changes its polarity every 50s
 Three-phase current is also referred to as rotary current
 cos φ is the power factor and φ is the phase shift between U and I
 cos φ indicates the efficiency of a machine
(8) How is the electric power P calculated?
 P = U•I
 U = R•I
 P = I²•R
 P = U²•G 1
 P = I²•R•t
(9) Which of the following are electrical components?
 transformer
 welding tongs
 inductance
 capacitor
 cable insulation
(10) Capacitors
 store the electrical energy proportionally to U².

 store the electrical energy proportionally to I².
 are semiconductor components.
 is a “phase shifter” which delays the the voltage signal in relation to the current signal.
 is a “phase shifter” which delays the current signal in relation to the voltage signal.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.03-1 & 1.03-2
(11) Inductance
 stores the electrical energy proportionally to U².

 stores the electrical energy proportionally to I².
 is a semiconductor component.
 is a “phase shifter” which delays the voltage signal in relation to the current signal.
 is a “phase shifter” which delays the current signal in relation to the voltage signal.
(12) The transformer
 only transfers AC signals.

 only transfers DC signals.
 In the transformer, the output voltage behaves to the input voltage like the input number of
windings do to the output number of windings.
 In the transformer the input voltage behaves to the output voltage like the input number of
windings do to the output number of windings.
 In a transformer, the current transfer ratio is inverse to the voltage ratio.
(13) Which of the following are electronic components?
 diode
 choke
 thyristor
 transistor
 transformer
 Diodes are used for rectifying electric variables (voltage, current).

 The half wave rectifier has the lowest ripple.
 The 3-phase bridge circuit has the lowest ripple.
 The transistor is a mechanical switch.
 The transistor can be used as an analogue variable resistor or as switch.
(15) By which of following the human body will be at risk?
 Via high electrical voltage-carrying conductors within minimal distance.

 By touching voltage-carrying conductors (for example 150V AC).
 By direct current carrying isolated conductors.
 By the presence near AC-carrying conductors with high current amplitudes and large dI/dt .
 By following the safety requirements and wearing gloves, safety shoes and protective
clothing

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.04
The arc Page 1
Chapter 1.04: The arc
Contents
1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 2
2 Some basic physical definitions ........................................................................................ 2
3 How an arc is generated – ignition mechanisms .............................................................. 5
4 Arc Voltage characteristic-curve........................................................................................ 7
5 The arc in the magnetic field .............................................................................................. 8
6 Arc with non-consumable electrode (TIG, plasma) .......................................................... 9
6.1 TIG process .................................................................................................................... 9
6.2 Plasma process ............................................................................................................ 10
7 Arc with consumable electrode (gas-shielded metal arc welding) ............................... 10
7.1 MIG welding .................................................................................................................. 10
7.2 MAG welding ................................................................................................................ 10
8 AC welding ......................................................................................................................... 13
9 Arc-characteristics of manual metal arc welding ........................................................... 13
10 Arc-characteristics of submerged arc welding ............................................................... 14
11 Arc-characteristics of stud welding ................................................................................. 14
12 Hazards when using the arc during joining (welding) and separating (cutting)
metals ................................................................................................................................. 14
13 Questions ........................................................................................................................... 16
14 Bibliography and further information on arc welding .................................................... 18

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.04
The arc Page 2
1 Introduction
An arc is a particular kind of self- sustaining gas discharge at relatively high currents (1-1,500 A) at low
burning voltages (15-50 V). The electric current flows via the plasma column, the arc. This plasma is like
a hot, electrically conductive gas. The strength of the flowing (welding) current governs the plasma
temperature. This thermal energy is used to join or separate metals by melting them locally within a
limited area.
Today, arcs are used mainly in combination with

 non-consumable electrodes, e.g. with TIG and plasma welding
 consumable electrodes, e.g. with manual electric, MIG/MAG and submerged arc welding
 stud welding
 plasma cutting
 plasma spraying
This chapter explains some of the key fundamentals on how electrical gas discharges and
how high-temperature plasma are generated.
2 Some basic physical definitions

 Atom
The atom is the smallest particle of a chemical element which still possesses its chemical characteristics.
An atom consists mainly of a nucleus, with protons and neutrons, and electron shells with electrons.
Protons are positively charged, electrons negatively. Neutrons are electrically neutral. Protons and
neutrons determine an atom's weight. Electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom in paths (shells) in the
atomic shells. We say an atom is electrically neutral if it has the same number of protons as electrons.
Noble gases have all their electron shells completely full of electrons. That means they are chemically
inactive (inert).
 Ion
We use the term 'ion' if an atom has more or fewer electrons in its outermost shell than positively
charged particles (protons) in its nucleus.
Positive ions ⊕
 There is at least one electron missing in the outermost shell, the charge of the nucleus
predominates.
⇒ The ion is positively charged.
 We call such ions cations, because they move towards the cathode.
Negative ions ⊖
 The atom has at least one more electron in its outermost shell than protons in its nucleus,
the number of electrons predominates.
⇒ The ion is negatively charged.
 We call such ions anions, because they move towards the anode.
We talk about ionisation when atoms are stimulated into emitting or absorbing electrons, for example by
firing electrons or ions at them, so that they become ions themselves. Free ions are also created by
processes such as dissociation, when dissolving salts, (e.g. NaCl) for example, in water.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.04
The arc Page 3
_
_ _
_ _
K+ _ K+ _
_ _
Nucleus _ _
P+
P  Proton N a Helium _
P+
Positive charge
N  Neutron b Neon
_
_ _
_ _
K+
_ K+ _
_ _
_ _
_
c Lithium d Fluorine
K+ the atomic nucleus is positively charged. The number

of protons and electrons is the same It is outwardly
electrically neutral.
Figure 1: Schematic model of an atom
 Molecule
A molecule is a chemical compound of two or more atoms. There are two basic types of bond:
- Atomic bond  E.g. Hydrogen as molecule H2.
- Ionic bond  E.g. NaCl
 Comparison
Atom : Electron
Hydrogen atom
Diameter, effective diameter
⇒ approx. 2⋅104: 1
Weight
⇒ approx. 2⋅104: 1

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.04
The arc Page 4
Work function, typical values

- Cu 4.3 – 4.50 eV
- Al 3.2 – 4.00 eV
-W 4.56 – 4.60 eV
- Ag 4.05 – 4.50 eV
- Ni 5.00 eV
-K 2.25 eV
- Na 2.28 eV
- Cs 1.7 – 2.14 eV
Figure 2: Potential well (model) - Ba 1.8 – 2.52 eV
 Work function
The term 'work function' refers to the energy required to bring electrons to the surface, for example from
a metal. Figure 2 clearly shows how much of this work is required, using the potential well model. Some
specific values relating to work function are given in the adjacent table. What matters above all is the
relationship between the different materials, e.g. tungsten W and barium Ba.
Conclusion: The smaller the work function, the less energy is needed to release free electrons from
the metal surface of the cathode.
 the more reliable the ignition process is
 the more current can be applied to the cathode.
With TIG welding, including 'rare earths' in the tungsten electrode improves how a no-contact arc can be
generated with a high-voltage pulse (see section 1.06 TIG welding).
 Plasma
- is the fourth state of aggregation (Figure 3)
- is a fully or partially ionised gas
 consisting mainly of electrons and ions, as well as atoms and molecules
 and appears electrically neutral outwardly
 but behaves like an electric conductor to electrical and magnetic fields.
- can be divided according to pressure into low-, normal- and high-pressure plasma.
- is referred to as cold or hot plasma, depending on its temperature.
In the case of arc welding, the plasma (arc) is created by an electrically induced, self-sustaining
gas discharge, and thus generally corresponds to a high-temperature plasma at normal
(atmospheric) pressure
The number of ions +
electrons increases with the
temperature
N[ion+electron]= F (T)
44
Temperature
Temperature >
> 2000 K
4 Plasma
3 3
2
1
gaseous
liquid
solid
2
2
Density
Figure 3: States of aggregation

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3 How an arc is generated – ignition mechanisms

3 W-electrode
Cathode Cathode
3 _ _
3
e
E „hot“
electrode E
Voltage Electric field Voltage e e Electric field
V V e
Electron e
High-voltage Electron
e
Pulse approx. movement movement
8 kV
+ Workpiece + Workpiece
Anode Anode
Figure 4: Igniting arc by field emission Figure 5: Thermal emission
Field emission ()
In electrical engineering, the term 'field emissions' refers to electrons being ejected from a metallic
surface (conductor), the cathode, by applying a high electrical field strength.
Now we will describe the main requirements for using contact-less ignition of the arc in TIG welding as
our example:
- TIG welding uses tungsten electrodes as the cathode. They have a very high work function (see
table Figure 2). Embedding materials with a low work function, such as 'rare earths', makes it
easier for electrons to escape and so ensures that the arc is ignited more reliably.
- The pointed design of the electrode enables a high electrical field strength density.
- To initiate the ignition process, a high ignition voltage pulse (approx. 8 kV) is applied between the
cathode and the anode.
- The closer the electrodes are to the workpiece, the faster the arc can ignite.
- With TIG welding, mainly argon is used as the shielding gas. The arc ignites faster than when
using helium. Pure helium requires higher no-load (open-circuit) voltages.
The contactless arc ignition method
- The high-voltage pulse forms an ionised conductive channel between the electrode and the workpiece.
- Initially, a so-called 'cold' discharge takes place.
- This 'cold' discharge enables with a corresponding no-load (open-circuit) voltage of the welding
power source the ignition of the ('hot') welding arc.
Thermal emission ()
If the electrode (cathode) is heated strongly (>> 1,000 K), this makes it more likely that the free electrons
in metals can escape from the surface of the metal. A kind of space charge occurs directly at the
surface. Applying an electrical field accelerates the electrons getting out of the 'hot' surface.
Thermal emissions are vitally important to maintain a plasma (welding arc). The hot cathode provides the
electrons for the arc.

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E
Cathode Anode
+ -
_
I -
A A Atom
+
+ Ion -
- Ion - Elektron
+
I I I
-
- Movement► electric field E
-
Movement► mechanical impuls
-
Figure 6: Impact ionisation
Impact ionisation ()
As soon as the field or thermal emissions give rise to free-charged-particles, mainly electrons between
the electrodes (cathode/anode), the electrical field accelerates them. They impinge on atoms and/or
molecules. This creates ions and further free electrons. This process is referred to as impact ionisation.
Because multiple electrons are generally released, the process is highly accelerated, (avalanche effect).
This very quickly creates a conductive 'channel' (plasma), the arc.
Current conduction in the arc plasma

Current is carried in the plasma via ions and electrons. At the anode and cathode boundaries, a charge
is exchanged with the ions (anions and cations), because the cathode “injects” only electrons into the
plasma and the anode “absorbs” only electrons from the plasma. In the conductors connected to the
welding current source, the charge is also carried (current flow) entirely via electrons.

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4 Arc Voltage characteristic-curve
Figure 7: Voltage characteristic in the arc (shown in diagram form)
An arc is divided into three areas, the extremely narrow drop areas in front of the cathode and anode and
the arc column. The drop areas consist mainly of 'ion clouds'. These have a 'braking' effect on the electron
flow and generate in this way the higher voltage drop compared with the longer plasma column (Figure 7).
Existing physical models do not describe the drop areas very adequately. Between the two drop areas is
the plasma column. With a predominantly gas plasma (TIG, plasma welding, the voltage drop depends
mainly on the process gas used (e.g. Ar or He). In the case of arcs with consumable electrodes, the metal
vapour also has a decisive influence on the electrical resistance (voltage) of the plasma column. Additive
elements, as used in submerged arc welding (powder), manual electric welding (electrode coating) and flux
cored arc welding (flux core) or similar admixtures affect the voltage drop in both the drop areas and in the
plasma column.

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Temperatures
A Anode spot approx. 4,000 K

P Plasma column approx. 20,000 K
K Cathode spot (hotspots) approx. 3,600 K
The anode is generally hotter than the cathode because fast
P electrons and positive ions generally impact on just a very small
A area of the surface, while electrons are emerging from different,
very rapidly moving, points on the cathode and moreover, the
emission of electrons simultaneously generate a cooling effect on
the cathode surface.
K All the temperatures are also determined by the welding process
itself and its background conditions, such as process gas, powder,
base materials and/or other factors
Figure 8: MIG/MAG arc
5 The arc in the magnetic field

The electrons and ions in the arc move from the cathode to the anode or vice versa, depending on
whether they are negatively or positively charged. Current flowing through a conductor generates a
rotationally symmetrical magnetic field, as we saw in chapter SFI 1.03 section 3. The same happens with
a current-carrying plasma, the arc. The plasma column is highly mobile, so the arc can easily be
deflected by a magnetic field. This is shown by Figure 9 the three finger (right hand) rule in terms of the
effects of the three vectors, current (density) j, magnetic flow density B and the resulting force F.
Figure 9: Arc in magnetic field
Targeted deflection of the arc via a magnetic field,

- also known as magnetic oscillation of the arc, can be used with TIG and MIG/MAG welding to melt
the flanks more effectively during narrow gap welding (see chapters 1.07 and 1.08 TIG and
MIG/MAG welding).
- is used with magnetically impelled arcs (MIA welding) for welding pipes etc. Applying a symmetrical
magnetic field causes the arc to rotate around the pipe ends to be welded (chapter 1.12-2).
- is also used with stud welding (magnetic rotating arc welding) to improve the weld quality (chapter
1.12-2).

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External magnetic fields can also cause welddefects, however. As, here, the arc is clearly deflected
visibly, like blowing on a candle flame, this phenomenon is also known as the arc blow effect.
- This can cause lack of fusion when welding pre-magnetised plates, for example, because the arc is
magnetically deflected away from the weld joint.
- The arc may also be deflected due to incorrect routing of the ground return conductor, because the
return current in the conductor creates a magnetic field which interferes with the arc.
6 Arc with non-consumable electrode (TIG, plasma)
6.1 TIG process
The arc is generated between the tungsten electrode as the cathode and the workpiece as anode. The
process gases used are mainly inert gases such as argon, helium or mixtures of the two. The geometric
shape and temperature (energy) of the arc plasma is primarily determined by the process gas. The
proportion of metal vapour and/or metal ions in the plasma is comparatively low compared with the
consumable electrode processes.
There are two ways of igniting an arc:
1. Contactless
 via a high-voltage pulse, as described above.
 arc ignites due to field emission
2. via short-circuit ignition:
 The tungsten electrode touches the workpiece and then the welding current is switched on. A
programmable short circuit current heats the electrode. When the electrode is then lifted, the
thermal emissions and rapidly rising welding voltage, assisted by the field emission, ignite the arc.
The tip of the electrode is extremely hot, so the required ignition voltage is very low.
 The arc is ignited by a combination of thermal and field emissions.
Note: Using a high proportion of helium (>90%) in the process gas makes contactless ignition more
difficult, because the ignition voltage required is higher than with argon-rich gases.
current for the working point Aso
Figure 10: I/U curve for TIG welding, shielding gas argon

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The current/voltage curve ()

The current/voltage curve is divided into two areas. The Ayrton area of the curve is unsuitable for
welding. From approx. 50 A, the arc voltage increases more or less proportionally with the current, which
is why it is also known as the ohm area. The arc voltage increases as the arc gets longer (red curve) and
decreases as it gets shorter (blue curve). If helium is used as process gas instead of argon, the arc
voltage is significantly higher for the same arc length. The characteristic is comparable, however.
6.2 Plasma process
The plasma process differs from the TIG process in that the arc is constricted by means of an additional
plasma jet. This plasma arc is ignited in two stages. First a pilot arc is ignited using a high-voltage pulse.
This plasma ionises the path between the cathode and anode for the actual plasma arc. In the second
stage, the actual plasma arc is ignited merely by applying the no-load (open-circuit) voltage and
switching on the welding power source. (chapter 1.12-1).
7 Arc with consumable electrode (gas-shielded metal arc welding)
7.1 MIG welding

The arc is formed between the consumable wire electrode as anode and the workpiece as cathode. The
process gas (Inert gases) used is mainly argon. The arc consists of a plasma component, which is
generated mainly by metal evaporating at the droplet-end of the wire and secondly by the composition of
the process gas.
7.2 MAG welding
The difference between MAG and MIG welding lies in the process gas used. It contains Active gas
components, such as CO2, O2 etc.
The arc is always ignited by creating a short circuit between the anode (wire) and cathode (workpiece).
Two types are distinguished here:
LIFTARC
 First, the wire moves towards the workpiece, causing a short circuit between the wire electrode and
the workpiece as the counter-electrode. The high current density at the tip of the wire causes the
surface of the wire electrode to heat up strongly without melting. After a time determined by one of
the process variables, such as the short circuit current, wire material etc., the wire is moved
backwards. The short circuit bridge is broken. The combination of thermal and field emissions then
ignites the arc.
Via short-circuit ignition

 Here again, the wire moves towards the workpiece, causing a short circuit between the wire and the
workpiece. The short circuit current rises rapidly to a high value. The wire melts under the high
current density, usually close to the surface of the workpiece. The short circuit bridge is broken and
an arc is generated. Once again, the arc is ignited by a combination of thermal and field emissions.
Arc curve (MIG/MAG welding)

The MIG/MAG welding arc curve is comparable to that for TIG welding. The additional metal vapour in
the arc modifies the voltage drops in anode and cathode, as well as in the arc column. The influencing
factors here are as follows:
- current density (wire diameter)
- type of process gas  inert gases, argon-rich gas mixture, carbon dioxide
- material to be welded

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Forces in the arc
P
P
a Schematic diagram. b HS image of a pulse arc

P Pinch force = FL Lorenz force
Figure 11: Forces in arc (MIG/MAG welding)
Figure 11 a shows the forces involved during MIG/MAG welding. One major factor which affects how
drops are detached is the magnetic Lorenz force (FL), also known as pinch force (P), at the transition
point between the wire end and weld-drop: i.e., the greater the welding current, the greater the Lorenz
force. Through appropriate programming of the current pulses (pulse width/amplitude etc.), detachment
of the drops can be influenced. A stable arc also depends very much on using suitable process gases
(chapter 1.06). The arc is not only affected by the base material to be welded in how they vaporise or
what they are made of but, for example, also by the viscosity and surface tension which counteract or
support the Lorenz forces controlling the droplet detachment.
The longer the arc, the greater the suction forces, i.e. the oxygen in the air may impair the process. The
welding speed above all causes lateral forces in the arc which may also affect process stability at high
speeds.
Process dynamics
Weld pool
Figure 12: Time constants in MIG/MAG arc

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The process dynamics in MIG/MAG welding are characterised by three characteristic areas:
1. By the material transition, the time constant for the drop detachment is in the range τ ~ 1 ms - 10 ms.
This is determined:
- by the wire diameter,
- material composition and
- process gas.
2. By the plasma, the arc, the dynamic time constant τ lies between a few μs to approx. 1 ms.
3. By the weld pool in the base material, this time constant τ can have greatly fluctuating values from ~1
ms to ~ 1 s. It is determined by:
- the thickness of the base material,
- the composition of the material
- by the heat dissipation (e.g. fasteners/clamping tools)
- etc.
In ranges 1 and 2, modern welding equipment can control the material transition very well.
Keyword  energy-reducing processes (chapter 1.08).
Arc types for MIG/MAG welding
There are basically five arc transition types for the MIG/MAG welding process. They are largely
determined by the wire feed speed (welding current). These arc types can be modified by process
controlled welding technology in order to extend the range of available applications.
1. Short arc  the material transition (drop transition) occurs during the short circuit
phase. The short circuit phase and ignition phase alternate on a
regular basis.
2. Transition arc  the material transition occurs sporadically with and without short
circuiting. The drop transition is extremely irregular. This arc type is
not used in practice, being superseded by other types, such as the
pulse arc.
3. Spray arc  the material transition takes the form of small drops without short
circuiting due to the very high current density at the wire electrode.
4. Pulsed arc  the material transition is very regular. Detachment of the drops
always occurs without short circuiting, due to the supporting influence
of the current pulses on the pinch force. Ideally, each pulse sends
one drop into the weld puddle.
5.
6. Rotating arc  the material transition occurs in the form of a rotating chain of drops
virtually without short circuiting, upon further increase of the current
density.

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8 AC welding
TIG welding
AC TIG welding is primarily used for making welded joints in predominantly aluminium and magnesium-
based alloys.
- If the aluminium base material is used as the cathode, the oxide skin is broken up through the
electrons escaping from the surface of the metal. This process is referred to as the cleaning effect on
the surface of aluminium materials.
- Using the tungsten electrode as the positive pole means that the tungsten tip becomes much hotter
than the negative pole, so the tungsten electrode needs to have a greater diameter to assist with
heat dissipation.
- If an aluminium base material is used as the anode, the extremely strong focussing around the
anode creates deeper weld penetration.
- The negative tungsten electrode remains colder.
- During zero cross-over of the welding current when the polarity changes, the arc extinguishes but
reignites immediately upon a steep voltage zero cross-over. Only in the event of 'flat' zero crossovers
(sinusoidal) are high-voltage pulses necessary to assist reigniting.
AC MIG/MAG welding
Based upon the different operating mechanisms at the cathode with hotspots (emerging electrons)
spread over a 'large' area, or at the anode with electron entry concentrated in a 'small' area, the polarity
change can also be used to additionally control the heat input in the workpiece and/or wire electrode.
Figure 13 shows that when the wire electrode is the positive pole
(anode) with respect to the workpiece, the electrons enter the wire
at an extremely limited area. This causes the wire end to become
hotter than when the polarity is reversed. The pinch forces can be
supported much more effectively.
If the wire electrode is acting as the cathode, on the other hand, the
cathode emission points move back and forth across the surface of
the wire. The wire is heated more evenly over a larger area. The
drop becomes larger and is also colder. The pinch forces are
Figure 13: AC MIG/MAG arc considerably lower. If the polarity is now changed again, even a
lower pulse energy is required to release this large drop. Lower
energy input is therefore required in the base material during welding.
9 Arc-characteristics of manual metal arc welding
The arc is always ignited via a short circuit. The high current density heats the contact point rapidly and
by pulling the electrode away quickly the short circuit interrupts and the arc ignites.
The arc is stabilised by elements in the electrode coating. The coating also determines which polarity
can be used during welding. Various types are also AC-compatible. (chapter 1.09).

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10 Arc-characteristics of submerged arc welding

With UP welding, the arc is also always ignited by a short circuit. The high current melts the short circuit
bridge. The short circuit bridge is broken and an arc is created. Covering the arc with powder forms a
cavern in which the arc can burn protected from the outside air. The solidifying melt in the weld seam is
covered with slag. The SAW powder also contains elements which stabilise the arc (chapter 1.10).
11 Arc-characteristics of stud welding
Stud welding involves using an arc to weld (threaded) bolts or pins to a base material (chapter 1.12-2).
Arc ignition
 Short circuit ignition

The ignition process is similar to MIG/MAG welding, but the short circuit current is considerably higher
 Lift ignition
Lift ignition corresponds to the LIFTARC ignition of MIG/MAG welding with different process
parameters
Welding arc
 The welding arc corresponds to the short and spray arc with MIG/MAG welding, but with a much
shorter arc length and generally greater welding currents.
 With 'magnetic rotating arc' welding, a magnetic coil is wound around a sleeve (small tube). The arc is
being propelled into a rotary motion which enables a very even heating of the joint surface.
12 Hazards when using the arc during joining (welding) and separating (cutting) metals
Temperature
High temperatures occur in the arc >> 1,000 K, so strictly observe fire safety rules.
- Heat is transmitted without contact via the heat radiation of the arc.
- The arc heats other sheet sections indirectly.
- During manual metal arc welding, ensure that the welding electrode is set down safely.
- Welding can cause 'hot' spatter.
Radiation
During TIG, plasma, MIG/MAG and manual metal arc welding, radiation is generated which is:
-  risk of dazzle eyes and impair vision
Highly intense in the visible range
- Highly intense in the invisible range
o UV (ultraviolet) range  extremely harmful to eyes and skin
o IR (infra-red) radiation  strong heating of the skin and eye-damaging

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a TIG welding CrNi of b MIG/MAG welding of CrNi

(welding current: 180 A) (welding current: 180 A)
Figure 14: Radiation spectrum during arc welding
Figure 14 shows the radiation spectra for a TIG and a MIG/MAG arc. In particular for the MIG/MAG
process, the very high intensities in the UV radiation range can be seen, while a high level of infrared
radiation occurs during TIG welding.
Table 1: Different types of radiation and the risks they involve
Different types of radiation and the involved potential hazards are shown in Table 1.
For welders and anyone else working in the welding area continuously or for longer periods, must wear
protective clothing and goggles (DIN EN 166/169) to protect their eyes and skin.
Generation of harmful substances

The immense heat of the arc generates:
- fine dust, ultra-fine particles in the micron range
- reaction products of gases, metals etc.
The type and amount of harmful substances generated depends on numerous factors:
- the welding/cutting process used
- the process gases used
- the working materials involved

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13 Questions

 Atoms consist of electrons, protons and neutrons
 Ions are either anions or cations
 Atoms are charged particles
 Molecules consist of ions
 Electrons are heavier than protons
(2) What do we mean by plasma?

 The fourth state of aggregation
 An inert gas
 A plastic material
 An ionised gas
 A supercooled liquid

 Plasma is electrically conductive, like an electrical conductor
 The plasma is deflected by a magnetic field
 The blow effect of the arc is caused by the hot melt (thermal effect)
 PINCH force refers to the ejection of drops (spatter)
 PINCH force means the magnetic effect of the weld current due to Lorenz forces during
detachment of the drop from the wire
(4) What mechanisms are required for the generation of charge carriers?
 Field emission
 Thermal emission
 Magnetic emission
 Evaporating of water
 A high ignition voltage
(5) What are the charge carriers in the arc?

 Fast-moving atoms
 Ions
 Molecules
 Electrons
 Cations
(6) The arc is ignited

 By deliberately inducing a short circuit
 By the gas pre-flow
 By a contactless high-voltage pulse
 By a long arc
 By a pilot arc

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(7) Which of the following are components of a welding arc?

 Pulsed arc
 Arc plasma
 Short arc
 Anode and cathode drop areas
 Ions and electrons
(8) Which welding processes do not use process gas?

 TIG welding
 Plasma welding
 MIG/MAG welding
 Manual electric welding,
 Submerged arc welding
(9) Which arc is not an MIG/MAG arc?

 Short arc
 Plasma arc
 Spray arc
 Pilot arc
 Pulsed arc
(10) What harmful effects does an arc have on people?

 It emits UV radiation
 The voltage drop in the arc
 Heat radiation in the infra-red range
 It produces fine dust
 The ions radiating from the arc
(11) What personal protection equipment do welders need?

 Gloves
 Apron to protect them against radioactive radiation from the arc
 Goggles against high levels of UV radiation from the arc
 Waterproof clothing
 Flame-retardant clothing

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14 Bibliography and further information on arc welding
[1] Schellhase, Martin: Arc welding - a technological tool, DVS-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1985
[2] H. Cramer; Pommer, S.: Overview of modern arc processes and their material transitions in
MIG/MAG welding DVS Congress, Hamburg 26.-29.09.2011, for more information contact
GSI NL SLV Munich, Schachenmeierstraße 37, D-80636 Munich, www.slv-muenchen.de
[3] M. Schnick: Visualisation of shielding gas covering in arc welding, Dresdner Fügetechnisches
Kolloquium 2012, Dresden 29. and 30.032012, additional information also under
http://micron.mw.tu-dresden.de/fue/fuetec.htm
[4] D. Uhrlandt: Emission spectroscopy in MIG/MAG welding arcs, Dresdner Fügetechnisches
Kolloquium 2012, Dresden 29. und 30.032012, additional information: INP Greifswald e.V.,
Felix-Hausdorf-Straße 2, D-17489 Greifswald, www.inp-greifwald.de

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Power sources for arc welding I Page 1
Section 1.05-1: Power sources for arc welding I
Contents
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 2
2 The welding power circuit .............................................................................................................. 2
3 Operating principles of welding power supplies .......................................................................... 3
3.1 Welding transformer................................................................................................................... 3
3.1.1 Principle ......................................................................................................................... 3
3.1.2 Setting principles ............................................................................................................ 4
3.2 Welding rectifier ......................................................................................................................... 5
3.3 Electronic power supplies .......................................................................................................... 7
3.3.1 Thyristor welding rectifier ............................................................................................... 7
3.3.2 Transistor welding power supply .................................................................................... 7
3.4 Welding converter .................................................................................................................... 13
4 Technical data (rating plate) ........................................................................................................ 13

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1 Introduction
Starting with the basic electrical circuit (script SFI 1.03 Figure 1) this section 1.05 I/II looks at the
requirements for arc welding power supplies in more detail.
Figure 1: Arc welding power supply
What requirements must an arc welding power supply meet?
Mains connection Welding Power Supply Power supply Welding arc
Input mains galvanically

Mains voltage
isolated from welding Welding cable Process-adapted
Mains current
circuit connections welding characteristics
Connected power
Working safeguards
No load (R ∞)
e.g.: Operability, setting aids
4(5) conductor system) Ignition aid (UZ ~8 kV)
UN 400 V, IN 3 x 32 A
(software) interfaces, Power sockets Short circuit (R  ~0)
e.g.:2(3) conductor e.g. robots, recording/ standardised Dynamic, static
system) backing up data, plug connections characteristic
UN 230 V, IN 16 A calibrating Process stability
e.g. spatter prevention
Table 1: Requirements for a power source for arc welding
2 The welding power circuit
Figure 2: Basic power circuit for welding

In welding, appropriate static characteristics are used for each welding process. A characteristic shows
the relationship between current and voltage as the load resistance changes (arc). We say the
characteristic has a constant voltage (CV) characteristic if the voltage remains more or less constant as
the current increases or reduces by just a few volts per 100 A. This is shown in red in Figure 3. However,
if the voltage decreases steadily as the load increases (R  0 Ω), we call this a falling characteristic
(constant current, CC). The current reaches a stable limit (blue characteristic, Figure 3).

equipment
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Constant Voltage (CV)

(flat) characteristic:
Constant Voltage
(flat) characteristic
MIG/MAG welding
Submerged arc welding
Constant Current (CC)

Constant Current (falling) characteristic:
(falling) characteristic
Manual electric welding,

TIG welding
plasma welding
a) Power supply characteristic b) Welding process
Figure 3: Allocation of power supply characteristic to welding process
This power supply characteristic, also known as a static equipment characteristic, can be generated in a
number of different ways:
1 via the design structure
2 via an electromagnetic control
3 via electronic control
3 Operating principles of welding power supplies
3.1 Welding transformer

3.1.1 Principle
Law of induction
U2 ~ -dΦ/dt
U1 / I1 Primary voltage/current
U2 / I2 Secondary voltage/current
N1 Number of primary windings
N2 Number of secondary windings
Figure 4: Transformer - principle

The transformer does not transfer DC !
The arrangement of the primary and secondary windings in a transformer as welding power supply, can
be used to generate a flat (CV) or falling (CC) characteristic. A welding transformer with a falling (CC)
characteristic is used for AC-TIG, submerged arc and manual electric welding. With AC TIG welding, a
capacitor must also be connected in series, because the differing behaviour of the positive and negative
current component at the tungsten electrode can generate a DC component which could destroy the
transformer.

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α Characteristic angle of
inclination function of
connection between
primary and secondary
windings and resistance
losses in coils.
a) falling characteristic b) constant voltage characteristic

Primary and secondary Primary and secondary coils are closely interlaced with one
windings are far removed another  'hard' transformer, the larger α, the 'softer' the
from one another  'soft' transformer
transformer
Figure 5: Transformer - characteristic
The mains (primary) voltage between two wires is normally 230 V in single-phase networks (L1/N/PE)
230 V and 400 V in three-phase networks (L1/L2/L3/N/PE) (e.g. L1/L2). Different voltages can easily be
generated by adjusting the winding taps accordingly (in the chemical industry, for example). In the
simplest case, there are four conditions a welding transformer must meet:
1. It must convert the mains voltage to the welding voltage (US)  US<< UN and IS>> IN
2. It must ensure optimum welding characteristics  ignites well, low spatter
3. It must protect workers  contact voltage (idling (U0))  U0 ≤ 48 V AC e.g. 113V DC
4. The mains power must be isolated galvanically from the welding circuit
The mains fuses in the standard three-phase sockets, e.g. 16, 32, 63 A etc. prevent the equipment drawing
too much power from the mains supply. This may also mean limiting how long the power source is
switched on for in exceptional cases if the thermal effects of the current exceed the fuse characteristic.
In principle, however: The (mains) fuse serves to protect the mains supply  Fire safety!
3.1.2 Setting principles
a Step switch (multiple contact) b Variable resistance (choke/ inductance coil)
c Magnetic shunt (scatter core) d Transductor

Figure 6: Transformer setting principles

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-1
a Step switch (multiple contact)

The step switch changes the transformer's conversion ratio. The welding voltage can be set in
discrete voltage steps.
Advantages:
- a robust and highly cost-effective solution for simple applications
- is still used frequently for MIG/MAG welding rectifiers (see section 3.2 Welding rectifier)
Disadvantages:
- is limited in use by limited number of steps, voltage steps too great
- the smaller the voltage steps, the more winding taps are required, increasing the production costs
- the no-load voltage is determined by the preselected step U0 ≠ constant
b Variable resistance (choke/ inductance coil)

Including a variable resistance in the welding circuit can be used to set the working point (welding voltage
and current) during welding. Using a choke in an AC circuit is particularly effective. This reduces the
resistive component considerably. The choke therefore heats up less than a purely ohmic (DC) resistor.
c Magnetic shunt (scatter core)

The secondary voltage U2 is a function of the magnetic flux φ2. The position of the scatter core
(moving plate assembly) in the transformer magnet circuit governs how much of the primary
generated component of the magnetic flux φ1 is derived. What this means is that, when the scatter
core is completely 'immersed', the derived flux is governed by the ratio of the magnetic cross-
sectional area of the secondary scatter core and the secondary winding core ( φ1 –φS =φ2). φ2 min
equals minimum weld current. If the scatter core is lifted out of the magnetic circuit completely, the
total magnetic flux φ1 ~ 2 (φS = 0) will pass through the secondary coil. The welding current now
reaches its maximum value I2 max. φ1 = φ2 max.
d Transductor
The transductor works on the principle that a strong magnetic inundation will saturate the iron core, so
it behaves as if it were air (RmagnFe ~ RmagnAir). If we replace the mechanical adjustment of the magnetic
shunt (section c.) with an electrically variable magnetic circuit, we get a transductor. A transducer has
an auxiliary winding through which a DC control current flows, controlling the magnetic flux φS in the
same way. This controls the magnetic resistance of the magnetic shunt. A transductor is also known
as a magnetic amplifier, as a small output can be used to control a large one. This adjustment
principle makes it possible to use an electrical control without any additional mechanical intervention.
This means it can be controlled remotely, which is a first step towards electronic power supplies.
3.2 Welding rectifier
A welding rectifier consists a transformer and a bridge rectifier in sequence. The rectifier converts AC-
current to DC-current. The residual ripple with a three-phase full bridge rectifier is very low (4%). Using a
welding circuit choke, the current ripple can even further be reduced. The size of the choke has quite a
significant effect on the welding characteristics: igniting an MIG/MAG arc requires the lowest possible
inductance, for example, whereas a higher inductance is used during the welding process itself. That’s
why so-called electronic chokes are often used. These can be used to adjust the inductance and hence
the dynamics of the different process conditions during welding.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-1
Mains voltage Secondary voltage DC 4% ripple Welding Voltage
DC −
AC ~
DC +
Transformer Rectifier Choke Welding arc
Figure 7: Principle of a welding rectifier

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-1
3.3 Electronic power supplies

Electronic power supplies use electronic components (thyristors, transistors) to set/control the welding
voltage/current. There are two characteristic types of component which govern the control principle here:
1. Thyristor welding rectifiers (network-synchronous regulation (control))
2. Transistor power supplies (control independently of frequency and phase of input network)
Diode Thyristor Transistor

Figure 8: Electronic components
3.3.1 Thyristor welding rectifier

Thyristor power supplies are similar in design to welding rectifiers (see Figure 3.2). Half or all the diodes
in the rectifier block can be replaced by thyristors (semi-/fully-controlled three-phase bridge). A thyristor
works like a diode in the first instance, but only if it is controlled via the gate (control electrode G) during
the positive half-wave. The electronic control can be used to control the welding voltage (welding
current) synchronously with the mains frequency. Additional control circuits can be used to generate
different characteristics (falling  current-controlled, flat  or voltage-controlled). The problem with this
control principle is mainly that it causes more ripple than uncontrolled rectifiers, that is, the welding circuit
choke must normally be larger than with an uncontrolled welding rectifier (diodes). They are still used for
simply applications, manual electric, TIG, MIG/MAG welding even today. They can still be used cost-
effectively today, especially with submerged arc welding in the larger welding current ranges.
3.3.2 Transistor welding power supply
Transistor welding power supplies use transistors to control the electrical output for the welding arc.
“Transistor” here is a general term (see part SFI/IWE 1.03 Electrical principles) for a controllable
electronic semiconductor element. Today, the output voltage and current and dynamic characteristics
are controlled almost exclusively digitally by one or more processor systems. This creates more complex
ways of influencing the welding process.
Three different switching principles are used, as follows:
1. Starting from the welding rectifier, a transistor is added as an analogue actuator downstream.
The transistor acts as a variable resistor. The secondary choke can be eliminated or replaced by
a filter with a surge protection device. Analogue transistor welding power supply
2. The setup is the same as in 1 in principle, except now the transistor works as a 'switch' 
Secondary switched-mode transistor welding power supply
3. The primary switched-mode transistor welding power supply uses a different principle All laptops
use a similar power supply today.  Primary switched-mode transistor welding power supply

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-1
Analogue
Secondary switched-mode
Inverter - primary switched-mode
Figure 9: Electronic welding power supply - transistor welding power supply
1. Analogue transistor welding power supply,

2. Secondary switched-mode transistor welding power supply,
3. Primary switched-mode transistor welding power supply (inverter)
Combining different control principles can be used to create other versions. Two of these will be
explained in more detail here:
4. the transistor welding power supply in hybrid form,
5. the combined primary and secondary
switched-mode power supply.
3.3.2.1 Analogue transistor welding power supply
DC −
US
IS
US
Regler
IS
DC +
Intermediate Transistor
Transformer Rectifier Welding arc
circuit filter controller
Figure 10: Analogue transistor welding power supply (principle)

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-1
An analogue power supply uses a transistor on the secondary side of a transformer followed by a
rectifier. The first part can be compared to that of a welding rectifier. This eliminates the step switch and
the actual inductance coil. The intermediate circuit filter (choke and capacitor) is used to smooth the
intermediate circuit voltage. The transistor downstream is wired in series with the welding arc. The way it
functions may be regarded in simplified form as a variable resistor. The way it actually works is
considerably more complex, however, so the dynamic transition method e.g. short  arc can be
influenced. The functioning principle can then be compared with an electronic choke.
The control electronics can vary the welding current and voltage level and behaviour via the output
component (transistor) within a few microseconds. This can be used to eliminate interference-induced
current or voltage fluctuations. The response time is 40 µs – 50 μs. This creates completely new control
strategies, especially with MIG/MAG welding. This makes the process virtually spatter-free, while at the
same time the faster control can make the process much more stable while inducing less heat.
Advantages:
- very fast control, response times << 100 µs
- electronic control  digital process control
- suited to all welding processes
Disadvantages:
- high power losses in transistor  water cooling
- poor electrical efficiency (efficiency  ) < 50%
- much more expensive than any other electronic control principles
The analogue transistor welding power supply is used as a universal power supply in research, even
today.
3.3.2.2 Secondary switched-mode transistor welding power supply
DC −
S1
S2
US
IS
IS
Regler US
DC +
Intermediate Transistor
Transformer Rectifier Filter Welding arc
circuit filter controller
Figure 11: Secondary switched-mode transistor welding power supply (principle)
This control principle is based on a duty-cycle pre-control (pulse width modulation) between ON and
OFF. The generated voltage pulses downstream of the transistor control having therefore the same
height but different widths. Due to the downstream choke the pulses are converted into a DC with a low
ripple corresponding to the duty cycle and the cycle frequency. Response times of a few 100 μs can be
achieved, depending on the clock frequency.
IDCPuls
IS
t
Figure 12: Pulse modulation (principle)

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-1
Figure 12 shows the principle how current is controlled by pulse modulation. The pulse timing (positive
flank) is constant, while the falling flanks determine the change in the average. The red line shows the
'filtered' weld current downstream of the inductance coil. Due to the high frequency (e.g. 50 kHz) only a
very small choke is required. It has virtually no effect on the welding characteristics, in contrast to those
used in normal welding rectifiers.
The power factor cos φ is mainly determined by the mains transformer. The efficiency η of the welding
power supply depends mainly on the mains transformer and above all the diodes.
Advantages:
- fast control, response times < 300 µs
- electric regulation  digital process control
- suitable for all welding processes
Disadvantages:
- more expensive than with a welding rectifier
- the production and material costs are higher  but are falling thanks to commodity prices and
labour costs
- the volume and mass are greater than with a primary switched-mode transistor welding power
supply
3.3.2.3 Primary switched-mode transistor welding power supply - inverter
Rectifier Intermediate Inverter Trans- Rectifier Filter Welding arc

circuit former
Figure 13: Primary switched-mode transistor welding power supply - inverter (principle)
In an inverter circuit, the mains input AC voltage is first converted to DC using a rectifier, then an inverter
converts it back to AC at a higher frequency. The transformer provides the galvanic separation between
the input (mains) and output (welding) circuit and converts the voltage from mains to welding voltage.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-1
The inverter also uses the pulse width modulation principle (see Figure 14).
IPuls+
IPuls-
a pulse-modulated AC (I1AC) at the transformer input
IPuls+
IDC
IS
IPuls-
b pulse-modulated AC (I2AC) at the transformer output rectified pulsating

current (I2DC) welding current downstream of inductance coil (IS)
Figure 14: Inverter - pulse modulation principle
Figure 15 clarifies the difference between a transformer in a conventional welding rectifier with an
operating frequency of 50 Hz and an inverter with a cycle frequency of 50 kHz. In addition to the weight
and volume saving, the better efficiency is a significant advantage.
The PFC ensures the input AC current is in phase with the input AC voltage. This ensures that
both cos φ and λ factor are 1. This makes it possible to get the maximum possible output out of the
single-phase network. With a 230 V mains voltage, for example, this means weld seams can be made
with 200 A.
Advantages:
- quick regulation, control times < 300 µs
- electric regulation  digital process control
- the power sources are smaller, lighter and subject to less power loss (higher electrical efficiency)
- suitable for all welding processes
- the welding power supply can be used over a wide range of voltages, irrespective of mains
frequency (50/60 Hz)

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-1
Disadvantages:
- more expensive than with a welding rectifier or secondary switched-mode transistor welding
power supply  higher price
- higher production, material costs  tendency falling depending on prices of raw materials and
labour costs
- cannot always be used with higher mains input voltages (> 400 V AC)
Figure 15: Comparison: conventional (50 Hz) – transformer inverter (50 kHz) -transformer
3.3.2.4 Hybrid power supplies

Hybrid power supplies are welding power supplies which combine a conventional welding rectifier with
an electronic control, such as a transistor. The transistor can work as a switch or analogue as electronic
control resistor. The main advantage is that the power transistor does not have to output as much power.
With MIG/MAG short arc welding, for example, the short-circuit current is provided by the conventional
power supply, while the pulse is generated via the electronic control. The analogue component alone
(conventional welding rectifier) operates, or the electronic component (transistor) is switched in,
depending on the present position of the working point.
3.3.2.5 Combined primary and secondary switched-mode

power supplies
For AC TIG aluminum welding, for example, an AC voltage/current is
required. This is included downstream with the electronic welding power
supplies, such as a primary or secondary switched-mode power supply, for
example. Figure 16 shows the structure of this inverter. Transistors
(switches) S1/S3 and/or S2/S4 are always switched ON or OFF at the same
time. If S1/S3 are on, S2/S4 break and vice versa. This can be used to
reverse the polarity without swapping the welding electrodes.
AC TIG welding uses a switching frequency of approx. 25 – 200 Hz. This
means the AC voltage/current can be set from a purely sinusoidal or
trapezoidal form to a steep rectangular form. The rectangular form assists
Figure 16: Secondary fast reigniting when the voltage passes through zero. The acoustic pressure
switching is extremely high, however. The sinus form involves less acoustic pressure
device but does not reignite as efficiently.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-1
Generating the AC voltage electronically means the

f
1
f
2
~
1 positive and negative half-waves can be matched to
~
3 f
1 the requirements of the welding process separately.
The symbols are shown in Figure 17.
Figure 17: Symbol for a primary/secondary supply
3.4 Welding converter

The welding converter is like a generator in the way it is used to generate power. When used in welding,
this generator has a modified structure with specific current/voltage characteristics, such as a constant
voltage characteristic for MIG/MAG welding or a falling one for manual electric welding. Aggregates are
generators driven by a combustion engine (diesel). The term motor-generator set means a generator
which is permanently coupled to an electric motor. The size depends on the welding power required and
the generator speed. The higher the speed, the smaller the size. DC welding generators are the oldest
power sources for arc welding.
Today, aggregates are still used mainly where no electrical mains supply is available, such as on sites
on remote terrain. There are two kinds of welding generators:
a brush welding generators, which generate pure DC with very little ripple.
b brushless welding generators, which generate AC which is rectified by a rectifier block and
smoothed by a welding circuit choke. There is little difference between the two types of
generators when it comes to welding. Brushless welding generators ignite better. With no
collectors or carbon brushes, they are virtually maintenance-free.
Advantages:
- the manual electric welding process is particularly suitable for many welding jobs in rough site
operation
- aggregates can be used independently of the mains
- the mechanical rotation mechanism is slow to respond, which means transient interruptions to the
mains supply can be bridged easily (electric motor operation)
- suitable for welding processes with falling and constant voltage characteristics
Disadvantages:
- high weight, large volume, high noise level
- not easy to control  more spatter than with electronic power supplies with MIG/MAG welding
- no MIG/MAG pulse welding
- not widely used today  Generators are required on sites for many items of equipment, such as
angle grinders, lights etc.; electronic power supplies can also work very stably on mobile
generators.
4 Technical data (rating plate)
The 'technical data' for the user is documented in the equipment specifications (operating instructions)
for the power supply in accordance with the relevant standards based on EC marks. Each power supply
has a rating plate required by law with the main technical data in short form.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-1
Figure 18: Rating plate for welding power supplies.
Electrical characteristics for selecting and comparing welding power supplies. The plate layout standards can be
found in EN 60974-1 (= IEC 60974-1 and/or VDE 0544-1). Each welding power supply must have a rating plate
attached to or printed on it, which is divided into three sections:
1. Top section (general data): gives the name of the manufacturer, distributor or importer and welding equipment
data.
2. Centre section (welding data): gives details of the welding power circuit.
3. Lower section (mains supply): details of mains supply, including protection class, cooling type etc.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-1
Table 1: Overview of welding power supply, types

Figure 18 shows some typical examples of rating plates used in practice. The information is not always
standardised and may be very minimal on portable welding inverters, due to their small design.
Manufacturer
Trading company etc.
Figure 19: Typical rating plate for welding power supplies

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-1

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-2
Power sources for arc welding II Page 1
Chapter 1.05-2: Power sources for arc welding II
Contents
1 Welding characteristics of arc welding power supplies ................................................................. 2

1.1 Static characteristic curve .............................................................................................................. 2
1.1.1 Flat (horizontal) curve ......................................................................................................... 2
1.1.2 Falling curve ........................................................................................................................ 3
1.2 Dynamic properties ........................................................................................................................ 4
1.3 Synergy curve................................................................................................................................. 5
2 Duty cycle ............................................................................................................................................. 6
3 Standardised working voltage / arc characteristic .......................................................................... 8
4 No-load voltage .................................................................................................................................... 9
5 Power supply mains connection ..................................................................................................... 11
6 Type of cooling .................................................................................................................................. 11
7 Protection class ................................................................................................................................. 12
8 Testing welding power supplies ...................................................................................................... 12
9 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................................... 12
10 Knowledge questions ....................................................................................................................... 13

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-2
1 Welding characteristics of arc welding power supplies

Welding characteristics of arc welding power supplies are characterised by two definitions:
1. The static current/voltage characteristic curve which describes how the voltage (U) and current (I)
of a power supply responds if we vary the arcing load (resistance). It can be obtained by
measuring current and voltage for an adjustable ohmic load resistance
2. how current and voltage respond dynamically (over time) to faults during welding, such as a short
circuit.
3. the on each other adjusted setting of welding parameters and synergy curves
1.1 Static characteristic curve

The static characteristic curve of a welding power supply is determined, firstly, by the structural design
and/or secondly by the electrical control circuit. The falling characteristic of a welding transformer, for
example, is generated by the type of connection (simple) between the primary and secondary windings.
Transistor power supplies, on the other hand, always have a control circuit. This 'measures' the welding
current and voltage, and the output curve then follows a selected form, falling or flat, current (I) or voltage
(U) being controlled.
1.1.1 Flat (horizontal) curve

With a flat or horizontal curve (Figure 1), the
voltage remains largely constant as the load
increases (R1 < R0). It is the voltage which α Curve
determines the welding process. slope
With conventional power supplies, the slope α
of the curve is determined mainly by internal
resistances and how the transformer is
connected. The short circuit current, where it
intersects the x-axis, is usually well outside the
working range, and depends on the design Figure 1: Flat curve
and how slow-blowing the mains fuse is.
MIG/MAG welding – control procedure when varying arc length Δ I control
AP1 Working point when starting welding. Wire feed speed and
1 2 3 4 5
welding voltage are set.
AP2 The jump in arc length (U2 > U1) causes AP 1 to move
towards AP 2  IS becomes smaller.
U
AP3 The welding current falls, so the consumption rate falls also
UL
 The arc becomes shorter. This takes us to AP 3, which is not
the same as AP 1, because the free wire length is shorter.
l
0
AP4 The jump in arc length (U4 > U3) causes AP 3 to move
IL
towards AP4  IS becomes smaller.
0
AP5 Due to the higher welding current, deposition speed is
larger  arc length gets shorter. This takes us to AP 5, which is
U
51
the same as AP1.
U2
U1,3,5
4
Δ I control is also known as internal control, because the control
2
U4 3 process depends on the power supply and its curve alone.
I
Figure 2: Δ I control
ΔI

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-2
With curves which can be generated via a regulator (such as transistor

power supplies), the slope α can also be selected as a parameter (e.g.
1V/100A). The max. short-circuit current is controlled electronically. It is
determined, firstly, by the maximum load rating of the power supply
components and secondly by the technological requirements involved in
Figure 3: Flat curve
the welding.
Symbol
1.1.2 Falling curve
Figure 4: Falling curve Figure 5: Falling curve Symbol
A falling curve indicates a power source at a 'constant' current: i.e. as the load increases, the voltage at
the arc reduces, while the current remains largely constant. Maximum constancy is achieved with
electronically controlled power supplies, as shown in Figure 4. The blue line shows a transformer with
scattering core control, for example,
With both manual electric and TIG welding, the arc length is determined mainly by how the electrode is
guided manually (distance from the workpiece). This method is known as external or ΔU control. With
automatic welding, there has to be an additional external control circuit to keep the arc voltage and
hence the arc length constant. Additional sensors (distance or arc measurement) can also be used to
keep the distance from the torch constant  ΔU ≈ 0.
With submerged arc welding too, a falling curve is preferred when welding, especially for large wire or
strip cross-sections. The feed speed of the consumable electrode is controlled as a function of the arc
voltage.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-2
Figure 6: ΔU control, falling curve Figure 7: ΔU control, basic diagram

If the arc length changes lLB0 at the working point set AP0, the steeply falling load curve of the welding
power supply generates a change in the welding voltage above all ΔU1/2. If the arc gets longer (lLB1 > lLB0)
this causes the working point AP0 to shift AP1, increasing the voltage by +ΔU1. To reduce this
difference again, the controller is used to increase the wire feed speed v D0  vD1. ΔU1 is reduced back to
~0, restoring the arc to its original length lLB0.
1.2 Dynamic properties

The dynamic characteristics of a welding power supply are determined decisively by the control principle
and/or structural design. With a welding rectifier, for example, the inductance coil (choke) is decisive for
the dynamic characteristics such as ignition and spatter with MIG/MAG short arcs. With an inverter, on
the other hand, the choke has virtually no effect on the welding characteristics. The dynamics are
governed almost exclusively by the control dynamics of the electronic power supply, and can therefore
be optimised to suit the welding process.
MIG/MAG welding
 Short-circuit arc ignition
 MIG/MAG short arc  reigniting after the short circuit  spatter prevention (Figure 8a)
 MIG/MAG pulse arc  creating current or voltage pulses (Figure 8b)
 MIG/MAG AC welding  rapid reigniting at zero voltage
Additional inductances, such as coiled welding cable, should be avoided. They alter the welding
characteristics.
a Short arc b Pulsed arc
Figure 8: Setting options for electronic power supplies with MIG/MAG welding
IP Pulsed current
Ig Basic current
tr Pulse up-slope time
tP Pulse width (pulse time)
tf Pulse down-slope time

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-2
Figure 9: Pulse characteristics with MIG/MAG pulse arcs
TIG welding/plasma welding

 Arc ignition
o electronic power supplies can be used to generate a very fast current rise, making even short
ignition possible without necessarily creating tungsten inclusions
o via high-voltage pulse  contactless arcing
o ignition even with AC TIG welding with DC  higher open circuit voltage  better ignition
characteristics
 AC welding
o high voltage and current rise rate  reliable arc reigniting at zero voltage without additional
high-voltage pulses (HF)
o fast switching from AC to the safe reliable DC operation if the power is interrupted (open circuit)
Manual metal arc welding
As with MIG/MAG welding, the welding process is determined by the dynamics of the power supply. The
inductance of conventional welding power supplies is of decisive importance here. With a single-phase
mains supply (230 VAC) in particular, the welding characteristics can be improved quite decisively
through using inverters and higher welding and short-circuit current.
Figure 10: Examples of synergy curves
1.3 Synergy curve

The synergy curve is a database with working points saved for MIG/MAG welding, as shown in Figure 10.
They are generally obtained by conducting appropriate welding tests. The intermediate values are
calculated using an algorithm specified by the equipment manufacturer.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-2
Synergy curves:
 helps selecting the right parameters for different welding tasks  recall of tried and tested
records from a data memory
 enable a simple procedure for the welding task e.g. fillet weld with details: material, thickness,
wire material, diameter etc..; the welding parameters are then selected automatically and can be
adjusted to a minor extent via correction menus
 but can also be adjusted to suit specific characteristics of the user  this requires being able to
access the program and having suitably trained specialists
2 Duty cycle
When current flows through an ohmic
resistance heat is generated. If a given output
is required of a power supply, its components,
e.g. transformer, diodes, power components
etc.. are heated until a thermal balance is
established between heat losses generated
and heat dissipated.
Figure 11: Rating plate on time The maximum welding current shown on the
rating plate (see setting range line) cannot be
demanded indefinitely. If too much power is drawn from the source for too long, its electronic
components will overheat. That means they will exceed their maximum temperature, which is indicated
by their insulation class (e.g. for a transformer F = 155°C).
There are certain duty cycles which must not be exceeded to avoid overheating, depending on the
welding current level.
Definition of duty cycle
Run time = 10 min

Run time = total of all weld and break times up
to 10 min.
The 10 min run time applies to the arc welding
process. With resistance pressure welding, a
run time of 1 min. is assumed.
The permissible current height for a given duty
cycle can be calculated as follows:
100 % IS = welding current

Is  ID  ID = constant current
ED %
Power supplies for manual metal arc welding:
the current/voltage data of 35%, 60% and 100%
duty cycle are stated on the rating plate.
Figure 12: Example of welding current and

temperature for a duty cycle of 100%

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SFI / IWE 1.05-2
100 %
I s  150 A   254 A  250 A
35 %
Power supplies which are also suitable for

mechanised and automatic welding (e.g.
MIG/MAG process) are generally used for longer
welding times. Typical values on the rating plate
are 60% and 100% duty cycle.
Figure 13: Example of welding current and temperature at for a duty cycle of 35% and 60%

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3 Standardised working voltage / arc characteristic
US [V]
40
c
30 a
20
b
10
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 IS [A]
Figure 14: Standardised voltage-current operating lines for different processes acc. to
EN 60974-1
a Manual electric welding,c

V
U 2  20 V  0.04  I2 up to 44 V > 600 A constant U2 = 44 V
A
b TIG welding
V
U 2  14 V  0.05  I2 up to 34 V > 600 A  constant U2 = 34 V
A
c MIG/MAG welding
V
U 2  14 V  0.05  I2 up to 44 V > 600 A  constant U2 = 44 V
A
Submerged arc welding with a falling curve like a
with a flat/horizontal curve like c

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-2
Figure 15: Example of determining welding current design values for a manual electric welding power
supply
4 No-load voltage
The no-load voltage is the voltage between the two welding sockets on the welding power supply for the
torch and workpiece clamp, or at the ends of the welding lines to the welding point (torch, workpiece) if the
welding current circuit is 'open', i.e. no welding current is flowing. With manual metal arc welding
particularly, the welder is in danger when replacing the welding electrodes, due to the no-load voltage.
To avoid putting the welder at risk, under industrial insurance board rule BGR 500/Part 2, section 2.26:
“Welding, cutting and related procedures”, the adjustable no-load voltage must, considering conditions of
use and voltage type, not exceed the maximum values specified in the following table.
Table 1: Requirements for no-load voltage for arc welding power supplies

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-2
If a welding task is in an area of increased electrical danger (conductive environment, confined space,
enforced posture, high ambient temperature or relative humidity), only power supplies may be used
who’s no-load voltage does not exceed 113 V DC or 48 V AC RMS. These limits must be
observed even in the case of a fault. Power supplies which comply with these conditions
receive the following marking:
According to BGR 500, welding power supplies may exceed the maximum no-load voltages if they are
equipped with self-actuating self-monitoring no-load voltage reduction devices. These are also known as
risk reduction devices, because during welding in AC mode, there is always a DC voltage as a no-load
voltage (cf. Table 1). The AC process only starts when the welding current starts flowing, and reverses
immediately (DC) if the power flow is interrupted.
The function of the risk reduction device must be capable of being checked without using any tools. It’s
recommended to have the precautions against hazardous currents flowing through the body being
checked on a quarterly basis. These relatively short monitoring periods are appropriate: e.g. during
carelessness handling of the electrode holder, a current flow via the earth wire to the source may arise
leading to a possible burning off. In the case of a fault, the safety earth protection class is no longer
effective, and the welder is at extreme risk.
With the power supply switched on, the electrode holder is Due to the high current flow (may exceed 50 A), the earth wire
lying on the housing. burns out.
Photo: burned-out earth wire. If there is a housing short, current may flow
through the body.
Figure 16: Earth wire destroyed by leakage currents (potential diversion)

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.05-2
5 Power supply mains connection

Power factor cos φ
The power factor cos  indicates what
percentage of the apparent power consumed
(S1 in kVA) is converted to actual power (P in
kW). Typical values for cos :
Welding transformers: 0.40 - 0.80
Welding rectifiers: 0.80 - 0.95
Transistorised
welding power supplies: 0.90 - 0.99
Figure 17: Rating plate - power factor cos φ
What this means in practical terms is that a welding transformer operating on a 32 A mains supply can
be replaced with an inverter of the same welding output which only needs a 16 A supply. The inverter
also has a higher electrical efficiency and a lower weight.
Connection and fuse protection of the power supply
Figure 18: Connection and fuse protection of the power supply

The field with the plug symbol indicates whether a welding power supply operates on AC, two-wire mains
supply (L1, N; L1 or L2) equivalent to single-phase operation, or on 3-phase supply (L1, L2, L3, (N)). The
works electrician must connect the network plug as specified to the power supply.
6 Type of cooling
The AF code letters (formerly just F) mean that, when drawing maximum permitted power from the
supply, components such as the transformer and electrical output controls (diodes, transistors) must be
externally cooled by fans. The internal area (ventilation ducts) must be cleaned regularly, depending on
the ambient conditions at the location where the supply is used.
No forced ventilation options:
S stands for self-cooling, no fan required Cooling

type S

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7 Protection class
Figure 19: Protection class

The protection class codes indicate how the power supply housing provides contact protection against
live and/or dangerous moving parts. They also indicate how the source is protected against liquids
penetrating equipment.
The first digit indicates the protection class for contact and foreign body protection and the second the
level of protection against water penetration.
According to DIN EN 60974-1, power supplies in enclosed spaces must have a protection class of at least
IP 21.
A power supply to be used for arc welding outdoors must have a protection class of at least IP 23.
The first code 2X means: “protection against penetration by solid foreign bodies more than 12 mm in
diameter preventing penetration by fingers or similar objects”.
The second code X1: “protection against penetration by dripping water (water drops) falling vertically. It
must not have any harmful effect.” The second code X3 means: “protection against penetrating water
falling at any given angle up to 60° to the vertical (water spray). It must not have any harmful effect.”
e.g. could reduce dielectric strength by forming a conductive film of water.  Destruction of the power
supply due to spark-over.
8 Testing welding power supplies

BGR 500 requires arc welding power supplies to be inspected and tested on a regular basis. The main
electrical tests are as follows:
 Earth wire test
 Insulation test
 Leakage current
 Checking the function of the risk reduction device
Dirt deposits must be blown out regularly, especially in environments which are more prone to be
contaminated by dust or similar. The exact conditions are given in [2].
9 Bibliography
[1] Rosenfeld, W.; Baum, L.: “[New TIG and MIG/MAG welding power supplies”, basic info, 38th
special convention, “Welding in container and plant construction", Munich, 02-05 March 2010
[2] DIN EN 60974-4:2011 (VDE 0544-4) Arc welding equipment - Part 4: Periodic inspection and
testing

equipment
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(1) What do we mean by an arc welding power supply?
 The electrical energy source for arc welding.

 Power supplies which are only suitable for DC welding.
 Equipment specifically made for welding to control and regulate the welding process.
 The 'black box' as the link between the mains power supply and arc.
 The power supply is always a transformer.
(2) What is the purpose of the power supply?
 Separate the mains power supply galvanically from the welding power output.
 Limit the no-load voltage.
 The fan is used to improve the air indoors.
 Control and regulate the welding current and voltage according to the process conditions.
 Transmit mains problems to the welding process.
(3) What control principles for current and voltage are used in electronic welding power supplies?
 Transformer with scattering core,

 The inverter as primary switched-mode transistor power supply with pulse width control,
 The welding rectifier with step switch,
 Thyristor welding rectifier with phase section control,
 The converter with a brush setting.
(4) Which of the statements about the rating plate below are correct?
 It gives the technical data in short form.

 It merely states the welding power in watts.
 Welding processes are indicated by code symbols.
 Mains voltage, mains current and welding voltage and current are stated according to duty
cycle values.
 The manufacturer's or dealer's specifications are not mandatory.
(5) What does the term 'curve' mean in a welding current curve?
 The static current/voltage curve (flat, falling) for the power supply,
 It means a welding process,
 Assigns mains voltage to welding current,
 The dynamics of the welding current and voltage,
 A synergy curve is a static and dynamic assignment of process data for a welding process for
a defined performance range (one-button operation).

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(6) Which statements are correct?
 The flat curve is used for MIG/MAG welding.

 The flat curve is used for manual electric welding.
 The flat curve is used for plasma welding.
 The falling curve is used for MIG/MAG welding.
 The falling curve is used for TIG welding.
(7) Pulse welding ...
 Imposes high demands on welding power supplies in terms of fast current and voltage control.
 Also works without process gas.
 Works with argon-rich process gases.
 Only works with electronic welding power supplies.
 Is a special kind of MIG/MAG welding.
(8) What controls are used in welding?
 ΔI control for MIG/MAG welding

 ΔI control for submerged arc welding
 ΔI control for manual electric welding
 ΔU control for MIG/MAG welding
 ΔU control for manual electric welding
(9) Which statements are incorrect?
 Duty cycle is a term used for fan operation.

 Duty cycle is equivalent to the welding time divided by 10 min run time, stated as a
percentage.
 Protection class IP23 is suitable only for operating power supplies in enclosed spaces.
 AF means cooling without fans.
 S indicates equipment without fans (self-cooling).
(10) Which of the statements below regarding the no-load voltage in a welding power supply are correct?
 The no-load voltage is also known as the mains input voltage.

 The no-load voltage must be stated on the rating plate.
 The no-load voltage limits the use of the power supply.
 The no-load voltage is irrelevant for the use of the power supply in practice.
 No-load voltage is only important with TIG welding.

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(11) What do we mean by these terms?
 [S] marking  the power supply has an no-load voltage of < 113 V DC and an RMS value of
48 V AC.
 S stands for self-cooling.
 [S] means  a risk reducing device, e.g. switching from DC operation in no-load mode to AC
operation in welding mode and vice versa.
 Potential diversion  is a metrology problem.
 Potential diversion  always occurs if the welding return line is not directly connected to the
welding point, but is only connected via the earth wire (PE line): this always occurs for
example if the welding electrode holder with a live electrode is laid on a power supply with a
metal housing.

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Introduction to Gas Shielded Arc Welding Page 1
Chapter 1.06: Introduction to Gas Shielded Arc Welding
Contents
1 Classification of gas-shielded welding processes ................................................................ 3

1.1 Gas-shielded metal arc welding (MIG/MAG) ........................................................................ 3
1.2 Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG) ........................................................................................ 4
1.3 Plasma gas-shielded metal arc welding (Plasma MIG/MAG welding) ............................... 5
1.4 Tungsten Plasma welding ......................................................................................................... 5
2 Shielding gases ............................................................................................................................ 6
2.1 Requirements for shielding gases ......................................................................................... 6
2.2 Properties of shielding gases ................................................................................................. 7
2.3 Heat conductivity of shielding gases and gas constituents ................................................. 8
2.4 Classification and designation of shielding gases to DIN EN ISO 14175 .......................... 8
2.5 Purities and dew point .......................................................................................................... 10
3 Examples of classification and designation of shielding gases to
DIN EN ISO 14175 ....................................................................................................................... 10
3.1 Examples of classification .................................................................................................... 10
3.2 Examples of designations .................................................................................................... 11
4 Choice of Shielding Gases ....................................................................................................... 11
4.1 Active shielding gases for MAG- welding of steel .............................................................. 11
4.1.1 Argon-/CO2-mixtures ................................................................................................. 12
4.1.2 Argon-/O2-mixtures .................................................................................................... 12
4.1.3 Argon-/CO2 -/O2 –mixtures ....................................................................................... 12
4.1.4 Carbon dioxide (CO2) ................................................................................................ 12
4.2 Inert shielding gases for TIG welding .................................................................................. 13
4.2.1 Argon .......................................................................................................................... 13
4.2.2 Helium, Argon/helium- mixtures ............................................................................... 13
4.2.3 Argon/hydrogen- mixtures ........................................................................................ 13
4.2.4 Argon of high purity (4.8 minimum).......................................................................... 13
4.3 Inert shielding gases for MIG-welding ................................................................................. 13
4.3.1 Argon .......................................................................................................................... 13
4.3.2 Helium......................................................................................................................... 14
4.3.3 Argon/Helium-mixtures ............................................................................................. 14
5 Shielding gases and gas-mixtures in dependence of the welding process and base
material ......................................................................................................................................... 14
6 Shielding gas consumption and measuring ......................................................................... 15
6.1 Gas flow consumption setting ................................................................................................. 15
6.1.1 Flow rate measuring/setting via a flow-orifice ......................................................... 15
6.1.2 Flow rate setting via a floating device ..................................................................... 15

equipment
Reprinting and unauthorized disclosure are prohibited and will be prosecuted in accordance with the law
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7 Fabrication, transport and storage of shielding gases ...................................................... 16

7.1 Storage of shielding gases in gas cylinders ....................................................................... 17
7.2 Liquefied gases ..................................................................................................................... 17
8 Factory supply of shielding gases.......................................................................................... 17
9 Safety measurements for handling, transport and application of shielding gases ...... 18
9.1 Handling of (high) gas cylinders .......................................................................................... 18
9.2 Colour identification of gas cylinders (DIN EN 1089) ................................................................ 18
9.3 Hazardous goods sticker ...................................................................................................... 19
10 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................ 20
11 Questions ..................................................................................................................................... 21

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1 Classification of gas-shielded welding processes
The term 'gas shielded welding' covers all arc welding processes in which the consumable filler material
or non-consumable electrode and weld pool are protected from the degrading influences of the ambient
air by an added shielding gas. These gas shielded welding processes have been classified into two main
groups according to the melting behaviour of the electrode.
 Gas-shielded Metal Arc Welding (MIG/ MAG welding), having a consumable electrode
 Gas-shielded Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG welding), having a non-consumable electrode
A more detailed classification is shown in figure 1.
Gas-shielded Arc Welding
Gas-shielded Gas-shielded
Metal Tungsten
Arc Welding Arc Welding
Metal Inert Metal Active TIG

MIG MAG
Gas Welding Gas Welding Tungsten Plasma
Metal Inert Metal Active
with flux with flux Inert Gas Welding
Gas Welding Gas Welding
cored wire cored wire Welding
Plasma metal MAG-M Plasma Plasma Jet- Powder

Electric Gas MAG-C Plasma Arc
gas-shielded Gas mixture Beam Arc Plasma
Welding welding
CO2-welding Welding
welding welding Welding Welding
Figure 1: Classification of gas shielded welding processes /2/
1.1 Gas-shielded metal arc welding (MIG/MAG)
For gas-shielded metal arc welding the following process variables have been differentiated for Metal
Inert Gas Welding (MIG) and Metal Active Gas Welding (MAG).
Process numbers according to DIN EN ISO 4063
Metal-active gas welding with solid wire 135

Metal-active gas welding with flux cored wire 136
Metal-active gas welding with metal cored wire 138
Metal-inert gas welding with solid wire 131
The heat-source for welding is an ignited arc between the base metal and the continuous filler metal
electrode. In order to protect the melt pool from the degrading influences of the surrounding air a
shielding gas is required.
For MIG-welding of non-ferrous materials argon, helium or mixtures of both are being used. For MAG-
welding active shielding gas is being used for metallurgical or technical reasons. For welding of un-
alloyed, low-alloyed and high-alloyed steels active shielding gases are used like CO2 (MAG-C), Argon-
CO2-mixtures, Argon-Oxygen-mixtures and more component-mixture- gases (MAG-M).

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Wire electrode
Wire feeder
guiding rolls
Shielding gas Contact tube
Shielding gas
nozzle
Power
supply
Weld
Arc
Workpiece
Figure 2: Principle of metal gas shielded welding works
1.2 Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)
The heat-source for welding is an ignited arc between the base metal and a non-melting tungsten
electrode. The filler material is added manually into the arc where it is melted. The heated tungsten
electrode, the melt pool and the surrounding area are protected by the shielding gas from the
surrounding air. Shielding gases like Argon, Helium or mixtures from both and for specific base materials
also Argon-Hydrogen-mixtures are being used.
The thermal capacity of the Tungsten electrode is limited. This sets restrictions to the deposition rates
and the welding speed but on the other hand this enables a precise weld-layout even with an imprecise
weld preparation.
Process numbers according to DIN EN ISO 4063
Tungsten-inert-gas welding with solid wire or rod 141

Tungsten-inert-gas welding without filler wire or rod 142
Tungsten-inert-gas welding with flux cored wire or rod 143
Tungsten-inert-gas welding with solid wire or rod with deoxidizing gas (partly) 145
Tungsten electrode
Contact tube
Shielding gas
Shielding gas
nozzle
Power
supply
Filler
material
Workpiece Arc
Figure 3: Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG)

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1.3 Plasma gas-shielded metal arc welding (Plasma MIG/MAG welding)
This process is a combination of gas-shielded metal arc welding (MIG/MAG) and plasma welding. At the
beginning of the weld the annular plasma-arc is heating the base material before the continuous filler
material is being added. Two independent power sources are used; one with the constant current char-
acteristic curve (Plasma power source) and the other one with a constant voltage characteristic curve
(MIG/MAG power source)
Plasma (focussing) gas Plasma gas

Shielding Cooling water
gas
Impuls generator
Plasma Constant
Power supply Voltage
Power supply
Figure 4: Plasma MIG/MAG welding
1.4 Tungsten Plasma welding
The arc is located between the tungsten electrode and either a water-cooled copper-nozzle (non-
transferred-mode) or a base material (transferred-mode) located in a gaseous atmosphere. This copper-
nozzle (orifice-nozzle) is constricting the arc and increases the density-capacity.
Tungsten electrode
Cooling water
Shielding gas
Plasma gas
Orifice nozzle
Plasma nozzle
Figure 5: Tungsten Plasma welding.

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2 Shielding gases
During gas-shielded arc welding it is essential to protect the weld pool from the degrading influences of
the air. Without this protection the weld pool would be mainly contaminated with nitrogen- and oxygen
inclusions and embrittlement of the weld metal would become evident.
Shielding gases protect the weld pool, the melting filler material and the non-consumable tungsten
electrode, principally against the effects of the air.
2.1 Requirements for shielding gases
Active shielding gases are gases which cause the arc to interact chemically and physically with the filler
and base material.
Inert shielding gases are gases which do not enter into chemical reactions during welding.
Shielding gases for welding and cutting differ in terms of:
1. how they react during welding (inert, oxidising, slow-reacting, reducing)

2. density (heavier/lighter than air)
3. thermal conductivity and capacity
4. ionisation/dissociation energy and hence in the arc voltage, in relation to a given arc length (arc curve)
5. boiling point
Summary of requirements for shielding gases
General requirements:
– Suitability for all types of arcs

– Sufficient shielding effect depending on place of use and type of weld
– Favourable melt flow characteristics
– Not sensitive to impurities in the weld seam area
– Can be used for all wire diameters
– Slag formation and/or distribution over the weld surface
– Resistance to pore formation
– Prevention of weld spatter
Physical requirements:
– Ignition behaviour at start of welding

– Arc stability, i.e. constant arc
– Arc shorting out and re-igniting
– Plasma formation/electrical conductivity
– Dissolution characteristics depending on the material
– Degassing characteristics
Thermal requirements:
– Heat conductivity
– Heat capacity
– Heat transfer capacity, i.e. heat transfer coefficient

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Metallurgical requirements:
– Element pick-up
– Element burn-off
– Preservation of mechanical-topological characteristics
– Preservation of corrosion-resistance characteristics
2.2 Properties of shielding gases
Which gases or gas mixtures are suitable for shielding gases depends mainly on the type of base
material. Many of the base material groups can be welded with different types of shielding gases so that
many relationships have to be considered before making a choice of shielded gas.
Shielding gases are standardized in DIN EN ISO 14175. In this standard the most common, for practical
use, shielding gases are listed according to their chemical behaviour and composition.
Table 1: Gas characteristics to DIN EN ISO 14175

Specific characteristics
at 0 °C and 1.013 bar Reaction behaviour
Chem. (0.101 MPa) during welding
Gas
symbol (s) Density
Relative Boiling
(air = 1.293)
density to air point [°C]
[kg/m³]
Argon Ar 1.784 1.380 - 185.9 Inert
Helium He 0.178 0.138 - 268.9 Inert
1)
Carbon dioxide CO2 1.977 1.529 - 75.5 Oxidising
Oxygen O2 1.429 1.105 - 183.0 Oxidising
2)
Nitrogen N2 1.251 0.968 - 195.8 Slow-reacting
Hydrogen H2 0.090 0.070 - 252.8 Reducing
1)
Sublimation temperature
2)
Nitrogen behaves differently with different materials, and the effects may be adverse.
The huge difference in the density of Argon and Helium is being reflected to the required flow quantity. In
case helium- or helium holding shielding gases are used the actual gas flow quantity must be increased
by 2 or 3 times when using an argon reducer. Based upon these density differences between Argon and
Helium correction factors have to be considered for making settings of argon calibrated pressure reduc-
ers.
Table 2: Density and correction factor depending on the helium part in argon based shielding gases
Gas, / gas mixtures Density Correction factor
At 15°C, 1 bar flow-reading
3
[kg/m ] multiplied with
100% Argon 1,78 1,00
75% Ar + 25% He 1,29 1,14
50% Ar + 50% He 0,92 1,35
25% Ar + 75% He 0,54 1,75
100% He 0,17 3,16
Example: Helium- Argon mixture

Gas Flow-reading Correction factor Actual gas flow
25% Ar + 75% He 12 l/min 1,75 21 l/min

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2.3 Heat conductivity of shielding gases and gas constituents
Figure 6: Heat conductivity of shielded gas constituents (according to Linde)
The heat conductivity of the shielding gas affects how the weld seam is formed, the weld pool
temperature, weld pool degassing and welding speed. During MIG and TIG welding of aluminium
materials, the welding speed and weld penetration behaviour with can be increased considerably by
adding helium or, during TIG welding austenitic of austenitic steels, steels by adding hydrogen.
Chemical characteristics influence the metallurgical behaviour and the weld seam surface. For example,
oxygen and carbon dioxide for example, lead to the burning off of alloy elements and low viscosity of the
weld pool; both gases are oxidants. Hydrogen is a reducing gas; argon and helium do not react with
metals, as they are inert.
2.4 Classification and designation of shielding gases to DIN EN ISO 14175
Gases and gas mixtures are classified by the number in accordance with the above international
standard, followed by the symbol for the gas as in Table 3
NOTE: This classification is based on the reaction behaviour of the gas or gas mixture.
Main group:
The letters and numbers used for the main group are as follows:
— I: inert gases and gas mixtures;

— M1, M2 and M3: oxidising gas mixtures with oxygen and/or carbon dioxide;
— C: highly oxidising gases and gas mixtures;
— R: reducing gas mixtures;
— N: slow-reacting gas or gas mixture with nitrogen;
— O: oxygen;
— Z: gas mixtures with constituents which are not included in Table 3 or gas mixtures
whose compositions are outside the ranges stated in Table 3.

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Sub-group
The main groups apart from Z are divided into sub-groups, depending on the presence and content of
certain constituents which affect the reaction (see Table ). The values stated in Table 3 are nominal
values.
Table 3: Classification of process gases for welding joints and related processes
Symbol Constituents in percent by volume (nominal)
Main Sub- oxidising inert Reducing Low reactivity

group group CO2 O2 Ar He H2 N2
I 1 100
2 100
3 Rest 0.5 ≤ He ≤ 95
M1 1 0.5 ≤ CO2 ≤ 5 Resta 0.5 ≤ H2 ≤ 5
a
2 0.5 ≤ CO2 ≤ 5 Rest
3 0.5 ≤ O2 ≤ 3 Resta
4 0.5 ≤ CO2 ≤ 5 0.5 ≤ O2 ≤ 3 Resta
M2 0 5 < CO2 ≤ 15 Resta
1 15 < CO2 ≤ 25 Resta
2 3 < O2 ≤ 10 Resta
3 0.5 ≤ CO2 ≤ 5 3 < O2 ≤ 10 Resta
4 5 < CO2 ≤ 15 0.5 ≤ O2 ≤ 3 Resta
5 5 < CO2 ≤ 15 3 < O2 ≤ 10 Resta
6 15 < CO2 ≤ 25 0.5 ≤ O2 ≤ 3 Resta
7 15 < CO2 ≤ 25 3 < O2 ≤ 10 Resta
M3 1 25 < CO2 ≤ 50 Resta
2 10 < O2 ≤ 15 Resta
3 25 < CO2 ≤ 50 2 < O2 ≤ 10 Resta
4 5 < CO2 ≤ 25 10 < O2 ≤ 15 Resta
5 25 < CO2 ≤ 50 10 < O2 ≤ 15 Resta
C 1 100
2 Rest 0.5 ≤ O2 ≤ 30
R 1 Resta 0.5 ≤ H2 ≤ 15
a
2 Rest 15 < H2 ≤ 50
N 1 100
a
2 Rest 0.5 ≤ N2 ≤ 5
a
3 Rest 5 < N2 ≤ 50
4 Resta 0.5 ≤ H2 ≤ 10 0.5 ≤ N2 ≤ 5
5 0.5 ≤ H2 ≤ 50 Rest
O 1 100
Gas mixtures with constituents which are not included in the table or gas mixtures whose compositions are
Z
outside the ranges indicated.b
a For the purpose of this classification, argon may be substituted partially or completely with helium.
b Two gas mixtures with the same Z classification must not be interchanged.

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2.5 Purities and dew point
The purity and dew point of the gas constituents and gas mixtures must meet the requirements specified in
Table 2. Moisture content can be expressed either as a concentration in ppm (parts per million) or as the
dew point at 0.101 MPa in °C.
Purities and moisture contents of specific gas mixtures are not covered in the standard DIN EN ISO
14175.
Table 2: Minimum requirements for purities and moisture contents of gases and gas mixtures
Moisture
Purity Dew point at
content
Vol.% 0.101 MPa
Main group/gas (volumes)
ppm
minimum °C
maximum
I Inert 99.99 −50 40
a
M1 Gas mixture 99.9 −50 40
a
M2 Gas Mixture 99.9 −44 80
a
M3 Gas Mixture 99.9 −40 120
a
C Carbon dioxide 99.8 −40 120
R Reducing 99.95 −50 40
N Nitrogen 99.9 −50 40
O Oxygen 99.5 −50 40
IMPORTANT, please note: a higher purity and/or lower dew point may
be advisable for certain applications to avoid potential oxidisation and
contamination.
a
Nitrogen: max. 1,000 ppm
Note: on the market the purity of gases is generally indicated by number codes. For example, Argon with
a purity of 99,996% is indicated by Argon 4.6.
3 Examples of classification and designation of shielding gases to DIN EN ISO 14175

3.1 Examples of classification
Number of this international standard, followed by the symbol for the gas or gas mixture (main group and
sub-group)
EXAMPLE 1 Gas mixture with 6% carbon dioxide, 4% oxygen, the rest argon
Classification: ISO 14175 – M25
EXAMPLE 2 Gas mixture with 30% helium and the rest argon:
Classification: ISO 14175 – I3
EXAMPLE 3 Gas mixture with 5% hydrogen and the rest argon:

Classification: ISO 14175 – R1
EXAMPLE 4 Gas mixture with 0.05% oxygen and the rest argon:
Classification: ISO 14175 – Z

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3.2 Examples of designations
The base gas symbol must be followed by the symbols for the other constituents in decreasing order of
percentage content followed by the values for the nominal composition in per cent by volume, separated
by a dash.
EXAMPLE 1 Gas mixture with 6% carbon dioxide, 4% oxygen and rest argon
Designation: ISO 14175 – M25 – ArCO – 6/4
EXAMPLE 2 Gas mixture with 30% helium and rest argon:

Classification: ISO 14175 – I3
Designation: ISO 14175 – I3 – ArHe – 30
EXAMPLE 3 Gas mixture with 5% hydrogen and rest argon:

Classification: ISO 14175 – R1
Designation: ISO 14175 – R1 – ArH – 5
EXAMPLE 4 Gas mixture with 7.5% argon, 2.5% carbon dioxide and the rest helium:
Designation: ISO 14175 – M12 – HeArC – 7.5/2.5
For gas mixtures with constituents listed in Table 3 but whose contents are outside the ranges stated,
the base gas symbol must be preceded by the letter Z. This is followed by the symbols for the
components as stated above, followed by the values for the nominal composition in percentage by
volume, separated by a forward slash.
EXAMPLE 5 Gas mixture with 0.05% oxygen and rest argon:

Denomination: ISO 14175 – Z – ArO – 0.05
For gas mixtures with constituents which are not listed in Table 3, the base gas symbol must be
preceded by the letter Z. This is followed by the symbols for the constituents as stated above, but with a
plus sign before the constituents not listed, followed by the values for the nominal composition in per
cent by volume, separated by a dash.
EXAMPLE 6 Gas mixture with 0.05% xenon, chemical symbol Xe, rest argon:
Designation: ISO 14175 – Z – Ar+Xe – 0.05
4 Choice of Shielding Gases
4.1 Active shielding gases for MAG- welding of steel
Shielding gases which are reacting with the melting filler wire and the weld pool are designated as active
shielding gases (Metal Active-Gas welding). CO2 or O2 and/or CO2 portions in
Active shielding gases consists CO2 or for mixture gases with high argon content, components of O2
and/or CO2. The chemical behaviour of oxygen-emitting shielding gases is called “oxidising” which are
mainly used for welding of steel. Compared to welding with pure argon, welding of steel with oxidising,
argon-rich shielding gases and pure CO2 creates fewer pores, less undercut and a more stable arc.

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4.1.1 Argon-/CO2-mixtures
For un-alloyed and low-alloyed steels Ar/CO2-mixtures are used with CO2-portions of 4 – 25% (common
used shielding gas: 82% Ar + 18% CO2). This shielding gas type is suitable for welding solid wires and
most of the flux cored wires. Compared to pure Argon with an increasing CO2 percentage the side
penetration becomes more, less pores-intensity and a bigger slag quantity is created. For welding in the
short-arc mode Ar/CO2 mixtures are suitable for welding thin sheet metals and gap bridging.
For welding in spray-arc mode only a restricted percentage of CO2 is possible. With percentages of 20%
of more even at high arc-intensities short-circuit situations are occurring during the drop transfer. Even
during pulsed-welding the drop-transfer is becoming more difficult with increasing CO2 percentages and
therefore the CO2-percentage is limited to 20%
For welding of high-alloyed, austenitic CrNi-steels the C O2 percentage is limited to 5% in order to
prevent Cr-depletation at the grain borders and the corresponding intergranular corrosion. In this
situation an argon-rich mixture gas with 2.5% C O2 is common.
4.1.2 Argon-/O2-mixtures
Oxygen percentages of 1 – 12% are being used for welding of steels. Compared to pure argon a higher
side penetration and a more stable arc are achieved. With increasing oxygen percentages the surface
tension of the weld pool is lowered which enables, especially in the flat welding position, more smoother
and flat weld seams. For welding in the short-circuit-arc mode Ar/Oxygen-mixtures are very suitable and
in the spray- and pulsed mode welding it creates a very stable arc. The spray arc range already starts at
lower arc-intensities.
4.1.3 Argon-/CO2 -/O2 –mixtures
Common mixtures are Argon with 3-8% O2 and 5-15% C O2. These mixtures are suitable for welding un-
alloyed and low-alloyed steels. In the short-circuit-arc mode it is most convenient for welding thin sheet
metal and gap-bridging. In the spray-arc mode the drop transfer volume is small and less spatter.
4.1.4 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
CO2 is mainly used for welding un-alloyed steel. The CO2 arc is, next to metal-vapours, mainly
influenced by the heat conductivity of the gas. CO2 conducts/ transfers the heat very well so that under
similar current-intensity conditions the voltage-setting is about 4 volts higher. The penetration profile
under similar arc conditions is significantly wider compared to argon-rich mixtures. The out-of-position
welding is improved, for example welding down of thick components.
The drop transfer is even at higher arc-intensities not free of short-circuit situations. The forces of the arc
and the short-circuit conditions are making the drop transfer more difficult which creates a more
increased spatter and the weld pool is placed into a swinging motion. This results in a coarser weld
seam appearance. When welding with CO2 mixtures the setting of the arc-voltage and the current
intensity has to be done more accurate compared to mixture gases. The welder requires a certain
experience for setting the working point. The use of an adjustable inductance is to be preferred to limit
the short-circuit-current-peaks during the drop transfer. Welding of thin sheet metals (<1mm) and gap-
bridging becomes very difficult with CO2.
A pulsed controlled drop transfer with pure CO2 is not possible because to high backward pointed forces
are initiated at the wire end. Welding with CO2 creates relatively much slag. At higher arc-intensities
undercuts filled with slag could arise. The pores avoidance is good.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.06
4.2 Inert shielding gases for TIG welding
In contradiction to MAG welding only inert gases can be used for TIG welding. Oxidising elements, even
at minimum quantity levels, would destroy the tungsten electrode during TIG welding.
4.2.1 Argon
Argon is the most used shielding gas for TIG welding resulting from the following:
Good protection level due to high density.

Good ignition characteristics due to low ionisation-voltage requirements.
Stable arc conditions, even with alternating current
Good ignition properties
4.2.2 Helium, Argon/helium- mixtures
Using helium or argon-helium mixtures creates a higher arc-temperature due to the higher arc-voltage
under similar current intensity. Furthermore better penetration- and welding-speed ratios can be
achieved. Disadvantages are the less favourable ignition behaviour, the lower density and the less stable
arc at lower current-settings.
4.2.3 Argon/hydrogen- mixtures
Also by using argon-hydrogen mixtures the energy balance of the arc can be improved. Additionally the
reducing effect of the hydrogen is being used. The application for these mixtures is limited for the
welding of austenitic CrNi-, Ni- and Ni-alloyed steels.
4.2.4 Argon of high purity (4.8 minimum)
For welding of specific tasks, for example the welding of Titanium, additional to the use of Argon 4.8
(minimum) a secondary shielding gas protection (trailing-shield) is required. This trailing shield protects
the solidified weld pool and the heat-affected-zone from getting oxidised until the moment of sufficient
cooling down.
4.3 Inert shielding gases for MIG-welding
4.3.1 Argon
Argon can be very well ionised although the heat conductivity is less. The argon-arc tends to fast
moving, widely-spread arc-spots on work pieces with a low oxidised surface.
Due to this phenomenon even at higher arc-intensities lower side penetration characteristics occur. The
finger-shaped penetration in the weld middle at high current-settings occurs, in the presence of limited
metal vapour components, mainly by the concentrated material transfer and the high gas flow in the arc-
centre-zone.
Short-circuit mode welding is possible but creates often lack of fusion in materials with good heat
conductivity. Spray- and pulse-mode welding is well adjustable.
For steel pure argon will not be used because argon-mixed shielding gases have a more stable arc-
behaviour, a better penetration profile, more flat weld seams, less pores and less undercuts.

equipment
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4.3.2 Helium
Helium has a good heat conductivity which is positive for the penetration-profile. When using helium or
mixtures gases with higher helium content often the preheating of thick components with high heat
conductivity can be skipped. The pores avoidance is good.
Due to the high prices and the very unstable arc-behaviour solely helium as shielding gas is seldom
used. Helium is lighter as the surrounding air creating the tendency to ascend upwards which results in a
higher gas-flow rate. For achieving a similar protection level compared to Argon, the flow intensity has to
be increased by a factor 3.
4.3.3 Argon/Helium-mixtures
For welding MIG welding of aluminium and aluminium alloys next to argon more often argon-helium
mixtures are being used. The helium content makes the arc energy-richer. A deeper and wider
penetration is achieved compared to argon. A further advantage is the even better pores avoidance.
5 Shielding gases and gas-mixtures in dependence of the welding process and base
material
For an optimal use of the different properties and influences of the shielding gases it is required to
choose the shielding gas or mixture in dependency of the welding process and base material.
Table 5: Shielding gases for TIG welding in dependency of the base material
Base material Shielding gas Root shielding gas
Non-alloyed and low-alloyed steels Argon N2 90% + H2 10%
Argon Argon
Austenitic CrNi-Steels Ar 98% + H2 2% N2 90% + H2 10%
Ar 95% + H2 5% Ar 90% + H2 10%
high alloyed corrosion-, acid- and heat resistance Argon
steels, creep- and low-temperature resistance Argon N2 90% + H2 10%
steels Ar 90% + H2 10%
Aluminium, Al-alloys Argon 100%
Copper- and Cu-alloys, Ar 75% + He 25%
Nickel and Ni-alloys Ar 50% + He 50% Argon
Ar 25% + He 75%
Helium
Gas-sensitive alloys like Titanium, Tantalum etc. Argon with purity > 4.8 Argon with purity > 4.8
Duplex- und Super-Duplex-Steels Argon Argon
Ar + N2 ≤ 5%

equipment
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Table 6: Shielding gases for MIG/MAG welding in dependency of the base material
Base material MIG MAG Root shielding gas
Non-alloyed and low-alloyed steels Ar 92% + O2 8%
Ar 82% + CO2 18%
Ar 90% + CO2 5% + O2 5%
Ar 82% + CO2 14% + O2 4%
CO2 100%
high alloyed corrosion-, acid- and heat Ar 97% + O2 3% Argon
resistance steels, creep- and low- Ar 98 % + CO2 2% N2 90% + H2 10%
temperature resistance steels Ar 69% + He 30% + O2 1% Ar 90% + H2 10%
Aluminium, Al-alloys Argon 100% Argon

Copper- and Cu-alloys Ar 50% + He 50%
Nickel and Ni-alloys Argon 100% Argon
Gas-sensitive alloys like Titanium, Tanta- Argon with purity ≥ Argon with purity ≥ 4.8
lum etc. 4.8
6 Shielding gas consumption and measuring
The shielding gas consumption (shielding gas flow) is determined by a number of factors, as follows:
 the welding process and weld pool size

 the electrode size (diameter) with MIG/MAG welding
 gas type and composition
 size of welding torch/gas nozzle
As a guidance/setting value the shielding gas flow for MAG welding can be calculated via the formula:
wire-diameter-size x 10-12.
Example: wire diameter=1.2mm  glas flow rate: 14 l/min.
For TIG welding the gas-flow setting can be achieved from the gas nozzle inside diameter: with a gass
nozzle inside diameter of 8mm a gas flow rate of 8 l/min is required.
6.1 Gas flow consumption setting
In order to reduce the cylinder pressure, nowadays often set to 300 bar, it is required to use a pressure
reducer which sets the gas to the desired pressure and enables a suitable gas-flow rate for the specific
weld job.
6.1.1 Flow rate measuring/setting via a flow-orifice
In the shielding gas supply line a calibrated orifice with a defined flow cross-section is integrated which
sets the flow rate in dependency of the gas pressure. With the pressure adjustment screw the required
gas pressure is set after which the gas flow manometer is showing the flow-rate.
6.1.2 Flow rate setting via a floating device
The pressure is set constantly. By turning the adjustment screw the flow-cross-section, respectively the
gas-flow rate will be changed. The flowing gas is lifting the floating device (ball) accordingly to the flow-
rate. The flow-rate value is to be read from the top of the ball.

equipment
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1 Bottle pressure manometer

1 Bottle pressure manometer
2 Gas flow manometer
2 Flow tube with floating device
3 Pressure adjustment screw
3 Adjustment screw
4 Shut-off valve Type of gas
4
5 Calibrated orifice
6 Type of gas
Figure 7: Shielding gas flow setting and measuring device
7 Fabrication, transport and storage of shielding gases
Argon, nitrogen, oxygen and inert gases are produced mainly by liquefying air in modern air separation
plants. Helium is an exception which comes from natural gas sources in the USA, and is therefore
cheaper to produce there than separating it from the surrounding air having a helium content of
0.00052%.
For liquefying the air, temperatures near to minus 200 °C are required. For the following separation of
the different components each critical temperature point is successively being used
Fabrication
The six basic shielding gases are manufactured differently
Argon, nitrogen and oxygen are manufactured by liquefying

air, consisting 78%N2, 21%O2 and 1% nobelgases, in large air
separation plants.
For the separation of liquefied air into it’s components, the
different critical temperature points are being used.
Helium is just for a very small part available in the air and is
being produced more economically from earth-gas-sources in the
USA and East-Europe.
The in the market used carbon dioxide (CO2) is mainly being

extracted from natural resources in Germany. A part is also
extracted out of the Chemical Industry
Natural hydrogen (H2) is mainly enclosed in water and can be

extracted out if with a huge energy input by electrolysing.
The in the market available quantities are mainly produced via the
chlorine-alkaline-electrolyse process in which the chlorine and
caustic soda are manufactured from a watery saline solution. Schematic representation of a separation unit
Figure 8: Surrounding air separation unit

equipment
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7.1 Storage of shielding gases in gas cylinders
Oxygen, argon, nitrogen and hydrogen are gases which are in gaseous form at ambient temperature and
pressure, and are supplied mainly in steel cylinders. The maximum permitted pressures are 150 or 200
bar, the latest cylinders have 300 bar. The actual pressure can fluctuate from the given pressures and
even depends on the surrounding temperature.
Carbon dioxide, CO2 liquefies at around 54 bar and + 15 °C. In a cylinder full of liquefied gas, the gas is
liquefied completely except for a small gas cushion.
Table 7: Storage of gases

Argon, helium, gas mixtures: gaseous
Cylinder capacity in l 10 20 50/50
Filling pressure in bar 200 200 200/300
Gas content in m³ 2 4 10/15
Carbon dioxide: liquid

Cylinder capacity in kg 10 20 30
Content in l 13 26 40
Gas content in m³ 5 11 16
If larger amounts are removed, icing may occur. For liquefied gases like CO2, the use of a pre-heater in
front of the pressure reducer is preferred.
7.2 Liquefied gases
Liquid gases are supplied in insulated tanks at suitably low temperatures. Carbon dioxide is supplied in
cylinders in liquid form at ambient temperature. Liquid gases must be converted to their gaseous state
before using.
In order to produce gas mixtures, the liquid gas constituents must be vaporised before mixing. Argon-
oxygen mixtures can also be stored pre-mixed in liquid form, without needing a mixer unit to supply
them.
8 Factory supply of shielding gases
In general the required shielding gases are supplied in separate gas cylinders. But for higher demands
and efficient working the shielding-gas supply comes from cylinder bundles or batteries and a cold
gasification system via a central ring-supply to the specific area. An example is given by figure 9.

equipment
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Cold gasification system for Argon
Cylinder bundle
Shielding gas Cylinder battery
Forming gas
Ring supply
Fixture for purging of

Single cylinder supply root pass Cylinder bundle Cylinder battery
Figure 9: Central shielding-gas supply system
9 Safety measurements for handling, transport and application of shielding gases
9.1 Handling of (high) gas cylinders
Gas cylinders have to be transported with care and are not allowed to be thrown or rolled. During
transport or storage the safety caps have to be attached properly. Gas cylinders are to be protected
against any uncontrolled heat- or impact- influences. Vertical stored cylinders have to be secured for
falling down via chains or brackets. In the workshop area only the actual to be used gas cylinders are to
be found. A collecting of gas cylinders should be avoided. The refilling from larger cylinders into smaller
cylinders requires special knowledge and is prohibited for this reason. The gas cylinder storage area
must be ventilated sufficiently. The density of each shielding gas partly differs enormous from the
surrounding air density. Shielding gases which are heavier than the surrounding air are replacing the
breathing air and are a danger for the employees. Hydrogen containing shielding gases can create
dangerous concentrations of detonating hydrogen gas in the surrounding air.
The stamp marking of gas cylinders is according to DIN EN ISO 13769.
On the gas cylinder shoulder for example the following details are marked: the test date, empty weight,
capacity and working pressure.
9.2 Colour identification of gas cylinders (DIN EN 1089)
The colour identification is realised by colouring the cylinder shoulder or the complete cylinder according
to the type of gas. The colour identification is only used as additional information. The only mandatory
identification is defined by hazardous good stickers.

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Remark: until 2006 Actual until 2006 Actual

The gas cylinder can have differ-
ent colours: one is shown in the Nitrogen Hydrogen
picture and the other(s) is men-
Dark green Black red red
tioned between brackets ( ).
Dark green grey (dark red red
green, black)
until 2006 Actual
Oxygen (technical) Carbondioxide Forming gas (Mixture nitrogen / hydro-

gen)
blue white grey grey red red
blue blue (grey) grey grey red grey

(dark green)
Acetylene Helium Mixture Argon/CO2

yellow maroon grey brown grey Bright green
yellow maroon (black, grey grey grey grey

(black) yellow)
Argon Xenon, Krypton, Neon Pressed air

grey Dark green grey Bright green grey Bright green
grey grey grey (black) grey grey grey

(dark green) (bright green)
9.3 Hazardous goods sticker
The hazardous stickers, as shown in figure 11 and 12 meet the transport regulations (GGVS/GGVE).
The new sticker (figure 11) is marked with the warning word “Danger” = “GEFAHR”. Above this the new
symbols are given. On the left side the danger- and safety details (P- and H-marks). On the right side,
additional information.
Figure 11: hazardous goods sticker (new)

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SFI / IWE 1.06
1 Risks and safety information 5 EEC no. for individual substances or the word
2 Hazard labels 'gas mixture'
3 Gas composition of the gas or 6 Full gas details to GGVS
gas mixture 7 Manufacturers' instructions
4 Manufacturer's product name 8 Manufacturers' name, address and telephone no.
Figure 3: Hazardous goods sticker
10 Bibliography
/1/ DIN EN; DIN EN ISO 13769: gas cylinders – stamp marking
DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V.; Berlin; Beuth Verlag GmbH
/2/ DIN EN 14610 welding and allied processes – definitions of metal welding processes
/3/ TRGS 510 Technical regulations for compressed gases
/4/ TRBS 3145 Assembly and storage of gas cylinders / vessels

equipment
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11 Questions
(1) Which functions does the shielding gas have for Gas-shielded Metal Arc Welding and Gas-
shielded Tungsten Arc Welding?
 Cooling of the electrode

 Protection of the electrode and the weld pool from the degrading influences of the sur-
rounding air
 Preventing fume initiation
 Cooling of the welding torch, in order to weld with not-water-cooled torches
(2) Which shielding gases are applicable for MAG- welding?
 Argon and Helium

 Nitrogen and hydrogen
 Carbon dioxide and mixture gases
 Krypton and Xenon
(3) For TIG welding only inert gases can be used. Why?
 Active shielding gases destroy the tungsten electrode

 Inert shielding gases improve the penetration profile
 Inert shielding gases are more economical than active shielding gases
 During the application of active shielding gases the creation of pores is initiated.
(4) What means the designation M21 of a shielding gas?
 The shielding gas has a composition of 82% Argon, rest CO2

 The shielding gas has a composition of 82% CO2, rest Argon
 The shielding gas is suitable for the TIG welding of steel
 It´s a mixture gas made of main group M2 and subgroup 1
(5) In which manner is CO2 being stored in gas cylinders?
 Liquid
 Gaseous
 Dissolved
 Solid, by means of dry ice
(6) How are gas cylinders designated permanently
 By means of specific colouring all around the cylinder

 By means of the hazardous sticker
 By stamping of the designation on the cylinder shoulder
 By means of specific colouring on the cylinder shoulder
(7) Which kind of shielding gas supply is more or less the appropriate choice for small and middle
big companies?
 Central shielding gas supply with cold gasifier system

 Central shielding gas supply with cylinder bundle
 Separate cylinder shielding gas supply
 Central shielding gas supply with cylinder battery

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TIG Welding Page 1
Chapter 1.07: TIG welding
Contents
1 Principle ............................................................................................................................... 3
2 Welding unit and the welding process .............................................................................. 3
3 Shielding gases used and application of the working process ...................................... 4
4 TIG welding torches (types) ............................................................................................... 4
4.1 Air-cooled TIG welding torches can be used up to an arc amperage of approx. 250 A. . 5
4.2 Water-cooled TIG welding torches are used for high arc power and duty cycle. ............ 5
5 Tungsten electrodes ........................................................................................................... 6
5.1 Electrode tip shapes ....................................................................................................... 8
5.2 Classification of tungsten electrodes in accordance with DIN EN ISO 6848 ................... 9
6 Influence of the shielding gas on the penetration profile .............................................. 10
7 Ignition of TIG arcs ............................................................................................................ 10
7.1 Contactless Ignition ...................................................................................................... 10
7.2 Lift-arc Ignition .............................................................................................................. 11
8 Purging ............................................................................................................................... 11
8.1 Purging gas and work safety ........................................................................................ 12
8.2 Purging fixtures ............................................................................................................. 14
9 TIG welding of aluminium ................................................................................................. 16
9.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................... 16
10 TIG welding aluminium with alternating current...................................................... 16
11 TIG welding aluminium with direct current .............................................................. 18
12 Weld preparation for TIG aluminium welding .......................................................... 20
13 Welding defects .......................................................................................................... 21
14 Process variants of TIG welding ............................................................................... 24
14.1 Possible mechanisations levels of TIG welding. ..................................................... 25
15 Process variants of TIG welding. .............................................................................. 26
15.1 TIG pulsed welding ................................................................................................ 26
15.2 TIG welding with filler wire...................................................................................... 27
15.2.1 TIG welding with cold wire ....................................................................... 27
15.3 TIG welding of rotated components ....................................................................... 28
15.4 Orbital TIG welding ................................................................................................ 29

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TIG Welding Page 2
15.5 Orbital TIG Narrow gap welding ............................................................................. 32

15.6 TIG hot wire welding .............................................................................................. 34
15.7 TIG multi-cathode welding...................................................................................... 34
15.8 TIG welding with a double gas nozzle .................................................................... 36
15.9 TIG spot welding .................................................................................................... 36
15.10 TIG welding with two torches (simultaneously) ...................................................... 38
15.11 TIG Key-hole welding. ............................................................................................ 38
16 Test questions ................................................................................................................... 41

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TIG Welding Page 3
1 Principle
A tungsten electrode is clamped inside the welding torch, providing the location where the welding
current is introduced. An arc is formed between the tungsten electrode and the workpiece that fuses the
base material and melts the added filler metal. Inert shielding gas streams out of the welding torch and
screens off the glowing tungsten electrode and the weld pool from air.
2 Welding unit and the welding process

Shielding gas
supply
Power source with

control and arc-ignition
Welding Torch Filler

material
Welding hose with

Work cable
current-, gas- and
water supply Work piece
1 Mains connection 14 Liquid weld metal

2 Welding power source 15 Solid weld metal
3 Welding current cable (electrode 16 Inert gas shield
4 Welding work cable (workpiece)
5 Work clamp
6 Shielding gas cylinder with pressure reducer
and gas flow meter
7 Shielding gas hose
8 Welding Torch
9 Welding rod
10 Workpiece
11 Tungsten electrode
12 Collet and current transfer
13 Arc
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of the TIG welding equipment and the welding process

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TIG Welding Page 4
3 Shielding gases used and application of the working process
In the case of tungsten inert gas welding, only inert shielding gas is used as the glowing tungsten
electrode must never be subjected to chemical reactions: - argon (Ar) - helium (He) - mixtures of argon
(Ar) and helium (He) and hydrogen (H2).
The tungsten inert gas welding method enables the welding of steel and non-ferrous metals in all
positions. Material thicknesses of 0.5 mm to 5 mm allow economical applications; in the case of thicker
workpieces only root penetration passes will be welded with this welding process. Important areas of
application are aviation and aerospace technology, precision mechanics, construction of chemical
equipment, apparatus and containers/vessels.
4 TIG welding torches (types)
In the case of TIG welding, gas or water-cooled torches are used depending on the required arc powers.
The basic design of a torch is as follows:
Torch cap
Tungsten
Electrode
Collet
Push-button
Torch switch
Body
Isolation
Ring Torch
Collet Holder
Collet with Gaslens
Holder
Shielding
Gas Nozzle
Figure 2: Basic design of a torch

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TIG Welding Page 5
4.1 Air-cooled TIG welding torches can be used up to an arc amperage of approx. 250 A.
Tungsten electrode
Torch handle
Cable connection Argon hose with

cables
Figure 3:
Cross section of an
air-cooled welding torch
4.2 Water-cooled TIG welding torches are used for high arc power and duty cycle.
Figure 4 shows the cross-section of a water-cooled torch.
Cooling water return Cooling water Shielding gas

and welding current supply connection
(shielding) gas
nozzle Torch handle Figure 4:
Cross-section of a
water-cooled TIG torch

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TIG Welding Page 6
5 Tungsten electrodes
The quality of a TIG weld seam basically depends on the kind of tungsten electrodes used and the
shape of the electrode tip. We distinguish between pure tungsten electrodes and those with oxide
additives. The differences between these kinds of electrodes are based on the electron-emission-energy
(Figure ). This shows that, in order to reach a stable ignited arc, a pure tungsten electrode gets approx.
1000 °C hotter than a thoriated tungsten electrode. The required arc current density of the pure tungsten
electrode is in the liquid phase of the electrode tips, whereas the necessary emission-energy for the
thoriated electrode takes place in the solid state of the electrode material. Table 1 shows the suggested
arc current values based on electrode diameter, current type and polarity.
Thorium is increasingly replaced by other oxides.
The required current density

for stable arc
Figure 5: Electron emission: Density j of the electron-flow as a function of temperature T for pure and thoriated
tungsten electrodes:
Tth: Temperature of thoriated electrode during welding

Tr: Temperature of pure tungsten electrode during welding

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TIG Welding Page 7
Table 1: Approximate current range depending on the electrode diameter (Extract from DIN EN ISO 6848)

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TIG Welding Page 8
5.1 Electrode tip shapes
The tungsten electrode's tip shape has an impact on the shape of the arc and therefore on the shape of
the heat flow to the workpiece (see Figure ). The electrode end is mainly defined by the kind of current
and the polarity as well as the thermal strain (thermal capacity) which is defined by the level of the
amperage. In case of direct current with negative polarity, a cone-shaped tip can be kept under lower
current levels. By raising the level of arc current, the electrode tip is liquefied and turns into a
hemisphere with a diameter of about the electrode thickness (see Figure ).
Broad, flat penetration Narrow, deep penetration
Figure 6: Penetration dependency of the electrode tip shape for TIG welding under same welding current
Type of
current
Figure 7: Development of the electrode shape at different amperages
The formation of the electrode tips is similar in case of other oxide additives.

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TIG Welding Page 9
5.2 Classification of tungsten electrodes in accordance with DIN EN ISO 6848
According to Table 2, tungsten electrodes must be marked with a coloured ring on one of the electrode’ s
tips depending on their chemical composition.
The width of each coloured ring must be at least 3 mm. Tungsten electrodes may alternatively have their
own symbols, which are etched into the surface of the electrode near to one end.
Table 2: Requirements on the chemical composition of tungsten electrodes (extract from DIN EN ISO 6848)

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TIG Welding Page 10
6 Influence of the shielding gas on the penetration profile
The shape of the arc is also considerably influenced by the type of shielding gas used. In case of active
gases the physical characteristics of the different thermal conductivities play a part on the dissociation.
Figure 5 shows the penetration profiles of dummy runs and Figure 6 of fillet welds in the base material
X5CrNi18-10 (1.4301) of TIG welding under different shielding gases.
Figure 5: Penetration profiles of TIG welding with different shielding gases in a 5 mm thick plate, current 130 A,
arc length 4 mm, welding speed 15 cm/min.
Figure 6: Fillet weld penetration profiles of TIG welding with different shielding gases, base material 1.4301
7 Ignition of TIG arcs

A TIG arc can be ignited by the tungsten electrode either through contacting the workpiece or without
contacting (contactless) the workpiece
7.1 Contactless Ignition

Contactless ignition has the advantage of preventing contamination of the welding area with tungsten
particles and avoiding a specific movement of the welding torch for starting the ignition.
In earlier days using the contactless ignition, the ionisation of the arc area (initiation of charge carriers)
was carried out by high frequency (HF). Nowadays, this is usually being executed by high voltage
pulses. However, the designation HF-ignition is still being used even for the high voltage pulses.
Due to the voltage amplitudes, the energy content of the pulses and the short-time high frequency
electromagnetic fields of the HF-ignition and High Voltage Pulse ignition, specific risks for humans and
sensitive electronic equipment will arise.
Electronic equipment which is located near the welding current cable of the torch (some meters) should
be interference free (suitable for industrial use) in order to prevent defects or malfunctioning. The
touchable areas of the TIG-torch, the welding hose and connectors must be well isolated in order to
prevent undesired high voltage flashovers (sparks). Absolutely dry and isolating welding gloves in case
of manual torch welding should be self-evident. Some company specific- or association related
limitations for using the HF-ignition could be valid.
The maximum voltage amplitude (and the allowable energy content) for HF-ignition is being standardised
in accordance with the specific equipment and is around 12kV (kilovolt) for manual torch welding and up
to 20kV for mechanised torch welding. TIG power sources usually support the HF-ignition through a

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TIG Welding Page 11
specific ignition-current which can be adapted manually or automatically by selecting the tungsten
electrode diameter.
Depending on technical and standardised limitations of HF-ignition in combination with local conditions it
may occur that the HF-ignition is not working well. The following information is given:
– The HF-ignition will become worse with increasing helium content in the shielding gas. It could be
helpful, but with appropriate effort, to start under pure argon conditions and subsequently
switching over to helium.
– The type and condition (correct grinding) of the tungsten electrode influences the ignition.
– a conductive ring around the front area of the gas nozzle changes the electrical field and may
improve the ignition process.
– the welding hose should not be located in close surrounding to other electrical conductors (even
electrical cables, cable booms, etc.) as subsequently the ignition energy can be transferred
locally.
– the ignition sparks could affect surface areas outside the weld seam by micro craters. Although
the ignition sparks are following the shortest, electrical favourable path, they show a preference
for sharp peaks, edges and specific surface conditions (partly oxides)
A contactless ignition without facing the above mentioned “problems” is possible by using specific
torches having an (already ignited) active pilot-arc inside which on its turn can ignite the main arc. This
type of contactless ignition is very common for micro plasma welding.
7.2 Lift-arc Ignition
The ignition of the arc will be activated by making a contact between the tungsten electrode and the
workpiece which creates a local heating and generates sparks at the time of ending the contact. These
sparks ignite the arc. This processing requires a specific movement which could consist a slight
touching, scratching or a push-hold-lifting movement with a certain holding time.
TIG power sources support the lift-arc-ignition through a specific ignition-current which can be adapted
manually or automatically by selecting the tungsten electrode diameter.
 Short circuit ignition

 Ignition with high-voltage pulse generator (high frequency ignition)
 Lift - arc ignition
Table 3: Influence of different gases on ignition characteristic, arc stability, joint type and welding speed.
Influence/ Ignition Arc weld-widening Penetration Welding
shielding gas stability speed
Argon XXX XXX XXX XX XX

Argon/hydrogen mixture XXX XXX XX XX XXX
Helium X X X XXX XXX
Helium/argon mixture 25/75 XX XX XXX XX XXX
Helium/argon mixture 50/50 X X XX XXX XXX
8 Purging
Purging takes place almost exclusively during welding of high-alloyed steels.

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Purging primarily forms a gas shield at the weld root. Without this shielding gas, oxidisation may occur in
the vicinity of the weld root (discoloration that can generally occur without an optimal gas shield in the
area surrounding the weld surface, too). Annealing colours are thin oxide layers that are formed due to
heat on the surface of Cr-Ni steels, if exposed to air. They must be removed, or better still, their
generating should be avoided, so that the chemically resistant passive layer can develop, which is
responsible for the corrosion resistance of these materials.
The annealing discoloration can be removed by blasting, grinding or pickling (please note: remove
pickling residues sufficiently, otherwise there is a corrosion risk). Inside pipes and containers this is
usually not possible; thus purging here may require remedial measures. Purging must already occur
during tack-welding.
To a certain extent the purging gas pressure gives also a certain support preventing the root weld metal
from excessive drop through and helping in making a weld root.
8.1 Purging gas and work safety
Argon and nitrogen are nor toxic or flammable. It should be observed however, that during purging gas
proceedings of vessels the oxygen is purged so that during work activities in such vessels an air supply
is required (air; not pure oxygen!!) in order to avoid the risk of suffocation.
Purging gases with hydrogen content (for obtaining an oxide-free weld root) are flammable depending on
their hydrogen content.
Therefore, EN ISO 14175 specifies that purging gases with over 10% hydrogen content need to be
flared. This is mostly to be achieved through the use of a constantly burning pilot flame.
Flammable gas mixtures are present if the hydrogen content in the air is between 4 and 75 vol%.
When components with inaccessible areas cannot ensure sufficient purging of the trapped air, purging
gas with less than 4% hydrogen or only argon or nitrogen are to be used.purging
The residual oxygen content is leading for the purging-effectiveness of the area. purging
When welding stainless steels, a sufficient dilution is usually achieved if approx. 2.5 - 3 times the
geometric volume of the area to be purged is set for the quantity of the purging gas to be used.
Example:
Pipe internal diameter = 132 mm
Flush length = 1,000 mm
Pipe volume = 14 l
Gas flow rate = 10 l/min
Flush factor = 2.5
Gas volume 2.5 x 14 = 35 l flushing time 35: 10 = 3.5 min

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In table 4 the information is given which type of purging (=shielding) gas should be used for different
purging materials.
Table 4
Purging gases Materials
Argon-hydrogen mixtures Austenitic Cr-Ni steels
Ni and Ni based materials
*) Nitrogen-hydrogen mixtures Steels, except high-strength fine grain structural steels,
austenitic Cr-Ni steels
Argon Austenitic Cr-Ni steels, austenitic-ferritic steels (duplex),
gas-sensitive materials (titanium, zirconium, molybdenum),
hydrogen-sensitive materials (high-strength fine grain structural
steels, copper and copper alloys, aluminium and aluminium
alloys as well as other non-ferrous metals), ferritic Cr steels
*) Nitrogen austenitic Cr-Ni steels, austenitic-ferritic steels (duplex)
*) For titanium-stabilised stainless steels, titanium-nitride may form on the full penetration root run
(yellow discolouration) when using nitrogen or nitrogen-hydrogen mixtures. The question of
whether to leave this titanium-nitride in place is to be decided separately in each individual case.
When, for example larger containers are to be purged the relative density of the purging gas used is to
be considered.
Figure 7: Relative density of different gases used for purging

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8.2 Purging fixtures
Figure 8: Schematic diagram showing the use of shielding gas to protect the top and bottom when welding sheet
metals
Figure 9: Purging fixture for pipe profiles

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Figure 103: Different means of purging
Figure 114: discoloration and early corrosion due to inadequate gas shielding

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Figure 125: “Burned” weld root due to an absolutely inadequate gas shielding
9 TIG welding of aluminium

9.1 Overview
The following aluminium materials can be welded using the TIG welding process.
A. Pure aluminium (Al 99.9; Al 99.5 etc.)
with high corrosion resistance but low strength (80 N/mm²), which can be increased (130 N/mm²) by
cold forming (roll forming etc.). The effects of cold work hardening are lost by welding in the weld
area.
B. Self-hardening aluminium alloys (AlMn; AlMg 3, etc.).
higher strength through alloying elements (240 N/mm²).
Cold-forming leads to increased strength (320 N/mm²), which is lost by welding in the weld area
again.
C. Heat-treatable aluminium alloys (AIMgSi1; AIZnMg1 etc.)
Adequate strength characteristics (380 N/mm²) are achieved by using thermal treatments
(precipitation processes). The loss of strength in the weld area after welding can partially be
regained by ageing at higher temperatures (100-250 C°) or by storage at room temperature.
The main problem of aluminium welding is the high melting temperature of the oxide layer. In TIG
welding the oxide layer is usually not destroyed by flux (as it is the case with oxy-fuel gas welding, which
is now rarely used for aluminium) but by physical effects of the electrical current in the area of the arc
root. The prerequisite for welding joints without trapped oxides and therefore also without incomplete
fusion, is a primarily pre-weld treatment of the workpieces in the weld zone and possibly also of the filler
metal shortly before welding by pickling or by mechanical means e.g. by brushing. Brushes with bristles
made of highly alloyed material are used; these should never be used to brush ferrous materials.
10 TIG welding aluminium with alternating current
Alternating current welding is currently most frequently used in practical manufacturing applications.
Cleaning takes place in the positive half wave, while during the negative half wave the tungsten
electrode, which is strongly heated up earlier, can now cool down. Consequently, in case of alternating
current welding the advantages of the two kinds of direct current polarity are combined. Since the arc

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extinguishes at every current zero crossing (Figure ), work used to be performed with a high frequency
overlay (150 kHz at 1,500 to 2,000 V) in order to facilitate the re-ignition of the arc. These devices have
now been replaced by impulse generators that no longer have an output of constant high-frequency
voltage impulses, but rather impulses with the same rhythm as the supply voltage (Figure ) and therefore
have less influence over the radio and TV reception in the close environment.
Figure 16: TIG arc when using alternating current
Figure 17: Impulse generator; voltage impulses
Table 5: Reference values for TIG welding of aluminium materials with alternating current
Workpiece Shape of Tungsten Welding Filler rod Argon Amount

thickness groove electrode diameter current *) diameter consumption of Layers
mm weld mm mm
A L/min.
1 II 1.6 50 ... 60 2 4 ... 5 1
2 II 2.4 60 ... 90 2 5 ... 6 1
3 II 2.4 90 ... 150 3 5 ... 6 1
4 II 3.2 150 ... 180 3 6 ... 8 1
6 V 3.2 180 ... 240 4 8 ... 10 2
8 V 4.0 200 ... 280 4 8 ... 10 2
10 V 4.8 260 ... 350 5 10 ... 12 2 ... 3
12 V 6.4 320 ... 400 5 12 ... 14 3
*) Values for butt welds; in the case of fillet welds these should be increased by 10 to 20%.

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11 TIG welding aluminium with direct current
During direct current welding, different temperatures occur at the anode (+) and the cathode (-) because
of physical characteristics, see Figure and Figure 19.
Penetration ratio
Figure 18: Direct current arc, electrode as cathode (-); penetration ratios
Penetration ratio
Figure 19: Direct current arc, electrode as anode (+); penetration ratios
In case of the arrangement shown in Figure , with the electrode as the cathode, the emitted electrons hit
the workpiece poled as the anode and generate a lot of heat by converting kinetic energy on the hitting
point and thereby achieving deep penetration. In comparison, the electrode tip is only heating up a little
bit because of upcoming gas ions which, in contrast to the electrons, however show a larger mass but
smaller amounts and in particular, not as fast as the electrons. The oxide layer is not destroyed by using
this polarity, so that processes with this type of polarity seem to be unsuitable first for the welding of
aluminium.
In case of the arrangement shown in Figure 19, with the electrode as the anode, the emitted electrons hit
the electrode and they heat it up substantially. In comparison, the workpiece which is poled as the
cathode only heats up a little bit. Therefore only a flat penetration arises.
This polarity leads to a "cleaning effect" i.e. the oxide layer is torn up and removed. This effect is
explained by the fact that the quite heavy ions meet the oxide skin and destroy it. At this polarity,
however, the high thermal load on the tungsten electrode leads to the rapid destruction of the tungsten.
By using this kind of polarity several welding procedures are carried out by using disproportionally thick
tungsten electrodes for thin plates. However, TIG-welding using this kind of polarity is of little technical
significance.

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Concerning TIG welding with a negative polarity of the electrode, a method has recently been developed
which, instead of the usual inert gas argon, makes use of helium. This is based on special characteristics of
this gas. Due to the higher ionisation energy compared to argon, a greater welding voltage of approx. 75 %
occurs at the same current levels (Figure 20) and this also leads to a higher thermal input into the workpiece.
The higher thermal conductivity of helium is another advantage compared to argon. Because of its lower
electrical conductivity, one of the disadvantages of helium is the turbulent arc and the difficult arc ignition
during TIG welding. In a lot of cases, mixtures of argon and helium result in a practical compromise. From an
economic point of view, it also has to be considered that helium is more expensive than argon and that, due
to its lower specific weight relatively more helium than argon has to be used for gas shield purposes.
Figure 20: Arc voltage vs. welding current when using different gases (according to Schnöbel)
The higher energy input when helium is used results in higher welding speeds (Table ), lower pre-heat
temperatures at the same penetration rate (Figure ) and a lower tendency for porosity due to a hotter
weld pool with lower viscosity and better degasification possibilities.
Table 6: TIG welding of AlMg3, double V weld, 16 mm sheet thickness
Gas Welding current Welding voltage Welding speed

(A) (V) (cm/min)
Argon 29 45
Argon + 30 % helium 400 30.5 50
Argon + 70 % helium 33 60
Figure 21: Influence of pre-heating on penetration

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It is expected that TIG welding of aluminium workpieces using helium will be increasingly adopted in the
future, especially for automated welding. See Table for reference values for welding with direct current.
Table 7: Reference values for TIG welding of aluminium with direct current
Workpiece Type of Welding Helium Amount of

Tungsten Electrodes Welding current
thickness groove weld speed consumption Layers
mm  mm Degrees A cm/min l/min
1 II 1.6 90 85 120 15 1
2 II 2.4 90 110 100 15 1
3 II 2.4 90 150 80 15 1
4 II 2.4 90 180 80 15 1
5 II 2.4 90 200 70 20 1+1
6 II 3.2 90 220 70 20 1+1
8 II 3.2 60 265 60 25 1+1
10 II 4.0 60 320 50 25 1+1
12 Weld preparation for TIG aluminium welding
The preparation of joints is standardised according to DIN EN ISO 9692-3. Table shows some common
weld profiles based on the standard.
Table 8: Weld profiles for butt welds, one-sided (extract from DIN EN ISO 9692-3)

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13 Welding defects
When considering welding defects, a distinction should be made between general welding defects based
on wrong torch and rod manipulation, incorrect workpiece preparation, gas shielding and additional
defects that occur during aluminium welding. For respective data see Table to Table 11.
Table 9: Errors due to defects in the weld joint preparation and the shielding gas
Defects Reasons Remedy
Dull surface, weld edges rough, Incorrect preparation of the weld area Brushing, grinding, pickling, blasting
too little flow and welding rod (not metallic clean)
Pores Workpiece dirty, oil, grease, Cleaning, gloves clean?

paint, moisture
Surface oxidised, dull, Air in argon, leaking hoses and gas Control of argon flow, torch
incorrect melting flow nozzle sucks air in, swirled air, draft, inclination, draft, fan wind, nozzle
torch distance too large, argon flow size, argon l/min
too high
Whitish smoke, electrode tip Lack of argon

oxidised
Bottom has annealing colours, Too little back purge

grey oxidisation, rough, burned
surface
Dark sediments, pores, Water leaks into torch, Control torch, water solenoid valve
unstable arc condensed water in torch does not close during welding
pauses, prepare electrodes again
Arc flickering, condensate of Dirty electrode tip

metallic vapour, lower penetration

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Table 10: General faults due to torch and Table 11: Typical defects during TIG welding of aluminium
welding rod manipulation materials
Possible
Fault Oxide Inclusions Causes
effects
Insufficient welding current - excessive gap, lower
web edge not broken
Weld areas not cleaned, hot rod end is taken out

of the shielding gas area after dipping and is
Arc is too long Notch dipped back into the weld pool after it has reacted
with the oxygen in the air
Cleaning effect of the arc does not penetrate

Oxide pores
significantly below the pool
Without joint preparation or
filler metal
Low penetration
I-shaped weld on excessively thick workpieces
Welded on both sides in
succession
Workpiece distortion
Torch angle too big Gas absorption
I-shaped weld on excessively thick plates

Welded on both sides
simultaneously
Torch tilted Bead, single-sided notches Hydrogen input, humidity in oxide layers, grease
and paint residuals in the welding zone, on the
rod-surface, leaking water cooling, condensed
water in torch head (if cooling water circulation is
Pores not interrupted during pauses)
Arc instability during welding, especially at the
Torch offset Single-sided root start of welding and the welding over tack-welds
fusion defect
Cooling rate is too high:
pores in the weld interface between the weld and
the base material are caused by the insufficient
degassing of the base material.
Wire end moves out of

shielded zone after
welding

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A reason for metallurgic pores is always that hydrogen has dissolved in the material and absorbed while
welding and is then unable to escape after solidifying. The reason for this is the change in solubility of
hydrogen when it changes from a solid state (0.036 ml/100 g Al) to a liquid state of matter (0.7 ml/100 g
Al-weld pool) and additionally in the strong increase of the solubility of the weld pool at a rising
temperature of about 50 ml/100 g Al shortly before reaching the melting point. This entails a 70-fold
increase in the H2 solubility from the melting and boiling point, compared with a 1.6-fold increase for
steel, Figure . Especially super-purity and pure aluminium tend to the formation of pores in the weld. The
outgassing process can be improved by a higher heat input (pre-heating 100 to 250 °C) and a lower
welding speed.
To avoid pores, the highest cleanliness is required concerning grease, oil, moisture, etc. in the zone of
the weld and at the filler material.
Figure 22: Typical H2 solubility in aluminium depending on temperature

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14 Process variants of TIG welding
Negative pole Key-hole Pulsed

welding welding welding
Under pure Helium
Positive pole Hot-wire

welding welding
Cold-wire
Alternating welding
current welding
Narrow Gap Orbital

welding welding
Figure 23: TIG welding variants

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14.1 Possible mechanisations levels of TIG welding.
 manual welding
 partially mechanised welding
 fully mechanised welding
 automatic welding
Table 12: Examples of classification according to degree of mechanization (extract from DIN 1910-100:2008-02)
Motion and working processes
Designation Tungsten inertgas welding
Short symbol Torch/workpiece Filler metal Handling of
TIG (141) guidance feed workpieces
manual welding
manual manual manual
partially manual mechanical manual

mechanised
welding
fully mechanised mechanical mechanical manual

welding
automatic mechanical mechanical mechanical

welding

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15 Process variants of TIG welding
15.1 TIG pulsed welding
TIG pulsed arc welding which is a relatively new arc welding process modified only by the type of
current, differs from TIG direct-current-welding only by a special power supply that generates e.g.
sinusoidal or rectangular direct current or direct current pulses with adjustable impulse parameters
(pulse amplitude, pulse frequency, duty cycle).
During the high current pulses in the pulse arc process, a lot of heat is brought into the welding area.
The weld material is melted.
During the pulse phase (base time) with low current only little heat is applied to the workpiece. The weld
pool stays comparatively cool. These low currents during the base time only serve to maintain the arc in
order to avoid disruptions and ignition difficulties.
When welding with a filler wire or rod the filler material is fused with the base material during the high
current pulse phase. The pulse frequency is usually between 0.5 Hz and 10 Hz.
The weld heat input can be considerably changed by the choice of time-periods and current values.
In the extreme case, a weld seam may consist of adjacent or overlapping fusion welding points.
TIG pulsed arc welding allows the area of application of the TIG process to be extended to low power
levels and low material thicknesses and the weld seam appearance can be further improved, too.
The most important weld parameters are:
 Pulse current Ip
 Background current IG
 Pulse current time tp
 Background tG
current time
 Pulse frequency fp = 1/tc
(tc = Pulse cycle duration)
Figure 24: Basic weld parameters for TIG pulsed arc welding

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The following advantages and disadvantages apply when comparing TIG welding with even- or pulsed
shaped arcs.
Advantages of the TIG pulsed arc welding: Disadvantages:

 possibilities of lower energy inputs  welding equipment is expensive
 better depth-to-width ratio in the case of higher thickness  setting up the equipment is more
complicated
 more stable arc
 more uniform root formation
 better out-of position weldability
 less workpiece distortion
 better modulation of the welding pool
 better gap bridging ability
15.2 TIG welding with filler wire
Filler material is used whenever a groove needs to be filled during welding e.g. a single-V butt weld or a
fillet weld is performed, or sufficient weld cap and root excess is required.
15.2.1 TIG welding with cold wire
Welding with cold wire is the most popular TIG application. The filler wire can be fed manually or
mechanically.
The separation of the arc heat and the filler wire in TIG welding results in the situation that the wire is
only fed at the time a sufficiently large weld pool has been formed. This allows a high weld quality to be
achieved, securely helping to avoid initial fusion defects and cold locations. Thus, TIG welding is used
most frequently in applications where high quality welds are required, as in thin sheet and root welding.
A disadvantage of cold wire welding is the limited deposition rate. The feed rate of the cold wire can be
adjusted only in a limited range (approx. 0.2-1.0 m/min) without running into problems.
If the cold wire feed rate is too low, the wire does not melt evenly.
If the rate is too high, the arc cannot melt the wire completely.
Figure 25: TIG welding with cold wire / Photo: Linde

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15.3 TIG welding of rotated components
A conventional fully mechanised TIG welding unit with a controlled turntable can often be used with a
rotating pipe and stationary torch. Since the root weld and the subsequent beads from the start to the
end of the weld must be free of defects, process control is absolutely essential.
Small pipe diameters and pipe material with good heat conductivity properties increase the pre-heating
temperature at the welding point continuously. This requires continuous changing of the welding data.
We recommend using program control to retrieve the required welding data.
Figure 26: TIG welding with cold wire / Photo: Linde

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15.4 Orbital TIG welding
Similar to TIG welding with a rotating pipe, the orbital welding process can be used with a stationary pipe
and a rotating torch to join pipe diameters from < 10 mm to > 1,000 mm and pipe wall thicknesses from
some tenth of millimeters to 50 mm or more.
Also, a diverse selection of materials may be welded using this process. Un-alloyed, low-alloyed, heat-
resistant, high-strength and corrosion-resistant high alloyed steels can be joined using orbital TIG
welding. Furthermore, joints of nickel-based materials, Cu and Al alloys are possible. This usually
requires complex welding equipment, in order to meet the requirements for high quality.
Thin-walled pipes and pipes with very small dimensions are often welded without filler material (and also
root welds on thick pipes). For larger pipes, cold- and hot-wire TIG welding is used.
Figure 27: Stationary apparatus for the preparation and Figure 28: Orbital TIG welding without filler wire
orbital welding of pipes (without filler wire) / Photo: Protem
Photo: Protem
Figure 29: Open orbital TIG-system with cold-wire feeder

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In orbital TIG welding, the actual welding position continuously changes (e.g.: from horizontal to welding
down, from overhead to welding up). In one cycle only these weld position changes require up to 40
different welding data settings. Equipment that can perform these functions is expensive and requires
substantial experience in programming. The welding heads can be simple clamps or complex tools that
enable all functions of the welding process to be remotely controlled in the smallest area.
Figure 30: Closed Orbital TIG heads of different diameters (without filler material feeder) Photo: Fronius
Figure 31: Orbital TIG welding head for larger

pipe diameters (with filler material feeder) Photo:
Fronius

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Figure 32: Orbital TIG welding equipment with filler material feeder. Picture below: in action

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15.5 Orbital TIG Narrow gap welding
In the welding industry both the Orbital TIG welding variant with a rotating torch around a fixed
component, and the one with the fixed torch and a rotating component become more and more
important.
Orbital TIG narrow gap welding is only applied from a certain pipe diameter due to the increasing wall
thickness. Due to the high weld preparation effort it is only economical to use narrow gap welding for
using thicknesses just from and above 25mm.
Compared to conventional TIG welding the Orbital TIG narrow gap welding time reductions can go up to
5 to 10 times for wall thicknesses of 60mm and above. Not only is less weld metal needed also the
disposition rate can be considerably increased by using the hot-wire variant. In order to apply the orbital
TIG narrow gap welding at all, it is absolutely necessary to comply with the mechanical preparation of
the joint layout and the positioning of the component.
Figure 33: Comparison of weld volume savings for TIG/MAG/UP narrow gap welding processes
(according to Siemens KWU)

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Figure 34: Orbital TIG narrow gap welding
Figure 35: Macro of cross-section of a 10CrMo9-10 (1.7380)

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15.6 TIG hot wire welding
The wire is heated by an additional power source up to the melting point and can be added into the weld
pool without extracting significant heat from the arc. The heating of the wire is executed by resistance
heating without creating an additional arc.
Advantages:
 High deposition efficiency
 High welding speed
 Low risk of lack of fusion
 Low dilution of the base material
 High deposit quantities with same welding currents (30-50%)
 More simple welding in out-of-positioning welding
 Smaller Heat Affected Zone
Legend:
1 Power supply
2 Wire electrode
3 Wire electrode, hot wire electrode (with current)
4 Weld
5 Arc
6 Workpiece
Figure 36: TIG hot wire welding process
15.7 TIG multi-cathode welding
This version (one torch with several electrodes) is used for producing thin-walled pipes, for example
pipes formed from sheet metal which are longitudinally welded.
For an economic production, very high welding speeds are required. This can be achieved by arranging
several TIG welding torches in series at small intervals or, with special torches, where several electrodes
are arranged to each other in an isolated way.
Welding speeds of 10 - 20 m/min are obtained, many times faster than what can be achieved with
individual torches.
This process variant requires special purpose machines and is little used

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Figure 37: TIG multi-cathode welding
Figure 38: TIG multi-cathode welding

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15.8 TIG welding with a double gas nozzle
This process is again used very little in practice. Certain gas mixtures can be achieved using different
compositions of gas in the outer and inner gas shield in order to achieve economic and quality
advantages.
However, changes in general conditions means that stable gas combinations are often not achieved.
Centre/inner gas
Shielding gas
Figure 39: TIG welding with a double gas nozzle
15.9 TIG spot welding
TIG spot welding is used to join two overlapping sheets of thin metal by a spot weld (with or without filler
material). A joint similar to resistance spot welding can be achieved. However, if there is no sufficiently
large hole in the top layer, the smallest disturbances e.g.
- gap between the top and bottom sheet metal

- contaminations
- coatings
may affect the welding process so much that the joint between the two sheets of metal is not
successfully created. With a hole in the top sheet (5-7 mm) and filler material, sound joints are possible
with short welding time (around one second).
The advantages, such as single-sided accessibility and free of spatter, are diminished by the high cost
and low cost efficiency. The process is little used.

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Figure 40: TIG spot welding

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15.10 TIG welding with two torches (simultaneously)
~ 10°- 20°
Both sides TIG welding in a single weld pool by two welders is
preferable to be executed in the PF welding position. Other
welding positions are also possible. Welding position PA is
difficult. The filler wire does not to be added from both sides.
Especially for welding thick aluminium materials the gap should

not be too small in order to prevent the loss of the flank cleaning
effect (arc bow starting points) and creating the risk of getting
oxide inclusions.
~7
0°-
80
°
70°
2-5
8-20
4-10
Figure 41: TIG welding with two

torches (simultaneously)
3-6 70°
Figure 42: Weld preparation for both side TIG welding (simultaneously)
The most important advantages of welding simultaneously with two TIG welding arcs are:
 More simple weld preparation of components up to 10 mm thickness

 Gap distances up to the material thicknesses can be controlled
 Pores, lack of fusion or oxide inclusions are to be neglected if correct weld preparation and
trained welders are involved.
 Also for high heat conductivity base materials preheating is mostly not necessary.
 No distortion (symmetrical welding) and small weld layout.
 An advantage for repair welding when facing bigger gaps after repair-preparations
When welding with alternating current it is important that:

The power sources should be set in a way that in both arcs the phase-period and frequency are equal.
For power sources having no fixed frequencies these requirements are hard to accomplish. If the current
directions of each arc are different, the open-circuit voltage is above an acceptable value and the arc
goes from electrode to electrode which strongly affects the cleaning-effect and arc-working negatively.
15.11 TIG Key-hole welding.
The industry has a high demand of efficient joining techniques for reliable and secure welding under
retention of base material properties especially in the heat affected zone. TIG key hole welding does
have advantages and efficiency-benefits regarding to:
 weld preparations from metal thicknesses of d=3-12mm
 number of weld runs compared to MIG/MAG- and conventional TIG welding

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Essentials for application:

 Conventional TIG power source
 No complex weld preparation, only plane-machining or –turning
 Less to no filler material
 TIG-quality
Figure 43: Principle of TIG key hole welding
Figure 44:TIG key hole welding with filler wire

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TIG Welding Page 40
12 mm CrNi Sheetmetal
Parameter Conventionel TIG TIG key-hole
Macro-etching
Weld preparation V-Naht 60° Butt weld

Number of layers 7 1
Filler quantity 1000 g/m 50 g/m
Current I 320 A 640 A
Welding speed 200 mm/min 300 mm/min
Welding time 35 min pro m 3 min 20 sec. pro m
Figure 45: Macro-etching of TIG key-hole welded 6mm CrNi steel (1.4301),weld current 430A, welding speed
85cm/min

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TIG Welding Page 41
16 Test questions
1) Why is the temperature at the anode higher than at the cathode?
 due to the emission of protons

 by the impact of electrons
 due to the high voltage drop at the anode
 due to the emission of electrons out of the anode
 due to the less heat conductivity
2) A power source with a steep falling characteristic curve is suitable for which welding process?
 MAG
 TIG
 SMAW
 TIG Plasma
 MIG
3) Why is alternating current used for TIG welding of aluminium?
 in order to achieve a symmetrical mains loading

 in order to prevent the rectifying effect
 destroying the high melting oxide layer during the positive phase of the current wave
 lower thermal stressing of the wolfram electrode than with plus poled electrode
 lower thermal stressing of the wolfram electrode than with minus poled electrode
4) What is the reason for using contactless arc ignition during TIG welding?
 To prevent tungsten contamination in the base material

 Due to the low open-circuit voltage
 In order to prevent the contamination of the tungsten electrode
 Due to the low ionisation voltage of Argon
 with steep falling static characteristic curves a contactless arc ignition is not possible
5) Which advantage is given by using helium as shielding gas during TIG welding?
 improved arc-ignition
 less shielding gas flow-quantities required
 Higher heat capacity of helium arc enables higher welding speeds
 decreasing the pore formation for some base materials
 lower shielding gas price

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TIG Welding Page 42
6) For which reason is the tungsten electrode connected to the minus pole during TIG welding of
steel?
 lower thermal stressing of the electrode

 To achieve a higher temperature of the tungsten electrode
 deeper penetration of the base material
 for ionisation of the arc-bow
 to prevent contamination of the tungsten electrode
7) The situation is given that during TIG welding the arc has to be hold at a poor accessible location.
What kind of influence does this have on the arc voltage value?
 Voltage decreases
 Voltage increases
 Voltage remains the same
 Voltage collapses (short-circuiting)
8) Which advantages does pulsed arc welding have on TIG welding?
 Active gases can be used

 Better control of the welding pool
 more easier parameter adjustment/setting
 better suitability for out-of–position-welding
 cost savings in machinery and shielding gas expenses
9) Why are Argon-CO2-mixtures not being used for TIG welding?
 the gas costs for Argon-CO2-mixtures are much higher than those of inert gases
 the setting of the correct shielding gas flow quantity will become more difficult
 in order to prevent oxidation of the tungsten electrode
 these gas mixtures can only be used for welding non-ferro metals
 these gas mixtures require a specific training of the welder.
10) Which of the following gases or gas mixtures are suitable as purging gases during TIG welding?
 Argon
 Ar+8%O2
 Ar90%+H210%
 N290%+ H210%
 Ar82%+ 18%CO2 (M21)

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MIG/MAG welding Page 1
Chapter 1.08-1: MIG/MAG welding
Contents
1 Term ................................................................................................................................................. 3
2 Application areas, adoption of the process .................................................................................. 4
3 Construction of GMAW welding equipment .................................................................................. 4
3.1 Power source unit .................................................................................................................. 5
3.2 Control unit ............................................................................................................................ 6
3.3 Hose assembly and welding power cables............................................................................. 7
3.4 Welding torch ......................................................................................................................... 9
4 Selection criteria for the welding equipment .............................................................................. 11
5 Arc length control for gas-shielded metal arc welding .............................................................. 11
6 Filler materials and shielding gases ............................................................................................ 12
6.1 Wire electrodes .................................................................................................................... 12
6.2 Shielding gases ................................................................................................................... 15
6.2.1 The Argon Arc during steel welding ........................................................................ 16
6.2.2 The CO2 Arc ........................................................................................................... 17
6.2.3 Classification and characteristics of different shielding gases for gas-shielded
metal arc welding ................................................................................................... 18
7 MIG/MAG welding equipment settings ........................................................................................ 24
7.1 Setting parameters for welding with step-switched welding rectifiers ................................... 24
7.2 Influence of the arc voltage .................................................................................................. 25
7.3 Influence of the wire feed rate .............................................................................................. 26
7.4 Influence of contact tube distance ........................................................................................ 27
7.5 Influence of welding speed .................................................................................................. 27
7.6 Influence of the electrode wire positioning on the weld profile and the edge penetration...... 28
7.7 Influence of the root gap when welding square butt welds ................................................... 29
7.8 Influence of the torch angle .................................................................................................. 29
7.9 Influence of the weld position ............................................................................................... 30
8 Wire electrode polarity, forces in the arc and metal transfer modes (arc types) ...................... 33
8.1 Polarity of the wire electrode ................................................................................................ 33
8.2 Influence of the wire electrode diameter on deposition rate and weld run profile .................. 34
8.3 Forces in the arc .................................................................................................................. 35
8.3.1 Spray arc mode ...................................................................................................... 37
8.3.2 Short spray arc mode ............................................................................................. 39

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8.3.3 Long spray arc mode ............................................................................................. 42

8.3.4 Globular spray arc mode ........................................................................................ 43
8.3.5 Short-arc mode ...................................................................................................... 44
8.3.6 Pulsed Arc Mode .................................................................................................... 47
8.4 GSMA-welding with cyclic changing arc power .................................................................... 50
9 Potential weld defects during MIG/MAG-welding ....................................................................... 51
9.1 Lack of fusion during weld start, weld overlap and –restart, weld-end crater ........................ 51
9.2 Lack of fusion inside the weld .............................................................................................. 52
9.3 Pores ................................................................................................................................... 55
9.4 Weld run undercuts .............................................................................................................. 57
9.5 Cracks ................................................................................................................................. 58
10 Joint preparation (Overview) ........................................................................................................ 58
11 Weld pool support (weld backing) ............................................................................................... 61
12 Advantages and disadvantages of Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding ........................................ 62
12.1 Advantages of MIG/ MAG welding ....................................................................................... 62
12.2 Disadvantages of MIG / MAG welding ................................................................................. 62
13 Process variants of MAG welding ................................................................................................ 62
13.1 MAG-Spot welding ............................................................................................................... 63
13.2 Gas shielded metal arc brazing ............................................................................................ 63
13.3 MIG/MAG-High Performance Processing............................................................................. 65
13.3.1 High Performance weld processing with single wire electrode................................ 66
13.3.2 High performance dual-wire weld processing ......................................................... 67
13.4 Plasma Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding ............................................................................. 70
13.5 Laser- Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding .............................................................................. 71
14 Electrogas welding ....................................................................................................................... 71
15 Test questions............................................................................................................................... 73
16 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................. 75

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1 Term
Gas-shielded metal arc welding (GMAW) is an arc welding process a continuous endless, depositing
wire electrode with a shielding gas blanket, Figure 1. GMAW welding can be applied partially mechanical
with a manually fed torch or fully automated. Direct current is used, and the wire electrode is usually the
positive pole. For special welding tasks in the low power range, using electronic power sources (with an
inverter in the output current circuit), even adapted alternating currents can be applied for reducing the
heat input.
Figure 1: Construction of GMAW welding equipment. /SLV Munich/
Table 1: Designations and process types for the MIG/MAG welding process
Code
Short
Welding process according to Remarks
symbol
ISO 4063
Gas-Shielded Metal Arc GMAW 13 Generic term
Welding
Metal-arc inert gas welding MIG 131 Inert shielding gas (argon, helium and argon/helium
with solid wire electrode mixtures)
with flux-cored wire mixtures)
electrode
with metal powder-filled wire mixtures)
electrode
Metal-arc active gas welding MAG 135 Argon-filled gas mixes or 100% CO2
with solid wire electrode

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with flux-cored wire
electrode
with metal powder-filled wire
electrode
CO2 welding MAGC / Shielding gas 100% CO2
Mixed gas welding MAGM / Argon-filled gas mixes
Self-shielded flux-cored arc MF 114 With self-protecting cored-wire electrodes
welding
MIG/Mag Spot welding - - Short-period welding without toch/nozzle movement
Further designations and ISO 4063 codes are listed in Table 1 and 2 for each conventional and special
process.
Table 2: Special welding process with melting wire electrode

(High-performance welding process: see section 13)
Code according
Welding process Short symbol Remarks
to ISO 4063
Electrogas welding EGW 73 Welding in vertical position
Plasma MIG Welding 151 Plasma and MIG arc in the torch
(plasma arc arranged concentrically)
(plasma- and gas metal arc arranged in serie)
2 Application areas, adoption of the process
Gas-shielded metal arc welding has become widely used in the last 50 years. These processes account
for about 70% of the filler materials used. Gas-shielded metal arc welding is used throughout in the
metalworking industry, steel construction, shipbuilding, container construction and vehicle construction
industries in a wide component wall thickness range. Next to un- and alloyed steels also CrNi steels and
aluminium materials are joined. GMAW-brazing is mainly used for the joining of metals containing thin
layers of Zinc.
3 Construction of GMAW welding equipment

Components of GMAW welding equipment according to Figure 1:
 Power component (welding rectifier)
 Wire feed unit (wire spool holder, wire feed motor, wire feed roll)
 Hose package
 Welding torch
 Cooling equipment
 Shielding gas equipment
 Control and adjusting elements.
Figure 2 shows the structure of electronic GMAW welding equipment.

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Figure 2: Structure of electronic GMAW welding equipment. /SLV Munich/
3.1 Power source unit

Section 1.04 includes the types of power components that convert the mains power for the different
process types.
For conventional GMAW welding (short-arc, spray-arc mode) using a rectifier, basically power sources are
being used having constant voltage characteristics. The static characteristics of the power supply in the
range of the welding data have an almost horizontal course (inclination 1 to 5 V/100 A).
Figure 3 displays the positioning of the static characteristic curve and the corresponding arc voltage
settings which is being controlled by coarse- and fine coarse switches (e.g. winding tapping of the
transformer). Power sources with stepless (continuous) controlled static characteristics properties enable a
continuous arc voltage setting (Figure 4).
Figure 3: Setting of the static characteristics using Figure 4: Setting of the static characteristics using
power supplies with step switching. /SLV electronic power supplies. /SLV Munich/
Munich/ The slope of the static characteristic is variable
and usually assigned to programs

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Normally the arc voltage settings are already adapted to the required wire feed speed within the
programs of high performance power sources. With the adjustment wheel normally only small changes
are being controlled.
Recommendations for the use of welding power supplies in relation to current intensity, wire electrode
diameter and type of torch cooling are shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Recommendation values for the selection of power supplies for MAG steel welding
Setting range of the Recommended wire Recommended
power source supply electrode diameter torch cooling
at 100% ED [mm]
150…180 A 0.8...1.0 Gas
180…250 A 0.8...1.0 Gas (water)
60…350 A 0.8...1.6 Water
70…450 A 0.8...2.0 Water
70…600 A 1.0...2.0 Water
Power supplies for gas-shielded metal arc welding with pulsed arc (wire diameter of 1.2 mm and mixed
gases with up to 20% CO2 content) should enable sufficient pulsed peaks (480 to 600A) and upslope
welding speeds. It is to be noted that for power sources having adjustable static characteristic slopes,
every adjustment will lead to different arc voltages and consequently effective arc lengths.
3.2 Control unit

The control unit is usually a plug-in unit integrated inside the power supply or is mounted externally for fully
mechanised or automated welding. During partial mechanised (manual) welding, the main functions of
shielding gas supply, wire feed and welding current feed are controlled by a two- or four-cycle (torch)
control. During the two-cycle mode the torch switch button has to be activated continuously during welding.
In the four-cycle mode the welder only presses the button once for starting and once for ending the welding
processing. The duration of the shielding gas flow before arc-ignition and after arc-extinction can
accordingly be extended.
Additional control functions like reduced ignition feed speed of the wire electrode just till shortly after the
arc ignition and the burn-back time, can be adjusted to the required arc- and deposition rate settings. An
adjustable burn-back time prevents the freezing of the wire-end into the weld pool and controls the
droplet size at the end of the wire.
Welding power sources containing high advanced electronics often do have the possibility of enabling a
final puls at the end of a weld run in order to establish a small, needle-pointed wire end. And needle
pointed wire electrodes do ease the weld arc ignition processing.
Power sources with advanced electronics (mainly secondary or primary clocked transistor power
sources) are mainly used for fully automated welding equipment as well as for gas-shielded metal arc
welding with pulsed arc. The start- and the ending of a weld run can be optimised through different ways
if the machines are equipped accordingly. Figure 5 shows some examples.

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Figure 5: Variable welding parameters to improve the quality of welding at the start-/ the end of a weld run /2/
Wire feeding
For gas-shielded metal arc welding, the wire electrode is pulled off from the coil and pushed by a wire
feeding unit through a hose assembly towards the contact tube in the torch measuring several metres in
length. Figure 6 shows schematically, next to the standard types, also wire feeding systems for higher
feeding capacities and for pressure-sensitive wires which are equipped with multiple wire feeding rolls.
The wire feed unit usually uses hardened rolls which incorporate a wedge-shaped groove or a groove
type which is adjusted (semi-circular or angled) to the wire diameter in case of soft wires
Figure 6: Wire feeding systems /2/
3.3 Hose assembly and welding power cables
The hose assembly and the welding torch belong to the highly stressed wear parts of the gas-shielded
metal arc welding process. The hose assembly leads the wire electrode, the welding current, the
shielding gas and the cooling water to the torch. Signal wires in the hose assembly allow process
controlling from the torch itself.
The hose assembly should be as short as possible in order to prevent small changes in wire feeding
speeds causing unregularly weld runs and weld spatter.
Usual lengths are 2-3 meters. For arc stability reasons hose assemblies lengths up to about 5 meters
may still be used for steel wires of 1.2 mm wire electrode diameters and under the restriction of limited
hose curvatures during processing.
Thinner steel wired or softer wires (e.g. aluminium) may cause wire feeding faults. For this reason, for
automatized applications (e.g. welding robots) the use of an additional drive in the torch or close to the
torch is highly recommended. Examples of facilities for improvement of the welding feed speed
consistency and for the extension of working area are shown in figure 7.

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Figure 7: Wire feed units and ways to extend the working area. /2/
At high current, the power cable in the hose assembly is cooled by water. The copper cable is
surrounded by a hose which is cooled by the cooling water flowing back from the torch. This means that
the cable diameter and also the weight of the hose assembly can be kept low. However, smaller cable
cross-sections do increase the voltage drop and power loss over the hose assembly.
In the hose assembly the steel wire electrode is surrounded by a wire filament made of steel and for an
aluminium wire electrode by a tube made of plastic. The inside width of the wire filament or the plastic
tube is about 0.5-1 mm larger than the wire diameter. If the inside diameter of the filament or tube is too
big possible jamming of the wire occurs by piling up. Particles being peeled off from the wire should be
blow-out after each wire-spool exchange.
When not used in full, long welding power cables should be coiled not only once but twice, or otherwise
the increase of the inductive resistance will render the welding current insufficient for certain processes
See figure 8.
Furthermore it is to be noted that longer hose assemblies do have a higher voltage drop which may lead
to larger parameter adjustments and the use of a high(er) performance power source.
Figure 8: Influence of additional inductances when welding with the short and pulsed arc. /SLV Munich/

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3.4 Welding torch
A GMAW welding torch consists of a torch body, a contact tube, a shielding gas nozzle and for semi-
mechanised welding a handle with an integrated switch for process controlling.
Figure 9: Sectional drawing of a GMAW welding torch in gas- Figure 10: Examples of forced-contact current
and water-cooled design for semi-mechanised welding contact tubes /SLV Munich
The contact tube transfers the welding current into the sliding wire electrode. In practice this current
transfer is easily interrupted due to high specific current loads of the contact areas, the often not optimal
electrical properties of the welding wire surface and the limited contact-pressure.
The bore in the contact tube, which is about 0.2 mm (steel) and about 0.4 mm (aluminium) larger than
the wire diameter, expands conically after a certain length of time
If any deposits are adding up inside the contact tube through contaminated wire surfaces the inner
diameter is being reduced and will slow down the wire feeding. These inner diameter changes do
influence the free-end wire length (contact-tube distance) which results in an unregular arc and current-
transfer and spatter may become more.
The contact-tube which consists of E-Cu, CuCr or CuCrZr must be replaced when worn out. It is not
possible to provide reference values for this replacement, as the service life may be easily influenced by
the current load and the pollution of the wire surface through e.g. drawing soap. A modification of the
contact tube and change of wire spool may increase service life. The optimal contact tube material for
the production shall be found by testing. E-Cu has excellent electrical characteristics, however, it wears
faster if under mechanical load. Harder and heat resistant contact tube materials (some are available
made of special materials such as WCu or WAg) have lower abrasion, still they are worn by electro-
erosive processes. The cost of a contact tube is lower compared to the cost of the standstill of a welding
robot equipment caused by a defective contact tube. A regular change is usually carried out in mass
production before the contact tube wears out.
Forced-contact current contact tubes generally improve the introduction of the current signal into the wire
electrode, see fig 8. In case of defective wire electrode surfaces the improvements are mostly modest.

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When cleaning the torch, it is important to make sure that the shielding gas flow is free, the water cooling
is tight and that no electrical leakage current occurs due to spatter bridges at the workpiece of the gas
nozzle.
Control and adjustment elements
For the adjustment of the arc and the transfer of material for conventional welding equipment only two or
three setting parameters are necessary. These are the voltage (mostly two interval switches) and the
wire electrode feed rate (welding current.). Commonly used scale values from 1 to 10 that do not allow
allocation to the actual values, should belong to the past.
The third setting parameter given by high-quality welding equipment, which affects also the transfer of
material with short-circuits, is the choke (inductivity in the welding current circuit). Modern welding
rectifiers are often equipped with stepless controlled chokes.
The actual arc voltage is clearly lower than the set open-circuit voltage. The reasons are the voltage
drop, caused by the slope of the static current/voltage characteristics and the ohmic losses in the
welding circuit. To some extent, it can be measured precisely only between the contact tube and the
workpiece. This is mostly too complicated in practice. If measured at the terminal of the power supply,
the voltage at the voltage drop in the hose assembly and in the workpiece cable and also at the contact
points is higher than the actual arc voltage.
Figure 9 shows the user interface display of a transistorised welding machine displaying the most
important values, having adjustment possibilities for saved programming as well as setting and fine-
tuning arrangements (arc- and deposition rates, arc bow length and dynamic parameter control).
Different concepts are used for the electronically controlled welding equipment. A small (often too small)
screen almost always indicates the setting data. With the suitable control elements different menu levels
may be seen on this screen. The processes can be confusing, when the parameters are to be changed
and saved. As the capabilities of the different power components affect the welding process, only small
differences exist if simple operability and the quality of the available programs are important selection
criteria.

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Figure 11: User interface of electronic welding equipment with an adjusting wheel for the arc and for the deposition
rate (U + vDr in the picture, synergy characteristics) and an adjustment wheel for the correction of the arc length and
the dynamic characteristics (e.g. speed of the current change, pulsed current, …) /2/
All electronic welding equipment manufacturers offer setting data saved in the device. For special
conditions programs can be loaded later. This may make the selection of the right setting data easier.
But as they can't be taken as optimal from the experienced welders for all the possible welding positions,
weld profiles and welding techniques, simple corrections may be needed. Setting and saving your own
program shall also be possible.
4 Selection criteria for the welding equipment
When purchasing MIG/MAG welding equipment the welding properties (for example: quality of predefined
setting data for common weld taks), the handling and the efficiency are important evaluation criteria along
with the technical values. Table 3 and 4 contain some indications regarding these issues.
Table 3: Selection criteria for MIG/MAG welding power supplies

Power supply, Price Application area Pulsed Weld quality Compensation Mechanisation
type operation of mains capability
voltage
Power supply Low Manual welding in No Good, if the No No
with interval series, preferably choke is
switch for steel adjustable
Secondary High Manual welding, Yes, for all Very good Yes Can be
clocked fully automated materials automated
transistor- welding, also by leading
controlled robots voltage or bus
power supply
Primary clocked High Manual welding, Yes, for all Very good Yes Can be
transistor- fully automated materials automated
controlled welding, also by leading
power supply robots voltage or bus
5 Arc length control for gas-shielded metal arc welding
In order to obtain an even weld quality, the arc length must be kept constant by gas-shielded metal arc
welding. For this reason the traditional arc length control is too complex and is therefore being achieved
through auto-balancing inside power sources showing a minor slope of the static characteristic curve
(constant voltage characteristic).
Power sources with constant voltage characteristics have the advantage that changes in the arc length
and therefore in the arc resistance cause only a small change of voltage but a high change of current.
Figure 22 depicts schematically the migrations of arc working points when the arc length is changed.
This effect of the self-correction of the arc length by current changes is called “internal regulation” or “-
I-Regulation”.
High-end power sources are as well as using constant voltage characteristic curves for some program
types but are also using constant current output if the voltage values do not exceed a certain predefined
range. If the actual voltage values are outside this interval (below or above) current intensities will be
changed accordingly within small steps for the adjustment of the arc length.
Nowadays programs are not only using the conventional short-circuit welding behaviour but are using
more and more specific features of current- and voltage control in order to influence process dynamics.

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Figure 12: Correction of arc length when welding over a Figure 13: Control options for arc length stabilisation
trapezoidal notch by changing of current (internal regulation, for pulsed arc welding /2/.
- I-Regulation) /2/.
By pulsed-arc welding arc length corrections are carried out according to samples in Fig 13. It is
regulated mostly by the pulse frequency and the background current quick changes.
6 Filler materials and shielding gases

6.1 Wire electrodes
The wire electrodes for the most important materials are standardised. These are listed in the table below.
Table 5: Wire electrodes for MIG/MAG-welding (extract from /7/)
EN-/prEN- In connection with

Title Issue
Number DIN *) ISO
EN ISO Welding consumables - Wire electrodes and weld deposits for 2011 IDT
14341 gas shielded metal arc welding of non alloy and fine grain
steels - Classification
EN ISO Welding consumables - Tubular cored electrodes for gas 2013
17632 shielded and non-gas shielded metal arc welding of non-alloy
and fine grain steels - Classification
EN ISO Welding consumables - Covered electrodes, wires, rods and 2014 VGL DIS 14174
1071 tubular cored electrodes for fusion welding of cast iron -
Classification
EN ISO Welding consumables - Wire electrodes, wires, rods and 2012 DIN EN ISO 21952 IDT DIS 11837
21952 deposits for gas-shielded arc welding of creep-resisting steels
- Classification
EN ISO Welding consumables - Tubular cored electrodes for gas 2014 DIN EN ISO 17634 IDT
17634 shielded metal arc welding of creep-resisting steels -
Classification
EN ISO Welding consumables - Wire electrodes, strip electrodes, 2009 DIN EN ISO 14343 IDT DIN EN ISO
14343 wires and rods for arc welding of stainless and heat resisting 14343

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EN ISO Welding consumables - Tubular cored electrodes and rods for 2010 DIN EN ISO 17633 IDT
17633 gas shielded and non-gas shielded metal arc welding of
stainless and heat-resisting steels - Classification
EN ISO Welding consumables - Wire electrodes, wires, rods and 2012 DIN EN ISO 16834 IDT DIN EN ISO
16834, deposits for gas shielded arc welding of high strength steels - 16834
Classification
EN ISO Welding consumables - Tubular cored electrodes for gas- 2006 DIN EN ISO 18276 IDT DIN EN ISO
18276 shielded and non-gas-shielded metal arc welding of high 18276
strength steels - Classification
EN ISO Welding consumables - Wire electrodes, wires and rods for 2014 DIN EN ISO 18273 VGL
18273, welding of aluminium and aluminium alloys - Classification substitute for IDT
DIN 1732-1
DIN EN Welding consumables - Solid wire electrodes, solid strip 2010 Substitute for VGL
ISO 18274 electrodes, solid wires and solid rods for fusion welding of DIN 1736-1 and
nickel and nickel alloys - Classification DIN 1736-2
DIN EN Welding consumables - Solid wires and rods for fusion Substitute for
ISO 24373 welding of copper and copper alloys - Classification DIN 1733-1
DIN = German standard IDT = DIN is IDENTICAL to the European Standard/draft
EN = European standard VGL = DIN is comparable with the European Standard/draft
prEN = European draft standard *) Type of the relationship
ISO = International standard ISO/DIS = International draft standard
For welding of unalloyed steels and fine-grained steels wire electrodes are used, according to
EN ISO 14341 (Table 6). Table 7 shows the applications for wire electrode according to EN ISO 13341
Table 6: Wire electrodes and weld metal for gas-shielded metal arc welding of unalloyed steels and
fine-grained steels according to EN ISO 14341 (short version)

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Table 7: Application areas of the wire electrodes according to EN ISO 14341
Type G2Si For welding of construction steels under weak oxidising argon-filled mixed
gases of groups M12 to M14, according to DIN EN ISO 14175.
Type G3Si1- For welding of construction steels under argon-filled mixed gases of groups
M12 to M27, according to DIN EN ISO 14175. For welding with mixed
gases from the main group M3 or CO2 the yield point and the weld metal
toughness decrease
(tables 5-2).
Types G4Si1 and G3Si2 For welding of construction steels under mixed gases of the groups M2, M3 or
C1 according to DIN EN ISO 14175.
Type G2Ti This wire electrode type shows a significantly high content of titanium
compared to other types. The element leads to fine grain in the steel. Therefore
the application area of the wire electrode is in the welding of fine-grained
structural steels.
Types G3Ni1 The large nickel content of the wire electrodes provides an increase in
toughness, especially at low temperatures. The application of these types
is recommended, if very low-temperature-tough steels are to be welded or
particularly high toughness is required in the weld metal.
Types G2Mo and G4Mo By adding molybdenum, the yield strength is increased. These wire electrodes
shall be used when steels like 16Mo5 are to be welded.
The standards EN ISO 21952 (creep resistance steel) and EN ISO 14343 (stainless and heat resisting
steel) have a similar structure. Figure 14 and 15 show some examples.
EN ISO 21952-A - G CrMo1Si ISO 14343-A - G 19 12 3 L
Number of internation
Number of standard with standard with
the classification acc. to classification acc. to
chem. composition system A
Symbol for wire electrode

for MIG/MAG welding Symbol for wire
electrode for MIG/
Cr 0,90 – 1,30 % MAG welding
Mo 0,40 – 0,65 %
Si 0,50 – 0,80 Cr 18,0 - 20,0 %
Ni 11,0 - 14,0 %
Mo 2,5 - 3,0 %
Low carbon
Figure 2: Example of a wire electrode being used Figure 3: Example of a wire electrode being used
for base material 13CrMo4-5 for base material X2CrNi19-11
Wire electrodes for gas-shielded metal arc welding are mostly wound on bobbins. Depending on the
usage, this bobbin can be very small (1 kg) or very large (some weight 100 kg). For large consumers,
there are also barrels beside the large coils, from which the wire is drawn out by a device.
The common wire electrode diameters are: (0.6); 0.8; (0.9); 1.0; 1.2; (1.4); 1.6 [mm].
The wire diameter of 0.9 mm is usually used in the automotive industry.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
The wire diameters of 1.6 to 3.2 mm are usually used for flux-cored wires for deposition welding, more
rarely for solid wires due to higher arc forces and a more difficult arc ignition.
High requirements are placed upon the wire surface for transferring the welding current from the contact
tube into the wire. See figure 16.
Therefore wires for unalloyed, creep-resistant and high-strength steels are mostly covered with a thin
copper layer. Stainless and heat-resistant steels shall not be coppered. The low electrical- and heat
conductivity of these materials make the welding current transfer more difficult so that wire feeding faults
up to the adhesion of the wire electrode in the contact tube are inevitable for certain wire electrode
qualities.
Figure 16: Wire electrodes with poor current transfer characteristics. /2/
6.2 Shielding gases
Shielding gases are required during the metal transfer in the arc in order to protect the weld pool and the
back of the weld (weld root) against oxidation and undesired gas absorption from the air. Depending on
the material, process variants and requirements of the bead profile, shielding gases of different
composition will be used.
Shielding gases for welding vary in heat-conductor effectiveness inside the arc at high temperatures.
See figure 17. The heat content of polyatomic gases is larger than those of monoatomic gases regarding
the energy absorption during the thermal dissociation. See figure 18.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
Figure 17: Heat conductivity of gases at Figure 18: Heat content of monoatomic and
different temperatures diatomic gases in relation to the temperature
An important temperature is the evaporation point of the base- and filler material (about 2900 °C for
steel) because a metallic vapour is being initiated at the surface of the liquid wire electrode at these
temperatures.
Therefore the shielding gas is blended more strongly with metallic vapour during increasing arc
intensities of gas-shielded metal arc welding.
The charged particles that are required for the current conduction in the arc originate mainly from the
metal vapour because they are easier to be ionised. As the shielding gases transport only few charged
particles, they influence the arc mainly by their heat conductivity and heat content.
Argon displays a lower heat conductivity at high temperature, compared to other gases. The higher heat
conductivity of the polyatomic gases (CO2, H2, O)2) in the temperature range between approx. 2,000 and
4,000°C arises as a result of the energy absorption in case of thermal dissociation (e.g. Q + CO 2 = CO +
½ O2, Q + H2 = 2 H). During the recombination inside the arc shell and closely above the weld pool, the
stored energy is being released again and contributes to the welding heat input.
The high affinity of the oxygen to most of the elements in the materials to be welded causes a rapid
formation of oxides at the given temperatures. The energy gain by the oxidation process is relatively
small compared to arc energy. Shielding gases with good heat conductivity properties decrease the arc-
bow diameter via this cooling effect. This cross-section reduction increases the arc-bow resistance so
that with equal current intensities the welding voltage increases which correspondingly increases the arc
performances.
The good protection characteristics of CO2 are related to its high density and the volume increase
through heating and thermal dissociation.
The influences of shielding gases for gas-shielded metal arc welding will be explained more deeply in the
following chapters by comparing the use of Argon and CO2 during steel (electrode diameter 1,2mm)
welding at moderate power settings (Vwire 10m/min)
6.2.1 The Argon Arc during steel welding

The wire electrode end offers only a small area for the arc attachment immediately after arc ignition. The
temperature at this point will be a little over the evaporation point of steel (2,900°C). At this temperature
the heat conductivity of argon is not sufficient for a strong cooling of the arc-bow shell and consequently
the constricting of the arc. As a result the arc attachment will be able to rise up along the wire surface

equipment
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which influences significantly the material transfer with argon and argon-rich gas mixtures. See picture
19, left.
The wire end will be heated by the arc attachment from outside to inside over a larger area. The pinching
force, the forces initiated by the metal vaporising and the surface tension will now become effective: the
liquid wire-end will be constricted and small drops will move into the weld pool at an adequate current
intensity and arc length. The extremely hot droplet stream causes a finger shaped penetration in the
weld run centre. This effect is often wrongly defined as “argon-finger”. After the ignition-phase of the arc
the current intensity and pinching force are variable along the arc axis. Subsequently pressure
differences arise which create a flow stream inside the arc towards the weld pool. More cooler argon
continues to follow and promotes the limitation of the arc’s cross-section.
Figure 28: Arc attachments for argon and argon-rich gas mixtures with small proportions of CO2 (spray arc) and
100% CO2 (long arc) /2/
6.2.2 The CO2 Arc

Compared to the argon-arc a larger cooling of the arc-bow shell will become effective using 100% CO2
and argon-rich gas mixtures with more than 25% CO2 in the arc area.
The shielding gas CO2 dissociates at high temperatures (starting at 1,600 °C). In particular the heat ab-
sorption during dissociation does increase the heat conductivity and heat content of these gases.
The cooling effect of CO2 on the arc-bow shell is stronger than argon does and consequently constricts
the arc and the arc attachments more and consequently heats the wire end only over a short area. Fig-
ure 19, right. The wire end is therefore always hotter than an area just above (e.g. 3mm) the wire end.
Consequently this lower temperature is the reason that the pinch force will not become effective for con-
stricting and detaching small drops. In addition the compressed arc and the metal evaporation on the arc
attachments areas generate repulsive forces which are obstructing the material transfer and deflect
asymmetrically. Figure 19.
Only when the accumulated wire dimension is large enough, the material transfer will take place depend-
ing on the effective arc length with or without short-circuit. Figure 20 shows a short-circuit-free material
transfer at a sufficient arc length.
During short-circuit-material-transfers the partly high short-circuit currents must be suppressed with elec-
tric or electronic measures for spatter reduction during arc re-ignition.
Figure 20: Large-volume material

transfer without arc rupture by welding with
CO2 with sufficient arc length (long arc).

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The u-shaped penetration profile for welding with CO2 is created by the good heat conductivity, the
association of CO and O (energy release) close to the weld pool surface, the higher arc-voltage
compared to argon and by the continuously moving of the arc-attachment. Figure 19 and 20.
6.2.3 Classification and characteristics of different shielding gases for gas-shielded metal arc
welding
The shielding gases are standardised by EN ISO 14175. Table 8 contains an overview of classifications.
All types of shielding gases can be classified with limited symbols by using main- and subgroups.
Examples of gas classifications (also specific gases) and their applications are shown in table 9. The
standard does not give any information regarding the behaviour and their solubility into the weld metal.
Also application recommendations for welding tasks are not included.
Table 8: Classification of process gases for joint welding and for related processes, extract from EN ISO
14175

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The given minimum values for purity and humidity of gases as well as the mixture accurateness as given
in the DIN EN ISO 14175 are usually adequate in praxis.
For steel welding very often, next to CO2, argon-rich gas mixtures (e.g. Ar + CO2, Ar + O2, Ar CO2 +O2,
Ar + He + CO2) are applied.
The high affinity of the oxygen to most of the elements in the materials to be welded causes, depending
on the oxygen level, a rapid formation of oxides at the given temperatures and are mainly deposited on
the weld run. The oxidation level of the shielding gas (100% CO2 corresponds to ca. 10% O2) affects the
loss of alloying elements and therefore the mechanical-technological properties of the weld metal. With
increasing oxidation level usually the yield strength, elongation and toughness will be reduced. For this
reason the weld metal properties are classified in the filler material catalogues according to their oxida-
tion level (C and M). For lower oxidation levels (M) the mechanical properties of the weld joint become
better.
The influences of shielding gas composition on weld bead profile- and surface appearance are shown in
figure 21
100% CO2 82% Ar + 18% CO2 92% Ar + 8% O2
Figure 21: The influence of shielding gas composition on the penetration profile and deposits of oxides (slags) on
the bead /SLV Munich/
Table 9: Summary of the properties of shielding gases for unalloyed steels and fine-grained structural steels
(central area of the deposition efficiency).
Shielding Spatter Penetration shape Melting Pore Mech. tech.
gas portion loss frequency Properties
82 Ar, 18 CO2 low good low moderate good
90 Ar, 10 CO2 low finger-shaped low moderate good
penetration in the
middle bead
70 Ar, 30 CO2 stronger good (V to u-shaped stronger moderate moderate
92 Ar, 8 O2 low finger-shaped stronger stronger good
penetration in the
middle bead
88 Ar, 12 O2 low finger-shaped very high stronger moderate
penetration in the
middle bead
100% CO2 strongly very good (u-shaped) very high low moderate

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For welding CrNi-steels the CO2-content of gas mixtures will be limited to 2-3% in order to prevent
carbon pick-up. Ar-O2-gas mixtures (1-3%) will generate higher oxide deposits on the weld run. Special
gases replace part of the argon in CrNi steels and nickel-based materials with helium (fewer oxides on
the weld run and higher welding speeds possible).
Table 10 contains, according to base materials grouping, often applied shielding gases with designation
examples for gas-shielded metal arc welding (EN ISO 14175)
Table10: Often applied shielding gases with designation examples for gas-shielded metal arc welding.
Base material Composition Designation Designation acc.to
acc.to DIN EN DIN EN ISO 14175
ISO 14175
Group class. Designation exam-
ples for practical
gas mixtures
100 % CO2 C1 C1
argon-rich gas mixtures:
with: 5 - 15% CO2 M20 M20-ArC-10
M20-ArHeC-30/10
with: >15 – 25 % CO2 M21 M21-ArC-18
M21 M21-ArC-25
Non-alloyed and
with: >3 -10 % O2 M22 M22-ArO-4
alloyed steels,
M22 M22-ArO-8
creep-resistant
with: >0,5 - 5 % CO2 und 3 - 10 % M23 M23-ArCO-4/3
steels
O2 M23 M23-ArHeOC-18/3/2
M24 M24-ArCO-10/3
with: >5 - 15 % CO2 und 0,5 - 3 % M25 M25-ArCO-13/4
O2
with: >5 - 15 % CO2 und >3 - 10 %
O2
Argon-rich gas mixtures:
M11 M11-ArHeHC-
with: >0,5 - 5 % CO2 M12 10/1,2/0,8
M12 M12-ArC-2,5
CrNi steels
with: >0,5 - 3 % O2 M13 M12-ArHeC-5/0,5
M13 M12-ArHeC-20/2
Z M13-ArO-1
Z-ArHeCO-30/1/0,1
Argon I1 I1
Aluminium and
Argon with over 60 % Helium I3 I3-He-30
aluminium alloys
Ar-He-O2-mixtures Z Z-ArHeO-30/0,3
Argon -He -CO2-mixtures Z Z-ArHeC-30/0,05
Nickel and nickel
Ar-He- H2 -CO2-mixtures Z Z-ArHeHC-30/2/0,05
alloys
Z Z-ArHeHC-30/2/0,12
The shielding gas supply is provided either from pressure cylinders with 200 or 300 bar internal pressure
or more frequently, from welding manufacturers by a ring circuit with central supply of the liquid phase. In
both cases the pressure must to be reduced and the flow rate must be measured.
There are two methods for flow rate measurement:

 with a pressure nozzle (capillary), see Figure 31
 with floating element, see Figure 32.
In the case of the pressure nozzle, the pressure, which is built on the flow of some gases, is measured
and read on a Manometer, whose scale is calibrated in l/min.

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When measuring with a floating element, a ball is pressed up by the gas in a conical glass tube with
scale. The position of the ball corresponds to the flow speed. An additional review of the shielding gas
amount by a measuring tube, which is placed on the shielding gas nozzle is recommended for the
practitioner.
Although both systems are not calibratable, it will be accurately enough for practical use.
The necessary amount of shielding gas depends on the materials, the current power, the welding
position and the shielding gas composition, Figure 24.
Figure 22: Shielding gas volume measurement with Figure 23: Shielding gas volume measurement with
pressure nozzle. /2/ floating element. /2/
The necessary shielding gas flow rate in the case of deviation of the gas composition of the gas, for
which the measuring instrument is calibrated (e.g. argon), is to be determined according to the following
formula:
vX = gas amount to be calculated [l/min]

 Argon vArgon = gas amount indicated on the rotameter [l/min].
Vx  VArgon  3
x Argon = density of argon (1.748 l/min) [kg/m ]
3
X = density of the gas to be found [kg/m ]

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Figure 24: Shielding gas amount in relation with gas nozzle diameter and current power. /2/

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7 MIG/MAG welding equipment settings
7.1 Setting parameters for welding with step-switched welding rectifiers

Initially only the relations for setting and adjustment of the working points inside the area of the arc char-
acteristic curves are shown. The characteristics of material transfers and influences of the shielding gas-
es remain disregarded. Arc length at melting wire electrodes is difficult to be determined. Changes fre-
quently arise as a result of material transfer and from the migration of the arc attachments at the wire
end and on the weld pool. Therefore, in the following you can read about the effective arc length.
Simple power supplies have 2 buttons for setting the arc, the voltage setting and the wire feed. For more
complex devices an adjustable inductivity (choke) is added to flatten out current peaks with short circuits
during material transfers.
Figure 25 Shows the movement of the working point on the chosen static characteristic curve (machine)
by changing wire feed rates which causes current intensity (by changing the arc resistance) and arc
length changes.
Figure 26 shows the movement of the working points when different static characteristics are used at a
constant wire feed rate. By increasing the voltage, the current intensity does not increase or increases
only marginally as the arc resistance also increases.
Figure 27 shows the movement of the working point on the arc characteristic curve (line) by simul-
taneous changing the static characteristics and the wire feed rate. Although the arc- and the deposition
rates changes by moving the working point along the arc characteristic line, the effective length of the
arc stays the same.
The illustration also shows that the arc voltage necessarily increases as the wire feed rate increases.
Figure 25: Movement of the Figure 26: Movement of the Figure 27: Movement of the
working points upon the static working points when different working points upon
characteristics by wire feed rate static characteristic are used characteristics of the arc by
changes /2/ for constant wire feed rate simultaneous straightening of
/2/ the static characteristics and
the wire feed rate. /2/
Figure 28 shows a summary of how the effective arc length and the bead profile change by the
movements of the working points.
Modifications of the shielding gas composition may affect the arc length at constant wire feed rate and
voltage. For example with significantly more CO2 in argon shielding gas mixtures, the voltage must be
lifted. Figure 29 shows examples of operating ranges for different shielding gases.

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Figure 28: Change of the working point in

the operating zone by adjusting wire supply
speed rate and/or the static characteristics
of the welding power supply. The
consequences on the effective arc length,
current power and the bead profile
schematised in the lower part of the
diagram. /2/
Figure 29: Welding voltage and welding current for different shielding gases (values taken from welding tests)
Wire: G3Si1, Ø 1,2 mm.
7.2 Influence of the arc voltage

The arc voltage determines the arc length, bead width, amount of metal vapour, magnetic deflectability of
the arc and the arc pressure on the weld pool. If the arc voltage is high, the seam will be flat and wide and
undercuts may occur. In a very long arc the alloying elements may be more strongly burned-off in the arc
and the fume emission increases. A too low voltage results in narrow, highly raised welds and increasing
short-circuits during material transfer. Figure 30 shows this on the basis of fillet welds.

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Figure 40: Influence of the arc voltage for fillet

welds in the spray arc area. /2/
7.3 Influence of the wire feed rate

Wire speed rate is directly proportional to the deposition rate and is almost linear in relation to the weld-
ing current. Figures 31 and 32 show how an increasing wire feed rate increases the deposition rate and
also the current intensity and the penetration depth. Modifications of the wire feed rate require a voltage
change if the effective arc length is to remain the same.
Figure 31: Influence of the current intesity and the Figure 32: Application areas in relation to arc- and
wire feed rate during arc voltage changes. /2/ deposition rates. /SLV Munich/

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7.4 Influence of contact tube distance
The contact-tube distance is defined as the distance between the contact tube end and the workpiece
surface, Figure 33. In practice, for the lower current ranges lower values (approx. 10-15 mm) and for the
upper current ranges larger (15-20 mm) values are being used, in order to relieve the contact tube and
the gas nozzle thermally (reference values in Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).
Figure 33 shows the influence of the contact tube distance on current intensity, and therefore on the
penetration depth.
Figure 33: Influences of the contact tube distance /2/
For fillet welds in acute angles, the contact tube can protrude from the gas nozzle so that a sufficient
penetration is ensured.
7.5 Influence of welding speed

With constant welding data, an increase of welding speed reduces the weld cross-section, see Figure 34. If
the same weld geometry is to be achieved with increased welding speed, the welding voltage and wire
feed speed must be increased. Welding speed is not arbitrarily selectable. For manual welding, welding
speeds of 40-60 cm/min are useful, since with higher values a manual welder may not be able to lead the
torch uniformly any more. For mechanised welding, the welding speed can rise up to the process limit. If it
is too high, undercuts may occur and the weld will be too high and narrow. Welding speeds of 1-1.5 m/min
are used for many welding tasks during batch production. If welding speed is reduced to values below
40 cm/min, an ahead-moving weld pool can reduce the penetration depth severely and thus lack of fusion
faults may occur, Figure 35. Generally it is better to weld a seam quickly in three layers than slowly in one
layer.

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vS = 20 cm/min vS = 40 cm/min vS = 70 cm/min

Figure 34: Influence of welding speed upon the weld profile when making fillet welds.
Unchanged parameters: vDr = 10 m/min; IS = 300 A; US = 29 V; Shielding gas: 82% Ar + 18% CO2;
/2/
1 Minimum penetration with ahead-moving bath,

2 Maximum penetration with correct welding
speed,
3 Lower penetration with faster welding.
Figure 48: Influence of welding speed on the penetration depth. /SLV Munich/
7.6 Influence of the electrode wire positioning on the weld profile and the edge penetration
The lower the arc intensity and the higher the welding speed, the more precisely the wire electrode must
be guided/positioned. Figure 36 shows the influence of the torch positioning accuracy at medium
deposition rates.
Wire electrode 3 mm left out of Wire electrode at the corner Wire electrode 3 mm above out
the corner of the corner
Figure 36: Influence of the precise positioning of the wire electrode and the component position deviations./2/

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7.7 Influence of the root gap when welding square butt welds
Root gaps (in dimensions) improve the depth of fusion and reduce bead height because a part of the
weld metal fills up the gap area, see Figure 37.
The same tendency applies also for other butt- and joint welds with gaps
Figure 37: Influence of the root gap when welding square butt welds . /2/
7.8 Influence of the torch angle
The torch angle in reference to the welding direction will affect the penetration shape and the outer weld
geometry whether a pushing, neutral or pulling position is being applied. A pushing positioning widens the
weld but the penetration depth and the weld run height are becoming less. When using a too extreme
pushing torch position (>120°) the ahead running weld pool reduces the penetration extremely causing lack
of fusion. During welding in pulling position, the weld run becomes smaller, more raised (higher) and the
penetration deeper. Figures 38 and 39 show the influences graphically. The torch angle during vertical
down welding should be about 90° to slightly pulling in reference to the sheet surface.
Aluminium materials should always be welded in a pushing position. Welding in pulling position often
generates a dark surface (condensate of vapour out of the arc zone on top of and near the weld run).
Figure 38: Influence of the torch angle on the bead profile. /2/

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Figure 39: Influence of torch angle on the weld profile when making fillet welds.
7.9 Influence of the weld position

The welding positions are marked according to EN ISO 6947.
When welding in the horizontal weld positions, the highest deposition rates can be achieved, where
welding speeds need to be increased accordingly, in order to avoid an excessively large, ahead-moving
weld pool. This applies in particular for welding in the vertical down position. Only with optimised
parameters and limited weld run thicknesses it will be possible to achieve satisfactory penetration
characteristics, figure 40.
Figure 40: Defect-free vertical-down welds for structural steels with the shielding gas CO 2 achieved
through compliance with tight parameter ranges. /2/
Figures 41 and 42 are showing the specific influence of the travel speed during welding in vertical down
position. If the travel speed is too less the fluid weld pool tries to overtake the arc, figure 41 left. In order
to avoid lack of fusion the travel speed has to be higher as the speed of the weld pool which is falling
down. The arc is set briefly in the vertical-down position (up to the spatter limit). Short and transition arcs
are appropriate for this. An “a dimension” of up to 3.5 mm is achieved with steel in this position in a
single pass.

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Figure 41: Influence of welding speed on the edge fusion of vertical-down welds. /2/
Figure 42: Vertical-down welds on steels having lack of fusion caused by ahead-moving weld pool.
Welding aluminium in the vertical down position is even more difficult due to the lower viscosity than
welding steel.
All weld tilting angles are adjustable on the revolving pipe or with positioning equipment. Figure 43
shows the effects on the weld geometry.
Figure 43: Influence of the weld position (the weld angle) on the weld geometry on the rotating pipe. /2/

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The vertical-up weld position for heavier welds has good shape abilities using weaving torch movements
and reduced arc intensity setting, see Figure 44 and Figure 45. The welding speed and deposition rate
are small.
Stringer bead in
position PG.
Arc trace along the

Arc trace along the bevel faces
workpiece flanks
Figure 44: Wire electrode guide and layer structure Figure 45: Wire electrode guide and layer structure when
when welding vertical-up fillet welds. /2/ welding vertical-up butt welds. /SLV Munich/
The controlled cycle switching during stepped adjustment of the power source or with periodically
changing arc performance by electronic welding units mean that vertical uphill welds can be formed
faster without oscillation and free of lack of fusion faults, Figure 46.
Figure 59: vertical-up weld, fully mechanised, welded at intervals; a = 4.5 mm. /2/

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8 Wire electrode polarity, forces in the arc and metal transfer modes (arc types)
8.1 Polarity of the wire electrode
Figure 47: Overview of the influences of

the electrode wire polarity. /2/
In gas-shielded metal arc welding, positive or negative poled wire electrodes can be used for welding.
Figure 47 shows the most important influences on electrode wire polarity. Figure 48 shows the cleaning
effect during MIG/MAG welding. In MAG-welding, complete oxide eliminations is impossible due to the
oxygen and/or CO2 supply in the shielding gas. Figure 48 shows the differences during metal transfer in
the spray arc area during MAG welding.
MAG surface welding on steels with a MIG surface welding on aluminium

positive poled wire electrode. material with a positive poled wire electrode.
/SLV Munich/ /SLV Munich/
Figure 48: The cathodic cleaning effect by station preceding the weld pool with spots at which short-term electron
emission takes place and particularly oxidic substances are removed (cathodic cleaning effect).

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Short arc applications with negatively poled electrodes allow very low levels of heat-input to be applied,
but create narrow and raised beads during welding and soldering on steels.
Electric power supplies with an inverter in the output circuit allow a negative polarity of the electrode wire
according to phase (short and pulsed arcs.) The advantages of each polarity type can be exploited within
certain limits.
+ -
Spray-arc with Spray-arc with
positive poled negative poled
wire electrode wire electrode
Figure 49: Influence of the electrode wire polarity during MAG welding with medium arc performance.
8.2 Influence of the wire electrode diameter on deposition rate and weld run profile
The electrode diameter (Ø 0,8 mm, 0,9 mm 1,0 mm, 1,2 mm, 1,6 mm) will be chosen depending on the
type of weld. The current-carrying capacity increases with the wire electrode diameter, see fig 50.
Important influences which have to be taken into account are shown in figure 51. Figure 52 shows an
overview of the influences of electrode wire diameter to the weld run profile under similar deposition
rates or current intensities.
Figure 5: Deposition rates in relation to current intensity Figure 6: Influences of wire electrode diameter for
and wire diameters /2/ shielded-gas metal arc welding. /2/
Figure 7: Influences of wire electrode diameter to weld run profiles under similar deposition rates or current
intensities. /2 /

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8.3 Forces in the arc
Different forces are applied to the wire electrode end, the arc attachment on the wire, the weld pool, and
in the arc which can influence the metal transfer from the electrode wire into the weld pool and the weld
run profile. Figure 53 below shows a schematic view of the most important forces. Additionally, the
distribution of the temperature at the end of the wire plays an important role during droplet detachment.
Figure 53: Forces during the metal transfer inside the

arc. /2/
Figure 54: Arc attachments for argon and mixed gases with small CO-2 levels (spray arc) and CO2 (long arc)
/2/
The pinch force is an electromagnetic force which applies on every current-carrying conductor and grows
proportionately according to the square of the welding current and decreases proportionately according
to the square of the cross-sectional area. However, this force is not large and can only become effective,
if the wire end is semi-solid or liquid. Using low current, the pinching force is not large enough to
sufficiently affect the drop formation. Large drops are transferred into the weld pool. For small currents,
gravity and surface tension are the main influences for metal transfer.

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The so-called critical current value is exceeded at higher currents: the pinch force can constrict the liquid
wire end and detaches small droplets. The prerequisite, however, is that shielding gases with low heat
conductivity (Ar, Ar + O2, Ar + CO2<20%) are used, in order to prevent any repulsive forces. Additionally
the arc length must be sufficiently long, figure 55. Many shielding gas influences on the arc type and arc
forces are already mentioned in section 6.2.
Vapour pressure is often a significant force which is created as a result of the overheating of the weld
pool and the wire electrode end and can work against droplet detachment due to an unfavourable shape
of arc attachment. Figure 56.
Figure 56: Conflicting pinch- and repulsive forces Figure 57: The sum of the arc forces allows the
do create temporarily pancaked-shape metal arc to penetrate the weld pool (single-V butt weld,
transfers (pulsed arc, 82% Ar + 18% CO2) /2/ 30°)./2/
The weld pool can be displaced by the sum of the arc forces, see figure 57. And then, having even
higher arc intensities and limited arc lengths, the arc can “work” in this cavity for achieving a larger
penetration, minimum spatter- and metal vapour (fumes) generation.
Depending on the wire electrode diameter, wire speed and shielding gas composition the short-arc mode
will be initiated at lower wire speeds and the spray-arc mode at higher wire speeds necessarily com-
bined with an appropriate voltage change (effective arc length). Figure 58 shows an overview of the ap-
plication areas and some features of arc types of shielded metal arc welding for different types of shield-
ing gases. As an orientation aid it is assumed that the welding current value should be approx. 280 to
300A using a wire speed of 10m/min and diameter Ø 1,2 mm.

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Figure 88: Overview of the application areas of arc types for gas-shielded metal arc welding
Shielding gas: 89 % Ar,5 % CO2, 6 % O2;
Wire electrode: EN ISO 14341 G3 Si1, Ø 1,2 mm. /2/
The droplet transfer (figure 58) is only rarely used in practice as the large droplet size and the low droplet
frequency only allow small welding speeds in the PA-position. However, this setting can be applied for
bridging larger gaps of thicker sheet metals.
Table 11 summarizes the most important arc types and their standard designations.
Table 11: Determination of gas-shielded metal arc welding according to the type of arc (in acc. with
DIN EN ISO 4063)
Designation Symbol
Metal transfer of gas-shielded metal arc welding and
acc.to DIN EN ISO
its related time effect
4063
S
Spray arc (-welding) Nearly without any short-circuit, uniform, fine droplet
Spray transfer
 Unregular short-circuit, coarse droplet
G
Globular arc (-welding)  only in short-circuit, partly free of short-circuit, fine- to Globular transfer
coarse droplet
D
Short arc (-welding) Only in short-circuit mode Short-circuit transfer
(dip transfer)
P
Pulsed arc (-welding)
Pulsed transfer
8.3.1 Spray arc mode

If during gas-shielded metal arc welding using argon-rich gas mixtures, the critical current intensity value
has been exceeded (wire feed speed) in combination with an appropriate voltage adjustment , the wire
end becomes so hot and highly fluid that the constricting pinching force will become effective and no

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
large axial repulsive forces will be generated due to beneficial arc attachments on the wire electrode.
See picture 59.
The initiated cross-section reduction accelerates the fluid wire to more than 10 times the wire feed
speed. However, this liquid wire processing speed will be reduced again or even being deflected in such
a way that the droplet sizes are mostly significantly bigger than the size of the constricted liquid filler ma-
terial wire. Figure 59 and 60. Enlargements of the filler material droplets are also being generated by the
exhalation processing of gaseous components (e.g. CO, SiO) during steel welding. If this expanded filler
material will explode usually only small spatter volumes will be generated that rarely remain attached to
the surface of the product.
Figure 99: Material transfer without arc discontinuation via rela- Figure 60: Enlargements of the liquid wire
tively large arc lengths during spray-arc welding of steel. Shielding ends due to repulsive pressure via the weld
gas: 92% Ar, 8% CO2; Wire electrode: G3Si1, Ø 1,2 mm. /2 / pool (left) and/or by flatulencies of gaseous
components (right) /2 /
The critical current intensity value for getting into spray-arc mode depends on wire diameter and shield-
ing gas composition. During spray arc mode the liquefied wire electrode will be transferred as less fine
sized droplets into the weld pool due to increasing repulsive forces if the CO2 value of the shielding gas
increases. Figure 61 shows schematically the metal transfer in spray arc mode in relation to the shielding
gas composition. In figure 62 the influence of the arc voltage setting towards metal transfer during spray
arc mode is recognizable.
The welding current characteristics remain very stable during welding in the spray arc mode with free
droplet transfer as there are no major arc resistance changes. Specific power source requirements (dy-
namic characteristics) are therefore not required. Although the “ideal spray arc mode” has its beneficial
conditions, in praxis it is rarely favourable.
Figure 101: Material transfer in dependency of shielding gas composition during spray arc mode /2 /

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
Abbildung 112: influence of arc voltage setting on material transfer during spray arc mode
Shielding gas: 82 % Ar,18% CO2;
Wire electrode: EN 440 G3 Si1, Ø 1,2 mm. /2 /
8.3.2 Short spray arc mode

The relatively high current intensity and arc length during the bridge-free spray arc mode combined with
appropriate shielding gases do enable an almost spatter-free material transfer in the free flight phase.
For practical welding however, the large arc volume, the unsteady arc at high welding speeds, the rela-
tively small arc pressure on the weld pool and the generated metal vapour volumes (fumes) are not fa-
vourable.
In case of arc length reduction during spray-arc mode with free droplet transfer, the arc pressure on the
weld pool will increase and creates subsequently a cone-shaped “work space” for the arc, Figure 58 and
61. Even with short time arc discontinuities this indentation remains steady due to the plasma- and va-
pour pressure and the weld pool inertia.
The processing of the arc inside this welding pool cavity stimulates the penetration depth and the effi-
ciency of the electrical discharge. The almost inevitable tinny spatters due to arc discontinuities and re-
ignitions will be absorbed nearly completely inside this weld pool cavity, figure 63. In order to maintain
these beneficial conditions care should be taken for a sufficient smoothening of current and power
through electrical or electronic means when disruption influences are being active, figure 64. The sizzling
noise of the short pray arc mode is typical for the partly short-circuiting material transfers.
Abbildung 123: arc discontinuity and arc re-ignition during short spray arc mode. The spatters are almost com-
pletely absorbed inside the weld pool cavity. /2 /
After the development of a short-circuit dip the detachment (constricting) of the fluid-wire will be execut-
ed much faster than during short-circuit mode which is being proved by the very short voltage-collaps
during this processing. The designations like “short spray arc” , “forced spray arc”, “modified spray arc”

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
or “high-power short arc” which are being used in praxis, point out that the material transfer is executed
with unregular short-circuit dips.
The advantages of the short spray arc mode against the long spray arc mode are:
 good arc- and direction stability
 increase of penetration depth
 less energy losses via radiation and convection
 less metal vapour (fumes) generation
 reduction of burned-off losses and slag volumes
 less undercut
 less spatter and pores during magnetic arc blow processing
Figure 64: Typischer Strom, Spannungs- und Leistungsverlauf Figure 65: Kurzzeitige Brückenbildungen
beim MAG-Schweißen mit einem kurzen Sprühlichtbogen (Strom- ohne Lichtbogenunterbrechung. /2/
quelle mit sehr flacher statischer Kennlinie). /2 /
High speed pictures show that the arc does not distinguishes during every short-circuit dip, figure 65.
The reason for this is that, most likely, the tinny fluid-wires (transfer locations) have an almost equal re-
sistance as the arc. Also small volumes of free material transfer do partly appear.
Figure 66 shows schematically the most important types of material transfers during short spray arc
welding

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
Figure 13: Summary of the most important types of material transfers during short spray arc mode (below 400 A,
wire electrode diameter 1,2 mm). /2 /
When welding with current values above 400A and adapted voltage settings, the material transfer pro-
ceeds in a rotating-, helical- or hook shape, see figure 67. The rotating arc expands the flank penetration
near the middle area of the weld-run height. The penetration depth in the centre of the weld-run will be a
little bit less.
Figure 6714: Partly helical, rotated or hook-shaped types of material transfer during short spray arc
welding over. /2 /
Even previously very good welding results could be achieved regarding deposition rate, penetration
depth and spatter reduction with conventional welding rectifiers (step-switched or thyrisorised). Due to
the required current smoothening measures having sufficiently designed electrical properties, the ignition
properties however became often worse (stutter ignition). Specific adaptations of the arc at the weld be-
ginning and ending, abrupt changes of the arc power or as well as smoothening actions (current intensi-
ty) related to large changes of the wire stick-outs are not possible.
Some manufacturers of welding power sources with advanced electronics offer strong rippled welding
current characteristics with low frequency and promise an additional constriction of the arc, the formation
of thinner droplet necking or droplet chains for a more easier short-circuiting dissolution as well as weld
pool oscillations for pore reduction (Al-materials).
Figure 68 shows a selection of today’s available modern modified types of spray arc.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
Figure 68: Overview of manufacturers and allocation of the operating area of selected spray arc variants with
partly short-circuit dipping during material transfer by using power sources with advanced electronics. /2 /
Due to the reduced arc length and the pressure increase inside the discharge section, the arc penetrates
into the weld pool. This deep-penetration effect can be used for achieving higher productivity for example
by reducing the weld joint volume and the number of required weld runs and layers using smaller open-
ings angles and flank bevel angles. Examples are shown in figure 69
Figure 69: Examples of using the penetration effect during welding in short spray arc
mode (all welds in one run). /2 /
The electronic process variants with fast controlling technics allow under beneficial circumstances stable
processing. However they cannot change the basic physics and laws of the arc and the droplet transfer
or eliminate external influences (like inadequate surfaces of components and wires, oversized tolerances
of components, the weld preparation, the welding torch positioning, draught, flatulencies (gases) in weld-
ing pool and liquid filler material, etc.) or to replace an adequate education and qualification of the welder
or operator. Off course it must be investigated whether base- and weld metals are suitable for such kind
of weld run profiles due to non-ideal solidification conditions and large heat inputs.
For the reduction of magnetic arc blow and quality assurance of weld-run ends often run-on and run-off
pieces are required.
8.3.3 Long spray arc mode

The long spray arc mode arises under 100% CO2 conditions or argon-rich gas mixtures containing more
than 25% CO2 for middle and higher current settings, see figure 71.
The good heat conductivity of these shielding gases around the arc shell reduces the arc cross-section.
The also reduced number (area) of arc attachments on the wire end prevents a rising of the arc at the
wires’ end. Due to this the wire end is too cold for being deformed by a pinching force. The arc’s high
current intensity generates a resulting repulsive force which applies at the liquid wire end and weld pool.
Changes in the arc attachments cause arc migration. In addition to these arc migrations the good heat
conductivity of CO2 and the larger voltage drop in the CO2-arc lead to a widely spread, mostly U-shaped
penetration profile, see figure 70.
Welding in the relatively long spray arc mode (operating voltage) generates a large-volume material
transfer without arc discontinuities and larger spatter volumes (longer arc length), see figure 72.
With decreasing voltage settings the material transfer will be moved towards the weld pool accompanied
with short-circuit dips.

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SFI / IWE 1.08-1
The spatter volumes being generated by the relatively high short-circuit currents are, even with excellent
settings, often larger than using argon-rich gas mixtures. The current characteristics and material trans-
fer during welding with arc discontinuities are shown in figure 75.
Figure 70: Characteristics of welding in long spray arc Figure 71: Overview of the work scope of long spray
mode (CO2-arc at higher arc settings). /2 / arc welding of shielded gas metal arc welding.
Shielding gas: 100% CO2;
Wire electrode: EN ISO 14341 G3 Si1, Ø 1,2 mm. /2 /
Figure 72: Typical weld run profile of long Figure 73: Typical material transfer processing for “long“ spray
spray arc welding (CO2-arc, Pos. PA). /2 / arc welding with high voltage setting without arc discontinutiesw
ans spatter. /2 /
8.3.4 Globular spray arc mode
This type of arc will be generated during welding with argon-rich gas mixtures at the interface between
short-circuit- and spray-arc mode. Having increased voltage settings within this globular spray arc mode
and restricted by low current intensities, a part of the liquefied wire-end material will be detached as
coarse droplets.
If the arc length is relatively short, often short-circuit dipping occurs during material transfer. These short-
circuit dips combined with the relatively high short-circuit currents could generate more spatters which
remain attached to the surface. Due to the occurring short-circuit dips the globular spray arc mode is
classified into the short-circuit grouping.
In general the globular spray arc mode should be prevented but sometimes it is inevitable during vertical-
down welding. However, the pulsed arc mode can handle these current intensities settings in a spatter-
low manner.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
8.3.5 Short-arc mode

About in the lower third section of the deposition rate area, short-arc mode application for conventional
shield gas metal arc welding is available, see figure 74. The definition short arc mode defines the arc
processing in which the material transfer occurs via short-circuit dips which means that the arc distin-
guishes after the dipping of the liquid wire end into the weld pool , see figure 75 /below .
After approx.. 2 to 7 ms the increasing short-circuit current enables the re-ignition of the arc. For the
conventional power machines – transformer step-switched, rectifier and inductance – the dynamic cur-
rent characteristics are determined by the electrical current circuit as well as by the structural configura-
tion of the welding power source. Through an active control of inductance properties the short-circuit-
current-increase speeds and the short-circuit-current peaks can sufficiently be limited in order to gener-
ate a spatter-low processing. Mains voltage fluctuations will not be compensated by these machines.
Figure 74: Operating areas of short arc mode and its Figure 7515: Material transfer in short arc mode and
droplet shaped transfer. /2 / typical current, voltage and performance curve (power
source without advanced electronics) /2 /
Figure 76: Influences on the short-circuit current curve via a variable inductance additive inside the welding circuit
in order to prevent spatter during arc re-ignition (welding rectifier with two or three welding cable sockets) /2/

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a) reduced power b) high power peak
Figure 77: Influence of the electrical power during arc re-ignition regarding spatter formation and arc pressure to
the weld pool. /2 /
Today’s modern high advanced welding power sources which are using high switching frequencies and
very fast signal processors, enable adapted, process orientated current- or voltage controlling, partly
also time-based wire-feed-speed changes in order to ensure a fast adaption of the welding process to
the specific welding job. They also can smooth certain (external) interferences.
On this basis quite a number of power source manufacturers have created short arc processes and gave
them striking names like e.g. CMT, ColdArc, ColdMIG , Control Weld, HC MAG, SpeedRoot, STT, Wis-
eRoot, etc.. All of them have one thing in common: they use the principle of short-circuit material transfer
processing using individual adapted control strategies for preventing spatter formation during wire-end
dipping into the weld pool as well as during and after arc re-ignition. See figure 77)
By using additional trigger points the current-voltage curve will be specifically influenced. As an example
the beginning of a short-circuit dip will be combined with a simultaneous voltage drop so that the current
curve can be controlled. Due to the fast current rise and the simultaneous cross-section reduction the
short-circuit dip will be detached by overheating at the liquid area of the wire electrode just above the
weld pool and during the following arc re-ignition the fast increasing voltage curve can be controlled by
an additional trigger point so that the electrical power can be limited by an very fast welding current drop.
In this way weld spatter can mostly be avoided. Also algorithms with static analyses will be sporadically
applied. Figure 78 shows a selection of current-, voltage-, and power curves of triggered short-circuit
variants with constant wire feed direction and plus poled wire electrode (representative of variant B in
figure 78).
Figure 16: Examples of current-, voltage- and power curves during short-circuit mode welding using electronic
controlled welding power sources. The black areas in the current curve represent the short-circuit phases during
every cycle. /2/

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
These new types of “electronic” short-circuit gas shielded metal arc welding can easily be categorised
into two control principles:
 Short-circuit mode with constant wire feed speed and the use of trigger points inside the current-voltage curves
and
 Short circuit mode using electrode wire withdrawal during the arc re-ignition phase by means of a rap-
id response welding torch wire feeder system in order to support the droplet detachment.

The specific advantage of short-circuit gas shielded metal arc welding is mainly the very good process
adaptation regarding actual joint requirements. The heat input and the arc pressure on the weld pool can
be controlled much better. Although a standard short-circuit mode welding program has some adjust-
ment possibilities, it will never comply with all application requirements. Nevertheless programs for spe-
cial welding jobs are often offered.
Abbildung 18: Wire electrode movement and current-,

Abbildung 17: Possible classification of modern voltage-power curve during short-circuit GSMAW by using
process variants and base metal transfer based wire redraw during arc re-ignition (variant D in figure 78).
upon short-arc mode. /2/ /2/
If additional trigger points are being used for the control of wire feeding with rapid wire-feeding-direction-
change systems, the transfer droplet detachment in the short-circuit phase will directly be supported me-
chanically, variant D in figure 78 and figure 79. The required electrical energy for the dissolution of the
short-circuit dip is relatively low. After the initiation of a short circuit dip the wire electrode will be retract-
ed by a special torch wire feeder until a specific value which supports the detachment of droplets.
After the arc re-ignition the wire feed direction will be inversed again into the direction of the weld pool for
an additional short-circuit-cycle and material transfer. Through this cyclic movement of the wire electrode
an additional improved electrical contacting is being achieved. The exact reproducible forward- and
backward movement of the wire electrode ensures an high process stability and a constant effective arc
length.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
Usually during gas shielded metal arc welding the wire electrode is being plus polarity. If the advantages
of both polarity variants should be combined, this polarity switching during the favourable process stages
can be executed with the aid of an additional direction controller inside the power source.
For sheet metal welding using gas shielded metal arc welding and / or for bridging larger gaps during
welding some manufacturers do offer short-arc types with alternating current sections within the short
circuit cycle (wire electrode timely with minus polarity), variants C and E in figure 78 and figure 80. Dur-
ing the minus polarity phase the arc is more or less wrapping in the wire electrode end which generates
larger droplets at the wire end. The heat input and penetration efficiency are however becoming less
during this minus polarity phase.
Figure 81 shows an overview and a classification of modern short-arc designations of variant B of figure
78 inside the arc’s operating area diagram.
Figure 19: Schematic current-voltage curve of a short- Figure 20: ÜOverview and classification of mod-
arc variant with a temporarily minus polarity of the wire ern short-arc types of variant B (figure 66) inside
electrode (upper) and the according arc images during the arc’s operating area diagram. /2/
this phase. /2/
Due to the multiple arc interruptions (20 to 140 per second) the short-arc mode generates less heat input
into the component to be welded. The short-arc mode is therefore very suitable for welding sheet metals,
in-position welding, root pass welding, bridging of welding gaps and for the gas shielded metal arc braz-
ing of coated sheet metals. And, according to the latest state of the art, if the heat input must be mini-
mized in the lower power operating area the short-arc mode cannot be replaced by any other arc welding
technique. The spatter formation after arc re-ignition can be avoided to a large extent by electrical or
electronic measures.
8.3.6 Pulsed Arc Mode

Instead of using a direct current the pulsed arc mode uses a pulsed shaped current. The pro-
cessing during one cycle is shown in figure 82. Ideally every pulse generates and detaches sub-
sequently one droplet from the wire end. The material transfer into the weld pool occurs without
short-circuits and spatter free, just only with a little delay. For achieving short-circuit free materi-
al transfers using appropriate pulse current shapes, a minimum arc length must be provided.
Figure 84 shows a typical voltage and current curve of a pulsed-arc with high(er) deposition rate.
The voltage- current-curve for a lower deposition rate for welding Cr-Ni-steel is shown in fig 85.

equipment
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Figure 83: current curve and material transfer during pulsed Figure 84: Operating range of the pulsed arc
arc welding. /2 / mode. Wire electrode: G3Si1, Ø 1,2 mm,
Shielding gas: 82% Ar + 18% CO2. /2/
In the early 1980s during the further development of advanced electronics the first transistorised power
sources became available on the market. With these power sources having variable pulse frequencies,
free adjustable pulse width & height and current up- and down slopes, it was possible to set the required
high, small pulses with low background current for welding the specific steels. This development of tran-
sistorised power sources having huge storage capacities for the numerous process parameters repre-
sented a very large improvement for pulsed-arc gas shielded metal arc welding. By using this, spatter-
low welding became available over a large(r) operating range, see figure 83.
Shielding gas mixtures containing more than 20% CO2 are not suitable for pulsed arc welding construc-
tion steels.
Figure 85: current-voltage curve with parameter designation during pulsed arc welding with high deposi-
tion rates (wire electrode G3Si1. Shielding gas 82% Ar,18% CO2). /2/

equipment
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Steel
Al-base material
Figure 86: Current-voltage curve of pulsed arc Abbildung 87: Overlap fillet welds welded in pulsed
welding with lower deposition rates (Wire elec- arc mode.
trode CrNi-Steel, Shielding gas 98% Ar, 2% CO2) .
/2 /
Figure 87 shows an application example of pulsed-arc welding.
Many power sources have pre-programmed pulsed-arc welding data which eases the search for the op-
timal settings for pulsed arc welding. However, often a small adjustment of these welding data, or an
adjustment to the equipment configuration (e.g. torch hose length), the applied type of wire electrode,
joint shape or welding position are required.
Figure 87 shows a possible classification of pulsed arc types.
TwinPlus (Lorch)
Figure 88: Current-Voltage curve with parameter designation for pulsed arc welding with higher depo-
sition rates (wire electrode G3Si1. Shielding gas 82% Ar,18% CO2). /2/

equipment
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Table 12: Summary of the most important arc types for conventional MIG/MAG welding containing appli-
cation- and assessment information.
Arc type Application Material transfer Spatter formation Remarks

Thin sheet metals
MIG/MAG-Short-arc Low with suitable Low heat input,
In-position welding, Short-circuit mode,
mode power source low deposition rates
root pass welding
MIG/MAG-Globular Mid-sized sheet Spatters that partly
Material transfer partly mid-range deposi-
spray arc mode thickness, In-position stay attached to
in short-circuit mode tion rates
(Mischlichtbogen) welding product surface
MIG/MAG-Spray arc Fine sized material
mode droplet transfer with-
Mid-sized and large out short-circuit dip-
sheet thicknesses in ping low high deposition rates
position PA, PB Fine sized material
MIG/MAG-Spray arc droplet transfer with
mode short-circuit dipping
MAG-Long arc
Mid-sized and large Spatters that partly
mode (under CO2 or Material transfer partly
sheet thicknesses in stay attached to high deposition rates
high CO2 –shielding with short-circuit dips
position PA, PB product surface
gas rates)
higher heat input
MIG/MAG-Pulsed Short-circuit free,
Large operating area very low than in short-circuit
arc mode 1 droplet per pulse
mode
8.4 GSMA-welding with cyclic changing arc power
During weld processing many transistorised power sources with adequate program equipment can peri-
odically switch from high arc power plus wire feed speeds settings to low power plus wire feed speed
settings. See figure 89 and figure 90: a weld bead ripple surface appearance will be established which
resembles TIG weld bead appearance. Application advantages are given for welding hot-crack suscepti-
ble base materials, control of component size tolerances and difficult welding positions but partly at the
cost of welding speed.
Figure 90: joint view (fillet weld of aluminium plates)

Figure 89: Overview of operating ranges and allo-
and current-curve display during cyclic arc power
cation of manufactures of GSMA welding with cyclic mode. /2 /
arc power. /2/

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9 Potential weld defects during MIG/MAG-welding

Defects that can occur during MIG/MAG welding are cracks, pores, slag inclusions, lack of fusion, un-
dercuts, spatter and unfavourable joint geometry.
9.1 Lack of fusion during weld start, weld overlap and –restart, weld-end crater
All arc welding processes with consumable electrodes do melt filler material instantaneously at the be-
ginning of the arc’s heat input. This means that it is possible that the first droplets which are coming from
the arc could contact a not sufficiently heated/ melted base material. Although the additional arc’s energy
supply continuous, in many cases an insufficient welded weld start remains that could become danger-
ous during dynamic loads.
At weld starts, at weld re-starts and weld overlaps often an insufficient welded area remains if no counter
measures have been implemented. See figures 91 and 92
Electronic controlled MIG MAG power sources have start- and end-programs which, for example, enable
a spatter-free start and a weld ending with hardly any end crater. But a 100% defect-free welding is even
with start-programming (hot-start) not always possible. Run-on and run-off plates could contribute to de-
fect-free weld ends in welds with high quality requirements. See figure 91. In case of using higher weld
current settings these auxiliary aids, if sufficiently dimensioned, will contribute to the reduction of mag-
netic arc blow, spatter- and pores formation at the weld run ends.
Figure 21: Weld penetration profile at the weld start Figure 92: Examples of run-on and run-off plates for
depending on the moving-off mode. /2 / welding thick butt welds. /2/
Remaining tack-welds and restart locations have to be grinded before weld restart in order to achieve
defect free transitions. Figure 93.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
Figure 93: Preparation of weld restart locations by means of grinding in order to prevent restart lack-of- fusion de-
fects /2/
In case of having larger weld pools due to high currents and low welding speeds, weld end craters can
arise which do not only have a poor weld appearance but also contain a agglomeration of low-melting
contaminations which results in unbeneficial mechanical properties (often also cracks).
If the defect cannot be avoided sufficiently at the beginning or at the end of the weld, these locations
have to be stressed using lower loads. For circumferential welds which are not allowed to have any kind
of defect, grinding is often inevitable.
9.2 Lack of fusion inside the weld
Lack of fusion inside the weld can occur through non-melted groove faces or non-melted weld runs. Lack
of fusion arises on those locations where the arc is not able to melt the base material or the previous
welded weld runs. Usually it is not possible that the hot weld metal will be able to melt the base material.
The most frequent cause of error for having lack of fusion is an ahead-moving weld pool. In this situation
the weld pool is so big or it flows so fast during vertical down welding that the arc bow will not be able to
melt the base material. A too large weld pool in combination with a too slow welding speed is most often
the cause.
Other reasons for lack of fusion arise from unfavourable weld geometries (opening angle too small, un-
sufficient accessibility due to torch positioning or improper positioning of the welding torch or an unfa-
vourable arrangement and layer built up of the previous weld runs). Figures 94 to 100 show additional
flaws and their causes.
Figure 94: causes of lack of fusion during root pass welding of butt welds (single side, without weld pool sup-
port) using unfavourable joint preparation /2 /

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Figure 95: Lack of fusion through too low arc power and heat-input. /2/
Figure 96: Lack of fusion through restricted accessibility and vision. /2/
Welding on ahead-moving weld pool

Deposition rate, Weld pool volumes too big
welding speed too low
Torch inclination too far into pushing position
Weld runs too width, too thick
Weaving of torch not adjusted to type of joint
Weld inclination towards welding direction too large
Figure 97: Lack of fusion through ahead moving weld pool. /2 /
Torch positioning out of middle and / Deflections of the wire electrode by twisting or b , too large contact-tube distance
or tilted

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Figure 98: Lack of fusion through incorrect torch positioning. /2/
Abbildung 99: Welding of filling- and cap layers. /2 /
Abbildung 22: Lack of fusion through unfavourable layer/bead sequences and slag inclusion in cor-
ners. /2 /

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9.3 Pores
Pores are spherical- or wormhole-shaped cavities in the weld metal which are filled with gas. These
pores arise in the weld pool during the transition from fluid to solid when the dissolved gases which are
ahead of the solidification front cannot escape in time, see figure 101.
Figure 101: Pore prevention by the escape of Figure 102: Hydrogen dissolvability in aluminium and iron
dissolved gases just before weld metal solidifi- depending on temperature.
cation /2/
During welding of non- or low alloyed steels mainly nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon monoxide are pore-
causing gases due to their dissolvability capacity in molten weld metal. During aluminium welding, pores
are mainly initiated due to (too) high hydrogen contents. The reason for this is the low solubility of hydro-
gen in solidified aluminium and iron, figure 102. In most base materials pores can be avoided but in case
of aluminium, having a pore-less weld is almost impossible. The hydrogen pores are rising upwards and
if the weld joint and weld position is preventing this, the gas inclusions remain in the weld metal.
Important causes of pore formation are:
 Torch defects
 unfavourable torch positioning
 Draught
 magnetic arc blow
 Arc length too long
 Segregations
 unsuitable shielding gas or unsuitable type of wire electrode
 Coatings, contaminations, insufficient oxide-removal of aluminium
 Groove/cutting faces during laser-cutting with nitrogen
 Cavities
 Low solubility of gases (e.g. hydrogen in aluminium)

equipment
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Figures 103 to 110 are showing causes of pore formation during MIG/MAG welding.
Too small too small due to spatter Contact

accumulation and turbulence tube assymmetri-
cally positioned
Figure 103 Pore formation due to torch defects /2 /
Figure 104: Pore formation due to wrong torch-positioning /2

/
Figure 105: Pore formation due to draught. /2 /
 Arc too long

(arc voltage too high)
 Path of metal droplet (too) longer and
larger weld pool surface increase the
reaction time of shielding gas impu-
ritues.
 Strong metal vapour flows initiate
shielding gas turbulences
Figure 106: Pore formation due to too long arc length. /2/

equipment
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Figure 107: Pore formation due to the Figure 108: Pore formation due Figure 109: Pore formation due to
penetration of gases and vapours from to coatings /2/ laser- and plasma cutting with N2-
cavities (Pore formation via mechanical containing cutting gases /2/
causes)
 insufficient deaerated base material
 unstable arc during welding, especially at the locations of re-
starts and welding of tack welds
 hydrogen originating from insufficient cleanliness (humidity
inside oxide layers, grease and paint residues around weld ar-
ea, on the rod surface, leaking water cooling, condensated wa-
ter inside torch nozzle if water circulation will not be stopped
during weld interruptions /pauses)
 Grooves in the weld faces
 too less preheating of thick plates
 restrained degassing in welding positions PC and PE
 welding speed too low (gas containing base materials)
Figure 110: Pore Formation in al-base Materials /2/
9.4 Weld run undercuts

Weld undercuts or excessive welds are common visible welding mistakes. By changing welding data
and actual welding techniques (weld position- and inclination angles) however, these mistakes can often
be prevented. See figure 111
 Voltage too high (arc length

too large)
 Welding speed too high
 Welding torch not weaved  Arc power to high  Arc power to high
 Welding torch not in push-  Voltage too high (arc length  Voltage too high (arc length
ing position too large) too large)
 Welding torch tilted (one-  Wire feed speed too less  Weaving width too small
sided undercut)  Welding speed too less,  Dwell time at joint sides too
 strong oxidising shielding  Weld run too thick, unfavoura- less
gases (slag buildup inside ble welding position  Torch’ upward moving path
grooves) without arcs and dwell time
 Magnetic arc blow during at the turning points
higher arc powers (weld  Welding speed too high
ends)
Figure 111: Causes of undercuts. /2/

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
9.5 Cracks
During MIG/MAG welding cracks can occur due to unfavourable solidification conditions and material
characteristics, figure 112.
Insufficient tack welds, high deformation restraints of components, unfavourable weld run profiles (small
runs with large heights), too low or too high component’s temperatures and hot-crack susceptibility of
base materials facilitate crack initiation. Types of cracks and their causes are explained within Materials
and their behaviours, Section II.
Figure 112: Cracks during MAG welding of structural steel. /2/
10 Joint preparation (Overview)

Choosing the most optimal joint preparation, welding position, weld slope angle and weld rotation angle
could lead to huge cost savings in praxis. For example, welding a butt weld root pass without weld back-
ing requires a well skilled welder, is expensive but is nevertheless inevitable for high dynamically loaded
structures. In mass production welding butt welds without weld backing are rarely applied. Through a
specific orientation of the weld runs at locations of low(er) load conditions the application of fillet- and
overlap joints instead of butt welds are acceptable in most cases. Usually these can be welded without
weld backing and high deposition rates. The joint preparations for several base materials have been
standardised according to:
DIN EN ISO 9692-1: Welding and allied processes - Types of joint preparation - Part 1: Manual metal-
arc welding, gas-shielded metal-arc welding, gas welding, TIG welding and beam
welding of steels
DIN EN ISO 9692-3: Welding and allied processes - Recommendations for joint preparation - Part 3:
Metal inert gas welding and tungsten inert gas welding of aluminium and its alloys
DIN 8552-3: Joint preparation - Groove forms on copper and copper alloys - Part 3: Gas weld-
ing and gas-shielded arc welding
DIN EN 12627: Industrial valves - Butt welding ends for steel valves
Tables 13 to 17 are showing some examples schematically.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
Table13: Weld joint preparation for butt welds, welded single sided (Extract from DIN EN ISO 9692-1)
Kenn- Werkstüc Art der Symbol Schnitt Maße Empfohlener Darstellung Bemer-
zahl k- Schweißnaht Schweiß- kungen
Winkel a Spalt b Steghöhe Flanken- prozess c
Nr. dicke vorbereitung (nach
höhe
t ISO 2553)
; b c h (nach
mm ISO 4063)
mm mm mm
3
111 Meist ohne
Kanten 141
1.1 2
bördeln - - - - 512
Zusatzwerkst
off
3
1.2.1 4 t 111
-
141
6b8 13
3<t8 I-Fuge - - - 141 c
Mit
t Schweiß-
1.2.2
badsicher-
 1d
 15 52 ung
0
Gegebenen-
3
falls
111
1.3 3 < t  10 V-Fuge 40°    60° 4 2 - 13
mit
Schweißbad
141
sicherung
Mit
Steilflanken 111
1.4 > 16
V-Fuge 5°    20° 5  b  15 - - 13
Schweißbad-
sicherung
a
Für Schweißen in Position PC nach ISO 6947 (Querposition) auch größer und/oder unsymmetrisch.
b
Die angegebenen Maße gelten für den gehefteten Zustand.
c
Der Hinweis auf den Schweißprozess bedeutet nicht, dass er für den gesamten Bereich der Werkstückdicken anwendbar ist.
d
Mit Schweißzusatz.
Table 14: Weld joint preparation for butt welds, welded on both sides (Extract from DIN EN ISO 9692-1)
Kenn- Werkstüc Art der Symbol Schnitt Maße Empfohlener Darstellung Bemer-
zahl k- Schweißnaht Schweiß- kungen
Winkel a Spalt b Steghöhe Flanken- prozess c
Nr. dicke vorbereitung (nach
höhe
t ISO 2553)
; b c h (nach
mm ISO 4063)
mm mm mm
111
t
 141
2
8
2.1 I-Fuge - 
t - - 13 -
2
 15 0 52
111
  60° 141
Gegenlage
2.2 3  t  40 V-Fuge 3 2 - ist angeg-
eben
40°    60° 13
111
  60° 141
In Sonder-
fällen auch
für kleinere
Werkstück-
dicken
2.3 > 10 Y-Fuge 1b3 2c4 - und Prozess
40°    60° 13 3 möglich;
Gegenlage
ist angege-
ben
111
  60° 141
h1 = h 2 =
D(oppel)-
2.4 > 10
Y-Fuge 1b4 2c6 t c -
2
40°    60° 13
a
Für Schweißen in Position PC nach ISO 6947 (Querposition) auch größer und/oder unsymmetrisch.
b
Die angegebenen Maße gelten für den gehefteten Zustand.
c
Der Hinweis auf den Schweißprozess bedeutet nicht, dass er für den gesamten Bereich der Werkstückdicken anwendbar ist.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
Table 15: Weld joint preparation for fillet welds, welded single sided (Extract from DIN EN ISO 9692-1)
Kenn- Werkstück- Art der Symbol Schnitt Maße Empfohlener Darstellung
zahl dicke Schweißnahtvorbe Schweiß-
Nr. reitung (nach prozess a
ISO 2553) Winkel Spalt (nach
ISO 4063)
t ,  b
mm mm
3
t1 > 2 Stirnfläche 111
3.1.1 70°    100° 2
t2 > 2 rechtwinklig 13
141
3
3.1.2
t2 > 2 rechtwinklig - 2
13
141
3
3.1.3 60°    120° 2
t2 > 2 rechtwinklig 13
141
a Der Hinweis auf den Schweißprozess bedeutet nicht, dass er für den gesamten Bereich der Werkstückdicken anwendbar ist.
b Symbol ist nur für  = 90° anwendbar.
Table 16: Weld joint preparation for MIG welding of aluminium (thin wire)
Werkstück Nahtart Nahtaufbau Abstand b Steghöhe c Öffnungs- Bemerkungen
- (schematisch) winkel 
dicke t mm mm
mm
Einspannvorrichtung
1 ... 4 . mit Badsicherung er-
0 ... 0,25 t - -
leichtert das Schweißen
erheblich
von beiden Seiten

5 ... 10 < 1,0 - - geschweißt
Badsicherungen er-
leichtern das Herstellen
5 ... 12 < 1,0 2,5 90°
fehlerfreier Wurzellagen
erheblich
Wurzellagen in
Zwangspositionen kön-
5 ... 20 nen ohne Badsicherung
< 1,0 2,5 60°
leichter mit dem Pro-
zess WIG oder WPL
geschweißt werden
Table 17: Weld joint preparation for MIG welding of aluminium (thick wire) /2/
Werkstück Nahtart Nahtaufbau Abstand b Steghöhe c Öffnungs- Bemerkungen

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
- (schematisch) winkel 
dicke t mm mm
mm
Beilage mindestens
12 mm dick
> 18 5 ... 7 5 70° Drahtelektrodendurch-
messer: 2,4 oder 3,2
mm
Steghöhe abhängig von

der Stromstärke
> 30 18 bei
90° Drahtelektrodendurch-
etwa 700 A
messer: 2,4 oder 3,2
mm
11 Weld pool support (weld backing)
Weld backing for butt welds (unlikely for fillet welds) is necessary when welding on both sides is not pos-
sible or prohibited. Using weld backings is usually combined with additional effort. It has to be checked
which types of weld backings are suitable or whether another joint type could be applied. Figure 113
shows some examples of weld backings for MIG MAG welding.
For smaller, straight products often clamping devices of copper bars are applied. Normally they have a
groove which can be flushed with shielding- or backing gas according to requirements and base material
characteristics. For intensive use the copper bars are often water cooled. Copper bars without groove
could initiate defects in the root pass. Other types of weld backing are ceramics, glass or use of powder
coated adhesive tapes (one-time use only). In case of larger components often also powder cushions
are used for weld backing (see also submerged arc welding).
If weld backings are being used that remain attached to the component it should be noticed that grooves
and gaps remain which are unfavourable for dynamic and corrosive load conditions.
Weld backings
Bei Schweißbadsicherungen, die angeschweißt werden, ist zu beachten, dass Kerben und Spalten blei-
ben, die bei dynamischer und korrosiver Beanspruchung problematisch sein können.
Schweißbadsicherungen, die bei Drehteilen oder Pressteilen am Bauteil angebracht werden, können
zugleich eine Fixierung bilden.
Weld backings which are integrated by the component are very effective but expensive. For example an
Y-joint can be welded, grinded out from the backside and welded again.
A less expensive but nevertheless a good method is the double-sided welding technique which is often
applied for submerged arc welding but also for MIG / MAG welding. At first the component is welded
from one side over more than half of the component thickness. Then the component will be turned, fol-
lowed by welding the back side (other side) resulting in an overlap of both root passes.
In many cases, for example facing high quality requirements and/ or difficult weld courses/routings it is
useful to use the TIG welding process for welding the root pass(es).

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
Figure 113: Schweißbadsicherungen für das MIG/MAG-Schweißen /2 /
12 Advantages and disadvantages of Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding

12.1 Advantages of MIG/ MAG welding
Almost all weldable base materials can be welded using the MIG/MAG welding process. Non-alloyed
and alloyed steels, as well as CrNi-steels are being welded using the MAG welding process (active, CO2
and/or oxygen containing shielding gases). Other materials like aluminium, magnesium, nickel based
materials, copper, titanium etc. will be welded by MIG welding using inert shielding gases. The achieva-
ble deposition rates are high combined with sufficient weld quality.
The welder’s requirements are relatively low for welding unalloyed and alloyed steels in mass produc-
tion. However, for welding high quality products made of steel, Cr-Ni-steels, aluminium etc. an adequate
training of the welder is absolutely necessary.
The processing can easily be mechanised (Robotics). Components of 0.8 thicknesses and above can be
butt welded or with a T-joint. Root passes can be welded with (+ adequate joint preparation) or without
weld backing /fixtures. The weld processing can be executed for out of position welding. The acquisition
costs are relatively low for standardised power sources.
12.2 Disadvantages of MIG / MAG welding

Lack of fusion at weld starts and re-starts cannot always be prevented due to the immediate start of filler
metal feeding at the very beginning of the arc’s heat input. When welding with (too) low travel speed po-
tential lack of fusion is present due to an ahead-moving weld pool. The shielding gas atmosphere must
be maintained by appropriate fixtures in case of outdoor welding or welding inside draughty halls.
Mass production MAG welding of steel with reduced quality requirements requires only a limited welder’s
training. For higher requirements like thicker components and other materials a more specific welder’s
training is absolutely necessary. Even for full mechanised welding this training is essential as although
the welder does not guide the torch by hand, he/she must know exactly how to set-up the machine and
torch positioning.
13 Process variants of MAG welding

In the following some process variants of MAG welding will be described.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
13.1 MAG-Spot welding

During the MIG/MAG spot welding the torch will not or only very limited (e.g. Alu base materials) be
moved over the weld piece. The torch will be positioned to the work piece by a specific shielding gas
ceramic ferrule, see figure 114. This ceramic ferrule contains openings for shielding gas output and weld
observation. Usually always overlapping sheets are welded in which the upper sheet contains a drill hole
for a substantial improvement of the joint’s safety in particular when there is a gap between the upper
and lower sheet. Only in case of using very thin sheets and accurate fitting the drill hole of the upper
sheet can be omitted. Figure 115 shows the common used applications in automotive repair.
Figure 114: MAG-Spot- Figure 115: Examples of applications for MAG spot welding of thin sheet met-
welding. /2/ als. /2/
13.2 Gas shielded metal arc brazing

During GSMA-brazing the work pieces are connected by Cu-base filler materials having a lower melting
point than that of the work piece base materials. Like other brazing processes the work pieces are ideally
only wetted via a thin diffusion layer. In praxis however it is inevitable to get some fused surfaces of the
base materials.
Nowadays the application of GSMA-brazing is mainly concentrated to sheet metal welding of
non- and low alloyed materials with zinc coatings or to aluminium base materials. Figure 116 shows
schematically the brazing of thin zinc coated (7 to 10 m) steel sheet metals. Depending on the type of
material transfer and arc length the zinc burn-off next to the weld run is about 1 to 2 mm width, see figure
117. Common used joint types are shown in figure 118. The weld run profile can be influenced by the
choice of arc type, see figure 119.
Figure 116: Schematic view of GSMA-brazing of thin Figure 117: Zinc burn-off next to the weld run
coated steel sheet metal

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
Figure 118: Common used types of GSMA-brazing joints
Kurzlichtbogen Impulslichtbogen
Figure 119: weld run profile influenced by arc type. /2 /
Advantages of GSMA-brazing of zinc coated steels are:

 less heat-input as regular welding
 almost no spatter and pores
 good gap-bridging capabilities
 high brazing speed
 no flux required
 no weld run undercuts
Disadvantages of GSMA brazing of steel:

 higher filler material prices than regular filler materials for steel welding
 for thin sheet metal brazing flat weld runs are generally only achievable using the pulsed arc
mode
 In work piece areas having large deformations (high residual stresses) it is possi-
ble that liquid brazing weld metal penetrates into the base material via grain
boundaries.
Common used brazing filler metals are: CuSi3, CuSi2Mn, CuAl8, CuAl8Ni2, CuMn13Al. High alloyed
brazing filler materials do have higher strength properties.
Argon can be used as shielding gas for all brazing filler materials. Slightly oxidising shielding gases like
Ar + 2% CO2, Ar +1% O2 do improve process stability substantially.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
13.3 MIG/MAG-High Performance Processing
The standard MIG MAG weld processing can already be considered as high performance processing.
Nevertheless, for a long time they have been trying to improve the power efficiency.
Power efficiency means a higher deposition rate, a higher welding speed or both. Additionally the eco-
nomic efficiency can partly be raised through weld cross-section reduction. In exploiting the economic
opportunities of gas shielded metal arc weld processing or their combinations with other joining process-
es it should be noticed that often to more restrictions have to be complied with in order to guarantee suf-
ficient weld quality. The high requirements to the weld processing stability can only be achieved through
excellent contact properties of the wire electrodes and optimal torch configuration.
Limits are set to manual GSMA-welding via the thermal stressing of the welder (even with adequate pro-
tection/ safety clothing) and via the high requirements to the torch positioning accuracy. For partly mech-
anised MAG welding the maximum deposition rates are around 9kg/h (18m/min with 1.2mm wire diame-
ter) and the maximum speed is around 60cm/min.
Figure 120: Power ranges of standard MAG welding, MAG

high Performance welding with one or two wire electrodes
as well as for Laser-MAG welding, all under optimised
conditions./2/
DVS-Leaflett 0909-1 “Basics of high performance gas shielded metal arc welding with solid wire - defini-
tions and terms” shows an overview of the several processes.
Figures 120 and 121 show an overview of the power ranges of conventional (standard) and high perfor-
mance processes using one and two wire electrodes.
In the late 1980s the so called T.I.M.E. high performance weld process with patented shielding gas com-
position (65% Ar, 26,5% He, 8% CO2, 0,5% O2; Licensee Fronius) became known in Germany.
With the relative expensive 4-component shielding gas, good results have been achieved using spray
arc mode and rotating spray arc mode. More or less at the same time the multiple wire process applica-
tion has been developed further by the SLV München in cooperation with a few power source manufac-
turers. Both directions, either using one or two wire electrodes, have substantially increased the econom-
ic efficiency in many applications.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
In DVS leaflett 0909-1 new processing symbols have been specified for high performance MIG / MAG
welding. However, these terms although they have been recommend by experts, will not be used in our
lectures as they have not yet been adopted into standards and basic rules.
DIN 1910-100 “Welding and allied processes – vocabulary” contains, among others, classification and
denomination possibilities of weld arc processes from the partially withdrawn DIN ISO 857-1 standard.
For the rotating spray arc mode no designation has been introduced lately.
13.3.1 High Performance weld processing with single wire electrode
Stimulated by the T.I.M.E.-process (initially only designated for the rotating arc) other authorities also
investigated the areas of high electrode wire speeds out of which a series of interesting types of welding
processes have been originated.
Figure 121 shows the different types of material transfer depending on the wire speed and voltage. Fig-
ure 122 and 123 show the schematic views of material transfer for rotating and high performance
spray arc welding.
In Abbildung 120 sind die unterschiedlichen Arten des Werkstoffübergangs in Abhängigkeit von Draht-
geschwindigkeit und Spannung aufgetragen. Abbildung 121 und Abbildung 122 zeigen die Schemen der
Werkstoffübergänge beim Schweißen mit dem rotierenden Sprühlichtbogen und Hochleistungs-
sprühlichtbogen.
Figure 121: Power ranges of single wire MAG welding and the typical weld
run profile that can be acieved./2/
13.3.1.1 Rotating arc welding
Around 1970 the first experiments of rotating arc weld processing have been carried out using thin wire
electrodes with speeds of more than 60m/min. However, for the at that time intended application area,
surfacing welding, the processing was not stable enough.
With specific 3- and 4-component shielding gases wire speeds of up to 50m/min (1,2mm wire diameter)
have been achieved. Nowadays, in praxis mainly wire speeds of 20-25m/min are being used. A wider
and almost always sufficient penetration depth is being achieved in the PA- and PB welding position,
figure 122.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
Specific features for rotating arc welding:

 argon-rich gas mixtures with 2-4 components, often with up to 30% added He quantities
(3,1 % O2, 25 % He, Rest Ar, 25 % CO2, 25 He, Rest Ar, 2 % O2, 25 % CO2, 26,5 % He, Rest Ar
30 % He, 10 % CO2, Rest Ar, 8% CO2, Rest Ar)
 longer free wire-end (pre-condition for rotating))
 high performance, wider penetration, no depth-penetration in the middle of the weld run
 within the transition area from spray arc mode to rotating arc mode instability is possible
 Companies name: T.I.M.E. Process, Rapid-Melt, Linfast-Concept
Figure 122: Schematic view of rotat- Figure123: Schematic view of high performance spray arc mode. /2 /
ing spray arc mode /2 /
13.3.1.2 High performance spray arc welding
This type of arc, figure 123, generates a very deep but narrowed penetration in the middle of the weld
run. Due to its disruption susceptibility in combination with pore formation this application is rarely used.
13.3.2 High performance dual-wire weld processing
At this moment two types of dual-wire weld processes are being used: the MIG/MAG dual-wire process
and the MIG / MAG tandem welding process. See figure 124, top. The welding current supply is different
for both types of processing. The dual-wire system uses one power source to provide both wires with
welding current and the tandem welding process uses a separate power source for each wire. Figure
124, below. Figure 125 shows the torch for MIG /MAG tandem welding. By repositioning of both torches
there are additional application opportunities available for practical use. See figure 126.
The advantage of this high performance multiple wire welding process is the larger power range in terms
of deposition rates and welding speeds. By using tandem welding weld processing can be executed hav-
ing different types of arc modes. For both types of weld processing the welding speed can be adjusted
over a wide range. Compared to single wire welding the welding speed can be doubled. Usually the heat
input of dual wire welding is less than for single wire welding and can be adjusted according to the weld-
ing task. The MIG / MAG multiple-wire weld processing can weld all weldable base materials.
13.3.2.1 MIG/MAG-Dual-wire welding

By using the same contact tube both electrode wire voltages are more or less similar. The welding cur-
rent follows Ohmic’s law (parallel connection of resistors) and usually the wire current intensity will also
be more or less the same for both wires. However there might be disturbances via different contact
characteristics between the wires and the contact tube due to surface defects of both wires.
There is also the possibility of using different welding speeds, for example to adjust a higher wire speed
over the first wire (shorter arc) and a somewhat longer arc over the second wire. By doing this a high(er)
penetration combined with a smooth weld surface can be achieved.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
MIG/MAG-Dual-Wire Welding:
argonrich gas mixtures, pulsed- or spray arc mode
low to very high power ranges possible
very high welding speeds achievable
Processing with two wires, one power source, one torch, one
contact tube
MIG/MAG-Tandem Welding:
argonrich gas mixtures, short-circuit-, pulsed- or spray arc mode
low to very high power ranges possible
very high welding speeds achievable
Processing with two wires, two power sources, one torch, two
potential-separated contact tubes
improved processing stability and easier process optimising op-
portunities than MIG/MAG dual wire welding
Figure 124: GSMA-processes with two wire-electrodes. /2/
Figure 125: Torch for GSMA tandem Figure 126: Process variants of tandem welding by
welding. /2/ contact tube adjustment. /2/
The magnetic arc blow which moves both arcs towards each other in case of equal poled wire elec-
trodes, is used here in a positive way. The magnetic deflection controlled by the optimised distance be-
tween the wires which depends on the current intensity and type of shielding gas, enables a centralised
material droplet transfer into the weld pool. Figure 125.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
The clearly enlarged contact area of the arc just before the material transfer enables a sufficient melting
of the base metal even at high welding speeds. And after the material transfer the enlarged contact area
of the arc enables the formation of wide and flat weld runs without having undercuts. Even with high
welding speeds and high deposition rates the multiple wire welding processes do not have crossing arcs
which allows a processing of high efficiency even for less accurate pre-assembled components
13.3.2.2 MIG/MAG-Tandem welding
Nowadays this type of weld processing is being preferred above the dual-wire welding technique due to
its high stability during interruptions and the better adjustment features of both arcs to welding jobs. The
achievable deposition rates and welding speeds are more or less the same
The magnetic arc blow which is also active during tandem welding can however be widely eliminated by
using two pulsed arcs which are 180° phase shifted. In figure 127 and 128 the magnetic arc blow is
schematically shown with and without phase shifting.
The deposition rate for steel welding using phase shifted pulsed arc mode is limited to around 18kg/h.
Without this phase shifting deposition rates of more than 25kg/h are being achieved during spray-arc or
pulsed arc mode. For sheet metal applications welding speeds over 3m/min are possible.
Figure 127: Magnetic arc blow and deflec- Figure 128: Reduced magnetic arc blow via phase shifting of pulses.
tion of the arc and the material transfer /2/
during synchronised pulses. /2 /
Additional applications are MIG/MAG tandem surface welding and tandem welding with flux cored wires.
The investment costs for multiple wire applications are relatively low as only two commercially available
pulse power sources and one multi-wire nozzle are required.
Both welding processes are only available as fully mechanised systems. Commercially used argon-rich
shielding gas mixtures are usually being used for steel welding.
Figures 129 and 130 are showing weld cross-sections of tandem welding with high welding speeds.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
Figure 129: MAG-multiple wire welding of a fillet weld Figure 130: MIG-Tandem welding of a overlap joint of
(a-size = 4 mm) in steel. Sheet thickness 5mm, deposi- aluminium AlMg2,7Mn, sheet thickness 4 mm, deposi-
tion rate 14,8 kg/h, welding speed 1,9 m/min. tion rate 6,6 kg/h, welding speed 3,0 m/min.
13.4 Plasma Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Figure 130 shows schematically the principle of plasma gas shielded metal arc welding. This welding
process is a combination of a plasma torch and a gas shield metal arc torch. At the weld’s beginning the
plasma arc will heat up (melts) the base metal before the wire electrode material transfer starts. The
danger of pore formation and lack of fusion will therefore be reduced (e.g. for Al base materials, sheet
metal area). The torch nozzle does have a relatively large diameter. The plasma- and gas shielded metal
arc can be arranged in series. Figures 132 and 133.
Figure 131: schematic view of plasma – Figure 132: Schematic view of plasma –
GSMA welding with concentric arranged GSMA welding with both arcs being ar-
plasma arc. /2/ ranged in series. /2/

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
Figure 133: Schematic view of plasma –GSMA welding with welding torches arranged
in series and two weld pools. /2/
13.5 Laser- Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding
During high power laser welding of thicker components (steel and al-base materials) the welds are often
not sufficiently filled. However, through combinations with arc bow processes component deviations and
orientation deflections of work pieces can be compensated much better even at high welding speeds. An
overview of today’s applied process combinations of Laser- GSMA-welding is shown in figure 134.
Figure 134: Schemes of Laser-GSMA-welding. /2 /
14 Electrogas welding
Figure 135 shows the principle. Thick, vertical positioned components are being welded with high depo-
sition rates using a square butt weld with gap. A large weld pool is generated which is being contained
by sideways positioned water cooled copper plates. The fixture with torch and copper plates will continu-
ously be pulled upwards in accordance with the rising weld pool.
Due to the large weld pool the mechanical properties of these joints can be less than welds being welded
with a multiple layer technique. By using filler metals containing fine grain formation additives improve-
ments are possible.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
Figure 135: Schematic view of Electrogas Welding.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
15 Test questions
(1) How do MIG and MAG welding processes differ from each other?
 By the slope of the static the power supply

 By the type of current used
 By the polarity of the electrode used
 By the shielding gas used
 By the deposition rate
(2) Which shielding gases are used for gas-shielded metal arc welding?
 CO2 or Ar/CO2-mixes for welding of unalloyed steels

 Ar and He for welding non-ferrous metals
 CO2 for welding high alloyed steels
 CO2 for welding non-ferrous metals
 Ar/CO2-mixes (with limited CO2 content) for welding of high alloyed steels
(3) The wire electrode materials according to EN 490 for unalloyed steels and fine-grained steels to
500 N/mm2 yield point (G2Si1, G3Si1, G4Si1) differ mainly in the alloy content of:
 P,S
 C
 Si, Mn
 Al, Cu
 Ni, Mo
(4) What causes an increase in the distance between the contact tube and the workpiece in case of
gas-shielded metal arc welding?
 Less spatter
 Lower current
 Less penetration
 Fewer pores
 Worse current transfer to the wire electrode
(5) How can the internal control correct an arc in GMAW welding, when the arc became too long due
to an interference?
 By increasing the wire feed rate

 By reducing the operating voltage
 By reducing the current
 By changing the torch distance
 By adjusting the welding speed

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
(6) How can the arc length be reduced permanently during gas-shielded metal arc welding?
 By reducing the contact tube distance

 By increasing the wire feed rate
 By reducing the operating voltage
 By increasing the welding speed
 By increasing the operating voltage
(7) Which parameters and influencing values change considerably, when the wire feed rate is
increased during gas-shielded metal welding?
 Slag amount
 Welding Voltage
 Welding current
 Deposition rate
 Arc Length
(8) Which are the most important advantages of MAG-welding over manual arc welding?
 It is possible to weld with high alloy steels

 lower equipment costs
 higher deposition efficiency
 higher welding speeds
 good suitability for welding fine sheets
(9) Which shielding gas produces the highest slag content when MAG welding with higher arc
power?
 82% Ar + 18% CO2

 100% CO2
 97% Ar + 3% O2
 70% Ar + 30% He
 92% Ar + 5% CO2 + 3% O2

equipment
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16 Bibliography
/1/ DIN 1910-100:2008
/2/ Hertz G. and R.Rompe: Introduction to plasma physics and its technical application
/3/ Baum L. and V. Fichter: The shielding gas welder, Part II, MIG/MAG welding.
Welding technology practice, Volume 12 (1999), DVS-Verlag, Düsseldorf.
/4/ Ruckdeschel, W.: Material Transfer during MIG/MAG welding. Linde-Bericht 70-F-51 (1970).
/5/ Aichele G. and A. A. Smith: MAG-Welding (1975), DVS-Verlag, Düsseldorf.
/6/ Knoch, R. and W. Welz: Active gas pulsed arc welding with transistorised power supplies.
Welding and cutting 38 (1986), Leaflet 2, pp. 67-71.
/7/ Pomaska H. U.: MAG welding “no book with seven seals”. Linde AG.
/8/ Schambach, B.: Current of conditions of welding European standards, extra edition to the 26.
Special Conference “Welding in equipment and container construction” (2000), Munich.
/9/ Dilthey, U.: Energy balance of the arc column. DVS reports 30 (1974), pp. 139-156.
/10/ Knoch R.: Welding designations for the MIG/MAG welding process. DVS reports, leaflet 91,
DVS-Verlag.
/11/ Schellhase, M.: The welding arc - a technological tool. Leaflet 84, DVS-Verlag, Düsseldorf.
/12/ Welz, W. and R. Knoch: Setting and classifying impulse arcs in metal active gas welding.
Welding and cutting 41 (1989), leaflet 12, S.658-660.
/13/ Welz, W. and R. Knoch: Examination of pulsed MAG welding. Welding and cutting 41 (1989),
leaflet 10, S. 542-547.
/14/ Knoch, R.: Measured variables and measuring instruments in gas-shielded metal arc welding.
Welding and cutting 38 (1986), leaflet 7, S.330-334.
/15/ Knoch R.: Increasing the ignition and start-up phase with metal electrodes active gas welding.
Welding and cutting 35 (1983), leaflet 8, S. 370-376.
/16/ Knoch, R.: Examination of the ignition process and the initial joint faults in metal active gas
welding. Welding and cutting 35 (1983), Leaflet 9, pp. 432-435.
/17/ DVS Guideline 0912, Part 1 - Avoidance of lacks of fusion.
Part 2 - Avoidance of pores.
/18/ Knoch, R. and A. W. E. Nentwig: Quick MAG welding with multiple wire electrodes.
DVS reports no. 162 (1994), page 77-81.
/19/ Baum, L. and R. Knoch: Higher economy by the high power MAG process.
DVS reports no. 183 (1997), page 50-55.
/20/ Marfels, W.: The arc welder, welding technology practice
DVS-Verlag, Düsseldorf.
/21/ DVS leaflet 0909-1: Process principles of MSG heavy-duty welding with solid wire electrodes,
definitions and terms.
/22/ DVS leaflet 0926: Requirements of power sources for gas-shielded metal arc welding.
/23/ DVS leaflet 0926-3: Process parameters and equipment technology for pulsed arc welding
/24/ DVS leaflet 0932: MAG setting practice – engineering and component-dependent influences
on the weld geometry.
/25/ DVS leaflet 0932: MAG setting practice – engineering and component-dependent influences
on the weld geometry.

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After frequent torsional, bending and tensile loads, broken wires and ruptured hoses are to be expected
after a certain time, Figure 13. For the purposes of the warranty, stable welding parameters must be
monitored at all contact points in the welding current. Elastic workpiece clamps with relatively small
contact area are unsuitable for larger welding currents, Figure 14.
Figure 8 shows the structure of the wire feed. In order to achieve a good welding result, the wire elec-
trode must exit the contact tube at a steady speed. Slowing the wire will extend the arc and in extreme
cases it may cause backfiring in the contact tube. An uneven wire feed rate (stutter) leads to short cir-
cuits during welding and thus to an intensified spattering. Figure 9:. One or more rolls may be used, Fig-
ure 12.
The thin wire electrodes, particularly those made from aluminium, tend to buckle if not fed appropriately
minimizes the size as the droplet size on the wire end will be minimized
(the wire “creeps” with lower feed up to ignition)
, Hot start (higher initial current pulse for better ignition), and arcing time (a selectable arcing time
prevents the wire ends from "freezing" in the end crater and) are required.
The four-cycle torch control, when the welder only uses the switch to ignite and terminate the welding
process, secures the gas shielding at the start of the seam and at the end of welding.
When using power supplies with adjustable slope of the static characteristics it is important to make sure
that the operating voltage and therefore the effective arc length change with each adjustment of the
slope.

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SFI / IWE 1.08-1
Control unit
Figure 7: When using electronic welding equipment, variable welding parameters are available for the
start and the end of bead.
Figure 6: Two-cycle control /SLV Munich/ Four-cycle control
Figure 8: The structure of the wire feed. /SLV Munich/
Figures 10 and 11 show the frequently observed faults in relation to the wire feed.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
Figure 9: Wire Feed Rolls: Wedge Figure 10: Deformation and increased friction
grooves for hard wires and round caused by faults in the area of the wire guide.
grooves for soft wires. /SLV Munich/ /SLV Munich/
Figure 11: Faults caused by

excessively large or small grooves in
the wire guide and by too intensive
electrode pressure.
/SLV Munich/
Figure 12: Wire feeding systems.

/SLV Munich/
Figure 13: Cable break in the hose assembly. Figure 14: Damaged workpiece clamps.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.08-1
/SLV Munich/ /SLV Munich/
. Figure 15 shows examples of short and pulsed arcs.
Figure 16 shows wire feeding systems and auxiliary materials for extending work space.
Figure 16: Wire feed units and ways to extend the work space. /SLV Munich/

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SFI / IWE 1.08-1
The suitable power supply shall be chosen according to Table 3 depending on the application.
Therefore the values for setting the voltage (open-circuit voltage) should be calibrated in Volts and the
wire electrode feed rate should be calibrated meters per minute, for example
The arc voltage, at a 3 V/100 A voltage drop and other losses from approx. 1 V/100 A about 4 V/100 A
welding current is lower than the set open-circuit voltage. This significant difference requires the specific
provision of what has been measured and where in the welding data sheets.
and a mounting tube for machine torches. An arc ignites between the wire exiting the contact tube and
the workpiece, Figure 1.
The arc and the highly heated weld pool are protected by a shielding gas flowing from the shielding gas
nozzle. The water-cooled torch conveys the radiation heat of the arc from the contact tube and from the gas
nozzle as well as the resistance heating through the welding current in the whole torch via the cooling water.
Non-cooled (gas or air-cooled) torches in the upper power range may reach a temperature up to 700 °C
even after short welding time in the contact tube and in the shielding gas nozzle /6/. As the copper of the
contact tube softens, wear increases and spatter adheres more easily to the gas nozzle because of the
higher temperature, and makes torch cleaning difficult. Therefore water-cooled torches shall always be used
at higher welding current. The welding torches are organised by current values and shall be monitored, as
too largely dimensioned torches are heavier and load the welder more. It is important to pay attention that
the argon-filled shielding gas mixes load the torches thermally more than CO2. The adjustment of the
shielding gases may require a stronger torch. Figure 17 shows a GMAW welding torch. The sectional
drawing shows the structure of the torch in case of a gas- and water-cooled torch. For larger arc powers
torches with directly cooled gas nozzles are also available for larger arc powers.

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SFI / IWE 1.08-1
. With a high specific current load this is possible only with a wear on the contact tube. The bore in the
contact tube, which is about 0.2 mm (steel) and about 0.4 mm (aluminium) larger than the wire diameter,
expands conically after a certain length of time.
The exposed wires change and if the deposits in the contact tube get contaminated wire surfaces, the
arc becomes irregular and may spray more heavily.
The quality of the wire electrodes has a significant influence on the contact tube service life. Figure 18
shows frequent causes for the distortion of the contact tube.
Melting caused by wire surface errors, very high pulsed current

during pulsed arc welding or arc ignition.
Spatters at the bore edge “lengthen” the contact tube (with poor
electrical conductivity) and cause considerable slow-down.
Spatter from the arc zone or burst resulted from the melting of the
wire electrode in contact points with very high local current density.
Deposits of abrasive particles and draw-aids caused by insufficiently

cleaned wire surfaces or of abrasive particles caused by errors of the
wire feed units.
A too big contact tube bore, particularly with wires of low bending
and straight torches frequently cause changing contact points and
free wire electrode lengths.
Wires with larger bending improve the contact quality and also
increase the friction in the feed hose and in the contact tube.
Figure18: Frequent faults in contact tubes /SLV Munich/
Figure 19: Forced-contact current contact tubes generally improve the introduction of the current signal into
the wire electrode.
Figure 19: Examples of forced-contact

current contact tubes /SLV Munich

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SFI / IWE 1.08-1
Figure 20:.
Figure 20: Leakage currents in the torch

reduce the welding current at gas nozzle
contact with the workpiece and damage
the torch body
/SLV Munich/

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SFI / IWE 1.08-1
The rating plate of a MIG/MAG power supply, according to EN 60974-1 may make it easier to select the
correct welding equipment, as important characteristics, such as the power range and the network load
are provided. (see section 1-3)
Table 3 provides reference values for the design of MIG/MAG welding equipment depending on the wire
diameter. The bold-printed values represent the average values for the spray arc when welding is done
with argon-filled mixed gases. The voltage values below are appropriate for the short arc with low
current.
Depending on the application, the arrangement of the power supply, the wire feed unit, the hose
assembly and the torch may vary significantly. The standard equipment for welding in a cabin or with
components with limited dimensions is power supplies with integrated or externally added wire feed unit.
The hose assemblies are mostly not longer than 3 meters. If larger components are being welded, the
power supply and the wire feed unit may be separated. A lighter wire feed unit can be placed close to the
welding point by suitable equipment. Figure 16: Other types use additional driving motors in or close to
the torch.
It must be considered that longer hose assemblies have higher voltage decrease and therefore a power
supply with higher power may be required.
Table 6 summarises the selection criteria.
Table 6. Criteria for selecting and evaluating MSG welding equipment

a) Technical parameters
- The principal of electrical circuit in the power supply unit
- Setting range and load capacity (permissible duty cycle for large loads)
- Workpiece cable diameter and workpiece connection type
- Constant or stepped setting of voltage
- Step intervals for voltage setting
- Adjustable additional inductivity (choke) or electronic influence of the short-circuit current peaks
(MSGk, MSGü, MAGl)
- Setting and control options for pulsed arc welding
- Single Button setup and program preparation
- Suitability for several arc welding processes and types of currents(GMAW, WIG, E)
- Timers for spot or interval welding
- Adjustable shielding gas pre- and the post-flow time
- Stabilization of welding parameters by change of mains voltage
- Contact protection (protection against solid bodies and water, min. demand for the workshop IP 21)
- Wire feed system and wire feed length
- Quality of feeding rolls (groove profile, groove surfaces and even pitch diameter)
- Regulation of the wire feed rate
- Wire feed unit in the welding equipment or free to move
- Torch design
- Cooling equipment for electrical power components and the torch
- Noise and draughts
- Measuring instruments (U, .I, wire feed rate)
- Monitoring devices
b) Welding characteristics
- Arcing (current rise rate, adjustable free arcing time and wire starting speed, current pulse with the arc
interruption, reversible wire movement at ignition)
- Arc stability, arc length control (characteristics, inertia of the “internal regulation”, controller settings,
hose assembly length, additional wire feed aids)
- Appearance of spattering (choke setting, program quality, program number, …)
- Weld appearance (profile, weld ripples)

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- Pulsed arc current (maximum peak current, current rise and fall rate, background current stability,
shape of the curve transitions)
c) Handling
- Control elements (arrangement, operability with gloves, protection against damages)
- Adjustment precision and clarity of the control elements or screens
- Adjustment of the current pulse smoothing (choke) in steps, continuously or not adjustable
- Change of the arc power with a single button
- Number, quality and adjustment options of saved welding data sets (working points and/or jobs)
- Storage spaces for your own welding data sets
- Program upgrades for different arc powers at the start and the end of the welding
- Program upgrades for periodically changing arc powers
- Remote adjustment possibilities or interface type
- Warning indicators
- Permission to work under special electric risks
- Pole reversal possibility (AC applications, flux-cored wires)
- Transportation possibilities
- Stability
- Connections to different mains voltages
- Connections to welding cables and torches
- Space requirement and format
- Risks of injury by housings with sharp edges and poorly secured lid
- Too narrow chambers for wire spool and wire feed unit
d) Economic viability
- Purchase price
- Reliability
- Power factor (cos )
- Efficiency
- Stand-by losses
- Maintenance costs and diagnostic system
- Spare parts (costs, delivery time)

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The surface tension (interface stress) has a strong influence on droplet detachment on the heated wire
end. Metallic bare wire surfaces, as they occur with inert shielding gases, have a high surface tension.
Therefore, there is a tendency for large droplets to be formed. If some oxygen is added to the shielding
gas in the form of O2- or CO2- additions, oxide islands will be formed on the melted material. These
reduce the surface tension (just like detergents with water) and promote the formation of small droplets
when melting the filling material.
The direction of gravitational pull depends on the weld position.
The composition of the shielding gas also has a major influence on droplet detachment. Welding
shielding gases vary in quality as thermal conductors at the high temperatures, as they occur in the arc
starting point and in the arc (see Figure ). An important temperature is the evaporation point of the
material (about 3,000 °C for steel), because this is the approximate temperature that will establish itself
on the melting wire electrode.
The surface tension (interface stress) is another strong influence on the drop detachment on the heated
wire end. The surface tension can be reduced by temperature increases and chemical changes of the
material surface. Bare metal wire surfaces, as they occur in inert shielding gases (without oxides), have
a high surface tension (also droplets with very thick oxide layers behave similarly to droplets with high
surface tension.) There is a tendency to form bigger droplets.
Shielding gas composition also has a major impact on droplet detachment. Welding shielding gases are
differently good heat conductors at high temperatures, as they occur in the arc starting point and in the
arc.
Argon is a poor thermal conductor at high temperature, compared to other gases. Compared to CO 2
(good thermal conductor), the arc attachments on the wire end and the arc cross-sectional area remain
bigger, because the jacket of the arc is cooled down by the argon. The arc increases with sufficient
current at the jacket surface of the wire end. This rise has a decisive influence over the transfer of metal
for argon and argon-filled mixed gases, Figure 58. The wire end is heated by the arc starting point
(anode fall area) not just from the front side but also over a larger area from the outside to the inside. A
longer, highly heated zone forms on the wire end. The pinch force can take effect and constrict the liquid
wire end, so that depending on the temperature or the current, small drops are transferred into the weld
pool.
It is completely different with 100% CO2 and argon-filled mixed gases with more than 25% CO2. The
shielding gas CO2 dissociates at temperatures around 2,000 to 3,000 °C. Thermal conductivity is very
good (see maximum with CO2 in figure 24). The higher cooling of arc jacket by CO 2 guides in
comparison to argon to an arc attachment with a smaller surface and a smaller arc diameter. The pinch
force cannot become effective, because the arc is only attached to the wire end and so no sufficient wire
length is heated. The higher current density of the CO2 arc causes recoil forces that prevent small-
volume metal transfer. Mixed gases therefore cannot contain an arbitrary amount of CO 2, Figure 59.
The weld pool can be repressed by the sum of the forces in the arc, Figure 60.
For higher arc powers and limited arc lengths, the arc can work in the hollow in the weld pool, if large
penetration depth is achieved and spatter ejection is minimised.

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Der tropfenförmige Übergang (Abbildung 57) kommt in der Praxis selten zur Anwendung, weil das große
Tropenvolumen und die kleine Tropfenfrequenz nur sehr kleine Schweißgeschwindigkeiten in der Pos.
PA zulassen würde. Im oberen Feinblechbereich können jedoch größere Spalte mit flachen Raupen
überbrückt werden.

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Flux-cored wire welding Page 1
Chapter 1.08-2: Flux-cored wire welding
Contents
1 Gas-protected flux-cored wire electrodes ......................................................................... 2
1.1 Definition of flux-cored wire electrodes ........................................................................... 2
1.2 Cross-section shapes and manufacturing of the flux-cored wire electrodes ................... 3
1.3 Filling types and properties of the flux-cored wires ......................................................... 5
1.4 Shielding gases for flux-cored wire electrodes ............................................................. 11
1.5 Sample applications...................................................................................................... 11
1.5.1 Welding of pipe half shells on container outer skins for water cooling ............... 12
1.5.2 Forks of forklift truck as welded constructions ................................................... 12
1.5.3 Mobile crane booms........................................................................................... 13
1.5.4 MAG orbital welding with flux-cored wires ......................................................... 14
1.5.5 Use of flux-cored wire in shipbuilding................................................................. 14
1.5.6 Use of flux-cored wire in the offshore field ......................................................... 16
2 Test questions ................................................................................................................... 17
3 Literature ............................................................................................................................ 18

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1 Gas-protected flux-cored wire electrodes

1.1 Definition of flux-cored wire electrodes
Flux-cored wire electrodes can be called inverted stick electrodes, if they form a slag. This definition is
accurate to a certain extent because the flux-cored wires involved in this chapter do not contain any gas
forming agents in the core, and therefore have to be processed under shielding gas as usual for the
MAG process. Whereas the external coating of the stick electrode contains all necessary raw material
components, in the flux-cored wire electrode these are located inside (the flux), which is surrounded by a
circular jacket, see Fig 1.
Slag-forming constituent
Arc stabilizers
Alloy elements
Metal powder
Micro-alloys
(Gas- forming agent)
Figure 1: Comparison of stick electrodes and flux-cored wire electrodes
The filling flux usually consists of several raw materials and, among other things, includes arc stabilizers
for achieving high process stability, alloying elements for the use of metallurgy and partly micro-alloy
elements to improve the quality of the metal weld through nucleation. The latter provides the weld metal
a fine grain microstructure. Here it should be stated that the gas forming agents and reinforced
deoxidizers appear only in case of flux-cored wires without shielding gas, which are not discussed here.
For guidance, Figure 2 shows some raw materials. Usually, weld fillings are present as dry mixtures or
agglomerates. Each flux-cored wire type has a formula specific to alloy type and diameter, which
describes the composition of the raw materials and the manufacturing conditions.
The filling materials have, in connection with the shielding gas, influence on arc stability, spatter
formation, bead profile, bead surface, removability of the slag, seam lay-out in out-of-position welding
and mechanical-technological weld metal properties. Gas-shielded flux-cored wires require a shielding
gas blanket of the same quality as solid wire electrodes.

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Figure 2: Some raw materials used in the production of the filling flux
1.2 Cross-section shapes and manufacturing of the flux-cored wire electrodes
According the construction of the wire cross-sections, seamless and enclosed flux-cored wire electrodes
exist, which also differ in the way they are manufactured (Figure 3).
Seamless flux-core
wire electrode
Figure 3: Usual cross-section

shapes for flux-cored wire
electrodes /2 and 3/
As a pre-material for enclosed types a narrow strip, with a slightly more than 10 mm width and less than
1mm thick, is used and brought first into a U-shape by bending rolls. After this, a continuous filling of the
mostly dry mixed flux takes place. Subsequently, the cross-section is closed and is usually reduced and
compressed by rolling. In the second step, the completed semi-finished product is drawn and /or rolled to
the final dimensions, see Figure 4.

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Figure 4: Manufacturing process for enclosed flux-cored wires
The classic production of the seamless flux-cored wires uses a strip of approx. 50 mm width and about 2
mm thickness, from which continuous tubes are manufactured using high-frequency welding. After the
recrystallisation annealing process, the tube is drawn to the filling diameter. The filling flux, in this case
agglomerated, is inserted into the pipe by vibration and pre-compressed.
Manufacturing of the tube

Drawing to annealing
rom the solid strip
diameter and
by HF welding
annealing of the filled tube
Recrystallisation annealing Drawing to the final dimension

and Copper-plating the surface
calibrating to filling diameter
Manufacturing of the
agglomerated filling flux Winding to
and insertion of the deliverable
filling flux by vibration form
Figure 5: Manufacturing process for seamless flux-cored wires /3/

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Next, the semi-finished product is drawn to the annealing diameter, see Figure 5. During this heat
treatment, the strain strengthened casing is soft-annealed, reducing the hydrogen originating from the
filling flux to far below 5 ml/100 g. Next, the wire is drawn to its final dimensions by several steps,
repeatedly wet-cleaned and finally copper-plated and polished. The flux-cored wire electrode
manufactured by this method is absolutely protected against moisture absorption and can be stored
without limitation. Re-drying is not necessary. As the coating does not contain any stiffness changes, the
wires do not twist and ensure no disruptions during feeding. The coppered wire surface improves current
transmission and reduces nozzle wear.
A further developed process variant works with direct filling before the tube welding station, whereby the
filled tube is continuously annealed after compression. The wire is finally wound into coils in preparation
for delivery.
1.3 Filling types and properties of the flux-cored wires
Currently, flux-cored wire electrodes are available with and without slag (Figure 6). The slag-forming
types contain rutile or basic components and are to be processed with a slightly trailing torch position
due to the risk of slag inclusions as with stick electrodes (Figure 7). Titanium-oxide is the main
component here and appears as dark grey slag on the surface of the weld. Because of the fluoride
components, the basic flux-cored wires produce a very thin liquid slag that is yellow ochre to light-green
in colour.
Figure 6: Filling types of flux-cored wire electrodes /3/
The slag-forming components, especially basic components, influence the mechanical data of weld
metal positively. They reduce the risks of incomplete fusion and pore formation to a minimum.
Accordingly, the slag-forming flux-cored wire electrodes represent an alternative to stick electrodes in
welding technology terms, regarding practical application cases. A major advantage of the rutile types
with fast-solidifying slag is the fact that they can be used very economically due to their excellent weld
pool plasticity for out-of-position welding applications especially in the rising position.
The slagless metal powder flux-cored wire electrodes are to be regarded as alternatives to solid wire
electrodes. Despite having no slag, these types show the flux-cored wire-specific advantages in terms of
weld quality. An exception is the tendency to porosity if the distance from the contact tip is too great.

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Figure 7: Welding technique when welding rutile flux-cored wires
In terms of the absolutely certain ability to reignite and the almost spatter-free process behaviour, these wires
were originally developed for robotic applications. A further advantage to the slag-forming flux-cored wire
electrodes can be found in multi-layer welding, as the intermediate weld cleaning process is omitted here.
Figure 8: Welding techniques with metal powder flux-cored wires
The flux-cored wires for the most important material groups are standardised. These are listed in
Table 1.

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Table 1: Standards for flux-cored wire electrodes for MIG/MAG welding
EN-/prEN- In connection with

Title Issue
Number DIN *) ISO
EN ISO Welding consumables - Tubular cored electrodes for gas 2008 DIN EN ISO 17632
17632 shielded and non-gas shielded metal arc welding of non-alloy replaces
and fine grain steels - Classification EN 758
EN ISO Welding consumables - Tubular cored electrodes for gas 2006 DIN EN ISO 17634 IDT
17634 shielded metal arc welding of creep-resisting steels -
Classification
EN ISO Welding consumables - Tubular cored electrodes and rods for 2011 DIN EN ISO 17633 IDT
17633 gas shielded and non-gas shielded metal arc welding of
EN ISO Welding consumables - Tubular cored electrodes for gas- 2006 DIN EN ISO 18276 IDT DIN EN ISO
18276 shielded and non-gas-shielded metal arc welding of high 18276
strength steels - Classification
EN 14700 Welding consumables - Welding consumables for hard-facing 2005
DIN = German standard IDT = DIN is IDENTICAL to the European Standard/draft
EN = European standard VGL = DIN is comparable with the European Standard/draft
prEN = European draft standard *) Type of the relationship
ISO = International standard 1) ISO/DIS = International draft standard
Flux-cored wire electrodes for GMAW welding are mostly wound on spools. Depending on the usage,
this spool can be very small (1 kg) or very large (several hundred kilos). For large consumers, along with
large spools there are also containers from which the wire is drawn mechanically. The common wire
electrode diameters are: 1.0; 1.2; (1.4); 1.6 [mm]. For special tasks, dimensions from 2.0 to 3.2 mm are
also available for gas-shielded arc welding.
The metal powder flux-cored wire electrodes for which mainly mixed gases are used, have three arc
ranges, i.e. short-, mixed /globular- and spray arcs (Figure 9). The surprisingly low spatter formation in
the short arc range allows universal application possibilities for the wire also with manual use. This
applies specifically to the good gap bridging capabilities (root welding) and out-of-position welding. The
torch position is similar to that when welding with solid wire electrodes, i.e. either slightly pushed or
neutral. (Figure 8). The mixed/globular-arc with spatters around 200A should not be used. When pulsed
power sources are used, even in this range the metal powders also weld almost entirely without spatter.
Shielding gas: M21

Diameter: 1.2 mm 350 A
300 A
250 A
200 A
Spray-arc
150 A
70 A
Mixed /
Globular-arc
Short-arc
Figure 9: Arc ranges of the metal powder flux-cored wires

Another development is the basic cored wire with out-of-position suitability. Such wires have less slag
and are manufactured with higher fill factors. The fill factor provides the weight ratio of the coating and

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the weld filling. The main demand for the development of this basic generation originates from the
shipbuilding industry. Here the rutile types with fast-solidifying slag are predominantly used for single-
side welds mostly on ceramics in a perpendicular position. The shipyards need to process an increasing
number of thick cross-sections for both the shipbuilding industry and offshore technology components,
for which the rutile type is not suitable because its resistance to cracking is not sufficient under extremely
adverse conditions. The welding characteristics of the above basic flux-cored wire electrodes with out-of-
position suitability are as follows:
- Fine to medium droplet transfer

- Slag with medium support, easy loosening
- Minimising of the back formation
- Possibility of welding over rolled and primer coatings
Such flux-cored wires are used mostly on the - pole because of the better welding properties, which may
be a disadvantage depending on the application and the machine availability.
In general, the power supply with constant current characteristic is still to be regarded today as the
standard power source for all gas-shielded flux-cored wire electrodes. The use of pulse technology offers
additional advantages in terms of the absence of spatter. With reference to the optimising of welding
properties, it should be noted that the pulse frequency should be between 50 and 100 Hz.
Flux-cored wire electrodes are more expensive than solid wire electrodes. Therefore they are used only
where good welding properties and/or high weld qualities provide an advantage.
Table 2 shows the description of the most important properties of different weld fillings.
Table 2: Properties and applications information for flux-cored wire electrodes for MAG welding of unalloyed steels
and fine grained steels
Rutile type Basic type Metal powder type

- stable arc and little spatter - larger droplets and bead less - in the short arc range, fewer
- good side wall penetration smooth than for rutile weld filling spatters than with solid wire
- lower penetration in the weld - during welding with CO2 more - well suitable for root welding
centre compared to solid wire spatter as with Ar-CO2mixtures - the spray arc range starts earlier
- smooth weld surface and good - power supplies with good than for solid wire
removability of slag dynamic characteristics required - better reignition and less smoke
- wires with rapidly solidifying - in out-of-position welding, than with slag-forming cored
slag advantageous for welding a pulsed arc is favourable wires, therefore suitable for
in out-of-positions on thicker - good mechanical and technical robotic welding
workpieces properties of the weld metal - more resistance heating in the
- mechanical and technological - reduced cracking susceptibility free wire end than for solid wires
properties of the weld metal, for conditionally weldable steels - higher deposition rat than for
especially at low temperatures, (e.g. steels with increased C- solid wires with the same
strongly depending on the alloy content, heat-resistant steels, welding parameters and other
type and the degree of purity of low-temperature resistant steels, conditions
the raw materials. fine-grain steels with higher yield
points, thick steel castings)
- torch polarity according to
manufacturer's specifications
(frequently negative pole)
The properties and application information above provide the following reasons for using flux-cored wire
electrodes:

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- More secure sidewall fusion, tolerant of incomplete fusion

- Good wetting, notch-free transitions, smooth surface
- High crack resistance
- Low spatter droplet transfer
- High process stability
- X-ray-safe welds
- Applicability of micro-alloy elements
- Good suitability for out-of-position welding
- Economic manufacturing
As a result of these properties, the manufacturing cost rather than the wire price determines the
selection of the flux-cored wire application which can be much more favourable in case of the right
application. Therefore, the approval to use flux-cored wire technology needs to be verified separately for
each individual case. Chapter 1.5 shows some sample applications.
Table 3 is an abstract of EN ISO 17632 for flux-cored wire electrodes of unalloyed steels and fine-
grained structural steels.
The standards for flux-cored wire electrodes EN ISO 17634 (heat-resistant steels), EN ISO 17633
(stainless and heat-resistant steels) and EN ISO 18276 (high-strength steels) have a similar structure./3/

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Table 3: Abstract of EN ISO 17632 for flux-cored wire electrodes of unalloyed steels and fine-grained
steels with and without shielding gas
ISO 17632-A - T 46 3 1Ni B M 4 H5
Symbols for yield point, strength and strain Designation for diffusible hydrogen content
Min. yield Tensile Minimum strain Symbol Hydrogen content in ml/100 g of weld metal
Code
strength strength % H5 5
letter
MPa MPa
H10 10
35 355 440 - 570 22
H15 15
38 380 470 - 600 20
42 420 500 - 640 20
46 460 530 - 680 20
Code letter for recommended welding position
50 500 560 - 720 18
Code letter Welding position
1 PA, PB, PC, PD, PE, PF & PG
2 PA, PB, PC, PD, PE & PF
Symbols for impact properties 3 PA & PB
Symbol Minimum impact 4 PA
energy 47J °C 5 PA, PB & PG
Z no requirement
A or Y +20
0 0 Symbol for shielding gas
2 -20 Symbols M and C refer to the shielding gas specified in
3 -30 ISO 14175:1997.
The symbol C is to be used, if classified with the shielding gas
4 -40
ISO 14175-C1, carbon dioxide.
5 -50 Self-protecting flux-cored wire electrodes are designated with
6 -60 the symbol N.
Designation of the chemical composition Designation of welding filler

of the pure weld metal Symbol Single run (S)
Shielding
a,b) Characteristics Multi-run (M)
Chemical composition gas
Designation of the welding
%
alloy type Rutile, slow-
Mn Mo Ni R S&M Required
solidifying slag
Without symbols 2 0,2 0,5 Rutile, fast
P S&M Required
Mo 1,4 0,3 - 0,6 0,5 solidifying slag
MnMo >1.4 - 2.0 0,3 - 0,6 0,5 B Basic S&M Required
1Ni 1,4 0,2 0,6 - 1,2 M Metal powder S&M Required
2Ni 1,4 0,2 1,8 - 2,6 Rutile or basic / not
V S
3Ni 1,4 0,2 2,6 - 3,8 fluoridic required
Mn1Ni 1,4 - 2,0 0,2 0,6 - 1,2 Basic/fluoridic, not
W S&M
slow-solidifying slag required
1NiMo 1,4 0,3 - 0,6 0,6 - 1,2
Basic/fluoridic, fast not
Any other agreed chemical Y S&M
Z solidifying slag required
composition
Z Other types
a Single values in chart are maximum values.
b The results have to be rounded to the same position as
fixed values by using ISO 31-0: 1992, Appendix B,
Rule A.

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1.4 Shielding gases for flux-cored wire electrodes
Rutile types, especially with fast solidifying slag, can be successfully processed with CO2 and mixed
gases of CO2 + Ar. When the application takes place under on-site conditions, pure CO2 is to be chosen
to ensure porosity free welds. Otherwise the Ar content can be raised to 90%. Depending on the
manufacturer's specifications, 3-component mixtures of Ar+CO2+O2 can also be used. However it must
be considered that slag will be more fluid because of O2-containing gases and the welding
characteristics are negatively affected, particularly in out-of-position welding.
The position is similar to basic cored wires, whereby the spatter amount increases as the CO2 content
rises.
Metal powder flux-cored wires are predominantly welded under mixed gases from group M21. The gas
mixtures of the groups M20, M23 and M24 are also suitable, although overheating phenomena can be
expected in this case. Theoretically, metal cored wire can also be processed under CO2.
1.5 Sample applications
The selected applications are intended to provide an overview of the range of applications. This includes
bulk structural steels, heat-resistant and cast steel grades up to high-strength, quenched and tempered
fine-grain structural steels with Rp0.2 1,100 Mpa. Suitable flux-cored wire types are now available even
for high-alloy steel grades as well as for black-and-white compounds (Figure 10).
There are also self-protecting flux-cored wires (Open-arc types) containing gas-forming agents in their
filling which can be welded without requiring additional shielding gas. These are not considered here.
Figure 10: Application areas and processes of flux-cored wire electrodes

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1.5.1 Welding of pipe half shells on container outer skins for water cooling
When welding pipe half shells onto container/vessel or base outer walls, 100% leak tightness is required.
Figure 11 shows an example with the joint preparation commonly used in such cases. The goal is to
avoid crevice corrosion and requires a suitable root formation. In this case, a rutile type with Ø 2.0 mm
was used in a full-mechanised process.
Rutile cored wire with Ø 2.0 mm

at G+Pol under CO2 with:
500A, 33V and 105 cm/min
S= 10 mm
Figure 11: Welding of pipe half shells to outer container walls
As can be seen in the microsection on the right of figure 11, a very secure penetration shape is achieved
due to the widely ignited arc-bow. Although different wall thicknesses are welded here, because of its
wetting ability, the flux-cored arc ensures spatter-free, x-ray-proof welds without fusion errors right from
the first layer.
1.5.2 Forks of forklift truck as welded constructions
Usually, the forks of a forklift truck are bent to an L-shape from different materials at austenitic
temperatures. Due to hot-forming, the strength properties are lost so far that the forkes of heavy-duty
forklift trucks do not meet the requirements for nominal capacity any more. Therefore, these components
are manufactured from high-strength steels with the help of MAG welding robots using high-strength
metal powder flux-cored wire electrodes.
Figure 12: Forks of a forklift truck, incl. weld preparation

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High flexibility is achieved by this technique, because the delivery times are shortened by around 80%
even in case of low quantities and a broad selection spectrum.
The weld and the component preparation are shown on Figure 12. The welding of the double-bevel butt
weld takes place in the flat position in two steps. When generating the root with a root gap of approx. 4
mm, ceramic rods of circular cross-section are used as weld pool support. After welding the first side, the
component is turned around and the other side is welded. The pre-heating temperature is about 150 °C.
In order not to exceed the maximum working temperature of 260 °C, the work is performed at different
locations.
Although welding is performed here in highly stressed zones, contrary to the principles of welding
technology, the welds are absolutely free of defects despite steep side-walls and very large sheet
thicknesses.
1.5.3 Mobile crane booms
The primary concern in crane construction is to reduce the intrinsic weight in order to increase the
payload capacity. This fact explains the use of high-strength, quenched and tempered fine-grain
structural steels. The booms of a heavyweight mobile crane shown in Figure 13 made of XABO 90 steel
with a yield point of Rp 0.2 = 890 N/mm2 are welded with basic flux-cored wires. The wires are alloyed with
Mn-CR-Ni-Mo. Such flux-cored wires have a basic slag characteristic and offer sufficient protection
against hydrogen-induced crack formation. The pre-heat and interpass temperatures are within the
range of 120 °C to 150 °C.
Figure 13: Heavyweight mobile crane

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1.5.4 MAG orbital welding with flux-cored wires
Orbital welding involves making a butt weld between two axially symmetrical components (e.g. pipes)
that cannot be rotated. Typical areas of application are pipelines for crude oil and gas, pipelines for
distance heating and water, pipe structures in equipment and container/vessel construction. For this
task, rutile wires with fast-solidifying slag have proven successful, since due to the supporting feature of
the slag, the weld pool is prevented from falling down when welding out of position. Figure 14 shows
suitable equipment which is moved along a guiding rail being fixed immediately next to the weld. Filling-
and cap runs are usually produced beginning at PE (6 o'clock) and rising to 12 o'clock. In most cases,
the welding involves weaving. According to the power source type, the root can be welded down-hill
starting at PA (12 o'clock) to PE, with metal flux-cored wires preferred. For this method, the opening gap
is 3-4 mm.
Figure 14: MAG orbital welding equipment
1.5.5 Use of flux-cored wire in shipbuilding
Rutile flux-cored wires have found their way into shipbuilding due to the universal application range, in all
positions with high deposition rates without parameters changes. From the 1980s onwards, stick
electrodes were almost completely replaced by flux-cored wire technology. Beside the fillet welds for
inner base constructions, base bulkheads, frame side rails and external coating, the flux cored wire
proved to be effective for butt joints. The sheet segments are tack-welded with a root gap of 4 - 6 mm.
Since this is about curved construction parts, having low buckling strength during the assembly phase,
the turning of the component shall be suspended during production. In order to be able to weld
regardless of this, “single-side welding” shall be used on ceramic support. For this purpose, profiled
ceramic rails are attached to the bottom side of the external base material, as shown in Figures 15 and
16.

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Self-adhesive film
Ceramic rail aluminium foil
Figure 15: MAG single-side welding with flux-cored wires on ceramic backing supports.
The ceramic backing intended only for a single use can be immediately removed after welding the root
run. Typical MAG vertical welding equipment has a very low total weight of approx 15 kg. The air-cooled
torch system enables currents of up to 260 A in connection with  1.2 mm flux-cored wire electrodes. All
welding parameters are entered into the control interface for each run. The ceramic backing rail
guarantees an excellent root formation, eliminating the need for any post-work.
S= 20 mm
Figure 16: Mechanised MAG flux-cored welding of the section walls in shipbuilding

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1.5.6 Use of flux-cored wire in the offshore field
The increasing scarcity of oil and natural gas from onshore sources necessitates increased efforts to
search for natural raw materials on the world's seas. Because of this, offshore activities are becoming
increasingly lucrative, thus currently numerous offshore drilling rigs are being constructed. This sample
application shows semi-submersible floating rigs that can be deployed on a mobile basis. These are
produced as pontoons, they float and have their own power units, enabling them to be relocated to new
positions, on the one hand, and to fix the platform over the drilling site, on the other (Figure 17).
Figure 17: Semi-submersible drilling rig (Drilling Rig TDS 2,000 P)
Figure 18 shows a pontoon consisting of three blocks with a length of 105 m.
Figure 18: Prefabrication of the pontoons of a drilling rig

Since the components cannot be turned - similar to shipbuilding - and work must be carried out outdoors
during the manufacturing of the pontoons, the rutile flux-cored wire under CO2 is used for all weld types
in all positions. For indoor prefabrication, mixed gases from group M21 are preferred.

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2 Test questions
(1) What is a flux-cored wire?
 a coiled type of solid wire electrode

 an endless, inverted stick electrode
 a bended strip electrode
 a filler material filled with gas
 a tube which forwards powder fort he filling of the joint during welding
(2) Which types of flux-cored wires exists according to their structure?
 water annealed flux-cored wires

 normalised flux-cored wires
 seamless flux-cored wires
 (shape) enclosed flux-cored wires
 basic flux-cored wires
(3) Which types of flux-cored wires exist according to their weld filling?
 flux-cored wires with basic components filling

 rutile flux-cored wires
 gasfilled flux-cored wires
 flux-cored wires without slag
 metal powder flux-cored wires
(4) For which welding procedures are flux-cored wires available?
 for SAW welding

 for friction welding
 for flash welding
 for ES welding
 for EG welding
(5) Which reasons determine the use of flux cored wires in the MAG process?
 less sensitive for lack of fusion

 lower deposition rate but therefore better weld pool control
 low porosity sensitivity
 good flexibility of the wire
 welding in water is no problem

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(6) What is the meaning of micro-alloying technic in flux-cored welding?
 addition of Mn into the joint for achieving a more fine microstructure

 addition of Si into the joint for achieving a more fine microstructure
 addition of B into the joint for achieving a more fine microstructure
 addition of Ti into the joint for achieving a more fine microstructure
 addition of N into the joint for achieving a more fine microstructure
(7) Which standards for flux-cored wires are known in Europe?
 flux-cored wires for welding creep resistant steel

 flux-cored wires for laser welding
 flux-cored wires for welding high strength steel
 flux-cored wires for welding cast iron materials
 flux-cored wires for welding standardised profiles
(8) In which application areas are flux-cored wires mainly used?
 Automotive
 Off-shore industry
 Heating installations
 Shipbuilding
 Chemical industry
3 Literature
/1/ DIN paperback 191, Welding technology 4, Beuth-Verlag

/2/ DVS leaflet 0941-1 Flux-cored wire electrodes for joint and surface welding
/3/ EN ISO 17632 Welding consumables - Tubular cored electrodes for gas shielded and non-gas
shielded metal arc welding of non-alloy and fine grain steels - Classification
EN ISO 17634 Welding consumables - Tubular cored electrodes for gas shielded metal arc
welding of creep-resisting steels - Classification
EN ISO 17633 Welding consumables - Tubular cored electrodes and rods for gas shielded and
non-gas shielded metal arc welding of stainless and heat-resisting steels -
Classification
EN ISO 18276 Welding consumables - Tubular cored electrodes for gas-shielded and non-gas-
shielded metal arc welding of high strength steels - Classification

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Manual Metal Arc Welding Page 1
Chapter 1.09: Manual Metal Arc Welding I
Contents
1. Introduction, historical background .................................................................................. 4

2. Technique ............................................................................................................................ 5
2.1 Application areas ........................................................................................................................................ 6
2.2 Advantages and disadvantages .................................................................................................................. 6
3. Welding equipment technology ......................................................................................... 7
3.1 Welding power sources .............................................................................................................................. 7
3.1.1 Characteristic curve of manual metal arc welding...................................................................... 8
3.1.2 Technical parameters .................................................................................................................. 8
3.2 Welding accessories ................................................................................................................................. 11
4. Standards and fields of application of stick electrodes ................................................ 12
5. Stick electrodes for manual metal arc welding .............................................................. 13
5.1 Production ................................................................................................................................................ 13
5.2 Core rods for electrodes ........................................................................................................................... 14
5.3 Composition of the coating, coating materials ........................................................................................ 14
5.4 Standard analysis of the most important coating types .......................................................................... 14
5.5 Functions of the stick electrode coating .................................................................................................. 15
5.6 Classification of the stick electrodes ........................................................................................................ 16
5.7 Dimensions and permitted deviations of stick electrodes (extract from DIN EN ISO 544) ...................... 16
5.8 Identification according to DIN EN ISO 544 .............................................................................................. 17
5.8.1 Identification on the component .............................................................................................. 17
5.8.2 Identification on each packaging unit ....................................................................................... 17
6. Recommendation for storage and re-drying of coated electrodes ............................... 18
6.1 Storage (extract from DVS 0957) .............................................................................................................. 18
6.2 Moisture absorption of coated electrodes............................................................................................... 18
6.3 Re-drying .................................................................................................................................................. 19
6.4 Negative consequences of raised moisture absorption of electrodes ..................................................... 20
7. Specific hazards during manual metal arc welding ....................................................... 20
7.1 Electrical hazard ....................................................................................................................................... 20
7.1.1 Danger zone of welding equipment and mains connection ..................................................... 20
7.1.2 Danger zone for welding cables, workpiece connection .......................................................... 20
7.2 Danger zone of the arc ............................................................................................................................. 20
7.3 Danger zone of the weld pool and slag .................................................................................................... 21
7.4 Welding fumes and dust........................................................................................................................... 21
7.5 Personal safety equipment....................................................................................................................... 21
8. Labelling of stick electrodes according to international standards ............................. 22
8.1 Classification is based on eight characteristics according to DIN EN ISO 2560-A: ................................... 22
8.2 Sample identifier ...................................................................................................................................... 23
9. Criteria for selecting stick electrodes for manual arc welding ..................................... 24
10. Covered electrodes of non-alloy and fine-grain steels, DIN EN ISO 2560-A ................ 25
10.1 Application area DIN EN ISO 2560-A ........................................................................................................ 25

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10.2 Covered electrodes with acid coating: A .................................................................................................. 25

10.3 Covered electrodes with cellulosic coating: C ......................................................................................... 26
10.4 Basic-coated stick electrodes: B ............................................................................................................... 27
10.5 Stick electrodes with rutile coating: R, RR, RC, RA, RB ............................................................................. 28
10.6 High-deposition electrodes “high-efficiency electrodes” ........................................................................ 29
10.7 Sample applications for stick electrodes according to DIN EN ISO 2560-A.............................................. 30
11. Stick electrodes for weatherproof, high-strength and low-temperature toughness
steels, DIN EN ISO 18275-A .............................................................................................. 32
12. Stick electrodes for creep-resistant and high-temperature steels,
DIN EN ISO 3580-A ............................................................................................................ 34
13. Stick electrodes for stainless and heat-resistant steels, DIN EN ISO 3581-A .............. 36
13.1 Stick electrodes for black-and-white joints, DIN EN ISO 3581 – A ........................................................... 38
14. Filler materials for hard-facings, DIN EN 14700 .............................................................. 40
15. Stick electrodes for repair welding of cast iron, DIN EN ISO 1071 ............................... 44
15.1 Identification of the electrodes according to DIN EN ISO 1071 ............................................................... 44
15.2 Hot welding of grey cast iron with similar filler material ......................................................................... 45
15.3 Cold welding of grey cast iron with a dissimilar filler material ................................................................ 45
16. Special electrodes ............................................................................................................. 48
16.1 Cutting/chip-out electrodes ..................................................................................................................... 48
16.2 Cutting electrodes - hollow stick electrodes ............................................................................................ 48
16.3 Carbon arc electrodes (usually copper plated with arc-air process) ........................................................ 48
16.4 Preheating electrodes .............................................................................................................................. 48
17. Welding procedures .......................................................................................................... 49
17.1 Joint preparation ...................................................................................................................................... 49
17.1.1 Butt welds ................................................................................................................................. 49
17.1.2 Fillet welds ................................................................................................................................ 49
17.2 Stick electrode handling and weld layout ................................................................................................ 50
17.3 Magnetic Arc blow.................................................................................................................................... 53
17.4 Efficiency of stick electrodes .................................................................................................................... 54
17.5 Selecting a favourable welding position................................................................................................... 55
18. Economics ......................................................................................................................... 56
19. Vertical down welding....................................................................................................... 58
19.1 Coated stick electrodes for pipe-line construction .................................................................................. 58
19.2 Welding power sources ............................................................................................................................ 59
19.3 Working methods for vertical down welding with cellulose-coated stick electrodes ............................. 60
19.3.1 Joint preparation ....................................................................................................................... 60
19.3.2 Working techniques, handling stick electrodes ........................................................................ 61
19.3.3 Weld run layout......................................................................................................................... 62
19.4 Summary................................................................................................................................................... 63
20. Weld imperfections and their possible causes .............................................................. 64
20.1 Slag inclusions........................................................................................................................................... 64
20.2 Gas inclusions (pores) ............................................................................................................................... 64
20.3 End crater ................................................................................................................................................. 64
20.4 Cracks in weld transition .......................................................................................................................... 64
20.5 Root fault .................................................................................................................................................. 64
20.6 Undercuts ................................................................................................................................................. 65
20.7 Hydrogen-induced cracks ......................................................................................................................... 65

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21. Bibliography/sources........................................................................................................ 67
22. Question............................................................................................................................. 67

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1. Introduction, historical background
Manual Metal arc welding (MMAW), also known as Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW / USA), is one of
the oldest fusion welding processes.
Already in 1885, an arc was created between a carbon electrode and the workpiece in order to melt the
metal. The currentless feeding of the filler material was done in a similar way as it is still being done in
today´s Oxyfuel Gas welding or TIG welding.
In 1890 the patent of the Russian engineer Slavianoff combined both the filler wire and the electrode by
using the filler material as an arc carrier. However these electrodes were not yet coated, making them
very difficult to weld (e.g. missing ionisation) and the surrounding air had a considerable negative
influence on the weld pool (pores, oxidation etc.).
In 1908 The Swedish patent “Electrode and process for electric soldering” was filed by the Swedish
engineer Oscar Kjellberg which paved the way for coated stick electrodes.
At this time, coatings were produced by repeatedly dipping the rod into a paste of coating materials.
Around 1935, this very complex process was replaced by the press technology which is still common use
today. So it became possible to produce stick electrodes with a thick coating of homogeneous
composition and with exact calibration. By 1938, approx. 50% of all stick electrodes were produced using
pressing technology.
Today´s production methods differ hardly in any way from earlier times, however, due to further
development of coating materials and manufacturing optimisation (e.g. extrusion presses), a substantial
increase in output and quality improvement has been achieved. Manual metal arc welding has also
substantially been influenced by constant improvements of equipment manufacturing.
Figure 1: Manual metal arc welding

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2. Technique
Manual Metal Arc Welding (process number 111) is an arc welding process and is described as: “Manual
Metal Arc Welding process with a coated stick electrode”.
This welding process is very versatile, can be used in all welding positions, without complex protection
precautions, especially outdoors, and is the only process that can be used under water.
With manual metal arc welding, all weldable ferrous metals, nickel and nickel alloys can be welded using
coated stick electrodes.
Welding of copper and aluminium materials is no longer being discussed in the new standards for
manual metal arc welding and is hardly any more used in practice.
For manual metal arc welding, the arc ignites between a coated melting stick electrode and the
workpiece. The arc and the weld pool on the base material side are protected from the air by the
surrounding shielding gas and a slag blanket.
Figure 2: Process Principle
1 Mains connection
2 Welding power source
3 Welding current conductor
(electrode)
4 Welding current conductor
(workpiece)
5 Stick electrode holder
6 Stick electrode
7 Work clamp
8 Workpiece
9 Arc
10 Stick electrode core rod
11 Coating of the electrode stick
12 Drop transfer
13 Shielding gases from stick electrode coating
14 Liquid slag
15 Solidified slag
16 Liquid weld metal Figure 3: Details of the arc
17 Solidified weld metal

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2.1 Application areas
Manual metal arc welding makes it possible to weld both thin sheets  1.5 mm in a single layer run and
thicker sheets (usually up to 20 mm) with multi-layer runs.
According to the overall filler material consumption and the fact that in recent years the use of manual
arc welding has continuously been reduced in favour of MIG/MAG welding, the ratio of manual metal arc
welding is still about 7.5%. Of this is used:
30 % in handcraft, in small and medium-sized enterprises,

30 % in shipbuilding,
20 % in chemical industry, automotive and in surface welding
10 % in pipeline construction,
5% in steel construction, usually on building sites,
5% in the boiler and pressure vessel construction,
Figure 4: Manual Metal Arc Welding, vertical down welding in open air
2.2 Advantages and disadvantages
The advantages of manual metal arc welding are:

 Relatively low equipment purchase price
 High production safety without complex precautions (e.g. outdoors)
 Excellent quality values with lower error probability (lack of fusion, pores)
 Versatility (wide selection of electrodes)
 Welding under special conditions (e.g. underwater welding and cutting)
Disadvantages are:
 Relatively low deposit rate: 0.5 to 5.5 kg/h, average approx. 1.5 kg/h
 Thin sheets of ≤ 1.5 mm cannot be welded continously without faults.
 Weld quality mainly depending on the welder´s skill.

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3. Welding equipment technology
As it is seen from the process principle, the

 welding power sources,
 coated stick electrodes and
 accessories (tools such as slag hammers, wire brushes and safety clothing)
belong to the basic equipment of manual metal arc welding.
3.1 Welding power sources
Welding power sources convert the high mains voltage into a low welding voltage respectively low mains
current into the required high welding current.
For this particular reason the most simple power sources are welding transformers which only provide
alternating current. However not all types of electrodes are appropriate for welding with alternating
current. The welding current can be adjusted with a moving shunt- or reactor-core or in case of even
older equipment by changing the coupling of coils. This multiple-step switch does not allow fine
adjustment, so that these welding transformers are no longer suitable for today's requirements.
Welding rectifiers, transformers with a subsequent diode or thyristor rectifier supply direct current, but
the low open circuit voltage sometimes makes it impossible to ignite certain electrode types like e.g.
cellulose-coated electrodes.
For pipeline construction, where preferentially cellulose electrodes are used, welding converters, in the
form of a welding generator are implemented. It comprises a drive motor and the generator, to
generate the welding current. The advantages of the welding converter are the very good welding
properties and for the arrangement as a welding set, no mains connection is required.
The disadvantage is its lower efficiency compared to other power sources.
The low weight, the portable design and the good efficiency lead to an increase switching towards
welding inverters having additional technical advantages like:
 Adjustable static power characteristic curves, steep slope, with constant current characteristics.
 Type of current: Direct current (and/or alternating current for multi-processing units: TIG/SMAW).
 Pole inversion +/-
 Compensation of mains voltage.
 “Hot-Start” function: increase of welding current during the ignition phase.
 “Anti-stick” function: shortly before drop transfer in the short-circuit, the maximum welding current
is achieved, therefore adhesion is prevented; when the stick electrode freezes, the controller
turns off the welding current so that the stick electrode is not tempered or damaged and the
welding equipment is not overloaded.
 “ArcForce” function: for too low welding voltage (< 8V), the welding current increases
automatically, the arc “burns itself freely” and remains almost constant. Highly recommended for
large droplet electrodes which must be welded with very short arc (e.g. basic electrodes).
Required for all cellulose coated vertical down welding electrodes.
 Pulse function (Enables stringer bead technic also for vertical up welding of high-strength and
CrNi materials using lower heat-input.
 Measuring instruments, programming box and auxiliary components. A new generation of
welding inverters allow frequently used welding parameters to be stored under quick selection
buttons. Wireless and wired remote controllers allow the current to be fine-tuned when welding.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09
3.1.1 Characteristic curve of manual metal arc welding
1
Arc
Welding Voltage U  V
too long
2
Arc
correct
3
Welding Current I  A  Arc
too short
Figure 5: Static power characteristic-curves
3.1.2 Technical parameters
3.1.2.1 Electrode-arc ignition and welding current
With all stick electrodes, the arc is ignited through making contact with the work piece. Creating a short-
circuit situation, having a very high current-density in a very small contact area, leads to a fast ionisation
and formation of the arc. Igniting aids on electrode ends and the Hot-Start function facilitate this process.
To prevent sticking, the practice of igniting the electrode like a match on the work piece has been
adopted.
In any case, it must be assured that stray-arcs have to be over-welded and do not lie outside the welding
area.
In manual metal arc welding, rutile and acid-coated electrodes are predominantly used with straight
polarity (direct-current electrode negative, DCEN). The ionisation for these types is good, depending on
the composition of the coating. Therefore the arc burns more quietly and with better focussing on the
work piece. The advantage is the lower electrode temperature. The current load of the electrodes
decreases, it tends less to overload. Welding with alternating current is generally also possible.
Basic- and high-alloy covered electrodes are mainly used on reverse polarity (direct-current electrode
positive).
The physical properties of the arc´s basic-coating components provide a more stable arc, a deeper
penetration and a lower burn-off of alloying elements when welding on reverse polarity.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09
Typical welding data:

Welding current (Is): 40 A to approx. 360 A
Current per mm core rod diameter: 20 A to 60 A (depending on the welding
position and electrode type)
Direct current (+/- pole) or alternating current
Rule of thumb as a mean value:
Is in [A]  40x core rod diameter in [mm]
Table 1: Current levels depending on the core rod diameter
Core rod diameter dE in mm 2 2.5 3.2 4 5 6
Current IS in amperes [A] 30 – 80 50 – 100 90 – 150 120 – 200 180 – 270 220 – 360
Rule of thumb for current in amperes [A] 20 to 40 x dE 30 to 50 x dE 30 to 60 x dE
3.1.2.2 Arc length

In manual metal arc welding only the current is adjusted. The voltage-setting results from the arc length
as seen in Figure 5: Static power characteristic and a mean value can be found via the following
equation: 20 V  0,05  lS In principle, however, the arc should always be kept very short. Rule of thumb:
All electrodes:
Arc length = max. 1.0 x core rod diameter
Exception: Basic electrodes and highly alloyed electrodes:
Arc length = max. 0.5 x core rod diameter
3.1.2.3 Welding current according to the thickness and type of electrode coating
A reduction or an increase of the welding current is required by the following technical conditions; the
values (current range) specified by the electrode manufacturer should be taken into account.
 thin-coated electrodes = less current

 medium thick coated stick electrodes = normal current
 thick and very thick coated stick electrodes = increased current
3.1.2.4 Welding current according to the metal sheet thickness/tube wall thickness t in [mm]

 low thickness t ~ 1.5… 3 < 8 mm  less current

 medium thickness t ~ 8… 10 mm  normal current

 higher thickness t  10 mm  increased current

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09
3.1.2.5 Welding current according to the welding position, weld type and weld composition
PA (flat position) 
Fillet weld  increased current for root pass ,
filling layers and cover layers.

Butt weld  less to normal current for root,
increased current for filling layers
and cover layers
PB (horizontal position) 
Fillet weld  increased current for root pass,
normal current for filling layers and
cover layers
PC (lateral position) 
cover layers

Butt weld  less to normal current for root pass,
increased current for filling layers
and cover layers
PD (half overhead 
position) normal current for filling layers and
cover layers
PE (overhead position) 
cover layers

Butt weld  less current for root, normal current
for filling layers and cover layers

PF (increasing) Butt and filled  normal current for root pass,
seams filling layers and cover layers

Butt and filled  normal to increased current for root
PG (downward)
seams pass, filling layers and cover layers
Figure 6: Welding current according to the welding position, welding method and weld composition

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09
3.2 Welding accessories
These include:
- the welding cables, an all-insulated electrode holder, the workpiece clamp1, a welding table with
fume extractor and protective (wall) screens
Fully insulated stick electrode holder

Work Clamp
Threaded work piece clamp

Earth clamp
Figure 7: Welding accessories

 Fully insulated stick electrode holder
 Workpiece clamps
In addition tools like:

- a slag hammer, wire brush, file or grinder, a weld gauge, temperature measuring instrument and a
metal bucket for collecting the stub ends.
1
Although it can be practical to use a solenoid as earth connection, this is not advised. Splinters, abrasive dust and clinker resi-
dues adhere already after a short use. Here, due to the resulting poor contact, a “jumpover” may take place with a short arc.
The consequences from this are stray arcs or a burning of the ground connection.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09
4. Standards and fields of application of stick electrodes
Many different materials can be welded using stick electrodes. As the quality of materials increases, not
only the manual skill requirements of the welders are rising but also his technical expertise in order to
avoid errors during manufacturing.
In the following you will find the current standards for stick electrodes according to the areas
of application:
DIN EN ISO 2560-A - Stick electrodes for manual metal arc welding of
non-alloy and fine grain steels.
Up to a minimum yield point of 500 MPa
high-strength steels.
yield point > 500MPa
creep-resisting steels
stainless and heat-resisting steels
DIN EN ISO 14172 - Stick electrodes for manual metal arc welding of
nickel and nickel alloys
DIN EN 14700 - Welding consumables for hard-facing
DIN EN ISO 1071 - Stick electrodes, wires, rods and tubular cored
electrodes for fusion welding of cast iron

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5. Stick electrodes for manual metal arc welding
5.1 Production
Stick electrodes consist of the core wire and a mainly mineral coating, usually bound with a coating
binder (usually water glass).
While unalloyed, soft cores are generally used for non-alloyed and low alloyed covered electrodes, so
that additional alloying for increasing strength and toughness is achieved via the coating, for high-alloy
covered electrodes a distinction is made between (rod) core- and coating alloyed electrodes.
Nowadays stick electrodes are produced as extruded stick electrodes (see also Figure 8). The
composed mixture, according to the respective standards (different mineral and metallic raw materials and
coating binder water glass), is pressed onto the (rod) core with a pressure of approx. 350 to 500 t.
The still moistened electrodes are brushed (holding- and striking end), marked (according to DIN/EN/ISO
and/or the company name) and depending on the type of coating and after being collected, will be “dried”
(burned) at a temperature of approx. 180°C (cellulose) to 480 °C (basic H5) in a furnace. Followed by
packaging into cardboard boxes (+ PE-foil), depending on the quality and type, into air-tight tins or vacuum
packages.
Figure 8: Manufacturing of stick electrodes

equipment
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5.2 Core rods for electrodes
Core rods for unalloyed electrodes include relatively similar compositions; the carbon or manganese
content can slightly fluctuate depending on the yield point and tensile strength:
C 0.06 to max. 0.12% Mn 0.3 to max. 2.0%
P, S  0.030 % Si 0.06 %
High-alloy core rods contain the alloy composition required for the base material.
5.3 Composition of the coating, coating materials
The materials used for electrode coatings are very numerous. These are mainly ores and minerals in the
form of oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, carbonyls, silicates, chlorides, fluorides and other structures of
metals and non-metals as well as ferrous alloys, organic substances and compositions.
Both the welding characteristics of a stick electrode and the mechanical properties of the weld metal are
influenced accordingly by the coating. This homogeneous mixture generally includes the following main
components:
– slag-forming substances (quartz, fluorspar),

– deoxidising materials (ferromanganese, ferro-silicon, aluminium),
– gas shield forming substances (cellulose, calcite),
– arc-stabilisation substances (potash-feldspar, rutile),
– binding material (potash and sodium water glass) and, if required,
– alloying elements (ferrochromium, Nb, Si, nickel flux, etc.).
Iron powder can also be added to increase the deposition rate.
5.4 Standard analysis of the most important coating types
2
Table 2: Standard analysis of main coating types (data in %)
Cellulose type “C” Acid-type “A” Rutile-type “R” Basic type “B”
Cellulose 40 Magnetite Fe3O4 50 Rutile TiO2 45 Calcium
Rutile TiO2 20 Quarz SiO2 20 Magnetite Fe3O4 10 fluoride CaF2 45
Quarz SiO2 25 Lime stone CaCO3 10 Quarz SiO2 20 Calcite CaCO3 40
FeMn 15 FeMn 20 Lime stone CaCO3 10 Quarz SiO2 10
Waterglass Waterglass FeMn 15 FeMn 5
Waterglass Waterglass
Droplet transfer: Droplet transfer:

Droplet transfer: Droplet transfer: fine
medium sized drops up medium sized drops up
medium sized drops droplet and spray type
to fine sized drops to large sized drops
Toughness values: Toughness values: Toughness values: Toughness values:
Good Normal Good Very good

equipment
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5.5 Functions of the stick electrode coating
The functions of the stick electrode coating are as follows:
 Increasing the ignition properties, ionisation of the arc-area and stabilisation of the arc.
 Forming shielding gas for the protection of the damaging effect of the air (N and O).
 Slag formation for protecting the generated weld (weld surface and root), for a cooling delay as
well as for shaping of the weld.
 Metallurgical influence of the weld metal, i.e. oxidation and de-oxidation as well as for setting of
harmful accompanying elements (S, P) or additional alloying.
 Increasing the deposition rate by so-called “high-efficiencyelectrodes” with additives like e.g. Iron
powder.
Coating thickness
Non-covered elektrode Covered elektrode
Material transfer
Steady /
unstable arc
stable arc
Gap bridging ability
Weld appearance
Penetration depth
Shielding gas
Slag surrounding
Figure 9: Functions of the stick electrode coating
Figure 10: Influence of the coating thickness
The coating thickness and the composition of the coating of the stick electrodes have a significant
influence upon:
 the strength and toughness properties of the weld metal (mechanical data of weld metal)
 hot-cracking and/or cold-cracking behaviour (hydrogen content in the weld metal)
 the weld- and ignition characteristics of the stick electrode and the metal transfer
 the gap bridging abilities, the weld seam appearance and the penetration depth

equipment
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5.6 Classification of the stick electrodes
The stick electrodes can be classified based upon of the following criteria:
According to the purpose of use Surface welding,
Joint welding,
Cutting,
Underwater cutting and welding
According to the chemical composition Non-alloyed and low alloyed,

of the weld metal high-alloyed electrodes for high-strength, creep-resistant,
heat-resistant, stainless steels or non-ferrous metals as well
as cast iron.
According to the technological properties According to the mechanical-technological quality values of

the weld metal, the current type, polarisation, deposition
rate, welding positions, weld shapes and hydrogen content
of the weld metal.
according to the method of production Press casing, double press casing, (dipping electrodes)
according to the coating type Acidic A
Basic B
coated
Rutile R
Cellulose C
5.7 Dimensions and permitted deviations of stick electrodes (extract from DIN EN ISO 544)
Table 3: Dimensions and permitted deviations

ab
Stick electrode dimensions in mm
(rod) Core diameter Diameter permitted Length permitted
Length
deviation deviation
1.6 200
2.0 ± 0.06 to ±6
2.5 350
3.2
4.0 275
5.0 ± 0.10 ≤l< ±6
c
6.0 450
8.0
a
Other dimensions may be agreed. For intermediate dimensions, permitted deviations according to this table are
to be applied.
b
Dimensions for the core wire.
c
For special cases (e.g. gravity arc welding) length l< 1,000mm.

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5.8 Identification according to DIN EN ISO 544
5.8.1 Identification on the component
Stick electrodes must be durably marked with a traceable supplier´s

trade name or with the electrode classification on the coating close to
clamping end or on the clamping end itself.
Figure 11: Identification on the stick electrode
5.8.2 Identification on each packaging unit
The packaging, even on the smallest unit, must contain the following
information:
 Name of the manufacturer and supplier

 Trade name
 Designation according to the respective international standard
 Dimensions (diameters and lengths)
 Charge-/ batch- or manufacturing number
 Type of current, recommended current ranges, polarity
 Nominal net weight or quantity
 Re-dry process regulations or information to appropriate sources of
information (e.g. with basic electrodes)
 Occupational health protection and accident warning information as
well as:
 Approvals 1) (if applicable)
Here:
American Bureau of Shipping (ABS),
Bureau Veritas (BV),
Det Norske Veritas (DNV)
Germanischer Lloyd (GL), and
Lloyd´s Register (LR)
1) In accordance with regional building regulations, construction

products for metal construction require according to the building
rules list B Part 1 an analysis in form of an accordance
certificate (CE marking, “Conformité Européenne”) of a test-,
monitoring- and certification-authority. This authority list according
to the regional building regulations is issued by the DIBt.
Figure 12: Designation on the smallest packaging unit
(source: ESAB GmbH

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6. Recommendation for storage and re-drying of coated electrodes
6.1 Storage (extract from DVS 0957)

Basically the coated electrodes should be stored in their original package until they will be used. The
withdrawal of the electrode packages should be in accordance with their sequence of storage entrance.
In order to protect the coated electrodes from damages due to moisture, they have to be stored in dry
areas. The minimum requirements for suitable electrode storage are:
 The storage room must be weatherproof, ventilated and if necessary be heatable.
 Ceiling, floor and walls must be dry
 No open water surfaces allowed in the room
 The room is equipped with shelving units or pallets
A direct contact of the electrode packages with the floor or walls should be avoided as well as extreme
storage temperature conditions below 0°C and above 30°C.
The electrode packages should be stored on wooden pallets or in shelves having a distance of 30cm of
the wall.
Under these conditions, as mentioned above, conventional packed coated electrodes could be stored for
a longer period although the maximum storage period of 2 years should not be exceeded. For special
packed packages no specific restrictions are valid.
DO NOT throw packages during storage and retrieval or repositioning.
The storage height of the covering boxes and cases should be limited to 6 or max. 8 units and for high-
efficiency electrodes max. 4 units.
6.2 Moisture absorption of coated electrodes.

Figure 13: moisture absorption of basic coated electrodes at room temperature under different humidity.
10
%
coating [%]
9
rrelative
e l a t i vLuftfeuchtigkeit
e a ir h u m id ity
Umhüllung
8
95%
7
Moisture content ofderthe
6
5
Feuchtigkeitsgehalt
4
3
75%
2
1
60%
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Lagerungsdauer
Storage duration an feuchter
under moist  Days
Luft [Tage]
air conditions
(nach Böhler AG)
High air humidity leads to higher moisture absorption
The coating of the electrode rod is – depending on the type of coating – more or less hygroscopic and
contains water. Figure 14 shows the sources of hydrogen which could enter the weld metal. Even during
storage and during processing the coating can pick-up water from the air.

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Coating:
Outer surfaces and capillary water, absorbed water,
1
crystallisation water and colloidal absorbed water,
constituents water
2 Core rod surface: drawing grease
Core rod:
3
Atomic, molecular, ionised and bound hydrogen
Arc bow surface:

4
Surrounding air, air humidity
Base material:
5 Surface contamination like rust, oil, grease, paint
Atomic, molecular, ionised and bounded hydrogen
In principle coated electrodes should only be welded in their dry state condition.
Cellulose coated electrodes however are an exception to this: they require a certain controlled rest
humidity.
That’s the reason why today’s packaging is specifically adjusted to the required needs (plastics, tin can,
vacuum etc.)
6.3 Re-drying
For re-drying of coated electrodes the following reference values are valid:
 low alloyed, basic coated electrodes 250° - 350°C / ca 2 hours

 Medium alloyed basic coated electrodes for 300° - 350°C / ca 2 - 3 hours
fine-grain steels and creep-resistant steels
 High alloyed coated electrodes 300° - 25°C / ca 2,5 hours
basic- and rutile coated
 Cast iron electrodes 120° - 200°C / ca 1 hour
Excepted from this are special packed packages like vacuum packed electrodes which are ready for use
during 10-12 hours after opening.
The number of re-drying processing of each electrode is limited to about 3 times or the maximum re-
drying time is set to 10 hours.
However, mandatory are always the manufacturer’s re-drying recommendations.
In order to prevent new moisture absorption the electrodes should be, if not otherwise stated by the
manufacturer, stored (intermediate) after the re-drying until processing as follows:
 100° - 150°C up to 8 hours in mobile quiver
 120° - 200°C up to 4 weeks in a stationary drying oven

equipment
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6.4 Negative consequences of raised moisture absorption of electrodes
Table 4: negative consequences of raised moisture absorption of coated electrodes.

Changes to welding characteris-
Changes to the electrode Weld metal property
tics
 Blisters on the coating  Uneven melting of the coat-  Undercut formation
 Swelling of the coating ing  Change of weld appearance
 Core rod corroding (for  Instable arc  Change of weld metal composi-
un-alloyed electrodes)  Raised spatter formation tion
 Worsening of slag removal  Pore formation
 Decrease of fracture elongation
due to hydrogen embrittlement
 Cold cracking
7. Specific hazards during manual metal arc welding

7.1 Electrical hazard
Electric current is an energy carrier (heat source) for all processes of arc welding technology. It means a
risk to the welder, since in the welding circuit not all live parts are protected from direct contact. An
electric current flowing through the human body can cause life-threatening injuries depending on the
type of current, the amperage, the exposure duration and the electrical route.
Therefore attention should be paid laying down the electrode-holder in an isolated manner without
holding any stick electrode.
7.1.1 Danger zone of welding equipment and mains connection
Welding equipment being used in areas of high potential electrical risk requires the marking S. Older
equipment marked with K or 42V are also allowed. For equipment being used in the open field the
marking should show at least protection degree IP 23 /4/
7.1.2 Danger zone for welding cables, workpiece connection
The welding current should form a visible unit between the welding power source, the welding power
cables and workpiece. Welding cables must be insulated and protected against damage. The workpiece
cable must be connected using large surface contacts, and directly with the welding point on component
to be welded. Otherwise, eddy currents may occur that may lead to the malfunction of the ground
conductors, scorching in the area of gears, shaft bearings, suspensions etc. and may affect the preset
welding parameters.
7.2 Danger zone of the arc
The arc emits UV radiation, from which the welder has to protect itself with safety clothing and eye
protection. Within 30 seconds, critical values are exceeded for the unprotected skin. Suitable protective
filters (9 – 15) protect the eyes. Stray radiation from reflecting areas shall be considered, too (e.g. slabs,
polished metal surfaces, etc.). The welding area has to be “isolated” in order to protect other parties.

equipment
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7.3 Danger zone of the weld pool and slag
Protective clothing adapted to the working conditions, closed and fire-retardant, protects from the metal
and slag spatters occurring when welding.
Slag may be hammered off only using protection shielding, safety screen or safety glasses, otherwise
eye injuries may be caused by hot slag slivers.
7.4 Welding fumes and dust

During welding, gas and particulate pollutants are formed with a particle size usually under 1 µm.
Welding fumes can thus be inhaled. They must be extracted from the point of origin inside workshops.
Paint and coatings in the weld area that have not been removed may emit further toxic gases in the arc
during vaporisation, e.g. zinc oxide. This could lead to poisoning. Sufficient care is often forgotten when
performing manual metal arc welding.
Carcinogenic welding fumes from CrNi basic electrodes are a particular concern in this context.
The proportions of chromium VI compounds and nickel-oxides are very high. Rutile CrNi electrodes
poses a much lesser risk, however effective extraction is required in both cases (see also BGI 616 /9/).
Hazardous substances that can be inhaled during welding
Gases Fumes and dust
Toxic
Inert Toxic Carcinogenic
Nitric oxides Fine dust Calcium oxide Chromium VI oxide

CO Sodium oxide Fluoride Nickel oxide
CO2 Aluminium oxide Manganese oxide Cadmium oxide
Ozone Chromium III oxide Zinc oxide Cobalt oxide
Carbonyl chloride Magnesium oxide Lead oxide Beryllium oxide
Copper oxide
7.5 Personal safety equipment
Personal safety equipment includes:
 A welder helmet or a mask with suitable level of eye protection,

 A closed, dry protective suit,
 Dry leather gloves,
 Safety glasses
 Ear protection (is recommended to wear these also during welding e.g. under construction site
conditions, since metal spattering can cause injury in the auditory canal during vertical down
welding, among others. Mandatory above 85 dB (A), which is exceeded when grinding off the welds.
 In confined spaces, when welding gas and remote heating pipes, an approved fire-resistant
welder protective suit is to be worn; leather safety clothing is recommended here.
 High closed safety shoes with gaiters prevent severe burns in the foot region due to any metal
and slag drop.
Never wear any synthetic work clothing, installation gloves with material insets, etc.

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8. Labelling of stick electrodes according to international standards
In order to simplify the designation of filler materials, a uniform, material-dependent labelling system was
introduced.
The standards contain either a classification for designation based on strength, elongation after fracture
and impact energy of pure weld metal or the chemical composition. e.g for high-alloyed filler materials.
The ratio of yield point to tensile strength of weld metal is generally higher than that for the base
material. Users should note therefore that a weld metal that reaches the minimum yield point of the base
material, does not necessarily reach its minimum tensile strength. If, during use, a specific minimum
tensile strength is required, the tensile strength must be considered accordingly for the choice of the filler
material.
8.1 Classification is based on eight characteristics according to DIN EN ISO 2560-A:
1) Identifier of the product/the welding process;

2) Identifier for the strength properties and the elongation after fracture of weld metal;
3) Identifier for the impact energy of weld metal;
4) Identifier of the chemical composition of the pure weld metal;
5) Identifier for the coating type;
6) Identifier for the efficiency and the type of current;
7) Identifier for the welding position;
8) Identifier for the hydrogen content of the weld metal.

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8.2 Sample identifier
Mandatory identifying characteristics of the classification
Number of ISO standard. The letter A indicates a classification

according yield point and impact energy value of 47 J.
Indicates a stick electrode
Identifier for yield strength. For electrodes, which are suitable

for multi-pass welding, the code designation “35, 38, 42, 46 or
50” indicates the minimum yield point of 355 MPa, 380 MPa,
420 MPa, 460 MPa or 500 MPa.
Identifier for the Charpy V impact value. It indicates the

temperatures, at or above which the pure weld metal reaches
or exceeds 47J.
Identifier for the chemical composition of pure weld metal.
Abbreviation for the coating type
DIN EN ISO
E 46 6 Mn1Ni B 3 2 H5
2560 - A
Non-mandatory identifier characteristics
Identifier for the effeiciency and type of current
Identifier for the welding position
Identifier for diffusible hydrogen content

in ml/100g. H5, H10, H15 gives the maximum content
of diffusible hydrogen of 5ml/100g, 10ml/100g, 15ml/100g deposited weld metal.

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9. Criteria for selecting stick electrodes for manual arc welding
Stick electrodes are selected according to material and welding criteria. An initial comparison is made
between the mechanical quality data for the filler material and the quality values of the base material,
whereby the minimum requirements of the base material shall be achieved in the pure weld metal, too.
The selection takes place according to the following criteria:
1. the base material to be welded

– for unalloyed steels and fine-grained steels
– for high-strength steels
– for creep-resistant steels
– for stainless and heat-resistant steels
– for nickel and nickel alloys
– for cast iron materials
further subdivided into:

– the chemical composition
– the metallurgical and physical properties
2. the load capacity of the component classified according to:
– structural design of the component
– static or dynamic load
– load-carrying state (amount of load)
3. the welding task classified according to:
– welding conditions,
– working position,
– welding power source,
– type of coating
4. cost effectiveness classified according to:
– deposition rate,
– efficiency,
– heat-input
Coated stick electrodes are usually selected according to the catalogues for filler materials from the
manufacturers (also called “welding guides”).
It should be noted that the mechanical properties of pure weld metal used for the classification of the
covered electrodes can deviate from those that can be achieved in production welding. This is due to
variations when performing the weld, for example covered electrode diameter, oscillation, welding
position and the material composition. Making a production work sample is therefore recommended for
special situations.

equipment
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10. Covered electrodes of non-alloy and fine-grain steels, DIN EN ISO 2560-A
10.1 Application area DIN EN ISO 2560-A
This international standard sets the requirements for the classification of stick electrodes, the welded
weld metal, after a post weld heat treatment, of non-alloy and fine grain steels with minimum yield
strength up to 500MPa or minimum tensile strength up to 570MPa.
According to DIN EN ISO 2560-A, a wide range of stick electrodes is available with very different coating
compositions. A distinction is made between base- and mixed-types. Table 5 provides an overview of the
different coating types:
Table 5: Coating types according to DIN EN ISO 2560 - A
Type Coating
A Acid
C Cellulose
R Rutile
RA Rutile-acid
RB Rutile-basic
RC Rutile cellulosic
RR Thick rutile
B Basic
The same variety is not available for medium and high-alloyed electrodes. So there are stick electrodes
for high-strength steels according to DIN EN ISO 18275 with just a basic coating, creep-resistant
electrodes according to DIN EN ISO 3580 and stainless/heat-resistant electrodes according to DIN EN
ISO 3581 with just rutile or basic coating.
10.2 Covered electrodes with acid coating: A
Composition
The coating of this electrode type is characterised by high content of heavy metal oxides (Fe3O2; Fe2O3,
SiO2) and– as a result of the high oxygen-potential – de-oxidising materials (ferromanganese).
Characteristics
The generated combustion heat makes these electrodes the “hot” stick electrode type. They are much
more sensitive to solidification cracks than covered electrodes with other coating types. The mechanical
data of weld metal is low.
Stick electrodes with acid coating are of only limited use for out-of-position welding. As a result of the
high oxygen content of the coating components (Magnetite Fe3O4) a high burn-off in alloying elements
(especially manganese) will occur during welding.
Applications:
Nowadays pure acid covered electrodes are not being used any more.
One of the benefits is the smooth weld drawing and the ease with which slag can be removed.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09
10.3 Covered electrodes with cellulosic coating: C
Composition
Covered electrodes of this kind have a high amount of combustible organic substances in the coating,
especially cellulose. A defined residual moisture is required for an intensive arc.
Characteristics
Because of the high amount of organic content, and therefore a low slag content and the strong arc,
these electrodes are especially suitable for vertical down welding. A high welding speed is achieved at a
high deposition rate. Although the fumes are substantial, this is not a problem when working outdoors. X-
ray-safe pipe circumferential welds are achieved with good to excellent quality values of weld metal. The
welds have a coarse-flaked weld appearance.
Applications:
Underground pipe construction and pipeline construction are the main areas of application of cellulosic
electrodes. For pipes ≥ DN 100 up to 60% time may be saved compared to vertical welds. Already for
root welding, larger electrode diameters (Ø 3.2 mm to 8 mm wall thickness/Ø 4.0 mm from 8 mm wall
thickness) and higher currents can be used. This enables a higher welding speed and therefore also a
higher economic efficiency is obtained.
Cellulosic electrodes are weldable with direct current: Root at the – pole.
Hotpass, filling- and cap-layers are welded at the + pole.
A type selection:
DIN EN ISO 2560-A E 42 2 C 25
E 46 3 C 25
E 50 3 1Ni C 25
Note:
Vertical welds must be welded in a multi-layer technology “in heat”. The hotpass must be welded no
more than 10 minutes after completion of the root welding, to avoid having cracks in the weld.
The interpass temperature should not be lower than 80°C and for higher tensile strength pipes, 150°C.
Further special techniques and welding equipment with special properties for vertical down welding are
described in paragraph 19.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09
10.4 Basic-coated stick electrodes: B
Composition
The thick coating of this stick electrode is characterised by the high content of about 80% of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) and calcium fluoride (CaF2). To improve the welding characteristics, especially for
welding with alternating current, larger amounts of non-basic components (e.g. rutile and/or quartz)
might be necessary.
This older basic type is the so-called “lime-type” type (Kb-electrodes).
In newer basic electrodes, part of the carbonates has been replaced by cryolite (Na3AIF6 - aluminium
trisodium hexafluoride). These electrodes have a steady arc, a more uniform weld quality and can still be
safely mastered with lower currents. Less slag is detached than with the “Kb” electrode.
There is little oxygen present in the arc. The loss of alloying elements is therefore low.
Characteristics
Basic-coated stick electrodes have two special characteristics:

 high impact energy of the welded material, especially at low temperatures;
 high crack resistance, better than for other types (the high metallurgic degree of purity of weld metal
reduces the risk of hot cracking, and a lower hydrogen content reduces susceptibility to cold cracking).
This requires dry stick electrodes. The hydrogen content should not exceed the upper limit
H = 15 ml/100g weld metal. Basic electrodes are hygroscopic; regulations for a dry environment are
required to be observed.
Basic type stick electrodes are appropriate for all welding positions – except the vertical down position.
Applications:
The very ductile, low-temperature toughness weld metal is suitable for the following:
 at low yield point for shrink-limited components,
 for high-strength steels as soft weld metal for rigid structures.
 for larger weld cross-sections,
 for large component thicknesses (>20mm)
 for welding steels (FU) contaminated with P, S and N2; these steel accompanying elements are
released and transferred into the slag
 and with C-contents above 0.22% (including cast steel and rail welds)
Drying process:
Baking for about 2 hours at 250 to 350 °C, then in the drying oven at 150 °C, then keep warm in the oven or
portable drying unit at 100°C - 150 °C until welding takes place. However, in each case it is the manufacturer's
specification that is relevant.
Disadvantages
 Hard to remove slag, rough weld appearance
 Difficult handling like poor ignition- and re-ignition properties
 Moisture absorption (hygroscopic)
A type selection:
DIN EN ISO 2560-A E 38 2 B 22 H 10 E 42 5 B 32 H5 E 46 4 B 42 H 10
E 46 8 3Ni B 73 H5 E 50 4 2Ni B 42 H5

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09
10.5 Stick electrodes with rutile coating: R, RR, RC, RA, RB
Composition
The main component of the coating is rutile (TiO2); this has a less oxidising effect in the arc, the arc
atmosphere is more neutral, the alloy burn-off is lower.
The mechanical properties of weld metal of rutile electrodes must be given particular consideration for
steels with higher Mn-content (S355).
When choosing these stick electrodes, the specification sheets for the filler materials (from the electrode
manufacturer's inspection body) should be used.
Characteristics
Rutile types are the most used electrodes in practice because of the huge amount of possible application
areas.
Advantages of rutile-coated stick electrodes

 Easy handling
 Good ignition and re-ignition characteristics
 Finely rippled weld appearance
 Easy removability of slag
 Direct and alternating current welding
Disadvantages
 Not applicable for high-carbon steels with C > 0.2%
 Higher hydrogen content (approx. 20 ml/100g weld metal)
 Risk of cracks in component thicknesses over 25 mm
 Lower impact strength at lower temperatures (compared to basic covered electrode)
Rutile covered electrodes are mainly welded with direct current, -pole or with alternating current.
Stick electrodes with rutile coating: R
Stick electrodes of this kind create a more coarse droplet transfer than the thick rutile type. They have
good gap bridging abilities and are suitable for welding thin sheet metal. Their disadvantage is the strong
crater formation. Suitable for all welding positions except for vertical down position.
Example: DIN EN ISO 2560-A E 42 0 R 12
Thick stick electrodes with rutile coating: RR
With stick electrodes of this type, the ratio between coating and core rod diameter is  1,6.
The high rutile amount of the coating, the good ignition capability, a fine-droplet metal transfer and the
finely rippled, even welds are all characteristic.
Example: DIN EN ISO 2560-A E 42 0 RR 12
Stick electrodes with rutile cellulose coating: RC
The composition of this stick electrode's coating is similar to that of the rutile type electrodes. However, it
contains higher amounts of cellulose. Weld metal is viscous with a lower slag amount, therefore stick
electrodes of this type may also be used for welding in vertical down position. All-round electrode in
areas of common, practical use.
Not approved for root welding with butt and fillet welds in the metal and pipeline construction.
Example: DIN EN ISO 2560-A E 38 0 RC 11

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09
Stick electrodes with rutile-acid coating: RA
The welding characteristics of the stick electrodes of this mixed type are comparable to the ones of the
acid type. However large amounts of iron oxide replaced by rutile in the coating for these stick
electrodes. This is the reason why most thick coated stick electrodes can be used for welding in all
positions – except the vertical down position.
These stick electrodes have high deposition rates, current load capacity and easily removable porous
slag. Rutile-acid electrodes are rarely used nowadays. They are particularly suited as seal welds on
acute angles. They form concave smooth welds, the root point is determined safely for fillet welds.
Because of the low Si-content, they are very well suited to subsequent galvanising, enamelling and
rubberising.
The loss of alloying elements is, similar to the acid types, relatively high.
Stick electrodes with rutile-basic coating: RB
This coating type is characterised by a high content of rutile in combination with increased basic content,
medium-droplet metal transfer and a thin fluid slag. These mostly thick coated stick electrodes have –
along the good mechanical characteristics of the welds – good welding characteristics in all welding
positions with the exception of the vertical down position. They are very frequently used as vertical up
welding electrodes in pipeline and steel construction, for out-of-position welding and for root welding.
Example: DIN EN ISO 2560-A E 38 2 RB 12
10.6 High-deposition electrodes “high-efficiency electrodes”
Composition
These stick electrodes contain additional iron powder in their coating which easily doubles the amount
that is put in by the core rod.
Characteristics (see also 17.4)
Welding is carried out for

RR- and RA-types with direct current at the – the pole or alternating current
RB-types, preferred direct current + pole, possible also direct current – pole or alternating current
B-types direct current at + pole
The current settings are significant higher compared to the electrodes with lower efficiency (105%). The
arc-time is shortened and the run-out length increases only insignificantly.
High-efficiency electrodes with an efficiency of 160% can be used for the PA- en PB- weld position.
Electrodes having an efficiency of 160% to 220% can only be used in the flat position (PA- welding
position) due to the very low viscosity of the weld metal.
Achievable a-size: core rod diameter + 0,5mm
Application
A preferential application is longer continuous fillet welds (e.g. excavator construction, shipbuilding).
Selection of type:
DIN EN ISO 2560-A E 42 2 RA 73

E 42 0 RR 73
E 42 2 RB 53
E 42 4 B 73 H 5

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09
10.7 Sample applications for stick electrodes according to DIN EN ISO 2560-A
Butt and fillet welds on thin profiles

Material S235JR
DIN EN ISO 2560-A E 42 0 RR 12 (more suitable for

fillet welds)
DIN EN ISO 2560-A E 38 2 R 12 or
DIN EN ISO 2560-A E 38 2 RB 12 (more suitable for
butt welds, gap bridging abilities)
Fillet welds on double-T beams

Material S235J0
Welding position: PB
DIN EN ISO 2560-A E 42 0 RR 73

DIN EN ISO 2560-A E 42 2 RB 53
Double single-V butt welds on tension rods with large

workpiece thickness
Material S355J3
Welding position: PA
DIN EN ISO 2560-A E 38 2 B 12 H10

DIN EN ISO 2560-A E 42 4 B 32 H10
Fillet welds on consoles (t = 10 mm)

Material S235JR
Welding position: PB, PF
Butt welds in pipes (L235J2)

Weld 1 welding position PJ
DIN EN ISO 2560-A E 42 2 C 25
Weld 2 welding position PH

Figure 15: Suitable stick electrodes

equipment
IWE / 1.09-2
MMA Welding II Page 31
Table 6: Stick electrodes for non-alloy and fine-grain steels, DIN EN ISO 2560-A
E 46 6 Mn1Ni B 4 2 H5
E:Identifier for shielded metal arc welding
Minimum Hydrogen content in ml/100 g of weld
Minimum yield
Tensile strength elongation after Symbol
Code number point 1) metal max.
[MPa] fracture
[MPa]
[%] H5 5
H 10 10
35 355 440 to 570 22
38 380 470 to 600 20 H 15 15
42 420 500 to 640 20
46 460 530 to 680 20 Welding positions in accordance with
Code number
50 500 560 to 720 18 DIN ISO 6947
1 In all positions
1)
The lower yield point (ReL) is valid. In case of not clearly defined tensile yield
2 All positions, except the vertical down
point, the 0.2% yield strength (Rp0.2) is valid.
position
2)
Measurement length is identical to the fivefold test diameter
3 Butt weld in flat position, fillet weld in flat
Identifier/ Minimum impact work and horizontal position
code number 47 J at °C
Z no requirements position
A + 20
0 0 Vertical-down position and positions Like
5
2 - 20 for code letter 3.
3 - 30
4 - 40 Code number Yield % Type of current
5 - 50
6 - 60 1 ≤ 105 Direct and alternating current
2 ≤ 105 Direct current
Chemical Composition
Alloy symbol % (mass percentage) 3 > 105 ≤ 125 Direct and alternating current
Mn Mo Ni 4 > 105 ≤ 125 Direct current

No designation 2.0 - - 5 > 125 ≤ 160 Direct and alternating current
Mo 1.4 0.3 to 0.6 - 6 > 125 ≤ 160 Direct current
MnMo 1.4 to 2.0 0.3 to 0.6 -
1Ni 1.4 - 0.6 to 1.2 7 > 160 Direct and alternating current
Mn1Ni 1.4 to 2.0 - 0.6 to 1.2
8 > 160 Direct current
2Ni 1.4 - 1.8 to 2.6
Mn2Ni 1.4 to 2.0 - 1.2 to 2.6
3Ni 1.4 - 2.6 to 3.8 Short symbol Type of coating
1NiMo 1.4 0.3 to 0.6 0.6 to 1.2 A Acidic type coating
Z any other agreed chemical composition C Cellulosic type coating
R Rutile type coating
B Basic type coating
© 2015 GSI - Gesellschaft für Schweißtechnik International mbH Welding Processes and Equipment
Reprinting and unauthorised transmission are prohibited and shall be legally pursued
IWE / 1.09-2
11. Stick electrodes for weatherproof, high-strength and low-temperature toughness

steels, DIN EN ISO 18275-A
For manual metal arc welding of high-strength fine-grain structural steels (>500 MPa) in steel
construction, it is almost exclusively basic (B) coated stick electrodes that are used.
Parts of DIN EN ISO 2560-A were used to ensure uniformity in the identifiers.
Composition
The composition of coating differs from the basic electrodes according to DIN EN ISO 2560-A due to a
high content of alloying elements like e.g. Mn, Ni, Cr and Mo.
Characteristics
Basic-coated high-strength stick electrodes have the following special characteristics:
 high impact energy of weld metal, without brittle fracture at low temperatures (- 80 °C)
 high crack resistance,
 outstanding strength properties also for high temperatures (to approx. 440° C), however the yield
strength decreases significantly in this case.
Applications
 statically and dynamically higher loaded welded structures. e.g in steel construction, equipment
and vehicle construction.
 butt weld joints for concrete reinforcement steel welding,
 for high-strength steels as soft weld metal (under-matching) for rigid structures.
 large weld cross-sections and component thicknesses
 for welding of steels (FU) contaminated with P, S and N2, these steel accompanying elements are
released and transferred into the slag
 and with C content above 0.22% (including cast steel and rail welds)
Characteristics
Indications of the strength of weld metal properties refer to the welding condition. If there is a T added to
the identifier, the values refer to the stress (-relieved) annealed state
Sample identifier:
DIN EN ISO 18275-A E 55 3 MnMo B T 4 2 H10 (650 °C, holding time 15 hours).
A Z for alloying elements indicates that the chemical composition is outside the defined limits. Note:
Similar electrodes with z values are not comparable to each other.
Sample identifier:
DIN EN ISO 18275-A E 55 5 Z 2Ni B 45 (basic vertical down welding electrode)
Work rules
Basic electrodes for welding of fine-grain steels must be re-baked, at higher temperatures than B-
electrodes according to DIN EN ISO 2560-A:
2 hours at 300 - 350 °C, but maximum 10 hours. The manufacturer's specifications are relevant.
Electrodes are usually equipped with ignition aids (additional shielding gas cloud during first ignition,
avoiding of starting-pores).
The hydrogen content of weld metal must not exceed 15 ml/100 g weld metal.
- Use targeted heat-input

- Monitoring of heat-input
- Stringer beads instead of oscillating weld beads
- No excessively thick layers, particularly in position “PF”
- Working temperature not to exceed 200 °C.
- Heat-input value for wall thickness < 15 mm: Wall thickness = energy per unit length kJ/cm.
- Grinding of all start-stop points (pores after extinguishing of arc because of lack of shielding gas)

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09-2
Explanation of the identifiers of the DIN EN ISO 18275-A

E 62 7 Mn1Ni B 3 4 H5
Minimum Hydrogen content in ml/100 g of weld
Minimum yield
Tensile strength elongation after Symbol
Code number point 1) metal max.
[MPa] fracture
[MPa]
[%] H5 5
H 10 10
55 550 610 to 780 18
H 15 15
62 620 690 to 890 18
69 690 760 to 960 17
79 790 880 to 1,080 16 Welding positions in accordance with
Code number
89 890 980 to 1,180 15 DIN ISO 6947
1 In all positions
1)
The lower yield point (ReL) is valid. In case of not clearly defined tensile yield
2 All positions, except the vertical down
point, the 0.2% yield strength (Rp0.2) is valid.
position
2)
Measurement length is identical to the fivefold test diameter
Identifier/ Minimum impact work and horizontal position
code number 47 J at °C
4 Butt weld in flat position, fillet weld in
Z no requirements flat position
A + 20
0 0 Vertical-down position and positions Like
5
2 - 20 for code letter 3.
3 - 30
4 - 40 Code number Yield % Type of current
5 - 50
6 - 60 1 ≤ 105 Direct and alternating current
7 - 70 2 ≤ 105 Direct current
8 -80
3 > 105 ≤ 125 Direct and alternating current
Chemical Composition 4 > 105 ≤ 125 Direct current
Alloy symbol % (mass percentage) 5 > 125 ≤ 160 Direct and alternating current
Mn Ni Cr Mo 6 > 125 ≤ 160 Direct current
MnMo 1.4 to 2.0 - - 0.3 to 0.6
Mn1Ni 7 > 160 Direct and alternating current
1.4 to 2.0 0.6 to 1.2 - -
1NiMo 1.4 0.6 to 1.2 - 0.3 to 0.6 8 > 160 Direct current
1.5 NiMo 1.4 1.2 to 1.8 - 0.3 to 0.6
2NiMo 1.4 1.8 to 2.6 - 0.3 to 0.6 Short symbol Type of coating
Mn1NiMo 1.4 to 2.0 0.6 to 1.2 - 0.3 to 0.6
1.4 to 2.0 1.8 to 2.6 - 0.3 to 0.6 B Basic type coating
Mn2NiMo
Mn2NiCrMo 1.4 to 2.0 1.8 to 2.6 0.3 to 0.6 0.3 to 0.6 Most covered electrodes of this type are basic coated and have a B
1.4 to 2.0 1.8 to 2.6 0.3 to 0.6 0.3 to 0.6 designation. For cellulose coated and other coating types see DIN EN
Mn2Ni1CrMo
ISO 2560
any other agreed chemical composition. It is possible that
Z two covered electrodes in same classification in Z are not The symbol T indicates that strength, elongation and impact properties
interchangeable are obtained in the classification of the depicted weld metal for the state
after a postweld annealing process at temperatures between 560 °C and
600 °C for 1 hour. The specimen must be left for cooling to 300 °C in the
furnace.
Table 7: Stick electrodes for weatherproof, high-strength and low-temperature toughness steels, DIN EN ISO 18275-A
SFI / IWE 1.09-2
12. Stick electrodes for creep-resistant and high-temperature steels, DIN EN ISO 3580-A
This standard includes a classification for the identification of coated stick electrodes with the chemical
composition of the pure weld metal.
Composition
Stick electrodes for creep-resistant steels are available as rutile and basic-coated types, while high-
temperature electrodes are only available with basic coating.
In order to increase creep resistance, low amounts of Cr, Mo and V are used for alloying (CrMo1) at
max. working temperatures of up to 550 °C. Over 550 °C to about 600 °C, additionally a resistant to
scaling is required that in turn requires higher alloying with Cr, Mo and V (CrMo2). Special electrodes are
additionally alloyed with W, Nb, Ni for working temperatures of up to 650 °C.
Stick electrodes of this type are usually alloyed-core types.
Characteristics
Rutile CrMo electrodes are weldable without pre-treatment like rutile covered electrodes.
Basic CrMo electrodes must be baked at approx. 300 °C to 350 °C for two hours.
High creep rupture strength and toughness behaviour also in the long-time range up to 650 °C.
Sample applications
Steam turbines, boiler and pipeline construction
Allocation of suitable stick electrodes to certain heat-resistant steels:

Base metals: 16Mo3 Filler materials: E Mo R 1 2
13CrMo4-5 E CrMo1 R 1 2 (E CrMo1 B 2 2 H5)
10CrMo9-10 E CrMo2 B 2 2 H5
Characteristics
For thicker materials in butt joints (single-U butt weld preparation, so-called U-butt weld), the root is TIG
welded, the filler and top beads are frequently welded with a stick electrode for economic reasons.
Cracks in welded joints can be caused or influenced considerably by hydrogen. The risk of hydrogen-
induced cracking increases with raised alloy content and the level of stresses.
Cold cracking susceptibility is also even lower, if the hydrogen content of weld metal is lower.
Hydrogen in weld metal is generated e.g. from basic stick electrodes not being appropriately re-baked.
Depending on the base material, pre-heat and interpass temperatures of approx. 250 °C to 350 °C as well as
post-weld heat treatment, annealing 660 ° - 750 °C, holding 1/2 – 2 hours (in the furnace), are necessary.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09-2
Explanation for the identifiers of DIN EN ISO 3580 - A

Table 8: Extract from DIN EN ISO 3580
Identifier for the chemical composition for the
Chemical composition, % mass fraction
classification according to
Nominal composition Alloy type
C Si Mn P S Cr Mo V Other elementsd
(ISO 3580-A) (ISO 3580-B)
Mo (1M3) 0.10 0.80 0.40 to 1.50 0.030 0.025 0,2 0.40 to 0.70 0.03 —
(Mo) 1M3 0.12 0.80 1.00 0.030 0.030 — 0.40 to 0.65 — —
MoV — 0.03 to 0.12 0.80 0.40 to 1.50 0.030 0.025 0.30 to 0.60 0.80 to 1.20 0.25 to 0.60 —
CrMo0.5 (CM) 0.05 to 0.12 0.80 0.40 to 1.50 0.030 0.025 0.40 to 0.65 0.40 to 0.65 — —
(CrMo0.5) CM 0.05 to 0.12 0.80 0.90 0.030 0.030 0.40 to 0.65 0.40 to 0.65 — —
— C1M 0.07 to 0.15 0.30 to 0.60 0.40 to 0.70 0.030 0.030 0.40 to 0.60 1.00 to 1.25 0,05 —
CrMo1 (1CM) 0.05 to 0.12 0.80 0.40 to 1.50 0.030 0.025 0.90 to 1.40 0.45 to 0.70 — —
(CrMo1) 1CM 0.05 to 0.12 0.80 0.90 0.030 0.030 1.00 to 1.50 0.40 to 0.65 — —
CrMo1L (1CML) 0.05 0.80 0.40 to 1.50 0.030 0.025 0.90 to 1.40 0.45 to 0.70 — —
(CrMo1L) 1CML 0.05 1.00 0.90 0.030 0.030 1.00 to 1.50 0.40 to 0.65 — —
CrMoV1 — 0.05 to 0.15 0.80 0.70 to 1.50 0.030 0.025 0.90 to 1.30 0.90 to 1.30 0.10 to 0.35 —
CrMo2 (2C1M) 0.05 to 0.12 0.80 0.40 to 1.30 0.030 0.025 2.0 to 2.6 0.90 to 1.30 — —
(CrMo2) 2C1M 0.05 to 0.12 1.00 0.90 0.030 0.030 2.00 to 2.50 0.90 to 1.20 — —
CrMo2L (2C1ML) 0.05 0.80 0.40 to 1.30 0.030 0.025 2.0 to 2.6 0.90 to 1.30 — —
(CrMo2L) 2C1ML 0.05 1.00 0.90 0.030 0.030 2.00 to 2.50 0.90 to 1.20 — —
— 2CML 0.05 1.00 0.90 0.030 0.030 1.75 to 2.25 0.40 to 0.65 — —
— 2C1MV 0.05 to 0.15 0.60 0.40 to 1.50 0.030 0.030 2.00 to 2.60 0.90 to 1.20 0.20 to 0.40 Nb 0.010 to 0.050
— 3C1MV 0.05 to 0.15 0.60 0.40 to 1.50 0.030 0.030 2.60 to 3.40 0.90 to 1.20 0.20 to 0.40 Nb 0.010 to 0.050
CrMo5 (5CM) 0.03 to 0.12 0.80 0.40 to 1.50 0.025 0.025 4.0 to 6.0 0.40 to 0.70 — —
DIN EN ISO 3580-A: E CrMo1 B 4 4 H5 Symbol Hydrogen content in ml/100 g of weld metal max.
E:Identifier for shielded metal arc welding H5 5
H 10 10
Code Type of cover Code number Yield % Type of current H 15 15
R Rutile type coating 1 ≤ 105 Direct and alternating current
B Basic type coating Code number Welding positions in accordance with DIN ISO 6947
2 ≤ 105 Direct current 1 In all positions
2 All positions, except the vertical down position
3 > 105 ≤ 125 Direct and alternating current 3 Butt weld in flat position, fillet weld in flat
4 > 105 ≤ 125 Direct current and horizontal position
4 Butt weld in flat position, fillet weld in
5 > 125 ≤ 160 Direct and alternating current flat position
5
6 > 125 ≤ 160 Direct current Vertical-down position and positions Like for code letter 3.
7 > 160 Direct and alternating current
SFI / IWE 1.09-2
13. Stick electrodes for stainless and heat-resistant steels, DIN EN ISO 3581-A
This standard includes a classification for the designation of coated stick electrodes with the help of the
chemical composition of the pure weld metal.
Composition
Stick electrodes can be rutile- or basic-coated; in both cases the stick electrodes are welded at the DC +
pole (rutile-coated partly also possible with AC). Both types have alloy rod cores.
Alloying elements are indicated as whole percentages without symbols in the order Cr, Ni, Mo.
Characteristics
The characteristic feature of these stick electrodes is high corrosion resistance, low-temperature
toughness to about -200 °C and scaling resistance to about 900 °C
Applications
Welding of stainless steels for applications e.g. in equipment construction, pipeline construction, steam
power plant construction, chemical industry, food industry, etc.
Work rules
High-alloy stick electrodes must be re-baked according to manufacturer's specifications (approx. 2 hours
at 250 °C – 350 °C). Non-observance of this measure will lead to porosity, particularly at the start of the
weld.
Alloyed-core chromium nickel electrodes are to be welded with low heat-input. The interpass
temperature should not exceed 150 °C. Select small electrode diameters and low amperages. Avoid
large welding pools to keep the residual welding stresses as low as possible, but perform root welding
with sufficiently large cross-section, otherwise stress cracking might occur in longitudinal direction.
All weld start- and stops must be carefully removed.

Stray arcs, e.g. due to wrongly applied workpiece clamps, are to be avoided because very fine cracks
may occur, which can then be the cause of intercrystalline corrosion.
High-alloy weld metal can be made considerably more resistant or insensitive to hot cracks by adding
manganese and/or molybdenum. On the other hand, niobium, particularly with nitrogen, can favour hot
cracking together with contaminations like phosphorus, sulphur and boron. Full-austenitic steels without
Mn- and/or Mo-alloy content are especially at risk here. The correct choice of the filler material is very
important in this case.
Special attention must be paid therefore to the weld preparation and the cleanliness of the weld faces
and weld environment. Oil, grease, paint or coatings, etc. must be completely removed.
As for the corrosion resistance, the filler material should be as similar as possible or lightly over-alloyed.
Excessive alloy differences have a very negative influence, as the lower alloy medium may become
under attack.
To maintain corrosion resistance, provided by the “passive layer”, it is absolutely necessary to remove all
impurities (e.g. oxide layers, scale, tarnish, slag residues and spatters) mechanically by brushing,
grinding, spraying or chemically by pickling after welding.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09-2
Safety guidelines
When welding basic-coated CrNi stick electrodes, the welding fumes contain chromium VI compounds.
Here, welding must be performed using local fume extraction – or with filter protective masks (P3). High-
alloy rutile-coated electrodes have significantly lower chromium VI content.
Allocation of suitable stick electrodes to certain high-alloyed materials:
To ensure the most suitable filler material/alloy type for special applications, it is highly recommended
using the Schaeffler-diagram for help.
Example:
Ferritic chromium steels
 base metal: X6Cr13 material no. 1.4000
x suitable electrode: DIN EN ISO 3581-A - E 13 B 42
x suitable electrode: DIN EN ISO 3581-A - E 18 8 Mn B 1 2
Risks and countermeasures

Tendency to coarse-grain-growth and hardening because of martensite formation. In order to avoid
cracks in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and to minimise welding residual stresses, a pre-heat and an
interpass temperature of 200 °C to max. 300 °C is to be selected. Weld with low heat-input, prefer small
diameters with low currents, favour stringer beads, avoid oscillating weld beads.
Annealing after welding (700° - max. 800 °C) improves toughness in the HAZ, reduces residual welding
stresses and re-establishes resistance against intercrystalline corrosion.
Martensitic chromium steels

 basic metal: X20Cr13 material no. 1.4021
x suitable electrode: DIN EN ISO 3581-A - E 13 B 22
x suitable electrode: DIN EN ISO 3581-A - E 19 9 Nb B 2 2

The risk of cold-cracking is even higher here than with ferritic chromium steels.
Martensitic chromium steels have a very poor weldability due to the higher C-content. Up to a carbon
content of 0.2%, welding can be performed with austenitic filler materials, above 0.2% carbon content
filler materials from DIN EN 14172 shall be used. For welded constructions, these chromium steels
above C>0.2% are actually not suitable.
 base metal: X30Cr13 material no. 1.4028
x suitable electrode: DIN EN ISO 14172 - E Ni 6082 (NiCr20Mn3Nb)
Austenitic steels
 base metal: X5CrNi18-10 material no. 1.4301
x suitable stick electrodes: DIN EN ISO 3581-A - E 19 9 R 1 2
DIN EN ISO 3581-A - E 19 9 Nb R 1 2
 base metal: X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2 material no. 1.4571
x suitable electrode: DIN EN ISO 3581-A - E 19 12 3 Nb R 1 2
 base metal: X2CrNi18-9 material no. 1.4307
x suitable electrode: DIN EN ISO 3581-A - E 19 9 L R 1 2
Risk of hot cracking. For countermeasures, see working rules.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09-2
13.1 Stick electrodes for black-and-white joints, DIN EN ISO 3581 – A
For joining high-alloyed base materials with non- or low-alloy base materials, a weld is generated which
consists partially of the two deposited materials and the filler material. Depending on the extent of mixing
and the requirements for mechanical-technological properties of the joint, a more or less over-alloyed
filler material is required here, in order to avoid any excessive martensitic structure contents. The
Schaeffler diagram is considered again here as a valuable help.
If non-alloyed filler materials according to DIN EN ISO 2560-A are used in black-and-white joints,
hardening will occur in the weld, even if “only” high-alloyed 18-10 filler materials according to DIN EN
ISO 3581 - A are being used.
For the welding of unalloyed steels (S235) with high-alloyed steels (X6CrNiTi18-10), different types of
“over-alloyed” filler materials can be used.
Proven alloy types for welding different steel types are:
DIN EN ISO 3581 – A E 18 8 Mn6 R 1 2 (Material no. 1.4370 corresponds to DIN EN 14700 E FE10
also suitable for manganese steels)
DIN EN ISO 3581 – A E 23 12 L R 12 (Material no. 1.4332)
DIN EN ISO 3581 – A E 23 12 2 LR 1 2 (Material no. 1.4459)
Example: Welding of supports (S235) on container walls from austenitic chromium steel 18-10.
Figure 17: Higher-value design

Figure 16: Simple design
① Un-alloyed S 235
② DIN EN ISO 3581–A E 18 8 Mn6 R 1 2
③ High-alloyed X6CrNiTi18-10
④ DIN EN ISO 3581–A E 19 9 Nb R 1 2
For fillet welds on black-and-white joints, a “coating-alloyed” covered electrode (non-alloyed rod core) is
preferred. Identifier MP = metal flux:
(Higher sustainable current-load than alloyed-core electrodes).
Example:
DIN EN ISO 3581 – A E 23 12 MP R 1 2

DIN EN ISO 3581 – A E 18 8 Mn6 MP R 7 3
Welding position
Efficiency > 160%

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09-2
Explanation for the identifiers of DIN EN ISO 3581 - A

Identifier for the classification according to Chemical Compositiona % (mass fraction)
Nominal compositionb,c,d Alloy typed,e
C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Cu Nb + Ta N
(ISO 3581-A) (ISO 3581-B)
19 9 Nb (347) 0,08 1,2 2,0 0,030 0,025 18,0 to 21,0 9,0 to 11,0 0,75 0,75 8 × C to 1,1 —
19 12 2 (316) 0,08 1,2 2,0 0,030 0,025 17,0 to 20,0 10,0 to 13,0 2,0 to 3,0 0,75 — —
(19 12 2) 316 0,08 1,00 0,5 to 2,5 0,04 0,03 17,0 to 20,0 11,0 to 14,0 2,0 to 3,0 0,75 — —
(19 12 2) 316H 0,04 to 0,08 1,00 0,5 to 2,5 0,04 0,03 17,0 to 20,0 11,0 to 14,0 2,0 to 3,0 0,75 — —
(19 12 3 L) 316L 0,04 1,00 0,5 to 2,5 0,04 0,03 17,0 to 20,0 11,0 to 14,0 2,0 to 3,0 0,75 — —
19 12 3 L (316L) 0,04 1,2 2,0 0,030 0,025 17,0 to 20,0 10,0 to 13,0 2,5 to 3,0 0,75 — —
18 8 Mnc — 0,20 1,2 4,5 to 7,5 0,035 0,025 17,0 to 20,0 7,0 to 10,0 0,75 0,75 — —
18 9 Mn Moc (307) 0,04 to 0,14 1,2 3,0 to 5,0 0,035 0,025 18,0 to 21,5 9,0 to 11,0 0,5 to 1,5 0,75 — —
(19 12 3 Nb) 318 0,08 1,00 0,5 to 2,5 0,04 0,03 17,0 to 20,0 11,0 to 14,0 2,0 to 3,0 0,75 6 × C to 1,00 —
19 13 4 N L — 0,04 1,2 1,0 to 5,0 0,030 0,025 17,0 to 20,0 12,0 to 15,0 3,0 to 4,5 0,75 — 0,20
22 9 3 N L (2209) 0,04 1,2 2,5 0,030 0,025 21,0 to 24,0 7,5 to 10,5 2,5 to 4,0 0,75 — 0,08 to 0,20
(22 9 3 N L) 2209 0,04 1,00 0,5 to 2,0 0,04 0,03 21,5 to 23,5 7,5 to 10,5 2,5 to 3,5 0,75 — 0,08 to 0,20
23 7 N L — 0,04 1,0 0,4 to 1,5 0,030 0,020 22,5 to 25,5 6,5 to 10,0 0,8 0,5 — 0,10 to 0,20
23 12 2 L (309LMo) 0,04 1,2 2,5 0,030 0,025 22,0 to 25,0 11,0 to 14,0 2,0 to 3,0 0,75 — —
a
Single values are maximum values.
b
Stick electrodes, for which no chemical composition is indicated, are to be coded similarly and marked by symbol Z in front. The ranges for chemical composition are not defined. There is the possibility that two electrodes with the same
Z-classification are not interchangeable for each other.
c
The sum of P and S must not exceed a mass fraction of 0.050%, except for 25 7 2 N L; 18 16 5 N L; 20 16 3 Mn N L; 18 8 Mn; 18 9 Mn Mo and 29 9.
d
The designation in parenthesis [e. g. (308L) or (19 9 L)] indicates that the stick electrode is almost, but not completely, in compliance with the other designation system. The right designation for a given composition range is the
designation without the parentheses. If a component is present that has a limited chemical composition, which corresponds to both designation systems, it may be equipped with both designations.
e
The stick electrode must be analysed for all specific elements for which the values are indicated. If the presence of other elements is indicated during the course of the analysis, the amount of these elements must be determined,
in order to ensure that their total sum (except iron) does not exceed a mass fraction of 0.50%.
DIN EN ISO 3581-A: E 23 12 2 L R 3 2

Code Type of cover Code number Yield % Type of current Code number Welding positions in accordance with DIN ISO 6947
1 In all positions
R Rutile type coating 1 ≤ 105 Direct and alternating current 2 All positions, except the vertical down position
B Basic type coating 3 Butt weld in flat position, fillet weld in flat
2 ≤ 105 Direct current
and horizontal position
3 > 105 ≤ 125 Direct and alternating current 4 Butt weld in flat position, fillet weld in
5 flat position
4 > 105 ≤ 125 Direct current
L: Low Carbon 5 > 125 ≤ 160 Direct and alternating current
Vertical-down position and positions Like for code letter 3.
6 > 125 ≤ 160 Direct current

7 > 160 Direct and alternating current
Table 9: Extract from DIN EN ISO 3581-A
SFI / IWE 1.09-2
14. Filler materials for hard-facings, DIN EN 14700
Stick electrodes for surface welding are classified and selected according to DIN EN 14700:
1. alloy identifier according to DIN EN 14700

2. the hardness of pure weld metal and
3. the weld metal properties according to Table
Only those weld metal properties are listed that are particularly characteristic in addition to the hardness
values.
Sample identifier of stick electrodes for wear-resistant hard-facings according to DIN EN 14700:
Identifier characteristics of the classification
Number of EN standard.
The first characteristic indicates the product shape,

here a coated stick electrode, see table Table 10.
Table 10: Identifier for the product form
Short symbol Product form (consumable)

E Stick electrode
S Solid wire and solid rod
T Cored wire and cored rod
DIN EN 14700 E Fe10 R Cast rod
B Solid strip
Sintered rod, cored strip
C
and sintered strip
P Metal powder
the second characteristic gives the chemical composition via
an alloy identifier, here Fe10 see table 11.
Full-austenitic Mn-Cr alloyed stick electrode for high-wear-resistant hard-facings, that are subject to
extreme compressive- and impact loads (e.g. Fox BMC from Böhler).
Figure 18: (Work photo by Messer – Lincoln)

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09-2
Table 11: Extract from DIN EN 14700 – Alloy symbols and chemical composition
Alloy Chemical composition in % (m/m)
a Suitability
symbol
C Cr Ni Mn Mo W V Nb Other Rest
Fe1 p  0.4  3.5 – 0.5 to 3 1 1 1 – – Fe
Fe2 ps 0.4 to 1.2 7 1 0.5 to 3 1 1 1 – – Fe
Fe3 st 0.2 to 0.5 1 to 8 5 3  4.5  10  1.5 – Co, Si Fe
Fe4 s t (p) 0.2 to 1.5 2 to 6 4 3  10  19 4 – Co, Ti Fe
Fe5 cpstw  0.5  0.1 17 to 22 1 3 to 5 – – – Co, Al Fe
Fe6 gps  2.5  10 – 3 3 – –  10 Ti Fe
Fe7 cpt  0.2 4 to 30 6 3 2 – 1 1 Si Fe
Fe8 gpt 0.2 to 2 5 to 18 – 0.3 to 3  4.5 2 2  10 Si, Ti Fe
Fe9 k (n) p 0.3 to 1.2  19 3 11 to 18 2 – 1 – Ti Fe
Fe10 c k (n) p z  0.25 17 to 22 7 to 11 3 to 8  1.5 – –  1.5 Si Fe
Fe11 cnz  0.3 18 to 31 8 to 20 3 4 – –  1.5 Cu Fe
Fe12 c (n) z  0.08 17 to 26 9 to 26 0.5 to 3 4 – –  1.5 – Fe
Fe13 g  1.5  6.5 4 0.5 to 3 4 – – – B, Ti Fe
Fe14 g (c) 1.5 to 4.5 25 to 40 4 0.5 to 3 4 – – – – Fe
Fe15 g 4.5 to 5.5 20 to 40 4 0.5 to 3 2 – –  10 B Fe
Fe16 gz 4.5 to 7.5 10 to 40 – 3 9 8  10  10 B, Co Fe
Hard
Fe20 cgtz b – – – – – – – – Fe
materials
Ni1 cpt 1 15 to 30 Residue 0.3 to 1 6 2 1 – Si, Fe, B Ni
Co, Si,
Ni2 ckptz  0.1 15 to 30 Residue  1.5  28 8 1 4 Ni
Ti
Ni3 cpt 1 1 to 15 Residue 0.3 to 1 6 2 1 – Si, Fe, B Ni
Co, Si,
Ni4 ckptz  0.1 1 to 15 Residue  1.5  28 8 1 4 Ni
Ti
Hard
Ni20 cgtz b – – – – – – – – NI
materials
Co1 cktz  0.6 20 to 35  10 0.1 to 2  10  15 – 1 Fe Co
Co2 t z (c s) 0.6 to 3 20 to 35 4 0.1 to 2 – 4 to 10 – – Fe Co
Co3 t z (c s) 1 to 3 20 to 35 4 2 1 6 to 14 – – Fe Co
Al, Fe,
Cu1 c (n) – – 6  15 – – – – Cu
Sn
Al1 cn – – 10 to 35  0.5 – – – – Cu, Si Al
15 to Fe, B,
Cr gn 1 to 5 Rest – 1 – – – Cr
30 Si, Zr
c: stainless n: cannot be magnetized t: heat-resistant
g: resistant to abrasion p: impact resistant z: scaling resistant
k: cold hardened s: edge retention w: precipitation hardened
() may not apply to all alloys of this classification
a
Alloys which are not listed in this table are to be coded similarly but the symbol Z is to be put in front.
b
Tungsten fused carbide or tungsten carbide broken or spherical.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09-2
Table 12: Extract from DIN EN 14700 – Suitability of the alloys for different loads
Requirement Hardness range
Alloy Mechanical Thermal
crack Alloy/microstructure
symbol high corrosive workability [HB] [HRC]
Friction Impact Thermal shock resistant
temperature
Fe1 3 and 4 2 and 3 4 4 4 1 1 ferritic/martensitic 150 to 450 -
Fe2 3 and 4 2 4 4 4 2 3 martensitic - 30 to 58
Fe3 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 martensitic + carbide - 40 to 55
Fe4 2 2 and 3 1 and 2 1 and 2 3 2 and 3 3 and 4 martensitic + carbide - 55 to 65
Fe5 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 martensitic - 30 to 40
a
Fe6 1 1 2 and 3 2 and 3 4 2 and 3 3 and 4 martensitic + carbide - 48 to 55
Fe7 2 2 1 and 2 1 and 2 1 and 2 1 1 and 2 ferritic/martensitic 250 to 450 -
Fe8 1 and 2 1 and 2 4 4 3 2 and 3 3 and 4 martensitic + carbide - 50 to 65
b
Fe9 4 1 4 4 2 and 3 1 and 2 3 austenitic 200 to 250 40 to 50
b
Fe10 4 1 1 and 2 1 2 1 2 austenitic 180 to 200 38 to 42
Fe11 4 3 1 4 1 1 1 austenitic - -
Fe12 4 3 1 4 1 1 1 austenitic 150 to 250 -
martensitic/austenitic +
Fe13 1 4 2 4 4 4 4 - 55 to 65
FeB
Fe14 1 3 and 4 3 4 2 4 4 - 40 to 60
carbides
Fe15 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 - 55 to 65
carbides
Fe16 1 4 1 4 3 4 4 - 60 to 70
carbides
1,500 HV to
Hard materials in a Fe- 50 to 60
Fe20 1 3 3 4 3 4 4 2,800 HV (hard
matrix (matrix)
materials)

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09-2
Sample applications
1. Digger tooth made from Mn high-strength steel, X120Mn12
Weld Mn high-strength steels as 'coldly' as possible (water bath)

- low current
- small electrode diameter
- short arc
- only stringer beads etc.
2. Digger tooth made from low alloy cast steel GE360 (1.0597) ≙ S355J2C (+N)
Preheat to 200 - 300 °C
A distinction is drawn between friction- and impact wear. The cracking risk increases with increasing
application thickness and surface area. Often a lattice or spot hard-facing application is sufficient (heavy
equipment). Pure weld metal is only to be found in the third layer.
In case of fewer layers, choose higher values (e.g. hardness) for electrode 1 and 2.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09-2
15. Stick electrodes for repair welding of cast iron, DIN EN ISO 1071
Cast iron materials are weldable and can be controlled with suitable process technology. This is true for
both cast iron with flake- or spheroidal (nodular) graphite and for malleable cast iron.
The parameters that influence the weld suitability of cast iron types are as follows:
 high C-content
 embrittlement and low elongation after fracture
 high residual stresses, and therefore risk of cracking
 low melting point
 low viscosity of melt pool
 high content of P and S.
DIN EN 1011-8 contains valuable recommendations for the welding of cast iron.
15.1 Identification of the electrodes according to DIN EN ISO 1071
Stick electrodes are classified according to their chemical composition as table 15 similar and
table 16Table different.
Classification entails four characteristics:
a) the first characteristic consists of the identifier for the product;

b) the second characteristic describes the material to be welded (C for cast iron);
c) the third characteristic includes a designation for the chemical composition of the stick electrode
d) the fourth characteristic consists of the code number for the efficiency and the type of current.
Designation characteristics of the classification
Number of ISO standard
Identifier for the product form, here a coated stick electrode,

see table 13
Table 13: Identifiers for the product type
Code Product form (consumable)

E Stick electrode
S Solid wire and solid rod
T Cored wire and cored rod
DIN EN ISO R Cast rod
E C NiFe-1 3
1071 B Solid strip
Sintered rod, cored strip and
C
sintered strip
P Metal powder
Code number for the efficiency and type of current
Identifier for the alloy composition,

here NiFe1 see table 16.
Identifier for the material to be welded,

C stands for cast = cast iron

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09-2
15.2 Hot welding of grey cast iron with similar filler material
The whole component is heated slowly to approx. 600 °C, is being welded, and cooled down slowly in
the oven or in hot sand or ashes.
Chemical composition of the electrodes and pure weld metal according to DIN EN ISO 1071; Examples
as per table 14 and table 15Table:
E C FeC-3 Weld metal: Flake graphite; basic-graphitic coating; welding of cast iron with flake graphite
E C FeC-GF (Basic ferrite structures) and E C FeC-GP2 (pearlite basic structure)

Weld metal: Spheroidal graphite; basic-graphitic coating;
Welding of cast iron with spheroidal graphite and neutral annealed (black) malleable cast
iron
Table 14: Filler materials for weld metal, similar to the basic metal
a
Symbol Microstructure Form of product
b
FeC-1 Flake graphite E, R
c
FeC-2 Flake graphite E, T
FeC-3 Flake graphite E, T
FeC-4 Flake graphite R
FeC-GF Basic structure ferritic, spheroidal graphite E, T
FeC-GP1 Basic structure pearlitic, spheroidal graphite R
FeC-GP2 Basic structure pearlitic, spheroidal graphite E, T
a
For identifiers see Table
b
For coated electrodes, the core rod consists of cast iron.
c
For coated electrodes, the core rod consists of unalloyed steel
Table 15: Extract from DIN EN ISO 1071: Chemical composition, similar.
a, b, c
Chemical composition %
Form of
Symbol Sum otherwise.
product C Si Mn P S Fe Ni
d
Cu
e
Other
elements
3.0 to 2.0 to Resi-
FeC-1 E, R 0.8 0.5 0.1 – – Al: 3.0 1.0
3.6 3.5 dual
3.0 to 2.0 to Resi-
FeC-2 E, T 0.8 0.5 0.1 – – Al: 3.0 1.0
3.6 3.5 dual
2.5 to 2.5 to Resi-
FeC-3 E, T
5.0 9.5
1.0 0.20 0.04
dual
– – – 1.0
3.2 to 2.7 to 0.60 to 0.50 to Resi-
FeC-4 R 0.10 – – – 1.0
3.5 3.0 0.75 0.75 dual
3.2 to 2.0 to 0.50 to 0.20 to Resi- 1.2 to
FeC-5 R 0.10 – Mo: 0.25 to 0.45 1.0
3.5 2.5 0.70 0.40 dual 1.6
3.0 to 2.0 to Resi- Mg: 0.02 to 0.10
FeC-GF E, T 0.6 0.05 0.015 1.5 – 1.0
4.0 3.7 dual Ce: 0.20
3.2 to 3.2 to 0.10 to Resi- Mg: 0.04 to 0.10
FeC-GP1 R 0.05 0.015 0.50 – 1.0
4.0 3.8 0.40 dual Ce: 0.20
2.5 to 1.5 to Resi- Mg: 0.02 to 0.10
FeC-GP2 E, T 1.0 0.05 0.015 2.5 1.0 1.0
3.5 3.0 dual Ce: 0.20
Z E, R, T Any other agreed chemical composition
a
Single values are maximum values.
b
The results have to be rounded on the same position as fixed values by using Appendix B, Rule A from ISO 31-0:1992.
c
For weld metal and the electrodes according to this table, the elements indicated in the table are to be applied. If it is
shown that other elements are included then their contents shall be determined; this ensures that their total value does not
exceed the maximum limit value for “the sum of other elements” in the final column of the table.
d
The value for nickel may contain the accompanying element cobalt.
e
The value for copper may contain the accompanying element silver.
15.3 Cold welding of grey cast iron with a dissimilar filler material

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09-2
The advantage of cold welding of cast iron is that in the case of a repair in all positions (except for PG),
the welding can be performed without complex pre-heating. In addition, it is often impossible to dismantle
or remove the component. The thermal load for the welder is reduced, contrary to hot welding. A disad-
vantage is the difference in colour of the weld metal.
Workpiece preparation
 Use a suitable test method (e.g. liquid penetration test) to locate the cracks precisely.
 Drill crack-ends to avoid the notch effect and therefore prevent the propagation of the crack.
Depending on the wall thickness, bore diameters between 5 mm and 10 mm are to be selected.
 Remove the crack, preferably thermally rather than mechanically, e.g. with chip-out electrodes.
Gouging with compressed air or grinding (with oil or fat-polluted components) are not appropriate,
as otherwise when welding gasification and a porous weld metal is to be expected.
 Completely remove cast skin and all residues (e.g. from chip out, oil, grease, etc.). in the weld areas.
Performing cold welding
Predominantly nickel, nickel-iron or nickel-copper filler materials are used according to DIN EN
ISO 1071.
 Follow the baking instructions provided by the electrode manufacturers.

 Select small electrode diameters (2.5 mm or 3.2 mm); start with the smaller one
 Keep arc-time as less as possible and amperage as low as possible
 In the pilgrim-step-process, weld short weld sections (rule of thumb: length of weld = core rod
diameter x 10; approx. 20 mm – 30 mm length; width max. one electrode diameter)
 Hammer down each weld bead immediately in the “red-hot” state with the hammer.
 Grind off pores immediately.
 The welded component may be only hand-warm max. 60 °C to avoid heat stresses. In single
cases (large workpieces) it can be required that the workpiece is being pre-heated to approx. 150
°C and hold this temperature until the completion of the welding operations
For this, the following stick electrodes may be used according to Table:
DIN EN ISO 1071 -

E C ST Unalloyed weld metal for repairing small holes and cracks. Because of the carbon
absorption from the cast iron, the weld metal will largely be martensitic and can only be
worked on by grinding.
E C Ni-Cl-A 1 Basic-graphitic nickel iron electrode with high nickel content. Because of the high
phosphorous content in cast iron, the weld metal is more sensitive to hot cracks.
Contains more aluminium than the filler material E C Ni-Cl to improve welding
characteristics. The alloyed aluminium is dissolved in the weld metal and may reduce
toughness.
E C NiFe-2 3 Basic-graphitic electrode. Multi-pass welding of cast iron with spheroidal graphite and
black malleable cast iron. Mixed joints between cast iron and steel.
E C NiCu 1 Basic nickel copper electrode. Well suited for fill layers in multi-pass welding for bigger
weld cross-sections (flake and spheroidal graphite and black malleable cast iron). Good
bonding on aged cast iron. Advantage: colour similarity.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09-2
Table 16: Extract from DIN EN ISO 1071: Chemical composition of dissimilar sticks and wire electrodes as well as of weld metal of coated stick electrodes and cored-wire electrodes.
a, b, c, d
Chemical composition %
Symbol Product type Sum

e f
C Si Mn P S Fe Ni Cu Other of other
elements
Fe-1 E, S, T 2.0 1.5 0.5 to 1.5 0.04 0.04 Residual - - - 1.0
St E, S, T 0.15 1.0 0.80 0.04 0.04 Residual - 0.35 - 0.35
Fe-2 E, T 0.2 1.5 0.3 to 1.5 0.04 0.04 Residual - - Nb + V: 5.0 to 10.0 1.0
E 2.0 4.0 2.5 - 0.03 8.0 min. 85 2.5 Al: 1.0 1.0
Ni-Cl
S 1.0 0.75 2.5 - 0.03 4.0 min. 90 4.0 - 1.0
Ni-Cl-A E 2.0 4.0 2.5 - 0.03 8.0 min. 85 2.5 Al: 1.0 to 3.0 1.0
NiFe-1 E, S, T 2.0 4.0 2.5 0.03 0.03 Residual 45 to 75 4.0 Al: 1.0 1.0
Al: 1.0
NiFe-2 E, S, T 2.0 4.0 1.0 to 5.0 0.03 0.03 Residual 45 to 60 2.5 1.0
Carbide forming: 3.0
NiFe Cl E 2.0 4.0 2.5 - 0.04 Residual 40 to 60 2.5 Al: 1.0 1.0
NiFeT3-Cl T 2.0 1.0 3.0 to 5.0 - 0.03 Residual 45 to 60 2.5 Al: 1.0 1.0
NiFe-Cl-A E 2.0 4.0 2.5 - 0.03 Residual 45 to 60 2.5 Al: 1.0 to 3.0 1.0
E 2.0 1.0 10 to 14 - 0.03 Residual 35 to 45 2.5 Al: 1.0 1.0
NiFeMn-Cl
S 0.50 1.0 10 to 14 - 0.03 Residual 35 to 45 2.5 Al: 1.0 1.0
NiCu E, S 1.7 1.0 2.5 - 0.04 5.0 50 to 75 Rest - 1.0
NiCu-A E, S 0.35 to 0.55 0.75 2.3 - 0.025 3.0 to 6.0 50 to 60 35 to 45 - 1.0
NiCu-B E, S 0.35 to 0.55 0.75 2.3 - 0.025 3.0 to 6.0 60 to 70 25 to 35 - 1.0
Z E, S, T any other agreed chemical composition

a
Single values are maximum values, if not stated otherwise.
b
c
For weld metal and the rods according to this table, the elements indicated in the table are to be applied. If it is shown that other elements are included then their contents shall be
determined; this assures that their total value does not exceed the maximum limit value for “the sum of other elements” in the final column of the table.
d
Some copper-tin filler materials are not included in the table; they may successfully be used for braze welding of cast iron. Weld metal differs from cast iron in its colour.
e
The value for nickel may contain the accompanying element cobalt.
f
The value for copper may contain the accompanying element silver.
SFI / IWE 1.09-1
MMA Welding I Page 48
16. Special electrodes
16.1 Cutting/chip-out electrodes
Stick electrode with special coating for chipping out, gouging, piercing and cutting (scrap cut) without oxygen.
The metal is melted by the arc and through the strong gassing from the special coating, it is blown out.
Application
 Easy joint preparations
 Gouging of root welds
 Removal of surplus weld metal
 Gouging of cracks for repair welding (see 15.315.3.) etc.
Keep electrode vertical, until the arc ignites. Afterwards tilt by an angle of 15 - 20°.
Push forward with sawing movement, so that the molten material is blown up forward. Repeat for deep
grooves. The chip out speed is about 100 - 150 cm/min.
For high-alloyed steels, the carbonised layer edge area must be removed in the cut zone.
An extractor is required for indoor applications because of the strong fumes produced.
16.2 Cutting electrodes - hollow stick electrodes
Special electrode holder with current- and and compressed air supply (5 bar) required.
Also for coarse cutting of parts which are lying upon each other with overlap.
Underwater cutting is possible with water-repellent protective layers on the electrode coating.
Welding equipment: DC + pole on the electrode, per mm electrode diameter approx. 50 A.
Strong sparks and fumes produced.
16.3 Carbon arc electrodes (usually copper plated with arc-air process)
Special electrode holder with current and compressed air supply (min. 5 bar) necessary.
Application
 To use for non-, low and high-alloyed steels
 Gouging for back run welding
 Gouging of weld errors
 Cutting of welded parts
 DC + pole on the electrode
 Per mm electrode diameter ca. 50 A
 Strong fume production
 Loud
16.4 Preheating electrodes
For pre-heating work in common practical use; there is no metallic weld metal; strong fume production.

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SFI / IWE 1.09-1
17. Welding procedures

17.1 Joint preparation
17.1.1 Butt welds
Table 17 lists the most important types of joint preparation for butt welds.
DIN EN ISO 9692-1 gives additional recommendations for the joint preparation.
Chamfering the joint edges is usually achieved by flame cutting (steel) or plasma cutting (CrNi steels);
other mechanical and thermal processes like turning, milling, gouging torches, etc. are also possible.
It is also recommended that the oxide layers resulting from flame cutting should be removed before
manual arc welding. Coatings, paints etc. should be removed from the weld area, too. For smaller pipe
diameters in pipeline construction, the joint preparation mostly takes place through grinding with angle
grinders. Clean joint preparation facilitates welding operations and influences welding speed positively.
A single-U butt weld preparation is often used for thick-walled pipes, in hydraulic equipment and power
plant construction, for example. This preparation is more economical due to less weld volumes.
Table 17: Weld joint preparation, manual metal arc welding of steel
Workpiece
Type of joint Root face Included
thickness Weld layout Distance b
preparation thickness c angle, Remark
s / t mm mm
mm α, β
up to 3
≈t
3 ≤4 ≤2 60°
> 10 1≤b≤3 ≤2 60°
60° ≤ α ≤ 90°
> 12 1≤b≤3 h≈4 6≤R≤9
8° ≤ β ≤ 12°
17.1.2 Fillet welds
The most common welds used in steel constructions are fillet welds. Generally, they are applied as
isosceles weld shapes. Fillet welds usually require no special joint preparation, but the distance b
between the two components should be kept as short as possible. In the unfavourable case, slag can
run via the gap to the weld pool and thus lead to weld defects.

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SFI / IWE 1.09-1
Table 18: Fillet weld preparation
Type of joint Weld Gap b

Preparation Angle
preparation structure mm Remark
α
Fusion face to aim for

≤2 70°≤ α ≤100°
rectangular b=0
Fusion face to aim for

≤2 60°
rectangular b=0
Fusion face
≤2 60°≤ α ≤120°
rectangular
17.2 Stick electrode handling and weld layout
Stick electrode handling and weld layout are based upon:

 Base material and weld thickness,
 Type of joint preparation and weld layer,
 Weld position,
 Magnetic Arc-blow,
 Heat effect of the welding arc,
 Coating type and the thickness of coating of the stick electrodes.
1. Forward movement
2. Possible weaving movement
3. Feeding movement
Figure 19: Stick electrode

control
The stick electrode is tilted to approx. 10° in the direction of welding. The best results are achieved by
positioning the stick electrode perpendicular to the workpiece. The magnetic arc blow (see 17.3) may
require the angle to be changed.

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SFI / IWE 1.09-1
Stringer and weave weld beads
When the stick electrode is being moved quickly with minimal

oscillation, we refer to stringer beads.
When the stick electrode is moved in an oscillating action, we

refer to weave weld beads.
Figure 20: Stringer and weave weld beads
The following recommended working methods are intended as a first point of reference. This is valid for
stick electrodes.
Fillet welds in flat position

(PA)
Root pass
Fill run (-layer with stringer
beads)
Cap run (-layer with stringer
beads)
Figure 21: Weave beads Figure 22: Stringer beads
Fillet weld horizontal (PB)

Root pass
Fill run (-layer with stringer beads)
Cap run (-layer with stringer beads)
Figure 23: Examples of the layer structure

Fillet welds in vertical up position (PF)
Max. 2x
electrode Ø
Open Closed
Triangular weaving Weaving pattern Fillet weld PF-position
Root fillet weld Final pass Root pass
Cap run (layer)
Figure 25: Stick electrode handling fillet weld PF-position Figure 24: Layer sequence

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SFI / IWE 1.09-1
Butt welds in welding upward position (PF)
Root pass
Electrode handling Weaving pattern Cap run (layer)
for the butt weld Final pass
root pass and fill Figure 27: Weld layout butt weld
layers
Fillet welds in overhead position (PE)
Root pass
1st . fill layer
2nd. fill layer
Cap layer
Figure 28: Stringer beads PE
V-butt weld in horizontal position (PC)
Root pass
1st . fill layer
2nd. fill layer
3rd. fill layer
Cap layer
Figure 29: Stringer beads PC

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SFI / IWE 1.09-1
17.3 Magnetic Arc blow
Like every electrical conductor, the arc is also surrounded by a magnetic field. If the magnetic field is
prevented from expanding evenly, the arc is deflected: this is the so-called (magnetic) arc blow
effect.
Frequent reasons for arc blow are:
 Welding at the edge of the workpiece

 Welding next to large workpiece masses
 Welding close to a work-clamp connection
a) Welding at the edge of the

workpiece
b) Welding next to large workpiece masses
c) Welding close to the work-clamp connection
Figure 30 a, b, c: Causes of arc blow

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SFI / IWE 1.09-1
The following measures for preventing

magnetic arc blow:
– Keep arc length short

– Change the angle of the stick electrode
– Attach an earth clamp on both sides or shift the
earth clamp
– Make numerous tack welds
– Select the correct welding sequence
– If possible use AC rather than DC current
Figure 31: Altered angle
17.4 Efficiency of stick electrodes
Weight of weld metal

Efficiency in %   100%
Weight of melted core rod
The efficiency can be increased over 100% by adding more iron powder into the coating.
Example:
Efficiency 105% Efficiency 160%

Ø 4 mm  450 mm Ø 4 mm  450 mm
Weight of the core

Weight of the core rod
rod about 40 g
about 40 g coating contains
coating without iron
iron powder (approx. 25 g)
powder
Weight of weld metal equals the weight Weight of weld metal is about 60% greater than
of the molten core rod. the weight of the deposited core rod
(core rod + iron powder).

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SFI / IWE 1.09-1
a-size 105%
a-size 160%
Figure 32: Change of a-size with high-efficiency stick electrodes with hardly modified run-out length
High-efficiency stick electrodes can be welded in horizontal position, partly only in flat position (PA).
In addition, the current is to be increased compared to stick electrodes with a normal efficiency.
Iron- or metal powder in the stick electrode coating increases the metallic efficiency and deposition
rate.
17.5 Selecting a favourable welding position
All fusion welding processes achieve the highest deposition rates, a good weld structure and a deep
penetration in the flat position (PA).
Table 19 shows how the weld position influences production time according to Malisius.
Figure 33 "Comparison of manual metal arc welding times based on the flat position PA” shows the
compares of approximate working times for shielded metal arc welding related to the flat position (PA)
with the same welding cross-section (according to Aichele). Figure 34 shows the deposition rates of
different fusion welding processes.
PA PB PC PF PD, PE
100% 130% 180% 220% 220 to 250%
Figure 33: Comparison of manual metal arc welding times based on the flat position PA

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SFI / IWE 1.09-1
Table 19: Influence of the welding position on the production time

Stick electrode Pure welding Production Com-
Number of
Welding position diameter time time parison
beads
mm min/m min/m %
Fillet welds, a-size 6 mm
horizontal (PB) 2 5 8.5 15.7 100
flat position (PA) 1 5 8.1 14.2 90
vertical up (uphill) (PF) 2 4 12.4 24.2 154
vertical down (downhill) (PG) 3 4 12.6 24.7 158
overhead (PE) 5 4 13.0 34.0 217
Butt welds, 8 mm Single-V edge preparation without back-welding of the root
horizontal, flat (PA) 2 4 13.7 25.0 100
perpendicular to vertical wall (PC) 5 3.25/4 16.2 31.2 125
vertical up (uphill) (PF) 2 3.25/4 16.3 31.3 126
vertical down (downhill) (PG) 4 3.25/4 16.5 31.7 127
overhead (PE) 5 3.25/4 20.0 54.0 216
18. Economics
Today welding with stick electrodes is mainly used in applications where “heavy-duty welding processes”
are either out of the question, or are not cost efficient.
This is particularly the case when welding outdoors on building sites. Simple equipment or good weld
metal quality are often an advantage.
Figure 34 compares deposition rates. Under comparable conditions between MAG welding and welding
with stick electrodes, MAG welding will come off best in a pure comparison of deposition rates.
Nevertheless, there are many areas of welding technology where stick electrodes are the answer, e.g.
repairs, installation welding, welding in the open, vertical down welding in pipeline construction and also
many tasks in container and plant construction, as the examples show.

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SFI / IWE 1.09-1
Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Covered electrodes
Figure 34: Deposition rates of different fusion welding processes (Aichele).

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SFI / IWE 1.09-1
19. Vertical down welding
Manual metal arc welding with stick electrodes using the vertical down welding technique has become
the most economic manual welding method in underground pipeline construction. For regulations see
also /4/ /5/ /6/ and /7/ (regulations of the DVGW, API and TÜV)
Main influencing factors are:
 pipe base material and the pipe dimensions,

 the stick electrodes used, the welding power sources and the equipment,
 the personnel conditions:
trained and experienced welders and an experienced welding supervisor,
 technical welding expertise experience during production planning, the welding process, the weld
post-processing and the inspection technology as well as
 the local conditions and the weather conditions.
Figure 35: Construction site - installing a natural gas pipeline in Germany
19.1 Coated stick electrodes for pipe-line construction
In underground pipeline construction, approx. 85% cellulose coated vertical-down weld electrodes are
used in Germany.
However, basic coated vertical down weld electrodes are also used, mostly for high-strength pipe
steels.
This section discusses vertical down welding with cellulose coated stick electrodes.
The cellulose-coated stick electrodes (for properties see also 10.3) create a sharp and penetrating arc
due to the organic elements in the coating in combination with a defined residual moisture (should not be
redried) and little slag which allows welding in downward position. The shielding gas atmosphere

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SFI / IWE 1.09-1
consists of carbon and hydrogen. The existing hydrogen favours vertical down welding, however, it leads
to increased hydrogen content in the weld metal.
For a faster hydrogen emission (effusion) after welding, it is necessary to preheat the pipes between
40°C and 150°C (depending on the wall thickness, 5mm – 25mm) before welding; this also reduces the
risk of underbead cracking.
The cellulosic stick electrodes have thin to medium thick coatings.
The following stick electrode types are mainly used:

DIN EN ISO 2560-A E 42 2 C 25 (e.g. Thyssen Cel 70)
For all pipe welds/runs in downward position. Particularly suitable for root runs (also uphill).
DIN EN ISO 2560-A E 46 3 C 25 (e.g. Thyssen Cel 80)
For all pipe welds/runs in downward position. For root runs, Hotpass, fill and cover passes.
DIN EN ISO 2560-A E 50 3 1Ni C 25(e.g. Thyssen Cel 90)
For all pipe welds/runs in downward position. Particularly suitable for Hotpass, fill and cap layers.
19.2 Welding power sources
It is also important to choose the right “vertical down weld safe” welding power source.
Cellulose-coated stick electrodes asking special requirements for the welding power sources.
These are:
 a steep-falling power characteristic curve with the highest possible open circuit voltage
(< 80 V to 90 V),
 pure direct current, with low harmonic wave content,
 an adjustable current increase near short-circuit-situations, ArcForce (see figure 36),
 a remote setting option, allowing a welding current to be set as a function of the welding position and
 pole reversibility:
- pole for root welding
+ pole for Hotpass, fill and cap layers.
These conditions are often satisfied by mobile welding aggregates (diesel/petrol engine plus DC
generator). There are also “vertical down weld-safe” welding inverters available in the selection of power
sources.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09-1
Figure 3613: Power characteristic of a welding power source with short circuit current increase for vertical down welding
(Source: EWM Hightec Welding GmbH)
19.3 Working methods for vertical down welding with cellulose-coated stick electrodes
Vertical down welding with cellulose-coated stick electrodes requires some specialities in the working
technique. The following requirements are discussed below:
1. Joint preparation
2. Working techniques, handling stick electrodes
3. Welding the root run (rootpass)
4. Welding the filler beads and the top run)
19.3.1 Joint preparation
For pipes with wall thicknesses up to approx. 20 mm, a single-V butt weld preparation is installed with
root face and an opening angle of 60° according to figure 37 at the factory location.
(For pipes with a nominal diameter of up to 80 mm, it is often sufficient to have a bevel angle less than
60°). Pipe pieces or segments must be prepared accordingly by hand. Clean joint preparation is
essential for fast, economical welding.
Tolerances for the joint preparation must be respected and the in this way prepared weld must not be
damaged during transport or on site.
Welding is conducted with the use of internal or external centring equipment without tack welds.
The centring equipment can be removed if, for external centring at least 60% of the root run, for internal
centring the root run and the Hotpass need to be completed.
Details to the type and the use of the centring equipment are found in the welding procedure
specification.

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SFI / IWE 1.09-1
If no centring equipment can be used, tack welding shall be carried out with the welding process
intended for root run. At least three tacks must be distributed uniformly along the pipe's perimeter. The
maximum distance should not exceed 400mm or 25 x T. The tack welds should be at least 25 mm for
pipes ≤ DN 400 and at least 50 mm for pipes > DN 400. Cracked tack welds may not be over-welded but
are to be ground and re-welded /3/.
60°
1,5 + 0,8
1,5 + 0,5
Figure 37: Single-V butt weld preparation for

vertical down pipe welding Figure 38: Internal centring equipment for vertical down welding of
underground pipes
19.3.2 Working techniques, handling stick electrodes
Vertical down welding starts from the 12 o'clock position and moves downwards on both sides. The
cellulosic coated stick electrodes are used almost vertically (about 10 angle), as shown in figure 39.
Holding the stick electrode like this, a round welding hole is formed and the arc burns more on the inside
of the pipe during root welding.
Cap layer
Figure 39: Relationship between stick electrode angle and Figure 40: Vertical down welding with cellulose coated stick
welding position electrodes

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.09-1
19.3.3 Weld run layout
Cap layer
Fill- /medium
layers
Figure 41: Weld layout
1 Root run
2 Hotpass (2nd run or hot run)
3–8 Fill- /medium layers
9 Cap layer
t
minimum number of layers 
3
Table 20: Technical parameters for vertical down welding based on the weld layout of figure 41.
Root run Hotpass Fill layer Cap layer
Wall
thick- Curren
Current Current Current
ness El.-Ø Is t type, El.-Ø Is
type,
El.-Ø Is
type,
El.-Ø Is
type,
[mm] [mm] [A] polarit [mm] [A] [mm] [A] [mm] [A]
polarity polarity polarity
y
120– 100- 80-
3–4 2.5 50– 80 =/- 3.25 =/+ 3.25 =/+ 3.25 =/+
140 120 100
80- 180- 160- 140-
4–6 3.25 =/- 4.0 =/+ 5.0 =/+ 5.0 =/+
110 190 180 160
120- 170- 180- 160-
6 – 10 4.0 =/- 4.0 =/+ 5.0 =/+ 5.0 =/+
140 190 200 180
10 – 140- 170- 180- 170-
4.0 =/- 4.0 =/+ 5.0 =/+ 5.0 =/+
15 160 190 220 200
140- 190- 220- 170-
15 4.0 =/- 5.0 =/+ 5.5 =/+ 5.0 =/+
160 210 250 200
19.3.3.1 Welding the root run (rootpass)
The stick electrode, set to the – pole, has to be forwarded without weaving with such a speed that the
weld metal can develop a closed weld bead above the round welding hole. The arc “blows” through the
gap and also melts the root's side. The two edges have to be captured by the root run.
After the root welding, lateral slag is ground off, and the weld metal elevation in the middle of the weld is
ground flat.
For pipe diameters > 400mm, it is usual to have two welders working simultaneously on opposite sides
to avoid distortion and to keep the groove width constant.

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19.3.3.2 Welding the filler beads and the top run
The first filling run, the Hotpass is welded with the maximum current specified by the manufacturer for
this stick electrode diameter on the + pole.
The root is partly re-melted again, is being “through-annealed” and slag residues are being removed by
both the specific stick electrode positioning (6 o'clock and 12 o'clock position approx. 80° - 90°, 3 o'clock
and 9 o'clock position approx. 45°) and the high current.
The Hotpass must be performed immediately after the welding of the root, i.e. be welded in “hot-
situation”. No more than 10 minutes can be allowed to elapse between welding of the root and the
hotpass for high-strength tubular steels. Also, until the hotpass is finished, the pipe must not be moved,
otherwise there is a high risk of underbead cracking.
For the further fill layers, the current is slightly reduced, and the whole width of the seam is welded with
slightly weaving or stepping movements. The weaving width must not exceed 3 times the stick electrode
core rod diameter.
Compensating runs may be required in the pure vertical down positions (2 – 4 o'clock and 10 – 8
o'clock), in order to keep the weld thickness uniform. (Higher welding speed and lower material input).
The cap layer is also welded on the + pole, but the current intensity is reduced by 20 to 30 A (see also
Table 20). The weld upper faces are over-welded up to 1.5 mm. If performed correctly, the reinforcement
of the weld is about 1 to 2 mm. Pores occur here if the weld metal is overheated or the weaving width is
too large.
After completing the welding tasks, the weld should be covered for another approx. 30 minutes at 150 C
to accelerate the effusion of the hydrogen.
19.4 Summary
Vertical down welding in pipeline construction:

Special cellulose vertical down weld electrodes, “vertical down weld-safe” welding power sources and
weld-positioning equipment are required.
The vertical down welding requires a separate welder certificate, with special requirements for the
DVGW range; these are regulated in the DVGW worksheet GW 350, for example.
Preparation of the welds is slightly more complex and requires greater care.
Welds must be finished by welding “in heat” to increase the effusion of the hydrogen. The interpass
temperature should not fall below 80°C, or 150°C for high-strength pipes.
With the right technique, X-ray-safe welds are achieved with good to excellent weld quality values of
the weld metal, with a high welding speed and a high deposition rate. The heat-input is much lower
than for vertical up welding.
The welds have a slightly coarse-flaked appearance.

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20. Weld imperfections and their possible causes
20.1 Slag inclusions

Possible causes:
 current intensity inadequate (too low),
 welding speed too high
 slag residues have been welded over
when welding several runs
20.2 Gas inclusions (pores)

Possible causes:
 dirty workpiece surface (rust, grease,
coating materials),
 arc too long,
 basic-coated stick electrodes not dry
enough
20.3 End crater

Possible causes:
 stick electrode removed too quickly from
the melt,
 especially in case of large welding
currents, risk of shrinkage cracks
20.4 Cracks in weld transition

Possible causes:
 material is unsuitable,
 cooling down (quenching, insufficient
protection against surrounding
conditions) too soon after welding
20.5 Root fault

Possible causes:
 slag has penetrated root area due to
excessive distance from end face
 current intensity too low, slag-leading in
front of melt pool

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20.6 Undercuts
Possible causes:
 excessive welding current,
 stick electrode held too obliquely,
 arc too long,
 moving too fast on weld edges
20.7 Hydrogen-induced cracks
The risk of hydrogen-induced cracking arises from a hydrogen embrittlement, i.e. the ductility change of
the metal arises from:
 Hydrogen absorption and settlement into the metal lattice.
 In combination of (tensile-) stresses and critical micro-structures (imperfections)
Hydrogen-induced cold cracking is one of the most dangerous welding defects. It is not easy to detect
immediately after welding and often occurs not until 3 to 20 hours later.
Possible sources of hydrogen during manual metal arc welding are:

 Work piece
 Ambient air
 Covered stick electrode
Wrongly prepared work pieces in relation to remaining primer-, painting- or coating- residues in the near
surrounding of the weld area, are potential hydrogen sources.
Also inadequate or wrongly drying or preheating of the weld area can lead to increased hydrogen
contents. Acetylene (C2H2) is much more suitable as a fuel gas for the drying process or pre-heating
process than propane, for example (C3H8).
The absorption of hydrogen from ambient air should not be forgotten, either. The high arc energy can
cause the moisture from the ambient air in the arc to be partially separated into atomic hydrogen and
absorbed in the weld pool.
Thus, particularly when using basic stick electrodes, short arcs should be used in welding to reduce the
arc surface and therefore also the absorption surface for the hydrogen.
Example:
In the case of basic stick electrodes with hydrogen content of max 5 ml/100 g of weld metal (H5), the
diffusible hydrogen content is in the weld metal, at an arc length of 0.5 x core rod diameter, at about 4.5
ml. An extension of the arc to 1.5 times the rod core diameter increases the hydrogen content to 6
ml/100 g.
As the atmospheric moisture rises, the absorption of hydrogen may increase further with a long arc de-
pending on the air temperature.
Often, however, the stick electrode is the main moisture source.

Selecting the wrong coating type, if a lower hydrogen absorption is required, can be the primary reason
for subsequent defects.

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Where the hydrogen content of basic coated stick electrodes (5ml- to 15ml/ 100 gr weld metal) is still
unproblematic, hydrogen contents of 20 – 40 ml for comparable RB-electrodes or 40 – 60 ml/100gr weld
metal for C-electrodes are highly critical.
Failure to (adequately) re-dry basic stick electrodes is, however, often the main cause of hydrogen
induced cracks. Some welders still tend to believe that moisture will “evaporate” in the arc, like water
droplets on a hot plate. As a result, stick electrodes that have not been (adequately) dried are used for
welding, or the stick electrodes are incorrectly stored before welding, causing the hydrogen content to
increase, which can lead to hydrogen-induced cold cracking.
This hydrogen is embedded at the ends of notches and gaps and leads to an increase of the stress
condition. This again lets the crack grow and allows still more H2 to diffuse.
The combination of hydrogen, less deformable microstructures in the HAZ and a multi-axial stress
condition, e.g. at surface notches can lead to a delayed fracture in case of high-strength steels.
Counter measures:
Cracking can be prevented:
 A perfect weld preparation

 Preheating
 Application of hydrogen reduced, correct dried and stored filler materials
 Compliance to the work procedures / welding procedures, e.g. multi-layer welding with “Cel” (see
also 19.3)
 Work piece annealing for one or more hours at about 250 °C immediately starting out of the
welding heat (soaking).
Figure 42: Fish eyes

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21. Bibliography/sources
/1/ Killing. Handbuch der Schweißverfahren, Teil 1. s.l. : DVS-Verlag Düsseldorf.

/2/ DVS. Merkblatt 0957: Umgang mit umhüllten Stabelektroden – Transport, Lagerung und Rück-
trocknung umhüllter Stabelektroden.
/3/ VDE 0470-1, Schutzarten durch Gehäuse (IP Code). 2000.
/4/ American Petroleum Institute. API Standard 1104.
/5/ DVGW GW 301.
/6/ DVGW GW 350.
/7/ VdTÜV - Merkblatt 1052
/8/ Aichele, calculation and economics
/9/ BGI 616 “Beurteilung der Gefährdung durch Schweißrauche“
22. Question
(1) How should basic electrodes be used in welding?
 With alternating current

 Predominantly downward
 With long arc
 After re-drying (e.g. 2 h. with 300° - 350 °C)
(2) Which characteristic defines the yield point for E 38 2 RB 12 stick electrodes?
 E
 38
 2
 RB
(3) What does the code letter C mean in case of a stick electrode E 42 2 C 25?
 C content
 Cellulosic type coating
 Rutile cellulosic type coating
 Rutile basic type coating
(4) Which electrode type is best suited for welding low alloyed steel cast GE360 (1.0597)?
 DIN EN ISO 3581 – E 23 12 2 LR 12

 DIN EN ISO 2560 – E 38 4 B 22
 DIN EN ISO 2560 – E 38 2 RB 12
 DIN EN ISO 1071 – E C NiFe-1 3
(5) Which method is recommended for cold-welding of a grey cast iron component?
 Slowly pre-heat component to 600° C, slowly cool after welding.

 Weld component in water pool
 Weld component with the pilgrim step process
 Weld component “under heat”.

equipment
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(6) What is the meaning of the letter T when identifying stick electrodes
DIN EN ISO 18275-A E 55 3 MnMo B T 4 2 H10 ?
 Special chemical composition of coating

 Filler material stabilised with titanium
 The filler material is a core stick
 The strength properties are only achieved after stress relieving.
(7) Which welding parameters do you set for manual metal arc welding?
 Voltage
 Current
 Resistance
 Arc length
(8) How long should the arc be maintained when welding with rutile electrodes?
 0.5 x core wire diameter

 The arc length is irrelevant
(9) What is the formula for current with stick electrodes?
 Core wire diameter x 40 in amperes

 Core wire diameter x 40 in volts
 High voltage, low current
 Depending on the coating approx. 100 A
(10) What is the role of the coating on stick electrodes?
 Protection of the core wire

 Reduction of the blast effect
 Generation of a shielding gas
 Stabilisation of the arc
(11) What do the coating thickness and composition influence?
 The droplet size and the penetration

 The gap bridging ability
 The appearance of the weld
 No influence
(12) Which marking must a welding power source carry, if it is to be used in areas of increased
electric danger
 CE mark
 GS mark

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 S, K or 48 V
 Ü – mark
(13) Name a practical solution for expelling the hydrogen that enters the coating in case of vertical
down welding?
 Dry the stick electrodes

 Weld at a “single temperature”
 Hammer off the weld
 Do not produce the seam in a single action.
(14) Which measures are available against arc blow?
 Weld with a long arc

 Change the angle of the stick electrode
 Keep arc length short
 Weld with Direct Current
(15) Which welding position is recommended for a stick electrode with 200% efficiency?
 PA
 PB
 PF
 PD
(16) What happens to basic stick electrodes prior to welding…?
 They are redried at approx. 150 °C for 1 hour.

 They are redried at 100 °C for approx. 2 hours.
 No further treatment.
 They are redried according to manufacturer specifications (approx. 2 hours at 300°C).
(17) Name the causes of undercuts?
 Current too low

 Arc too short
 Excessive welding current
 Stick electrode removed too quickly from the end of joint
(18) Name the causes of slag inclusions?
 Moistened stick electrodes

 Current too high
 Current too low
 Root gap too large on fillet welds.

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Submerged arc welding Page 1
Chapter 1.10: Submerged arc welding
Contents
1 General Introduction to Submerged Arc Welding......................................................................... 3

1.1 Principle of submerged arc welding ........................................................................................... 3
2 Construction of a SAW welding equipment .................................................................................. 6
2.1 Welding equipment .................................................................................................................... 6
2.1.1 Current (welding) contact tip .......................................................................................... 7
2.1.2 Wire feed device ............................................................................................................ 7
2.1.3 Wire coils ...................................................................................................................... 7
2.1.4 Powder supply and extraction device ............................................................................. 7
2.1.5 Control ........................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Travel speed device (Relative movement between the element and the welding head) ............. 9
2.3 Power Supply .......................................................................................................................... 10
2.3.1 Regulation of the Arc Length ........................................................................................ 10
3 Weld preparation ........................................................................................................................... 11
4 Filler- and auxiliary materials ....................................................................................................... 12
4.1 Electrodes................................................................................................................................ 12
4.1.1 Wire Electrodes ............................................................................................................ 12
4.1.2 Strip electrodes ............................................................................................................ 15
4.2 Welding Flux ............................................................................................................................ 15
4.2.1 Tasks of the welding powder ........................................................................................ 15
4.2.2 Classification of Welding Flux (Powders) ..................................................................... 16
4.2.3 Storage and re-drying of flux ........................................................................................ 20
4.2.4 Identification and designation of welding powders ........................................................ 20
4.3 Wire / flux combination............................................................................................................. 22
4.3.1 Metallurgical behaviour ................................................................................................ 22
4.3.2 Designation of a wire/flux combination ......................................................................... 22
5 Procedure parameters, weld pool backing.................................................................................. 23
5.1 Deposition rate......................................................................................................................... 23
5.2 Influence of the electrode position on penetration depth and weld geometry ........................... 23
5.2.1 Flux granularity ............................................................................................................ 23
5.3 Weld pool backing system ....................................................................................................... 23
6 Options to increase performance in submerged arc welding .................................................... 24
6.1 Increase in output in single wire SAW ...................................................................................... 25
6.2 Performance increase for multiple-wire SAW ........................................................................... 26
6.2.1 Double wire welding with shared feed system .............................................................. 27
6.2.2 Multi-wire welding using separate feed systems ........................................................... 28
6.2.3 Multi-wire welding with additional cold/hot wire ............................................................ 29
6.2.4 Multi-wire welding with cold wire filler and/or metal powder .......................................... 30
7 Process variants ........................................................................................................................... 30

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7.1 Submerged arc welding with strip electrode ............................................................................. 30

7.1.1 SAW Joint welding ....................................................................................................... 30
7.1.2 SAW surface layer welding .......................................................................................... 30
7.2 Narrow Gap Submerged Arc Welding ...................................................................................... 31
7.3 Horizontal welding with Submerged Arc Welding ..................................................................... 33
7.4 Shape welding ......................................................................................................................... 34
8 Imperfections in submerged arc welding and corrective measures ......................................... 35
9 Applications of submerged arc welding ...................................................................................... 38
9.1 Shipbuilding ............................................................................................................................. 38
9.2 Vessel construction .................................................................................................................. 39
9.3 Pipe welding ............................................................................................................................ 41
10 Application of submerged arc deposition welding ..................................................................... 43
11 Test questions............................................................................................................................... 45
12 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................. 47

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1 General Introduction to Submerged Arc Welding
Definition of submerged arc welding according to DIN EN 14610, DIN ISO 857-1 and DIN1910-100
According to DIN 1910 Part 2 Submerged arc welding is part of the “covered/submerged” arc welding
processes. The ignited arc is protected from the atmosphere by a flux which is located between the
electrode and the workpiece (in special cases also between two electrodes) in a welding cavity filled with
gases (CO, CO2, CH4 and H2) and vapours; these are generated partially from the melting of the
surrounding flux and the evaporation of flux components.
At the same time, the electrode (filler material) is also melted and transferred into drops to the molten
base material. Here the filler material and the base material are melted by the arc and forming a weld
pool, that solidifies during the course of the welding into a weld bead. The weld is created by the relative
movement between welding head and workpiece. Slag is deposited on the weld and supports weld
forming. The non-melted welding powder is sucked off and can be supplied into the flux circuit again.
1.1 Principle of submerged arc welding
Section enlargement
Figure 1: Principle of submerged arc welding
The cross-section in Figure 1 shows that the weld pool is covered by the powder which results in a very
good thermal efficiency grade, which leads to a highly efficient melting performance. During the
submerged arc welding process there are metallurgical processes active in the drip stadium, in the weld
pool reaction and in the dilution area with the base material. The reactions in the drop stage and in the
weld pool are determined by the welding flux and the filler material. The effects of the welding filler and
the base material can be found in the dilution area which makes the chemical composition of the weld
metal and its mechanic-technological characteristics largely dependent on the used wire/powder-
combination, which consequently always has to be adjusted to the base material and the requirements of
the weld.
In Figure 2, deposition rates of conventional welding processes are compared to submerged arc welding.

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Figure 2: Comparison of the deposition rates of different welding methods
The usual deposition rates for submerged arc welding with a wire electrode diameter of 4 mm
is 7 to 8 kg/h with a duty cycle of 100%.
Submerged arc welding is a fully mechanized high performance method, which is normally used for
material thicknesses of 5 mm and above.
Table 1 Some typical areas of application for submerged arc welding
Table 1: Application examples for submerged arc welding

Industry Type of components Kind of Seam
Shipbuilding Panel production Butt- and fillet welds
Section construction Butt- and fillet welds
Pipes Longitudinal and circumferential welds
Pipe production Structural pipes Longitudinal and circumferential welds
Coiled pipes circumferential welds
Chemical reactors Longitudinal and circumferential welds
Tank/vessel construction Columns Longitudinal and circumferential welds
Pressure vessels Longitudinal and circumferential welds
Fitting construction Valve housing Longitudinal and circumferential seams
Arc conductor Butt and fillet welds

Crane and bridge construction Floor slab Butt and fillet welds
Profiles Butt and fillet welds
Thick-walled components
General steel construction with long seams Butt and filled seams
(e.g. Driven piles)
Beside joint welding (limited to the flat position PA, fillet weld PB, and horizontal butt weld), where
usually wire electrodes are used, cladding of components, aimed for protection against corrosion and/or
wearing, is a very important application area of submerged arc welding. For cladding tasks usually the

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double wire submerged arc welding, or the submerged-arc strip welding processes are used, since a
generally required low dilution of the base material can be achieved using both processes.
Corresponding to the numerous application areas, with vessel construction, shipbuilding and pipe
construction being the most prominent ones among them, there is also a wide range of materials used.
Table 2: Materials processed with submerged arc welding

The material groups which are processed nowadays using submerged arc welding.
Table 2: Materials processed with submerged arc welding
Materials Example Standardisation Minimal Plate

Thickness
Unalloyed and S235JRG2 (Rst37-2) DIN EN 10025-1, -2
8 mm
low alloyed materials S355J2G3 (St52-3) (DIN 17100)
High alloyed materials DIN EN 10088-3
X 2 CrNiMo 17122 6 mm
 Cr-Ni steels (DIN 17440)
16 Mo 3 (15 Mo 3) DIN EN 10028-2
Heat resistant materials 8 mm
13CrMo4-5(13CrMo44) (DIN 17155)
Case hardening steel
16 MnCr 5 DIN EN 10084 8 mm
(with limitations)
DIN EN 10025-4
Fine grain
P 355 N, P 460 N DIN EN 10028-3 8 mm
construction steel
DIN EN 10025-4

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2 Construction of a SAW welding equipment
A complete SAW welding machine consists of a welding head, a welding power supply, mechanical units
for positioning and moving the welding head and the workpiece.
Figure 3 shows the schematic design of a submerged arc welding system.

Figure 4 shows the possible structure of a single wire SAW machine.
totCopper base
Figure 3: Schematic view of a SAW machine
Figure 4: real SAW machine
2.1 Welding equipment
The welding equipment consists of the following components:
- Current (welding) contact tip

- Wire feeder
- Powder supply and extraction device
- Control and regulation devices
The essential parts are described in the following:

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2.1.1 Current (welding) contact tip
In continuous operation the current contact tip must provide uninterrupted current transmission and
maintain a permanently precise wire guiding. Due to the required high thermal and mechanical
resistance, it is recommended that the current contact tip is made of a copper alloy (CuCrZr).
Figure 5 shows different implementations of current contact nozzles.
Figure 5: Current contact tips

2.1.2 Wire feed device
A high-capacity and adjustable motor with gear and reliable mechanics for force transfer has the function
to pull the wire electrode from the coil (reel) and to push it through the current contact tip towards the
welding joint. Wire straightening fixtures allow an accurate aligned wire output from the lower end of the
contact tip.
2.1.3 Wire coils
Suitable attachment fixtures are to be mounted for installing wire electrode coils which are available in
different sizes and weights in accordance with DIN EN 756.
2.1.4 Powder supply and extraction device
The flux supply can be provided – depending on the company's operating conditions or requirements –
manually before welding, or during the welding with the help of a powder feeder device. The non-melted
flux is extracted and can eventually be supplied to the flux circuit again.
2.1.5 Control
With the control, the main parameters “amperage”, “voltage” and “welding speed” are set. These
parameters cannot be set independently of each other but must be adjusted together because the value
of each parameter influences the value setting of the others. The influences of the welding parameters
are shown schematically in Figures 6-8.

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2.1.5.1 Current strength
The current strength basically influences the penetration depth.
Figure 6: Penetration as function of current strength
As a reference value 100 A can be seen to be equivalent with a penetration depth of approx. 1 mm in the
square butt joint. Usual amperage values for a wire electrode diameter of 4 mm are at I = 600 A to
approx. 800 A.
These values result in a current load which usually is about 150 to 200 A/mm wire diameter. Accordingly,
the current density is approximately 48 to 64 A/mm2. It has to be considered that the current density
influences the extent of the penetration more than the amperage does.
2.1.5.2 Voltage
The influence of voltage on weld width
Figure 7: Weld width as function of voltage

The usual voltage values are set to approx. 30 to 40 V.

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2.1.5.3 Welding speed
Welding speed influences both the weld width and the weld depth
Figure 8: Weld width and depth as a function of the welding speed
The usual welding speeds for submerged single wire welding are approx. 55 cm/min. If the chosen
welding speeds are too low, the ignited arc is located on top of the ahead running molten weld pool
material, which causes low penetration depth and fusion errors. Too high welding speeds cause
significant irregular constrictions of the weld.
From the points 2.1.5.1 to 2.5.1.3 follows a practically relevant welding parameter setting, for example:
I = 600 A
U = 30 V
v = 55 cm/min
Wire diameter = 4 mm
A heat-input of approx. 20 kJ/cm is generated out of these values.
2.2 Travel speed device (Relative movement between the element and the welding head)
The travel speed device generates the relative movement between the component and the welding head with
wire electrode. Depending on the component geometry and the joints to be welded, various systems are
used.
 Beam carriage (longitudinal welds)  Movement of the welding head
 Welding masts (longitudinal welds)  Movement of the welding head or the component
 Roller blocks, wheels (circumferential welds)  Movement of the component
 Roller tables (longitudinal welds)  Movement of the component

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2.3 Power Supply
Using direct current with the  pole on the wire electrode is normally used for welding with one wire. For
multi-wire welding it is favourable to use direct current and  pole for the first electrode, and to use AC
for the following electrodes (to avoid arc-blow).
The power supplies are usually rectifiers, and one has to consider that due to the high degree of
automation, high amperages have to be available for a 100% duty cycle.
A power supply with a constant current characteristic (external regulation) is used for wire electrodes
exceeding 3 mm, while for smaller wire electrode diameters a constant voltage characteristic is used
(internal regulation).
2.3.1 Regulation of the Arc Length
For uniform welding results (weld width, -height, and -depth) the arc length and consequently the welding
voltage and current must be kept constant. Depending on the characteristic curves of the power supply
this is ensured with ∆U or ∆I regulation.
2.3.1.1 ∆U-Regulation
The ∆U-regulation (“external regulation”) is normally used with constant current characteristic curve and
when using bigger electrodes (diameter exceeding approx. 3 mm). The wire feed speed is controlled and
adjusted according to the arc length. One possibility of the regulation involves the connecting of the arc
voltage directly or as a proportional voltage value to the armature voltage of the electrode drive motor. If
the arc length increases for any reason, the voltage of the arc and consequently the supply voltage of
the conveyor motor increases. The rotating is now going faster whereby the arc length becomes shorter.
In case of inadvertent shortening, the wire feeder is slowed down: the arc length increases now back to
the original length.
2.3.1.2 ∆I-Regulation
The I-∆ regulation (“separate internal regulation”, actually not a regulation, but a process using autobalance
compensation) is used for power supplies with constant voltage characteristics); wire feed speed is
constant here.
Keeping the arc length constant is accomplished by the strongly differing high deposition rates of the arc
length changes and the ensuing movements of the working point. If for any reason the arc is smaller, the
amperage, based on the characteristic curve, increases strongly and consequently the melting speed as
well: with continuing constant wire feed, the preselected arc length is again being achieved fast. During
unintentional arc extension, the current value decreases strongly, electrode melts slower, and the pre-set
arc length is established again, see also chapter 1.04 “The arc.”
A reliable regulation is assured only in case of thin electrodes (diameter smaller than approx. 3.0 mm).
It is also used in submerged arc strip welding.

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3 Weld preparation
Due to the deep penetration a special weld preparation and the use of backing is necessary. The weld
weld preparation is standardised according to DIN EN ISO 9692-2, Table 3 and 4.
Table 3: Joint preparations for butt welds, welded on one side (dimensions in millimetres)
Table 4: Joint preparations for butt welds, welded on both sides (extract from DIN EN ISO 9692-2)

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4 Filler- and auxiliary materials
In submerged arc welding normally electrodes of the same type, or electrodes which are adapted to the
base material as far as possible, are used along with granular, mineral powders.
4.1 Electrodes
Depending on the intended application, wire (joint welding) or strip electrodes (surface welding) are
used; if required also flux-cored electrodes and filled strips can be used.
4.1.1 Wire Electrodes
Wire electrodes (or solid, and/or in special cases, tubular wire electrodes) are used as filler materials in
joint welding. The solid wire electrodes are made from wire rod and are extended to the required size by
cold draw. The surface is slightly coppered in order to minimise friction resistance and to improve current
transfer; to some extent this layer is also useful for corrosion protection.
To prevent welding defects resulting from contact problems in the contact tip, the surface of the wire
electrode must be a smooth surface, free from crevices, grease and rust scars, and appropriately calibrated.
Normally, wire electrodes with a diameter of 3 and 4 mm are used. For high amperages, wire electrodes
of 5 mm diameter are also used. If the welding area is hard to access, or if there is a danger that the root
may fall through, 3 mm wire electrodes are used.
The choice of the electrodes is made under the criterion that the mechanical-technological properties of
the weld metal and the base material match as far as possible; It must be considered here though, that
the welding powder exerts a more or less strong metallurgical influence on the chemical composition of
the weld metal, and therefore on its key properties.
For an error-free welding sequence the wire electrode must be perfectly coiled up. Deliverable ring sizes
are listed in DIN EN ISO 544.
To prevent confusion among them, each ring must be labelled on the exterior side, using the following
indicators:
- Trade name
- DIN EN designation (e.g. Wire electrode DIN EN ISO 14171-A-S2Mo)
- Production and batch number
- Wire diameter
- Net weight
- Manufacturer or supplier.
Table 5 shows the filler materials for non- and micro-alloyed materials.

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Table 5:
Short Chemical composition in % (percentage)a b c d

symbol
(Excerpt from DIN EN ISO 14171)
Filler materials for non- and micro-alloyed materials

Any agreed chemical composition
a
) The chemical composition of the finished product, Cu including copper coating ≤ 0.30%, Al ≤ 0.030%.
b
) Single values in table are maximum values
c
) Wire electrodes not listed in the table must be named similarly, starting with the letter SZ. The ranges of the chemical analysis are not fixed. The possibility is given that two electrodes with the same Z-classification cannot be exchanged.
d
) Ti: 0,10 % up to 0,20% , B 0,005 % up to 0,020%
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By processing CrNi-steels, usually 3 mm wire electrodes are used to lower the heat input.
Filler materials for high-alloyed materials are to be found in DIN EN ISO 14343. Table 6 shows an
extract from this standard.
Table 6: Symbols for the chemical composition of wire electrodes, wires and rods for the welding of high
alloyed materials
Alloy Chemical composition in % (m/m)1) 2) 3) 4)
symbol
Other
C Si Mn P 5) S 5) Cr Ni Mo
elements
Martensitic/
ferritic
13 0.15 1.0 1.0 0.03 0.02 12.0 to 15.0 — — —
13 L 0.05 1.0 1.0 0.03 0.02 12.0 to 15.0 — — —
13 4 0.05 1.0 1.0 0.03 0.02 11.0 to 14.0 3.0 to 5.0 0.4 to 1.0 —
17 0.12 1.0 1.0 0.03 0.02 16.0 to 19.0 — — —
Austenitic
19 9 L 6) 0.03 0.65 1.0 to 2.5 0.03 0.02 19.0 to 21.0 9.0 to 11.0 — —
19 9 Nb 6) 0.08 0.65 1.0 to 2.5 0.03 0.02 19.0 to 21.0 9.0 to 11.0 — Nb 6)
19 12 3 L 6) 0.03 0.65 1.0 to 2.5 0.03 0.02 18.0 to 20.0 11.0 to 14.0 2.5 to 3.0 —
19 12 3 Nb 6) 0.08 0.65 1.0 to 2.5 0.03 0.02 18.0 to 20.0 11.0 to 14.0 2.5 to 3.0 Nb 6)
Ferritic-
austenitic
high corrosion-
resistant
22 9 3 NL 8) 0.03 1.0 2.5 0.03 0.02 21.0 to 24.0 7.0 to 10.0 2.5 to 4.0 N 0.10 to 0.20
25 7 2 L 0.03 1.0 2.5 0.03 0.02 24.0 to 27.0 6.0 to 8.0 1.5 to 2.5 —
25 9 3 Cu NL 8) 0.03 1.0 2.5 0.03 0.02 24.0 to 27.0 8.0 to 11.0 2.5 to 4.0 Cu 1.5 to 2.5;
N 0.10 to 0.20
25 9 4 NL 8) 0.03 1.0 2.5 0.03 0.02 24.0 to 27.0 8.0 to 10.5 2.5 to 4.5 N 0.20 to 0.30;
Cu 1.5; W 1.0
Full-austenitic
high corrosion-
resistant
18 15 3 L 9) 0.03 1.0 1.0 to 4.0 0.03 0.02 17.0 to 20.0 13.0 to 16.0 2.5 to 4.0 —
18 16 5 NL 9) 0.03 1.0 1.0 to 4.0 0.03 0.02 17.0 to 20.0 16.0 to 19.0 3.5 to 5.0 N 0.10 to 0.20
9)
19 13 4 L 0.03 1.0 1.0 to 5.0 0.03 0.02 17.0 to 20.0 12.0 to 15.0 3.0 to 4.5 —
20 25 5 Cu L 9) 0.03 1.0 1.0 to 5.0 0.03 0.02 19.0 to 22.0 24.0 to 27.0 4.0 to 6.0 Cu 1.0 to 2.0
20 16 3 Mn L 9) 0.03 1.0 5.0 to 9.0 0.03 0.02 19.0 to 22.0 15.0 to 18.0 2.5 to 4.5 —
25 22 2 NL 9) 0.03 1.0 3.5 to 6.5 0.03 0.02 24.0 to 27.0 21.0 to 24.0 1.5 to 3.0 N 0.10 to 0.20
27 31 4 Cu L 9) 0.03 1.0 1.0 to 3.0 0.03 0.02 26.0 to 29.0 30.0 to 33.0 3.0 to 4.5 Cu 0.7 to 1.5
Special types
18 8 Mn 9) 0.20 1.2 5.0 to 8.0 0.03 0.03 17.0 to 20.0 7.0 to 10.0 — —
20 10 3 0.12 1.0 1.0 to 2.5 0.03 0.02 18.0 to 21.0 8.0 to 12.0 1.5 to 3.5 —
23 12 L 6) 0.03 0.65 1.0 to 2.5 0.03 0.02 22.0 to 25.0 11.0 to 14.0 — —
23 12 Nb 0.08 1.0 1.0 to 2.5 0.03 0.02 22.0 to 25.0 11.0 to 14.0 — Nb 7)
23 12 2 L 0.03 1.0 1.0 to 2.5 0.03 0.02 21.0 to 25.0 11.0 to 15.5 2.0 to 3.5 —
29 9 0.15 1.0 1.0 to 2.5 0.03 0.02 28.0 to 32.0 8.0 to 12.0 — —
Heat resistant
steels
Types
16 8 2 0.10 1.0 1.0 to 2.5 0.03 0.02 14.5 to 16.5 7.5 to 9.5 1.0 to 2.5 —
19 9 H 0.04 to 0.08 1.0 1.0 to 2.5 0.03 0.02 18.0 to 21.0 9.0 to 11.0 — —
19 12 3 H 0.04 to 0.08 1.0 1.0 to 2.5 0.03 0.02 18.0 to 20.0 11.0 to 14.0 2.0 to 3.0 —
22 12 H 0.04 to 0.15 2.0 1.0 to 2.5 0.03 0.02 21.0 to 24.0 11.0 to 14.0 — —
25 4 0.15 2.0 1.0 to 2.5 0.03 0.02 24.0 to 27.0 4.0 to 6.0 — —
25 20 9) 0.08 to 0.15 2.0 1.0 to 2.5 0.03 0.02 24.0 to 27.0 18.0 to 22.0 — —
25 20 Mn 0.08 to 0.15 2.0 2.5 to 5.0 0.03 0.02 24.0 to 27.0 18.0 to 22.0 — —
25 20 H 9) 0.35 to 0.45 2.0 1.0 to 2.5 0.03 0.02 24.0 to 27.0 18.0 to 22.0 — —
18 36 H 9) 0.18 to 0.25 0.4 to 2.0 1.0 to 2.5 0.03 0.02 15.0 to 19.0 33.0 to 37.0 — —
1)
If not defined Mo < 0.3%; Cu < 0.3% and Ni < 0.3%.
2)
Single values in chart are maximum values.
3)
Wire electrodes not listed in the table must be named similarly, starting with the letter Z.
4)
5)
The sum of P and S should not exceed the value 0.050%, with the exception of 25 7 2 L, 18 16 NL, 20 16 3 Mn, 18 8 Mn and 2 99.
6)
Si is to be added to the alloy short symbol if Si > 0.65 to 1.2%.
7)
Nb min. 10 × % C, max. 1.0%; up to 20% of the Nb- content can be replaced by Ta.
8)
Wire electrodes with these symbols are usually chosen for specific properties and are not directly interchangeable.
9)
Pure weld metal is in most cases full-austenitic and therefore can be prone to microcracks or hot cracks.
The forming of cracks is reduced by increasing the manganese content in the weld metal. Under consideration of this fact the manganese ratio was
extended for some types.

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4.1.2 Strip electrodes
Generally, joint welding using strip electrodes is barely used.

For submerged surface welding with strip, strip electrodes of 60 mm width and 0.5 mm thickness, with
tendency towards considerable more width (100 mm), are used. The advantage of this type of electrode –
as a result of the low penetration coupled with high melting deposition efficiency, lies in the small dilution of
non-/ low-alloyed base material with the higher alloyed material of the strip electrode. The thickness of the
layer is at about 3.5 to 5 mm.
4.2 Welding Flux
4.2.1 Tasks of the welding powder
Welding powders are granular, meltable, mineral substances, which fulfil similar tasks in submerged arc
welding as the coating of the rod electrode, Figure 9:
The Welding Flux Serves for:

a. increasing the conductivity of the arc gap
therefore: better ignition
more stable arc
b. creation of slag
which: can be expanded to a stable cavern.
protects the transferring drop
protects the molten welding metal
forms the bead
with low heat input! (stringer beads) prevents the
too fast cooling off of the weld.
influences the drop size.
c. creation of a protective gas area (agglomerated flux)
out of: carbonates (e.g.: CaCO3)
e. de-oxidisation and to alloy reinforcement (agglomerated flux)
by: adding Mn, Si, Cr, Ni, Mo etc.
Figure 9: Tasks of the welding powder
Welding fluxes are standardised according to DIN EN ISO 14171.

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4.2.2 Classification of Welding Flux (Powders)
4.2.2.1 Classification according to type of manufacturing
We distinguish between fused (molten) and agglomerated (bonded) welding fluxes. Sintered welding
fluxes are not very important in practice.
F (fused) : Molten flux

A (agglomerated / bonded) : Agglomerated flux
M (mixed) : Mixed flux
Manufacturing of fused flux
Fused flux becomes a glasslike product by re-melting the raw material components (Figure. 9).
Subsequently the desired grain size is achieved by crushing and filtering to the right size. The bulk
weight and consumption are higher than with the agglomerated flux. Due to their glasslike surface these
fluxes are less sensitive to moisture. Fused flux is produced at a relatively low cost, but the high
production temperatures have the unfavourable effect that they lead to some chemical reactions, which
cannot be utilised any more during welding. The use of fused flux is of minor significance.
Manufacturing of agglomerated (bonded) flux
Agglomerated flux consists of grains which are joined together with the help of a bonding agent (water
glass), the grains coming from a mixture of finely granulated single components, which are heated after
granulation at a temperature of 600 to 800 °C (Figure 10) Since the temperatures needed for flux
production are below the reactivity of the raw materials, metallic deoxidising and alloying constituents
may be added to the mix, which lead to the desired metallurgical reactions (deoxidation, alloying with
e.g. Mn and Si) during the droplet- and bath reaction process. So they can be utilized for the mechanical-
technological properties of the weld, and also for the welding characteristics. The manufacturing of these
fluxes is expensive, and the consumption is low due to the low bulk weight. Due to their grain structure
and their manufacturing type, these fluxes are hygroscopic and must be verified with utmost care
regarding their moisture content, before using them. These fluxes are often and widely used.

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Figure 9: Producing fused flux Figure 10: Production of agglomerated (bonded) flux
(Source: Messer Griesheim) (Source: Messer Griesheim)
4.2.2.2 Classification of Welding Fluxes according to mineralogical structure
The welding process and the mechanical-technological properties of the weld are strongly influenced by
the powder type and the characteristics of the resulting slag. Table 7a shows the classification of fluxes
according to their mineralogical structure, Table 7b according to the characteristic properties of the
different flux types.
Figure 7a: Classification of Welding Fluxes according to mineralogical Structure

Manganese Calcium Aluminate Aluminate Fluoride
silicate type silicate type Rutile type base type base type
Main Manganese oxide Quarz SiO2 Bauxite Al2O3 Bauxite Al2O3 (min. 20%) Calcium oxide CaO
constituent MnO Calcium oxide CaO Rutile TiO2 Calcium oxide CaO Magnesium oxide MgO
parts Quartz SiO2 Magnesium MgO Magnesium oxide MgO Manganese oxide MnO
oxide Fluorite CaF2
Other Bauxite Al2O3 Bauxite Al2O3 Quarz SiO2 Manganese oxide MnO Quarz SiO2 (max. 20%)
possible fluorite CaF2 Fluorite CaF2 Manganese Quartz SiO2 Bauxite Al2O3
components manganese MnO oxide MnO
oxide Zirconium oxide ZrO2
Sum of
the main 50% 60% 45% 45% 50%
constituent
parts (min.)

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Table 7b: Classification of Welding Fluxes according to Characteristic Properties
Out of Table 7b, the following conclusion can be made regarding the particular flux types:
- Manganese silicate type
Most fluxes of this type cause pore-safe welds even on rusty and polluted base metals
Comparable with acid coated electrodes
- Calcium silicate type

Is a “universal” flux for one- and multi-layer technology comparable to acid base coated
electrodes
- Aluminate rutile type

Their use is especially recommended in case of high welding speeds. The slag can be removed
easily, and usually sets itself apart. Comparable with rutile coated rod electrodes
- Aluminate basic type

In this group we find the typical fluxes that are welded with alternating current, which cover the
area of slightly alkaline to alkaline. Comparable with rutile basic coated rod electrodes
- Fluoride basic type

The basic and highly basic fluxes are grouped together beneath; they are suitable for alternating
current welding only with reservations, but produce outstanding mechanical properties
(toughness!) Comparable with basic coated rod electrodes

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SFI / IWE 1.10
4.2.2.3 Classification according to the degree of basicity
Depending on their mineralogical construction and chemical composition, welding fluxes greatly
influence the mechanic-technological characteristics of the weld.
As characteristic parameter the degree of basicity is defined according to Boniczewski. It is defined as
According to the degree of basicity, the fluxes are distinguished:
B1 “acid” Powder

B=1 “neutral” Powder
B1 “basic” Powder
B3 “highly basic” Powder
Figure 11 illustrates the influence of the flux composition on the impact energy of the weld material.
Acid
Figure 11: Influence of flux composition on the impact energy of the pure weld metal
Results of welding tests are shown, in which multi-position welds with at least 8 layers were welded for
generating “pure weld metal” (see the defined welding conditions in DVS 0907 and DIN 700), always
with electrode S1 but with a flux of different basicity in each test. For determining the impact energy, the
test pieces have been removed out of the cap layer. This procedure guarantees that the results are
independent of the used base material.

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The results show that the ductility properties of the weld metal become better and better when the
basicity is increased. The reason behind this is the higher degree of purity, which is manifested in the
lower oxygen content in the weld metal, which is realized by using basic flux.
4.2.3 Storage and re-drying of flux
Due to their grain structure and different ways of manufacturing, the welding fluxes are more or less
sensitive to moisture, they must therefore be stored in a dry (or preferably air-conditioned) place. To
prevent the forming of pores and hydrogen-induced cracks, which happens in particular by welding high-
strength steels, the powders must be dried before use according to manufacturer's specifications. In
various welding procedures, a general re-drying is mandatory.
Usual re-drying temperatures are:
Fused flux: 250 °C, at least, 2h

Agglomerated flux: 300 to 400 °C, at least. 2 h
The manufacturer's specifications are mandatory; useful information can also be found in the DVS-
Guideline 0914 (“Processing and storage of welding powders”). When re-drying, in each case keep in
mind not to damage the flux by a too high temperature or a too long dry time.
4.2.4 Identification and designation of welding powders
Similar to electrodes, the fluxes must be marked uniquely to avoid being mix-up, and the essential
properties are as follows:
- Commercial name
- Name according to DIN EN ISO 14174
- Production and batch number
- Net weight
- Manufacturer or supplier
- Grain size.
According to the manifold influence possibilities of the welding flux, the designation is relatively extensive
which however enables a fairly good prediction of the suitable usage. The following statements are used
in the designation.
Index for the application class, powder class (table 8)
Powder class 1: Fusion/surface welding of unalloyed and low-alloyed steels as well as general
construction steels, high-strength and heat-resistant steels
Powder class 2: Fusion/surface welding of stainless and heat resistant Cr and CrNi steels and/or
nickel and nickel alloys
Powder class 3: Flux for surface welding, and pickup of C, Cr or Mo
Powder class 4: Fluxes other than classes 1-3, for example, flux for copper alloys
Index of the metallurgical behaviour

Indices 1 to 9
They designate the pick-up or burn-off of alloy elements
With flux class 1, the pick-up or burn-off of the elements Si and Mn in this
sequence, is given by numbers.

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Table 8: Meaning of indices for the metallurgical behaviour
Metallurgical behaviour Code letter Quantity by powder in pure weld metal

%
Burn-off 1 higher 0,7
2 over 0,5 to 0,7
3 over 0,3 to 0,5
4 over 0,1 to 0,3
Pick-up and /or burn-off 5 0 to 0,1
Pick-up 6 over 0,1 to 0,3
7 over 0,3 to 0,5
8 over 0,5 to 0,7
9 Higher 0,7
Symbol for welding current type

AC for alternating current
DC for direct current
Suitability for AC generally implies suitability for DC as well
Symbol for hydrogen content: H5, H10 or H15

The hydrogen content in the applied weld material is indicated; H5 means maximum 5 ml hydrogen/100 g
pure weld metal. The precondition is that dry welding flux has been used
Current carrying capacity rating, grain size range

The current carrying capacity rating of the flux depends on different welding conditions. Therefore the
flux designation does not propose marking it. The information coming from the flux manufacturer must be
used. The granularity marks the lowest and the highest grain size of the welding powder (e.g. Granularity
2 to 16 means grain sizes from 0.2 to 1.6 mm)
An example of flux designation
Welding Flux ISO 14174 – S F C S 1 6 7 AC H10
The meanings here are:

DIN EN ISO Valid standard
S Flux/Submerged arc welding
F Fused flux
CS Powder type calcium silicate
1 Application, powder class 1
67 Metallurgical behaviour:
6: Pickup of Si of 0.1 to 0.3%
7: Pickup of Mn of 0.3 to 0.5%
AC Suitable for alternating current
H10 Hydrogen content of 10 ml/100 g (pure) weld metal

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4.3 Wire / flux combination
The choice of wire and flux is made under consideration of welding and metallurgical rules and laws.
From the welding perspective, AC suitability, current carrying capacity and high-speed welding
properties are of importance here. Due to its cooperation with the electrode, the metallurgical behaviour
of the welding powder influences the chemical composition of the welds, which in turn affects the
mechanical-technological properties of the weld, so it must be included among the choice criteria.
4.3.1 Metallurgical behaviour
During the submerged arc welding of unalloyed and low-alloyed steel, pickup or burn-off of alloy
elements occurs due to the material slag - and the metal-gas-reaction (droplet reaction in gas-filled
welding cavern).
The elements C, Si and Mn are affected here. According to their percentage in the metal (electrode and
weld pool on the work piece) and in the slag, a pickup or burn-off of the elements C, Si and Mn takes
place, depending on the reaction affinity. Therefore the chemical composition of the weld fusion differs
more or less significantly from the one calculated based on the dilution (experienced values: approx. 1/3
electrode material and 2/3 base material give, in the case of submerged arc welding with wire electrode,
the weld metal of the seam).
The metallurgical behaviour is determined by the powder manufacturer, based on the guidelines described in
DVS 0907. For this purpose, multi-pass welds are (at least. 8 layers) welded under controlled welding
conditions with electrodes that differ from each other in their Si and Mn contents.
The comparison of the detected chemical composition of the “pure weld metal” with the alloy content of each
used electrode, shows the pickup or the burn-off of the examined wire/flux combination. This enables a
statement about the metallurgical behaviour of the powder which is an individual property of the flux, and
consequently it must be considered when choosing the right powder.
4.3.2 Designation of a wire/flux combination
In DIN EN ISO 14171 there are also symbols which provide information about the mechanical property
values of the weld metal of a wire/flux combination
Example of a designation
Wire/flux combination ISO 14171- A-S-46 3 AB S2
ISO 14171-A: Number of the international standard with classification according to yield
strength and impact energy value of 47 J.
S Flux/Submerged arc welding
46 Value for the mechanical properties (min.yield strength) : 460N/mm2
3 Value for the impact energy: 47 Joule at -30 °C
AB Flux typ: Aluminate Basic type
S2 Wire electrode S2 (1%Mn)

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5 Procedure parameters, weld pool backing
5.1 Deposition rate
The deposition rate depends considerably on the current intensity, and for a given current intensity on
the current density which can be influenced via the wire diameter. The current density in the electrode is
set to 30 ÷ 90 A/mm2 (thumb rule for current level: diameter multiplied by 100 to 200) but can
occasionally be set to a higher value in order to boost the performance.
5.2 Influence of the electrode position on penetration depth and weld geometry
With electrode positioning, the weld seam geometry can be influenced within certain limits: With a “dragging”
positioning of the electrode, the weld will be deeper and narrower, while with a “pushing” positioning some
widening of the weld is possible, even at higher welding speeds, see Figure 12.
Figure 12: Weld geometry of external circumferential welds and its dependence on electrode position
5.2.1 Flux granularity
Welding fluxes for SAW are delivered in various grain sizes. Fine-grained fluxes enable faster welding,
and have higher current carrying capacity. They provide a denser filling, and therefore more powder
consumption. Rough fluxes lead -because of the loose accumulation -to better gas release and therefore
higher pore safety.
5.3 Weld pool backing system
Because of the partly quite large welding pools, it must be assured by suitable measures that the weld
pool does not fall through. If the root face is not high enough and/or in case of a too large root opening,
weld pool backings must be used (Figure. 13).
When using copper bars, you must ensure by intensive cooling and/or a constructive design that the
copper bar is not melted off at the interface of weld and copper. The consequence might be
brazing/solder copper fracture.

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Manual run
Figure 13: Common weld backing types for submerged arc welding
6 Options to increase performance in submerged arc welding
Single wire SAW has a wide usage range, and even thick plates can economically be joined by several
runs. Figure 14 shows the cross section of a submerged multi-layer welding; with backing layer.
Figure 14: Multi-layer submerged arc welding on a 30 mm thick plate made of low-alloy steel (SLV Duisburg)
Increased quality requirements and the constantly growing labour costs and additional expenses make it
necessary to further increase the efficiency of the already high performing wire electrode SAW. Due to the
increase o
As the intensity of the melting and the deposition rate increases with the increase in amperage, a certain
increase of productivity can be made by using a higher welding speed and /or by welding thick plates with
fewer layers.

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The range of the practically usable current carrying capacity is limited by the current capacity rating of
the flux. Additionally, with high amperage or energy concentration, the resultant unfavourable weld
geometry can lead to hot cracks, pores or undercuts on the edges.
6.1 Increase in output in single wire SAW
The modification of the conventional single-wire-SAW technology provides the possibility to achieve
higher welding output and maintaining the usual joint quality (Figure. 15). So, a longer free wire ending
(Figure 16) or a smaller wire diameter leads to higher deposition rates as a result of the stronger
resistance heating. This can be used – especially in case of surface welding – to reach a noticeable
increase in efficiency. By using metallic fillers (same material or specific composition) a higher welding
speed can be reached, too. It should be noted that the metal powder, which is applied concentrically
around the electrode and adheres there firmly due to the magnetic field of the electrode, extracts heat as
well as from the slag while passing through, but also from the entire welding zone. As the amperage
stays unchanged this method has its limits in respect to weld imperfection prevention. (Attainable
increase of deposition rate is approx. 20 – 30%). Finally the negative polarisation of the electrode causes
an increase of the deposition rate by approx. 20%, depending on the welding flux and amperage, in
contrast to the positive polarisation, at the same energy amount.
Figure 15: Options to increase performance in single-wire SAW

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Figure 16: Normal and extended free wire electrode ending in SAW
6.2 Performance increase for multiple-wire SAW
The most effective method for performance increasing consists in the simultaneous melt-off of several
electrodes and the supply of filler wire and/or metal powder (Figure 17). These process variants allow to
largely eliminate the disadvantages of single-wire welding like the unfavourable penetration geometry and
energy concentration, and also to improve the seam weld by controlling the penetration and the heat input,
and finally to considerably reduce the production times. Today, the pure multi-wire systems are the most
economic and the furthest developed processes; the remaining process variants are reserved to special
applications.
Figure 17: Options to increase performance in multiple-wire SAW

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6.2.1 Double wire welding with shared feed system
At the beginning of the development of the multi-wire SAW in the years 1950 to 1960, first two electrodes
were used in transverse or tandem position. The two electrodes are moved by one wire feeder unit and
are connected to one energy source (double wire welding Figure 18). The effort regarding device
technology is low here, because only a modified contact tip and a modified wire feed roll are necessary.
In this process, a better gap bridging ability can be reached in comparison to the single-wire technology,
because the energy concentration in the workpiece can be controlled, at least within certain limits.
Arranged in an offset pattern, the arcs can be pointed for example towards the two fusion faces, whereby
bigger tolerances in the joint preparation are permissible, and the weld pool backing can eventually be
omitted. Deposition rate is approx. 50% higher, due to the increased current density resulting from the
smaller wire diameters, at the same energy input. Shorter production times are reachable
Two-wire welding
Characteristics: two wire electrodes
one power supply
one control unit
Advantages: high deposition rate

good gap bridging abilities
high welding speed
Typical welding data:

Electrode Diameter: 2.5 mm
Current: approx. 800 A
Voltage: approx. 32 V
Welding speed: to approx. 120 cm/min
Figure 18: Double wire welding with shared feeder system
The fact however, that in this process technology – one energy source and one common wire feeder unit
– the penetration ratios and deposition rates are closely connected with each other, led to the
development of further multi-wire types in which many of these disadvantages are largely eliminated.

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6.2.2 Multi-wire welding using separate feed systems
With the currently common submerged multi-wire welding process, two (tandem welding), three or more
electrodes, each of which is connected to its own power supply, are fed to the welding point by
separately controlled feeder systems; all electrodes melt down into a shared chamber. Consequently,
different power and voltage values can be set up on the individual electrodes, and weld geometry can be
influenced in a targeted manner.
Parallel to the mentioned advantages, the number of parameters, which must be optimised for achieving
good results, also increases by a multiple
Regarding the energy input the following must be considered:

Current type and polarity of the electrodes
Electric circuit (parallel, series)
Phase sequence and displacement
Properties of the energy source
Welding parameters
In general one can say that using pure DC systems is to be avoided because of the too strong mutual
influence of the arcs. The supply of the first electrode with direct current and positive polarization brings
advantages regarding process stability.
The circuit in tandem welding is shown in Figure 19.
Figure 19: Multi-wire welding (tandem) using separate feeder systems

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A “tractor” for the welding of a tandem weld (here fillet weld) as well a tandem weld are shown in Figure 20.
Figure 20: SAW fillet weld with tandem process and a tandem weld (Plant pictures: ESAB)
The submerged multi-wire method is used with great success in large pipe production, in
vessel/machine/bridge construction and shipbuilding.
6.2.3 Multi-wire welding with additional cold/hot wire
Whereas the supply of the currentless wire (“cold wire”) is not justified because of the relatively smaller
increase in deposition rate speed, a further increase in efficiency can be achieved if another current-
carrying wire (“hot wire”, not arc!) (Figure 21) is added. Even in case of a marginally increased total
amperage (filler wire: 150 to 200 A, 12 to 14 V) up to 20% shorter production times are achievable.
A further advantage of this technique is the overall lower temperature of the weld pool and the lower
burn-off in alloying elements of the filler wire.
Hot wire
Figure 21: Multi-wire SAW with additional cold/hot wire

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6.2.4 Multi-wire welding with cold wire filler and/or metal powder
As opposed to the hot wire addition, this procedure is characterised by the fact that no additional energy is
brought in. At identical electrical energy supply, the heat surplus created in the overheated slag- and weld
pool by the arc, is used to melt off additional metallic materials, for example wire or metal powder.
As a result of the ensuing higher deposition rates (approx. 20%) the welding speed also increases in the
same magnitude, with identical energy input.
The amount of metal powder is limited by the occurrence of fusion errors, slag inclusions, and
unfavourable bead geometry due to a too high cooling effect.
7 Process variants
In the following, process variants are described which are also applied with great success.
7.1 Submerged arc welding with strip electrode

By using strip shaped electrodes, both joint and surface welding can be performed.
7.1.1 SAW Joint welding
Joining by welding, with the strip electrode placed along the welding direction, brings similar advantages
as double-wire welding. With the strip in transversal or diagonal position, a lower penetration and a
better gap bridging ability can be provided. The application - if used at all - is limited to special cases.
7.1.2 SAW surface layer welding
The main application of submerged arc welding with strip electrode is surface-layer (deposition) welding
(Figure 22). It is used for remanufacture to apply layers that are very different from the base material,
and also for maintenance/repair of layers similar to the base material which are worn away or abraded.
Above all, corrosion-resistant or hard/wear-resistant layers are applied.
Figure 22: Submerged arc strip cladding, schematic representation and image section of a welding facility (ESAB)

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With submerged arc surface layer welding, one must consider that
- By the dilution of base and cladding material some undesired structure formations may arise
with unfavourable characteristics.
When using strip shaped electrodes in surface welding, the usually targeted low dilution (approx. 20%) is
attained by the arc's running back and forth constantly at the melting strip edge, preventing a deep
fusion.
Welding is done using direct current and positively polarised electrode, whereby power supplies with
constant voltage characteristic are preferred.
You can see the definition of dilution in Figure 23.
Figure 23: Dilution shown on a strip weld cladding (acc. to Schofer, ESAB)
7.2 Narrow Gap Submerged Arc Welding
The use of this process variant takes place with thick workpieces in the reactor, boiler and pressure
vessel construction, as well as in mechanical engineering e.g. turbine waves, rotors and crank shafts.
Non-alloy, low and high-alloy materials are welded. The aim is to keep the weld cross section small with
the help of a special joint form type in order to save filler material. More favourable stress ratios in the
joint, and a considerably shorter production time are also related to this.
Submerged narrow gap welding can be carried out– depending on the properties of the component parts –
as SAW single-wire, tandem or double wire processes. Weld joint search systems (tactile or non-contact e.g.
using laser beam) are implemented, in order to prevent imperfections which can very be hard to eliminate
especially on thick components. Special attention must be paid to the current contact unit in the narrow gap,
in order to prevent short-circuits that inevitably lead to errors, imperfections. Figure 24 shows the
corresponding indications.

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Advantages:
 Reduction of seam volume
 Reducing the welding time
 Improvement of the internal stress
condition
Disadvantages:
 High investment costs
 Very high requirements regarding
process safety
 High repair costs
Figure 24: Narrow Gap Submerged Arc Welding
Table 9:
[mm2]
Saved volume
Table 9 shows data concerning the saved weld volume in relation to the thickness of welded sheet
metals, and the weld cross-section compared with a single-V butt weld preparation.
Figure 25, left, shows a complete, functional narrow gap welding machine, that was exhibited as
a demonstration machine (ESAB) on the Essen fair “Welding & Cutting 2009”.
Figure 25, right, shows a view into the welding groove during welding.
The cross-section in Figure 26 shows the multi-layered structure of a narrow gap welding.

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Figure 25: The submerged narrow gap tandem welding facility View into the welding gap
Figure 26: Cross-section of the upper part of narrow gap SAW

(AREVA)
7.3 Horizontal welding with Submerged Arc Welding
With fixtures suitable for attaching the welding heads and supporting the welding flux, horizontal butt
welds can be performed (Figure. 27, 28). For joining prefabricated container shots, welding equipment is
available that – after attaching them to the components with the corresponding assembly fixtures –
perform a girth (circumferential) weld on two container shots in a fully automated way.

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Characteristics: - one wire electrode for every welding

head
- one power supply
- one control
Advantages: - welding on-site of big construction

elements are possible
Execution:
- One-sided or simultaneous two-sided
welding is possible
Figure 27: Horizontal submerged arc welding
Horizontal submerged arc welding with flux fed belt
Figure 28: Structure of horizontal welding with flux fed belt
7.4 Shape welding
Shape welding was developed as an alternative for the production of medium and thick forgings. With
this process semi-finished products or welded-on pieces are manufactured out of weld metal only.
For doing this multi-layer welding is used where both wire or strip shaped filler materials are involved.
This specific technic, as well as the metallurgical influencing of the weld metal which is possible via the
coordination of the wire- and strip-/flux combination, makes the component generated in such a way
superior to the forged material. This almost isotropic behaviour with outstanding mechanical-
technological properties, the generally lower C-contents of “shaped weld metal” are noteworthy, as well
as the unnecessary forming, hardening and tempering.
Despite the mentioned advantages this process variant did not/does not find large-scale industrial
application; its use is rather restricted to special cases.

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8 Imperfections in submerged arc welding and corrective measures
The submerged arc welding is basically a welding process barely susceptible to faults. The nevertheless
occurring defects can be grouped to “internal defects” and “external defects” as shown in Figure 29.
Figure 29: Internal and external defects in submerged arc welding
Some particularly important imperfections and remedies are described in the following.
1. Cold cracks by hydrogen

The hydrogen brought into the weld metal by wet flux, polluted plate surfaces etc. dissociates in
hydrogen atoms in the arc. These are concentrated e.g. in tension fields, or at discontinuities (e.g.
dislocations, microcracks in the HAZ, and similar). In these areas, hydrogen induced cracks can occur, if
the hydrogen cannot leave the weld metal via effusion.
These diffusion processes and therefore the appearance of cracks can take days and weeks to
complete, so this crack formation may possibly manifest just after some time has passed.
Actions to improve matters:
 Re-dry the welding flux for approximately 2 hours at 250 – 300 °C

 Pre-heating, and with it
- Decreasing of hardness values
- Reducing residual stress
- Improvement of [H] diffusion from critical zones

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2. Lamellar tearing
Due to long stretched sulphide inclusions stresses in the thickness direction of plates can only be
absorbed in a restricted extent. Too high stresses lead to cracking. Due to the high weld volume
submerged arc welding seams are especially prone to lamellar tearing.
Action to improve matters:
 Amended construction
 Change of welding order
 Improved base materials (z-values)
 Buttering of base material
3. Hot cracking
The weld solidifies in a temperature interval. Sulphur and phosphorus form with other steel
accompanying components (e.g. Mn, Ni) low-melting phases. These low-melting phases move ahead of
the solidification front towards the weld centre. The shrinkage stress created by the cooling off, rip the
still liquid areas apart.
 Steels with lower amounts of sulphur and phosphorus

 Depth and width ratio of the seam W/D > 1, Figure 30
 Lowering of welding speed to achieve a more favourable structural constitution in the weld centre
 Use of acid flux to increase the amount of oxygen in the weld pool
 Reduction of weld metal volume
 Reducing the heat input
W/D < 1 D/W ~ 1

Figure 30: Solidification at different D/W ratios

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4. Pores
4.1 Mechanical pores
Mechanical pores are created e.g. via holes and crevices. Caused by the heating up of the air in these
cavities the gas volume expands and gets into the weld metal. Pores will also be created by strong arc-
blow.
4.2 Metallurgic pores
Metallurgic pores always origin from the weld metal. They develop by pool reactions (e.g. CO) or by
solubility decline of an element at decreasing temperature (H2, N2). Pores can also initiate via the
blowing effect of the arc when there is an insufficient degasification of the welding pool.
 Deflect arc-blowing effect into more favourable directions by changing earth clamping
 Dry the flux
 Clean the plates
5. Slag inclusion
Slag inclusion can result from unfavourable wire-flux combinations, unfavourable weld shape,
inappropriate welding parameters, or an unfavourable welding sequence (Figure 31). Slag inclusions
also take place after an insufficient fusion by the arc.
 Change welding sequences
 Selection of flux with good slag release
 Change welding parameters (e.g. changing the voltage to avoid “ears”)
wrong correct
Figure 31: Avoiding slag inclusions by changed welding sequence
With a root pass-backing weld situation, the penetration depth can be too low to fuse the root face or to
achieve a sufficient overlapping of the weld runs.
 Increase of amperage
 Better alignment of construction pieces.

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Defects on the weld surfaces and in the weld root area

Failure mode Corrective measure
Reinforced weld Increase welding voltage
Weld height too low Increase current
Reduce voltage
Weld surface is too rough Finer flux
Bigger wire diameter
Top bead depression Correcting the forward travel speed
(e.g. for circumferential welds on containers)
End crater Run-on and run-off plate
Undercuts (butt welds) Choose different flux
(Conductivity of slag)
Optimize voltage
Undercuts (fillet welds) Optimize welding voltage
Optimize the wire position
Fall through of the root/fall back of the root Optimise welding parameter
9 Applications of submerged arc welding
9.1 Shipbuilding
Submerged arc welding is used extensively in ship building, especially for long, straight welds.
Figure 32 shows a few weld seams that typically have to be produced in the ship building.
Typical SAW welded joints
Figure 32: Submerged arc welding in shipbuilding (source: Lincoln Smitweld)
Tandem welding is often applied in the pre-assembly stage, while three-wire and multi-wire welding is
used occasionally (Figure 33), when the necessary sheet thicknesses and component dimensions are
given and allow to do so.
Depending on the production line, welding is carried out on both sides as well as on one side
(with backing).

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Figure 33: SAW multi-wire welding set (image detail)
9.2 Vessel construction
In vessel construction, round and longitudinal welds are created by submerged arc processes if the
material thicknesses are over approx. 5 mm. The weld preparation and the filler material/flux powder is
chosen according to the material being used.
The manufacturing of vessels and components being non-corrosive is particularly interesting in this field.
To this end, CrNi steels are processed in accordance with DIN EN 10088-3. This process demonstrates
a number of specific characteristics with regard to submerged arc welding:
Heat input must be controlled and restricted.
Consequently, a reduced heat input of approx. 15 kJ/cm is used. In practice, wire electrodes with a
diameter of 3 mm are being welded with reduced welding parameters (I ~ 450 A). In addition,
several layers are welded.
During welding, a temperature of approx. 150°C must be maintained between the layers. Due to
modified thermal conductivity and expansion properties of these steels, in contrast to ferritic
materials, considerable warpage occurs.
When using flux powders with acid powder properties considerable chromium burn-off occurs
which must be compensated for by choosing an appropriate flux powder respectively powder with
chromium support.
Figure 34 shows an example of the weld preparation and the layer structure of a submerged arc weld in
a CrNi vessel having a wall thickness of approx. 13 mm.
The weld was prepared as a Y-seam. The increased root opening size, as compared to the ferritic
materials, and the complex layer structure are important here.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.10
Figure 34: Weld preparation and layer structure when performing submerged arc welding on CrNi steels
A submerged welding set from the area of vessel

construction is shown in Figure 35.
Figure 35: Submerged arc welding equipment in vessel

construction (ESAB)

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.10
9.3 Pipe welding
During pipe production by means of submerged arc welding the welds can be created as helical or as
longitudinal welds.
An interesting variant is the spiral pipe welding here.
Spiral pipes have the advantage that:
 They can be produced “endlessly”, even on the construction site
 The weld seam is not oriented in the direction of the main load
 The production process can largely be automated
It must be considered however that
 that although the pipe is produced without ending, it must be cut to a length of approx. 12 to 18 m
for subsequent transport
 based on the manufacturing procedure, the spiral pipes have a higher flow resistance compared
to the longitudinal welded pipes, which cannot be neglected looking at the partly large transport
routes of the medium.
Longitudinally welded pipes are produced from sheets which are shaped into the split tube with a 3-roller
bending machine, or in a press line in different press operations (initial bending, U and O forming).
These pipes are used in the areas of offshore technology and pipeline construction, etc.
Due to the large piece numbers and pipe lengths, high welding speed rates are aimed at and reached
with the nowadays available welding fluxes and welding equipment.
Nowadays, longitudinally welded pipes are normally produced with lengths of up to 12 m.
Figure 36 shows an accordingly typical edge preparation (wall thickness approx. 16 mm, schematically) for
the two-pass method (i.e. first run followed by backing run) in longitudinal welding.
Figure 36: Weld preparation of “longitudinal welded large pipes” for welding in the two-pass method (run/backing
run)
The special welding sequence is carried out with the following welding procedures and welding
parameters:
1. Welding the tack weld with e.g. MAG, a wire electrode (3 mm)
(Current strength approx. 1,300 A, welding speed approx. 8 m/min)
2. SAW three or four-wire welding of the weld (inside)
(Total current value approx. 3,000 to 3,500 A, voltage between 34 and 38 V, welding speed up
to approx. 2.20 m/min)
3. SAW three or four-wire welding of the weld (cap layer)
(Total current value approx. 3,000 to 3,500 A, voltage between 34 and 42 V, welding speed up
to approx. 2.20 m/min)

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SFI / IWE 1.10
The longitudinal welding of pipes is shown in Figure 37.
Figure 37: Longitudinal welding of cylindrical pipe sections (ESAB)
Fine grain structural steels are frequently welded with the SAW process, too. Maintaining the correct
heat-input and the choice of suitable filler materials and flux powders are to be observed. Regarding the
welding flux special attention must be paid to re-drying.
Table 10 provides an overview of the distinctive features associated with the processing of fine-grained
structural steels by submerged arc welding.
Table 10: Characteristics of processing fine-grained structural steels by submerged arc welding
typical
Designation C Si Mn Cr Ni Mo materials
P 255 N
S2 0.12  0.15 1.0 - - -
P 355 N
S2 Mo 0.12 0.15 1.0 - - 0.5
P 420 N
S2 NiMo 1 0.10 0.15 1.0 - 1.0 0.5
S 690 Q
S2 NiCrMo 1 0.10 0.15 1.0 0.45 1.0 0.5
S 690 Q
S1 NiCrMo 2.5 0.08 0.15 0.5 0.70 2.5 0.6
Standard analysis of wire electrodes for submerged arc welding of fine-grained structural steels in accordance
with DVS 0918

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Flux powder type Production type Drying temperature

Maximum recommended Temporary storage
in accordance in accordance with (minimum duration
re-drying time temperature °C
with DIN EN 760 DIN EN 760 2 hours)
MS B approx. 300°C 10 hours 150

CS
MS F approx. 150°C 30 days 150
CS
AR B approx. 300°C 10 hours 150
AB
AR F approx. 150°C 30 days 150
AB
FB B approx. 350°C 10 hours 150
FB F approx. 250°C 20 hours 150
Standard values for the re-drying of flux powders in accordance with DVS 0914
Diffusible hydrogen content in Preferred application Preferred flux powder type

the weld metal cm³/100g
HD value according to DIN EN ISO 3690
15 MS
General structural steels CS
Vessel/boiler plates AR
AB
10 CS
Fine-grained structural steels with a AR
minimum yield strength < 390 N/mm² AB
FB
7 (CS)
390 N/mm² to < 690 N/mm² (AB)
FB
5  690 N/mm² FB
General recommendation for maximum hydrogen content in submerged arc weld metal in accordance with
DVS 0914
10 Application of submerged arc deposition welding
An important submerged arc welding method is submerged arc strip cladding. Technically a cladding,
suitable for the load application, is attached to a non-alloyed base material. This cladding can protect the
component against
 corrosion and
 wear.
Restrictions for the cladding of components (pipes) are given in the material thickness of the base material
which should be > 15 mm, and the external diameter must not be less than 300 mm.
Surface coatings of approx. 3 - 5 mm width / layer are reachable using strip cladding. The dilution with
the base material is approx. 20%. This frequently allows the required chemical compositions of the
component surfaces to be achieved within just 1 or 2 layers.
Strips with a dimension of 60 x 0.5 mm are used as standard for corrosion protection. In wear protection,
strips of 30 x 0.5 mm are used when working with components with small diameters. When working with
larger diameters, 60 x 0.5 mm strips are used.
As deposition welds for wear protection require high hardness values, filler strips or sintered strips are
used in order to achieve the corresponding alloy compositions.

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Sample applications:
 Corrosion protection
* Cladding of tube plates in tube-bundle heat exchangers
* Cladding of connecting pieces etc. in large-dimension vessel construction
 Wear protection
* Cladding of continuous cladding rolls for steel production
* Cladding of components, pipes etc. in the sand, gravel and cement industries
In Table 41 a few solid-strip electrodes for cladding are presented.
Table 41: Range of solid-strip electrodes for anti-corrosion and anti-wear protection
Chem. Composition in %
Strip electrode Application
C Si Mn Cr Ni Mo Other
X 30 Cr Mo W 6 0.3 0.5 1.5 6 0.2 1.5 1.6 W Wear protection
X 2 Cr 13 0.02 0.2 0.4 12 - - - Wear protection
X 6 Cr 17 0.05 0.4 0.4 17 - - - Wear protection
X 2 Cr Ni 2412 0.02 0.5 1.7 24 12.5 - - Corrosion protection
X 5 Cr Ni Nb 199 0.015 0.3 1.5 20 10 - 0.8 Nb Corrosion protection
X 12 Cr Ni 2520 0.15 0.2 4.0 25.5 20.4 - - Corrosion protection
Ni Cr 21 Mo 9 Nb 0.02 0.25 0.1 21.5 Rest 8.5 3.0 Nb Corrosion protection
A machine for the submerged arc welding of pipes of small outside diameter is shown in Figure 37.
Figure 37: Surface welding with strip electrode on a pipe (ESAB)

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SFI / IWE 1.10
11 Test questions
(1) When using the SAW hotwire process, in comparison to conventional submerged arc welding,
 The energy per unit length significantly increases

 Increased deposition rate
 Reduced welding speed
 Welding speed possibly slightly increased
(2) Among others, the ∆U regulation is used in SAW in order to keep the arc length constant. This
regulation
 Is made to keep the welding speed constant

 Is made to keep the weld geometry constant
 Needs a constant voltage characteristic
 Needs a constant current characteristic
 Keeps the wire feed rate constant
(3) Agglomerated fluxes have the following properties:
 High water content due to the manufacturing process

(low annealing temperature)
 They are hygroscopic; therefore they must be carefully stored and eventually according to
the manufacturer's specifications are re-dried
 Because of the manufacturing type, undesired metallurgical reactions appear only during
welding
 Because of the manufacturing type, desired metallurgical reactions only occur during
welding
(4) The copper coating of wire electrodes in submerged arc welding

 Should be thick in order to ensure good gliding in the contact tip
 Protects the wire electrode from corrosion
 Improves somewhat the current input
 Must be thin and strongly adhesive, in order to avoid soldering fracture by peeling copper
particles
(5) Please mark the correct statements concerning submerged arc welding
 It is a fully mechanised welding process.
 Its use usually just makes sense starting from a material thickness of 30 mm.
 Its use generally makes sense only with a material thickness of 6 mm and above.
 It is used for cladding work since during the process a strong dilution of the base material
is caused.
 It is used for cladding work since during the process a slight dilution of the base material is
caused.
(6) Please mark the correct statements concerning tandem submerged-arc welding.
 Two wire electrodes are used in welding
 Only one power source is needed.
 Two power sources are needed.
 The arc-blowing effect can be influenced by the polarity of the power source.
 It is welded with two strip electrodes.

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(7) Which tasks does the welding flux have, in submerged arc welding?
 The welding flux serves to increase the conductivity of the arc gap/width.
 To avoid the extreme creation of slag.
 It is supposed to cool down the weld faster.
 It serves for an increase of the arc resistance.
 It serves for the shielding gas flow formation.
(8) Which statements concerning submerged arc welding are correct?

 Usually welding is done with the negative pole of the wire electrode by using direct current.
 If the wire electrode diameter exceeds 3 mm a constant current characteristic is used
(external regulation).
 In the case of a smaller wire electrode diameter it is worked with a constant voltage
characteristic (internal regulation).
 Usually the power sources are clocked.
 Usually the power sources are pulsed.
(9) Which rules of thumb concerning submerged arc welding are correct?
 For the selection of current value (amperage) the following applies:
I = 100 – 200 * wire diameter
 For the welding speed: v = amperage I / 10 * plate thickness t
 For the selection of the wire electrode diameter applies I = 200 – 300 * wire diameter.
 For the penetration depth with the square butt joint: t approx. 1 mm per 100 A.
 For the penetration depth with the Y-butt joint: t approx. 0.7 mm per 100 A
(10) What applies for the welding fillers of submerged arc welding?
 The carbon content of the filler material S1 is at 0.08 to 0.09 %.
 With high amperage wire electrodes with a diameter of 5 mm are used.
 The filler materials for high-alloyed steels are to be found in DIN 8557.
 When fabricating Cr-Ni-steels wire electrodes of a 3 mm diameter are used.
 By risk of root fall through, 3 mm wire electrodes are used.
(11) Which of the following defects in submerged-arc welding belong to “internal” defects?
 Metallurgic pores
 Undercuts
 Slag inclusion
 Root fall through/Root fall back
 Lamellar tearing
(12) Which of the following defects in submerged-arc welding belong to the “external” defects?
 Excess weld metal
 Undercuts
 Slag inclusion
 Root fall through/Root fall back
 Pores

equipment
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12 Bibliography
DIN EN ISO 14171 - Welding consumables - Solid wire electrodes, tubular cored electrodes and
electrode/flux combinations for submerged arc welding of non-alloy and fine grain steels - Classification
(2011-01)
DIN EN ISO 14174 - Welding consumables - Fluxes for submerged arc welding and electroslag welding -
Classification (2012-05)
M 0948 Submerged arc welding and its process variants

(12/1995), DVS guideline, arc welding
M 0907-3 Determination of pick-up and burn-off in submerged-arc welding fluxes - Usage of flux powder
diagrams (9/2006), DVS regulations, submerged arc welding
M 0914 Processing and storage of flux in submerged arc welding

M 0917 Submerged arc welding of austenitic steels

0918 Submerged arc welding of fine grained structural steels

M 0928 Submerged arc welding of the austenite-ferrite compounds

M 0936 Submerged arc welding (narrow gap)

M 0940 Submerged arc welding - surface welding with tape electrode


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Resistance welding I Page 1
Chapter 1.11-1: Resistance welding I
Contents
1 Overview of the resistance welding processes ................................................................ 2
2 Principle of resistance welding .......................................................................................... 2
3 Resistance spot welding .................................................................................................... 3
3.1 Examples of resistance welding machines ................................................................................. 3
3.2 Resistances in the welding circuit .............................................................................................. 5
3.3 Influences on the resistances..................................................................................................... 6
3.4 Thermal balance ........................................................................................................................ 7
3.5 Application of resistance spot welding ....................................................................................... 7
3.6 Welding parameters ................................................................................................................... 8
4 Types of spot welding......................................................................................................... 9
4.1 Dual-sided welding (direct spot welding) .................................................................................... 9
4.2 Single-sided welding (indirect spot welding) ............................................................................... 9
5 Typical faults ..................................................................................................................... 10
5.1 Shunting effect ......................................................................................................................... 10
5.2 Inductive losses ....................................................................................................................... 11
5.3 Electrode wear ......................................................................................................................... 12
6 Safety information ............................................................................................................. 12
7 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 12
8 Question............................................................................................................................. 13

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1 Overview of the resistance welding processes

Other than many other welding processes most of the resistance welding processes require an electrode
force for processing and therefore a pressing force is applied onto the workpiece. Therefore this type of
welding is often called “resistance pressure welding process”. In the references and in the text below
often only the term “resistance welding” is used, even though this is not completely correct.
These processes should not be confused with the resistance fusion welding processes that can be
performed without a pressing force.
The main application of the resistance pressure welding processes is in the field of thin sheet metal
construction of approx. 0.5 to 3 mm individual sheet thickness. Mainly overlap seams are produced here.
In individual cases of course considerably thinner but also thicker sheets can be welded with suitable
special machines.
The butt welding types enable the joining of weld cross-sections of up to approx. 100,000 mm²,
depending on the capacity of the machine.
Resistance welding equipment can also be used basically for other processes using the benefits of
resistance heating, e.g. soldering or hot riveting.
Metal welding processes
Fusion welding Pressure welding
Conventional fusion Resistance fusion Resistance pressure Resistance pressure

welding processes welding welding welding
Manual metal arc

Chamber welding Resistance spot welding Arc pressure welding
welding
Shielded gas metal Electroslag

arc welding welding Resistance seam welding Cold pressure welding
Submerged arc
welding Projection welding Friction welding
Laser beam
welding
Pressure butt welding
…..
…..
Flash butt welding
Figure 1: Classification of the welding processes according to DIN 1910-100 (extract)
2 Principle of resistance welding

In order to create a welding spot, the temperature of the materials to be welded has to be increased, in
general, up to the melting temperature. The achieved temperature increase follows (ideally) the following
formula:
T = temperature difference [K]
Q = amount of heat [J]
T = Q/(m/* c) m = weight of the heated materials [kg]
c = spec. heat [j (kg of K)]
For resistance welding, heat is created in the material, as the electric welding current flows through the
material (resistance). The created heat arises according to Joule's law:
Q = heat
2 I = current
Q=I *R*t R = resistance
t = time

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3 Resistance spot welding

Abbreviation according to ISO 4063: process 21
I Process features:
 workpieces overlapped
 pencile-shaped electrodes (current density)
F  weld nugget
 in general one joint for each welding sequence
Field of application (examples):
 For steel: 0.5…3.0 mm (0.05…30 mm)
 For Al: 0.5…2.0 mm (0.1…8 mm)
For simple resistance spot welding at least the following parameters have to be adjusted:
 Squeeze time tV [cyc]
 Welding time tS [cyc]
 Hold time tN [cyc]
 Welding current IS [kA]
 Electrode force FE [N]
Figure 2: Typical sequence of a resistance spot welding process
3.1 Examples of resistance welding machines

Depending on the requirements of the production, different types of welding machines are used. This
can be stationary equipment, so-called pedestal welding machines, or also mobile equipment, so-called
weld guns. In addition to the widespread standard equipment that can be bought practically out of the
catalogue, there is also the possibility of building custom made machines for very special applications.

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The fundamental construction of the machines is comparable and is shown using the example of a
pedestal spot welding machine.
Figure 3: Pneumatically operated spot welding machine (schematic)
Manufacturer: DALEX
Manufacturer: DALEX
Manufacturer: NIMAK
Figure 4: Pedestal spot welding machine (pneumatic) and spot welding guns
Above: manual gun; below: robot gun in a special customised design

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.11-1
A relatively high force has to be transferred to the workpieces. This means that the welding machine has to
produce this force, has to be constructed properly stable in order to avoid a too strong deformation.
The force is generated generally, by a compressed air system (pneumatic). In exceptional cases
hydraulic or purely mechanical (e.g. foot lever) systems are also used. Since a few years an increased
number of servo-electric drives have also been used.
For generating high amperage usually the transformer is integrated into the welding machine. In most
cases alternating current (50 Hz) is used.
During the welding current flow, the generated heat losses have to be discharged. This mostly requires water
cooling.
For standard machines the initial start for welding is executed by a foot-operated switch or finger switch-
button (clamp); for special-purpose machines or machines integrated into in automated manufacturing
lines this is controlled via a switching contact in the superordinate sequence control.
3.2 Resistances in the welding circuit

Looking at Joule’s law there is only one resistance that seems to be responsible for the heat production.
In reality several resistances have to be taken into account. With respect to the closer range of welding
two groups of resistances are distinguished, material (bulk) resistances and contact resistances.
 resistances in the upper and lower electrode (material resistance)
 resistances in the upper and lower sheet (material resistance)
 contact between the upper and lower electrode for the sheet (contact resistance)
 contact between the sheet metals (contact resistance)
REM
RM
RMM
RM
REM
Material resistance
Figure 5: Resistances on the welding spot
Further resistances are active, e.g. in the cables, electrode arms and at their contact points,
however they do not have to be considered here.

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3.3 Influences on the resistances

The surface resistances are influenced by the electrode force and the state of the material surface. The
material resistances are dependent on the leading cross-section, on the temperature and basically on
the conductivity of the material which becomes clearly noticeable during welding. The following
illustrations describe the relationships.
Surface
resistance
RS
Electrode force FE
Figure 6: Influence of the electrode force on contact resistances (schematic)
It should be noticed that the resistances change over the course of the welding time. Where the contact
resistances (RS) are dominating at the beginning, they will recede into the background compared to the
material resistances (RM) during the subsequent course. The material resistances increase with the
temperature.
Resistance
RM
RS
[cyc, ms]
RS RM
Figure 7: Dynamic resistance curves (non-alloyed steel sheet)

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3.4 Thermal balance
Qtot   2  R  t
QVS QVE QVS
QVL Q
eff . QVL
QVE
QVS QVS
Qtot  Qeff .  QV
QV  QVE  QVL  QVS
Qtot
  100 [%]
Qeff .
Figure 8: Thermal balance of spot welding
3.5 Application of resistance spot welding

Resistance spot welding is preferably used in the mass production of thin metal sheet processing.
Particularly the appliance industry (“white goods”) and the car industry are mentioned here. On a steel
body of a medium-sized vehicle for example approx. 5,000 spot welds are used. Therefore in this field
resistance spot welding is the dominant joining technique.
Detail Detail
not welded welded
Figure 9: Examples of resistance spot welded parts

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Figure 10: Micro-section of a resistance spot weld (DC04; t=2.0 mm)
3.6 Welding parameters

A great number of different recommendations related to the setting of the welding parameters are
available for special tasks. However, it has always to be considered that the required parameters depend
on many influencing variables.
These include the materials that are to be welded and their thickness(es), surface refinement, and also
those parameters which at first appear insignificant, e.g. electrode geometry, cooling, machine
behaviour, etc.
Therefore the listed values in the table below should only serve as a rough indication for the dimension
of the parameters that have to be set.
St, zinc coated
Mild steel (uncoated) Stainless steel Aluminium
(elo...hot dip)
[cyc]
t=thickness of the thinner sheet
Table 1: Reference values for resistance spot welding
In addition to the materials listed above, most metals can also be resistance welded, however depending
on their physical features more or less easily.
For surface refined materials sufficient electric conductivity is a basic requirement as a rule.
Plastic-coated or painted sheet metals can therefore mostly be joined by resistance welding only with
significant limitations. In case of an insulating one-sided coating often only one-sided welding from the
rear (uncoated side) is possible.
Further reference values for the welding parameters are found in the data sheets of the machine
manufacturers or the DVS leaflets [1].

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4 Types of spot welding
4.1 Dual-sided welding (direct spot welding)

In case of common spot welding two welding electrodes are positioned on the opposite sides of the
workpieces. In this way the welding current can flow directly through the area to be welded. Usually one
weld nugget is created for each welding sequence.
Most standard machines are produced for this type.
Two-sheet welding Three-sheet welding

(single-phase) (dual-phase)
Figure 11: Direct spot welding of two or more sheet metals
If several spots are welded, this can be achieved with a special type of dual-sided welding, also with only
one power source.
Balance
(equilibrium of forces)
tot
1 2
Figure 12: Parallel spot welding (several spots at the same time)
4.2 Single-sided welding (indirect spot welding)

In many situations it is impossible to position the electrodes on the opposite sides of the workpiece.
Examples are large car floor assemblies where machines with large throat depths would be required for dual-
sided welding. In such cases the special technology of “indirect welding” can be applied.

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Copper base Copper base
Figure 13: Types of single-sided welding
In the case of indirect welding generally at least two spot welds are generated for each sequence.
5 Typical faults
5.1 Shunting effect

A frequent problem is the occurrence of shunting during resistance welding. Shunting is the effect that
part of the current flows not directly through the weld nugget but finds its way via different routes.
In some cases the shunting effect can be negligibly small. In many cases however the size of the weld
nugget is considerably affected.
Some causes of the shunting effect are:
 distance between the spot welds too small with respect to material and thickness
 intense contact of the parts that are to be welded close to the welding
 contact between the workpieces and current-carrying parts (electrode/-holder/-arms)
 indirect welding, especially in the case of disregarding the positioning of the sheet thickness
 contact between the workpieces and electrical conductors or inserting fixtures
Itotal
Ishunt Iweld
I I I
weld total shunt
Figure 14: Parallel connection in the case of dual-sided welding
The level of the shunting current is generally dependent on the distances between spot welds, sheet
thickness(es), conductivity of the material and surface refinements.

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The single-sided spot welding is a special case of shunting effect.

FAVOURABLE UNFAVOURABLE
tot e
tot e
shunt shunt
Copper base Copper base
Figure 15: Shunt effect for single-sided welding, different sheet thicknesses
Here, compared to dual-sided welding, the current flows not exclusively through the spots to be welded
but a part is lost by shunting current. Therefore in the case of single-sided welding, generally a lower
quality is to be expected.
5.2 Inductive losses

In the secondary circuit losses arise from the ohmic resistance as well as from the inductive resistance of
the machine. The inductive resistance depends on the size of the secondary window “A” (vertical
spacing * throat depth), on the frequency of the secondary current as well as on the material mass and
geometry of magnetisable components, fixtures or workpieces in the secondary circuit. The secondary
achievable current is reduced by the increase of inductivity.
Figure 16: Increased inductivity depends on the workpiece (magnetisable material mass)

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5.3 Electrode wear

High electrode force, current and heat deform the electrode contact surfaces with increasing number of
spot welds. If the weld current is kept the same during the production, the current density will decrease
and the welding quality will worsen.
In addition to geometric wear the alloying pick-up between the electrode and the material/coating of the
assembly part, should be considered. Due to this usually poorer conducting and deformed contact areas
are developped.
The achievable lifetime is strongly dependant on the material to be welded, type and material of the
electrodes, cooling conditions, welding parameters, cycle time etc. Generally some 1,000 spots can be
achieved (in extreme cases however significantly less).
6 Safety information
During resistance welding high electrode forces are applied. Therefore the machines have to be
operated with considerable caution and crushing hazards have to be reduced by safety measures. For
this the gap between the electrodes in open position is to be set as small as it is required for the welding
of the workpiece.
Expulsions /spatters should be avoided by correct adjustment of parameters, nevertheless they occur
occasionally. To avoid injuries in the eyes, hands or bodies, transparent safety glasses, gloves as well
as appropriate work clothing have to be worn.
The magnetic fields arising from the high currents on the secondary circuit could lead to malfunctioning
of electronic devices. Therefore persons with active implants, e.g. cardiac pacemakers, may not be
employed in the vicinity of resistance welding machines.
The electric voltage on the secondary circuit is not dangerous, because the most frequently used
maximum no-load voltage is about 15 V.
7 Bibliography
[1] DIN-DVS Taschenbuch 312/1
Schweißtechnik 9 [DIN-DVS Code of Practice 312/1 Welding technology 9]
[2] DVS 2902 (parts 1-4)
Spot welding of steels up to 3 mm

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8 Question
(1) Which parameters have to be set for the resistance spot welding?
 Welding speed
 Preheating current
 Welding current
 Welding time
 Electrode force
(2) Which of the following statements about the shunting effect are correct?
 Shunting currents are reducing the welding quality

 In case of materials with lower conductivity there is no shunting effect
 The larger the distance between the spot welds, the lower the shunting effect current
 Positioning and holding devices can cause shunting currents and should, if necessary, be
insulated from the workpieces
 An increase of the sheet thickness reduces the shunting currents
(3) Which factors influence the resistance welding strongly?

 Room temperature
 Electrode shape and material
 Type of base material
 Surface refinements
 Squeeze time
(4) Which fundamental statements for adjusting the welding parameters are correct?
 Thicker sheets require higher current
 Aluminium is welded with lower current than steel
 Thicker sheets require higher electrode forces
 A coating of materials basically does not influence the required current
(5) Which hazards exist during the resistance welding?

 Crushing
 Welder's arc eyes
 Dusts, gases, and fumes
 Noise
 Expulsions/ splatter

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Resistance welding II Page 1
Chapter 1.11-2: Resistance welding II
Contents
1 Electrodes for resistance welding ..................................................................................... 2
1.1 Types of electrodes (special spot-welding) ................................................................................ 2
1.2 Electrode materials .................................................................................................................... 3
2 Seam welding ...................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Technique .................................................................................................................................. 5
2.2 Weld types ................................................................................................................................. 5
2.3 Weld Shapes ............................................................................................................................. 6
2.4 Types of resistance seam welding machines ............................................................................. 7
3 Projection welding .............................................................................................................. 8
3.1 Principle ..................................................................................................................................... 8
3.2 Projection geometries ................................................................................................................ 8
3.3 Reference values and weldable materials ................................................................................ 10
3.4 Welding machines for projection welding ................................................................................. 11
3.4.1 Properties of projection welding machines ................................................................. 12
4 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 12
5 Question............................................................................................................................. 13

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.11-2
1 Electrodes for resistance welding

Electrodes for resistance welding are not filler materials, unlike e.g. with manual metal arc welding.
The tasks of the electrodes is to transmit the electrode force and the welding current to the material to be
welded. After the welding current flow, they (mostly) need to transmit heat away from the workpiece, in
order to cool the melted weld nugget.
1.1 Types of electrodes (special spot-welding)

The electrode composition could be as follows:
 Solid electrode (single piece)
 Electrode holder + electrode cap
 Cap with internal cone
 Cap with external cone
 Threaded spot welding electrode (for higher electrode forces)
Electrode shank
(holder)
a) one-piece b) two-piece c) two-piece

with electrode holder cap with screw-in tip holder
Figure 1: Basic types of electrodes
In the production usually standard electrodes or caps are used.

The dividing into electrode holders and caps serves the purpose that you only need to replace small,
inexpensive parts when replacements are needed.
Standard electrode caps are available in 13, 16 and 20 mm (d1) nominal diameters.
Figure 2: Different electrode caps according to DIN EN ISO 5821 (selection)

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.11-2
For a long life-time of the electrodes, sufficient cooling is essential. For uncoated steel sheets and
favourable conditions, 1000 or more welds are possible but with surface-refined (e.g. Zn) – depending on
the type and thickness of the layer – it can drop to 10% of this value. If aluminium is welded then due to
the so-called “alloying pick-up” of Al to Cu, the fast changing surface of electrodes may require re-work
already after 10-30 welds.
The basic design of electrode cooling as well as some important distance settings are shown in the
following picture.
Figure 3: Electrode cooling
1.2 Electrode materials

Resistance welding electrodes are usually made of copper alloys. According to the requirements the
corresponding material must be chosen on a task-specific basis. The main criteria for this are presented
in the following diagrams. Finally the choice is always a compromise between hardness properties and
electrical conductivity.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.11-2
Usual electrode materials:

RP: CuCrZr (with aluminium also CuAg)
RR: CuCrZr
RB: CuCoBe or CuCrZr
Electrical
Figure 4: Important properties of electrode materials:

hardness at elevated temperatures, good tempering properties and electrical conductivity

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.11-2
2 Seam welding
Abbreviation according to ISO 4063: Process 22
I Process features:
 workpieces overlapped (if required,
butt is also possible)
F  cylindrical, mostly driven electrodes (current
density)
 weld nuggets
 continuous welds or roll-spot welds are possible
Field of application (examples):
 for steel: 0.5…2.0 mm (0.05…6 mm)
 for Al: 0.5…1.5 mm (0.1…3 mm)

2.1 Technique
If several weld nuggets or welds strokes (lines) are to be welded after each other in a line or if a
continuous weld is to be manufactured, seam welding can be used. Instead of pencile-shaped
electrodes, specially formed wheels are used, in order to transfer and concentrate force and current to
the workpiece at the welding point.
At first sight the shunting effect looks like to be a significant problem here. Due to high temperatures in
the welded seam just immediately before, this influence isn't as grave.
Figure 5: Principle of seam welding
2.2 Weld types
A Overlapped weld
B Mask weld
C Butt weld with foil
D Overlapped weld with foil
E Overlapped weld with electrode wire
A B C D E
Figure 6: Weld types for seam welding

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.11-2
2.3 Weld Shapes

Depending on whether rows of spots or weld lines or continuous welds have to be welded, and
depending on the material and plate thickness, different current programs will be used.
Roll spot welds Continuous welds

All: Pulse – pause current programm
Pulse – pause current programm
cool
Continuous current
Figure 7: Current programs and respective weld joints
The distances between the welded sections can be regulated by adjusting the current or the cooling time
(pause) as well as by changing welding speed.
Radiator Heat exchanger (stainless steel) Cans
Figure 8: Examples of resistance seam welded parts [Pictures SLV Duisburg]

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.11-2
2.4 Types of resistance seam welding machines

Depending on the components to be welded, different types of welding machines are required. In
particular travelling wheel seam welding machines are usually custom-built models. Longitudinal weld
machines are, for example, used for producing tubular parts like cans.
Travelling wheel seam welding
Figure 9: Seam welding machines for different tasks
A standard machine for horizontal seam welding is shown in the following figure.
[Fa. NIMAK]
Figure 10: Pedestal resistance seam welding machine

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.11-2
3 Projection welding
Abbreviation according to ISO 4063: Process 23
Process features:
 workpieces overlapped (T-joint is also possible)
 workpieces responsible for current concentration
 weld nuggets
 large diameter electrodes
 multiple joints at same time
Field of application (example):
 for steel: 0.8…3.0 mm (0.5…8 mm)
 for Al: 1.0…2.0 mm (0.5…3 mm)

3.1 Principle
Projection welding is characterised in particular by the fact that the current density required for welding is
generated not through the shape of the electrodes, but by the component.
Figure 11: Concentration of the current by use of an embossed projection
The simultaneous welding of several projections shortens the production times and is therefore often
more economical than spot-welding. The number of projections that can be welded at the same time
depends strongly on the capacity of the welding unit used.
3.2 Projection geometries

In practice both standardised and not standardised projections are used.
Both “embossed” round projections according to DIN EN 28167 and linear- and annular projections
according to DIN 8519 are standardised projections. However, not standardised embossed projections
are also used.
The general rule is that the stiffness of a projection should be sustained as long as possible in order to
have to current sufficiently concentrated during the welding process.
Sheet thickness Projection diameter d1 [mm]
t [mm] Group A Group B Group C
t  0.5 1.6 2.0 2.5
0.5 < t  0.63 2.0 2.5 3.2
0.63 < t  1.0 2.5 3.2 4.0
1.0 < t  1.6 3.2 4.0 5.0
1.6 < t  2.5 4.0 5.0 6.3
2.5 < t  3.0 5.0 6.3 8.0
Table 1: Selecting the projection size [according to DIN EN 28167]

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.11-2
dimensions (mm)
1)
d1 2)
+ 0.1 a d2
0
1.6 0.4 0.5

2 0.5 0.63
2.5 0.63 0.8
3.2 0.8 1.0
4 1.0 1.25
5 1.25 1.6
6.3 1.6 2.0
8 2.0 2.5
10 2.5 3.2
1) The diameter of stamp d3 has to be  d1
2) Permissible difference of projection heights when welding multiple
projections at the same time: 5%
Table 2: Dimensions of standard projections [DIN EN 28167]
Figure 12: Component with approx. 20 projection welds (circular projection)
A further characteristic feature of projection welding appears when using “natural” projections. The best
known examples are probably reinforcement mats, which are moulded into concrete ceilings, as well as
wire products like shopping trolleys. Here are some typical projection welds with “natural” projections
(crosswire welds), see figure 13:
Figure 13: Examples of not standardised shapes of projections

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.11-2
Figure 14: Examples for projection welding: Nuts, threaded bolts and other welding parts
Figure 15: Examples for projection welding: wire components
3.3 Reference values and weldable materials

Similar to resistance spot welding, with projection welding, iron and non-ferrous metals can be welded.
 Steel
 Steel, galvanised
 Aluminium
 Brass
 Copper
The projection welding of soft materials or alloys is, due to the required fast follow-up behaviour of the
machine, problematic and can only be used safely with custom made welding machines.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.11-2
Diameter of Weld time

projection
Sheet thickness
t [mm]
Table 3: Reference values for projection welding steel sheets [according to DVS 2905]
The indicated reference values refer to the welding of one single projection. Usually multiple projections
are welded at the same time. For that reason the reference value of the welding current and the
electrode force is to be multiplied by the number of projections to be welded. Welding time remains the
same for all projection numbers.
3.4 Welding machines for projection welding

The general assembly of a projection welding machine corresponds to that of a spot welding machine.
However, due to the often significantly higher electrode forces, the machine frame is designed much
more rigidly (deformation).
The high necessary welding currents require also a larger dimensioning of the secondary circuit (e.g.
Transformer).
A further difference between projection and spot welding machines are the clamping plates with T-slots
which are used for the fixation of the workpiece holders and guarantee short set-up times for the
changing of welding tasks.
[Fa. DALEX] [Fa. NIMAK]
Figure 16: Projection welding machines of different sizes

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.11-2
3.4.1 Properties of projection welding machines

Due to deformation effects, uneven force distributions may arise with large throat depths.
Material resistances within the machine as well as the current displacement effects due to alternating
current, can lead to an irregular current flow distribution in the weld metal.
Unequal force distribution under load conditions is caused by the

deformation of a C-frame- machine
Current distribution due to ohmic resistances

The current distribution decreases due to the longer paths and hence
higher resistances to the outside
Current distribution with alternating current

Current density is following the skin effect.
Figure 17: Current- and machine-caused effects during projection-welding [DVS 2905]
The above mentioned effects are to be avoided by appropriate measures as far as possible or are to be
compensated otherwise the homogeneity of welding would be impaired.
4 Bibliography
[1] DVS 2903
Electrodes for resistance welding
[2] DVS 2906 (parts 1-4)
Resistance roller seam welding
[3] DVS 2905
Projection welding of steels

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.11-2
5 Question
(1) Which statements about the electrodes are accurate?

 In order to make the most of the optimal conductivity, if possible pure copper
materials are used (E-Cu)
 The electrodes should be water-cooled
 In mass production preferably electrode caps are used
 The electrodes should be made as small as possible
 Electrode hardness at elevated temperatures is negligible
(2) Which of the following statements about resistance seam welding are correct?
 Only continuous welds can be produced this way
 As is the case for spot-welding, only lap joints can be produced
 The current density occurs as during spot-welding through the shape of the electrodes
 Tubular parts can also be welded
(3) Which parameters are important for resistance roller seam welding?
 Here, hold time strongly influences the melting, unlike in the case of spot welding
 Cool time is important for weld distances
 Welding time affects the weld width considerably
 Welding speed is an additional setting parameter
 The welding current affects the weld width considerably
(4) Projection welding machines

 Smaller projection welding tasks can be carried out on spot welding machines
 Projection welding machines must have a good follow-up behaviour
 Due to the generally stable construction of projection welding machines deformation is not a
problem
 The current distribution across a workpiece can be uneven in the machine
(5) Which statements about projection welding are correct?

 Shunt problems should be given special attention during projection-welding
 Projection welding additionally allows overlap joints and T-joints
 The current concentration for weld nugget formation takes place through the shape of
components to be welded and can be spot or line shaped
 Projection welds, unlike spot welds, can be produced only with direct current

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Resistance Welding III Page 1
Chapter 1.11-3: Resistance Welding III
Contents
1 Butt welding ......................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Overview of the process variants ............................................................................................... 2
1.2 Pressure Butt Welding ............................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Flash butt welding ...................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Machines for butt welding with pressure and flash butt welding ................................................. 5
1.5 Sample applications ................................................................................................................... 6
2 Electrical assembly (components) of resistance welding machines.............................. 9
2.1 Types of Current ...................................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Controlling the welding parameters .......................................................................................... 11
2.2.1 Welding control panel ................................................................................................................... 11
2.2.2 Operating modes ........................................................................................................................... 13
2.2.3 Examples of possible current programs ........................................................................................ 13
3 Quality assurance ............................................................................................................. 14
3.1 Testing ..................................................................................................................................... 14
3.1.1 Destructive testing ........................................................................................................................ 14
3.1.2 Non-destructive testing ................................................................................................................. 15
3.2 Measuring, monitoring and controlling ..................................................................................... 15
3.3 Training.................................................................................................................................... 16
3.3.1 Practitioner for resistance welding ............................................................................................... 16
3.3.2 Welding Specialist for resistance welding ..................................................................................... 16
3.3.3 Other courses ................................................................................................................................ 16
4 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 17
5 Test questions ................................................................................................................... 18
Welding processes
and equipment
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1 Butt welding
1.1 Overview of the process variants

Butt welding using resistance heating is divided into:
Pressure butt
welding 25
Resistance butt
No preheating 242
welding
Flash butt welding
24
With
preheating 241
Figure 1: Classification of butt welding processes using resistance heating [ISO 4063]
The processes differ in terms of the maximum weldable cross-sections, the appearances of the weld and
the achievable weld qualities.
1.2 Pressure Butt Welding

ISO 4063-25
Process features:
 Butt joint
 Clamping electrodes
 Preparation: smooth workpiece ends
 Upset metal
Application area (example):
 For steel:  0.5 to 30 mm, max. 1,000 mm²
 For Al: only small wires (oxides!)

The process flow for butt welding with pressure can be described as follows:
 Press the joining parts together
 Switch on the current
 Wait until welding heat is achieved
 Upsetting (if required, with strongly increased force)
 Switch off the current
 Remove workpiece after cooling time
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Figure 2: Sample process sequence for butt welding with pressure, with upsetting [DVS 2931]
Guiding values for the welding parameters when butt welding steel with pressure:
 Welding force: approx. 40 N/mm²
 Welding current: approx. 60 to 120 A/mm²
 Upset force: approx. 150 N/mm²
 Jaw clamping force: approx. 2 x upset force
Maximum weldable cross-section: approx. 1,000 mm².
The prerequisite for this welding process is that the joint faces must be coplanar and clean. Only in this
way an uniform heating across the entire cross-section is possible.
Any contaminations on the joint faces can be included in the joint plane which has a quality reducing
influence on the weld.
The loss of length during welding must be taken into consideration at the design stage.
1.3 Flash butt welding

ISO 4063-24 abbreviation (also: RA)

Process features:

 Butt joint

 Clamping electrodes

 Preparation: Roughly cut joint faces
 Flashing and upsetting cycle
 If required, pre- and post-heating
 Burr
Application area (examples):
 For steel:  1.0 to 300 mm, max.
100,000 mm²
 For Al: max. approx. 10,000 mm²

Flash butt welding features a significantly more complex process sequence. Here we differentiate in
principle between the following two main variants:
a) Flash butt welding without pre-heating = “Cold flash butt welding”
(for large surface cross-sections, e.g. sheet metal parts)
b) Flash butt welding with pre-heating
(for compact cross-sections, e.g. rails and shafts)
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The cycle can be described as follows:

 Switch on the voltage
 Move the platen until the joining
parts touch and the current flows
Preheat (only for b)
 Pull back the platen
 Repeat multiple times
 Slowly move the platen forward with

constant sparking
 Joining parts melt and flash off Flashing
through resistance heating
 Move the platen forward abruptly

Upsetting
 Switch off voltage
If required, flat flashing and post heat treatment can also be performed in the machine beforehand.
Figure 3: Flash butt welding phases [DVS 2901-1]

E1, 2: Free clamping length per workpiece end
E1 + E2: Distance between current-carrying
clamping jaws
V1, 2: Pre-heating length loss per workpiece end
(if applicable, includes the flat flashing loss)
A1,2: Flashing length loss per workpiece end
U1, 2: Upsetting length loss per workpiece end
L1, 2: Length allowance per workpiece end
L1 + L2: Total length loss
Figure 4: Clamping length and length allowance [DVS2901-1]
The length loss that occurs during individual phases of flash butt welding must be taken into considera-
tion at the design stage.
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Guide values for the welding parameters when flash butt welding steel:
 Preheating current: approx. 3 to 12 A/mm²
 Flashing current: approx. 2 to 7 A/mm²
 Flashing speed: approx. 1 to 5 mm/s
 Upset force: approx. 150 N/mm²
 Upset speed: approx. 25 to 200 mm/s
 Jaw clamping force: approx. 2 x upset force
Maximum weldable cross-section: approx. 100,000 mm².
In case of closed cross-sections, higher values have to be used for currents and forces.
1.4 Machines for butt welding with pressure and flash butt welding
The essential components of pressure- and flash butt welding machines are:
 Machine frame
 Clamping towers with clamping jaws
 Platen
 Current circuit with transformer
 Welding control panel
 Power system
Clamping towers
Spanntürme
FFSp
Sp
Spannbacken
Clamping jaws Clamping jaws
Spannbacken
FFUSt
Fügeteil
Joining part Fügeteilpart
Joining
Schlitten
Platen
Maschinen-
Machine
gestell
frame
Transformer
Transformator
Figure 5: Basic structure of a pressure- and flash butt welding machine.
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Clamping area of the wire welding machine [IDEAL]
Pressure butt welding machine with cutting device [IDEAL]
Figure 6: Typical machines for pressure butt welding
Wire welding machine [IDEAL] Flash but welding machine for truck wheel rims [IDEAL]
Figure 7: Typical flash butt welding machines

The following images show sample applications of parts that have been welded using either flash butt
welding or with pressure butt welding.
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Motorcycle wheel rims, aluminium [DVS 2901] Wheel rim, steel - welded ring and finished product
[DVS 2901]
Housing welding, steel [DVS 2901] Rail welding, steel [DVS 2901]
Motorcycle wheel rim, aluminium [IDEAL] Mitre welding for staircase construction, steel [SLV Duisburg]
Truck axles, steel [BPW] Chain links, steel [DVS 2901-3]
Figure 8: Sample applications – Pressure- and flash butt welds
Application areas for resistance butt welding include:

 Automotive industry
 Household appliances
 Wire, chain and cable industry
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 Mechanical and electrical engineering

 Construction industry
 Iron and steel industry, mining and railway construction
 Chemical apparatus construction
The weldable cross-section shapes are manifold.
Figure 9: Examples of possible cross-section shapes for resistance butt welding

and recommended clamping jaws [DVS 2901-1]
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2 Electrical assembly (components) of resistance welding machines

The essential assembly of resistance welding machines for spot, projection and seam welding is largely
similar. Key differences arise for the drive of the wheels in resistance seam
welding, the shape of the electrodes for projection welding and of course the performance of the force
and current supply.
1 1 Pneumatic electrode force system

2 Upper arm
1
3 Machine frame
4 Welding transformer
2
3 5 Foot-operated start switch
6 Lower arm (base)
4
7 Current plate for lower arm fastening
17 18 8 Secondary coil of the welding trans-
former
15 8 9 9 Primary coil of the transformer
16
10 Step switch
11 Compressed-air connection
14 12 Machine terminal block
6
13 Weld control
7 10
14 Lower arm (extension)
13
15 Electrode holder
16 Electrodes
11 12 17 Current cable
5
18 Current bar
Figure 10: Schematic view of components of a resistance welding machine
The electrical system generally comprises the transformer, with rectifier, if required, and the welding con-
trol cabinet comprising the control unit and power switch.
A step switch can be included in the transformer to allow the general pre-selection of the welding current.
Welding control cabinet
Schweißsteuerung
Start
Start
Steuerteil
Control unit
Actuators
Stellglieder
Is
Is I1
I1 Leistungsteil
Power switch
U10 U10
Elektroden
Electrodes U20
U 20
Step switch
Stufenschalter
Schweißtransformator
Welding transformer
Figure 11: Scheme of the electrical components of a resistance welding machine
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2.1 Types of Current

In principle, both AC and DC welding machines are used. The most widely used, due to their simple and
therefore reasonably priced structure, are the AC machines.
Circuit diagram Current Waveform
L1 L2 L3
I2
Alternating current
“AC” 50/60 Hz
Still the most frequently used current type due to the investment costs.
Unfavourable asymmetrical mains load!
L1 L2 L3
I2
conventional “DC”
Direct current,
For high-performance projection welding machines as well as for spot welding of aluminium.
Capacity utilisation of all 3 network phases!
L1 L2 L3
I2
inverter “MF-DC”
Direct current,
An “easy” solution, if DC is required at transportable spot welding guns. In the last few years, also increasingly used for
high-performance projection welding machines. Normally with 1,000 Hz systems, but also with 10 or 25 kHz for small
parts or particularly lightweight systems.
Capacity utilisation of all 3 network phases!
L1 L2 L3
I2
Capacitor discharge “CD”
Use in projection welding. Welding times are very short, in order to bring as little heat into the component as
possible (distortion minimisation, marking on the rear for materials with surface finishing). Minimal mains load!
Figure 12: Overview of common types of current in resistance welding
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2.2 Controlling the welding parameters

Special weld control panels are used to set the welding parameters. In principle, the squeeze time, weld-
ing time and hold time as well as the level of the welding current must be set at least. The electrode
force is set in most machines not via the control panel but via a pressure reducer which must be adjust-
ed manually.
Depending on the manufacturer and type, the control panels can however feature numerous additional
functions of which some are illustrated in the following images.
2.2.1 Welding control panel

Nowadays, digital control panels with synchronous control are used almost exclusively in the industrial
sector. They are either designed for just one welding program or can store several programs, which then
can be selected for the relevant welding task.
Single program control panel
Multi program control panel
Figure 13: Typical control panels for individual welding systems
Power semiconductors are used to set both current and IGBTs for MF-DC equipment. Thyristors are
used for AC control panels and conventional DC welding systems.
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Control unit
Power control
Figure 14: Antiparallel connection of the thyristors in AC machines
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2.2.2 Operating modes

The controls generally feature various operating modes which can be selected depending on the applica-
tion:
 Single spot mode
 Series spot mode
 Seam and continuous operation
2.2.3 Examples of possible current programs

The use of various current programs can be practical depending on the requirements of the
weld connection and/or the materials to be welded. The following image depicts a selection of the usu-
al variants.
tV tV tS tS tN tN tS tS tP tP IMP=3
Single-pulse welding Multi-pulse welding
tup tdown
ts
Upslope and downslope
tVWtVW tK tK tRKtRK tNWtNW

Current program with pre- and postheat
Force and current program
Figure 15: Current programs, examples
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3 Quality assurance
A particular difficulty for quality assurance of resistance-welded parts is that the welding process which
generally is very short cannot be observed, as welding takes place hidden between the two parts to be
joined.
Consequently, various options for quality assurance are defined: the testing of parts after welding
(destructive, and - with restrictions - also non-destructive), measurement and monitoring during welding
and finally the use of process controllers.
3.1 Testing
3.1.1 Destructive testing

In principle, we differentiate in testing between simple methods that can be performed in the workshop
and laboratory testing methods that require testing machines.
Process acc.to ISO 4063
Test methods (21) (22) (23)
(24)
(25)
Peel testing
(DIN EN ISO 10447 X X X 
DIN EN ISO 14270)
Chisel testing
(DIN EN ISO 10447)
X (X) X 
Shear testing
(DIN EN ISO 14273)
X X X 
Cross tension testing

(DIN EN ISO 14272) X (X) X 
Torsion testing
(DIN EN ISO 17653) X  X 
Pressure testing
(DIN EN ISO 17654)  X  
Tensile test  (X)  X
Erichsen cupping test  (X)  (X)
(X) not usual/practical;  not possible
Table 1: Overview of destructive test methods (selection)
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and equipment
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Table 2: Example of destroyed spot welds (chisel test)
Of course, metallographic examinations are also common.
3.1.2 Non-destructive testing

In most cases, non-destructive test methods provide only insufficient statements regarding the quality of
the joint. They must under all circumstances be backed up with destructive methods.
Process acc.to ISO 4063
Test methods (21) (22) (23)
(24)
(25)
RT - Radiographic testing (X) (X) (X) X
UT - Ultrasonic testing X (X) (X) X
PT / (MT) - Surface crack testing X X X X
VT - Visual testing (X) (X) (X) (X)
(X) no connection with strength or not usual
Table 3: Overview of the non-destructive test methods
3.2 Measuring, monitoring and controlling

In principle, the welding process can be verified by measuring mechanical and electrical parameters.
Monitoring and controlling are also possible.
Behaviour when the following are changed:
Weld nug-
Measured varia- Mains Electrode Electrode Workpiece
Sensor Shunting Expulsion get diame-
ble voltage force shape surface
ter
Welding current Rogowski coil ++ 
Welding Electrode contact
++   +   
Voltage
Resistance Rogowski coil +
+  + + +  +
curve Electrode contact
Electrode Displacement sensor ++  + +  + +
movement, or acceleration sen-
thermal expan- sor
sion ++  + +  + +
++ Always suitable + Generally suitable ° Partially suitable
Table 4: Measured variables for monitoring and control (selection)
Welding processes
and equipment
SFI / 1.11-3
Control systems Reference value Application
Time control Voltage Change of mains voltage, electrode force, sheet thickness, parallel
connection
Electrode movement Change of mains voltage, electrode force, parallel connection
Resistance curve Change of mains voltage, sheet thickness, parallel connection
Phase-shift control Current No findings
Voltage No findings
Power Change of mains voltage, electrode shape, surface condition,
electrode force, parallel connection
Electrode movement Change of mains voltage, electrode shape, surface condition,
electrode force, parallel connection
Combined control Resistance Disturbance variables, e.g. parallel connection, network voltage, sheet
(Preheating phase) thickness
Electrode movement
Monitoring Measurement of thermal expansion, measurement of current, voltage or
power integral
Automatic Stepper control for the welding that follows measurement
readjustment
Process controls Here the current time or level is readjusted during welding,
e.g. after ½ cyc.
unsuitable Measurement of the surface temperature
Table 5: Overview of the usual control variants
3.3 Training
One of the most important ways of ensuring the quality of production is, however, the appropriate
qualification of the employees involved. While the standards and regulations do not as yet require proof
of qualification, the demand for such proof, e.g. from automotive suppliers, has increased considerably in
the last number of years.
The DVS® and EWF have developed various training courses, which require participants to sit a final
examination.
The following are recommended:
3.3.1 Practitioner for resistance welding

This one-week course [7] comprising theoretical and practical modules is suitable for all people dealing
with resistance welding. Operating personnel on the machines, welding coordination personnel, planners
and also employees from quality assurance and design are all part of the target audience.
3.3.2 Welding Specialist for resistance welding

As resistance welding is only insufficiently covered during normal training for welding coordination
personnel, welding specialists and welding engineers, a special three-week course [8] with theoretical
and practical modules was developed.
3.3.3 Other courses

Corresponding DVS® courses also exist, and indeed were specifically developed, for designers and
testers in the area of thin sheet metal structures.
Furthermore, certain SLVs (centres for welding-related instruction and experimentation) offer advanced
seminars which handle special topics in greater depth.
Welding processes
and equipment
SFI / 1.11-3
4 Bibliography
[1] DIN-DVS Taschenbuch 312/1 Schweißtechnik 9
[DIN-DVS Code of Practice 312/1 Welding technology 9]
[2] DIN-DVS Taschenbuch 312/2 Schweißtechnik 11
[DIN-DVS Code of Practice 312/2 Welding technology 11]
[3] DVS 2901 (Teile 1-3) Abbrennstumpfschweißen
[DVS 2901 (Parts 1-3) Flash butt welding]
[4] DVS 2916 (Teile 1-6) Prüfen von Widerstandspressschweißverbindungen
[DVS 2916 (Parts 1-6) Testing of resistance pressure welded joints]
[5] DVS 2931 Pressstumpfschweißen
[DVS 2931 Butt welding with pressure]
[6] DVS 2916 (Teile 1-6) Prüfen von Widerstandspressschweißverbindungen
[DVS 2916 (Parts 1-6) Testing of resistance pressure welded joints]
[7] DVS-EWF 2940 Europäischer Einrichter für das Widerstandsschweißen EWP-RW (EWF 621)
- Ausbildung, Prüfung und Qualifizierung
- [European resistance welder/fitter EWP-RW
- Training, testing and qualification]
[8] DVS-EWF 2941 Europäischer Fachmann für das Widerstandsschweißen (EWS-RW) (EWF 525)
- Ausbildung, Prüfung und Qualifizierung
- [European specialist for resistance welding (EWS-RW)
- Training, testing and qualification]
[9] DVS 2945 Prüffachkraft für Dünnblechverbindungen
[DVS 2945 - Inspection Expert for Thin Sheet Joints]
[10] DVS 2946 Prüffachmann für Dünnblechverbindungen
[DVS 2946 - Inspection Expert for Thin Sheet Joints]
[11] DVS 2948 Schweißkonstrukteur für das Widerstandspressschweißen
[DIN 2948 - Welding Constructor for Resistance Pressure Welding]
Welding processes
and equipment
SFI / 1.11-3
5 Test questions
(1) With which of the welding processes listed below can one create butt joints?
 Spot welding (21)
 Projection welding (23)
 Resistant seam welding (22)
 Butt welding with pressure (25)
 Flash butt welding (24)
(2) Which statements about flash butt welding are correct?

 In addition to round cross-sections, sheet profiles, for example, can also be welded
together
 Components are heated via arc heating
 A length loss occurs during welding
 Flash butt welding of steel is only suitable for small welding cross-sections
(max. 1000 mm2)
(3) What tasks are performed by a normal welding control panel?

 Switching times
 Evaluating welding quality
 Setting the welding current
(4) What current types are used for resistance welding?

 Mostly alternating current
 Rarely alternating current
 Direct current
 Pulsed currents over 100 kHz
 Mostly capacitor discharge
(5) What destructive test methods are used for resistance spot welding?
 Peel test
 Chisel test
 Charpy test
 Deflection measurement
 Dye penetrant test
Welding processes
and equipment
Other Welding Processes SFI / IWE 1.12-1
(Laser, electron-beam and plasma welding) Page 1
Chapter 1.12-1: Special welding processes I
Contents
1 Plasma process ................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Plasma welding............................................................................................................... 5
1.1.1 Principle of plasma welding ................................................................................. 5
1.2 Technical equipment for plasma welding ........................................................................ 8
1.2.1 Plasma welding systems...................................................................................... 8
1.2.2 Power sources for plasma welding ...................................................................... 9
1.2.3 Plasma torch ...................................................................................................... 10
1.2.4 Influencing factors of plasma arc welding. ......................................................... 11
1.2.5 Weld pool backing/gas backing ......................................................................... 11
1.3 Wearing materials and consumables ............................................................................ 12
1.4 The welding process ..................................................................................................... 12
1.4.1 Striking the arc ................................................................................................... 12
1.4.2 The welding sequence ....................................................................................... 13
1.5 Welds, materials and applications of plasma welding using images ............................. 17
1.6 Process variants ........................................................................................................... 21
1.6.1 Micro-plasma welding ........................................................................................ 21
1.6.2 Plasma-powder joining and arc surfacing .......................................................... 22
1.6.3 Plasma MIG welding .......................................................................................... 23
1.6.4 Plasma-hot-wire surfacing ................................................................................. 25
1.6.5 Plasma soldering ............................................................................................... 26
1.6.6 Plasma spot welding .......................................................................................... 26
1.7 Bibliography .................................................................................................................. 28
1.8 Test questions .............................................................................................................. 29
2 Electron beam material processing ................................................................................. 30
2.1 Basics ........................................................................................................................... 30
2.2 System technology ....................................................................................................... 32
2.3 Process variants in addition to welding technology....................................................... 37
2.3.1 EB drilling........................................................................................................... 37
2.3.2 Surface treatment by electron beam .................................................................. 38
2.4 Electron beam welding ................................................................................................. 40
Welding processes
and equipment
2.4.1 Process flow of electron-beam welding.............................................................. 40

2.4.2 Preparation and design of welded joints ............................................................ 41
2.4.3 Sample applications ........................................................................................... 42
2.4.4 Troubleshooting in electron-beam welding ........................................................ 46
2.4.5 Process-specific advantages and disadvantages .............................................. 46
2.5 Test questions .............................................................................................................. 47
2.6 Bibliography .................................................................................................................. 48
2.7 Overview of standards: Electron beam technology ....................................................... 48
3 Laser welding .................................................................................................................... 49
3.1 Summary description of the procedure ......................................................................... 49
3.1.1 Description of the general principle .................................................................... 49
3.1.2 Beam generation ............................................................................................... 49
3.1.3 Laser types ........................................................................................................ 51
3.1.4 Effect of the laser beam ..................................................................................... 51
3.1.5 Component geometry and processing materials ................................................ 52
3.1.6 Process-specific advantages and disadvantages .............................................. 52
3.1.7 Areas of application ........................................................................................... 53
3.1.8 Beam focussing ................................................................................................. 54
3.2 Laser types – detailed description ................................................................................ 55
3.2.1 CO2 laser ........................................................................................................... 55
3.2.2 Solid-state laser ................................................................................................. 57
3.2.3 Slab laser ........................................................................................................... 59
3.2.4 Fibre laser .......................................................................................................... 60
3.2.5 Diode laser......................................................................................................... 61
3.2.6 Summary ........................................................................................................... 62
3.3 Procedure for laser material processing ....................................................................... 62
3.3.1 Laser cutting ...................................................................................................... 62
3.3.2 Welding .............................................................................................................. 62
3.3.3 Variants of laser welding .................................................................................... 66
3.3.4 Surface treatment .............................................................................................. 67
3.4 Test questions .............................................................................................................. 71
3.5 Bibliography .................................................................................................................. 73
Welding processes
and equipment
1 Plasma process
In 1955, UCC (Union Carbide Corporation) sold a plasma torch for the plasma cutting of aluminium
under the name “Heliarc-Cutting”. One year later, this torch was taken over by the Linde company and
renamed the “Presslichtbrenner”. The development of the plasma process was largely due to the
increased use of nickel-chromium steels and aluminium alloys. Neither group of materials could be cut
using autogenous flame cutting.
The plasma procedure differs from other arc welding processes in that the arc does not operates freely,
but is instead constricted through a water-cooled copper nozzle. This increases its power density and
consequently yields a wealth of particular features compared to the free-igniting arcs.
The arc generally is ignited between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece. The
plasma nozzle is de-energised, depending on the type of circuit. An inert gas (argon, called plasma or
also centre gas), which is heated to a very high temperature in the arc, flows from the borehole of the
nozzle, is partly ionized and becomes electrically conducting (plasma effect). Through the shape of the
plasma nozzle and the quantity of plasma gas, the arc can be adjusted within a very wide range to the
welding task in hand.
The plasma welding is generally mechanized; this is preferable for long welds. Butt joints without weld
preparation can be welded on sheets with wall thicknesses ranging from 0.1 (microplasma) up to approx.
10 mm. Filler material is generally only used to compensate for a weld backslide, if the gap width, which
should not exceed max. 10% of the sheet wall thickness, is too large. Argon, with the customary purity of
4.6, is used as the “plasma gas”. With reactive materials such as e.g. titanium or zirconium it can be
necessary to use a higher purity (4.8).
Building on the plasma torch discussed above, a wealth of procedures have been developed for joining,
surfacing and cutting numerous materials.
Table 1: Breakdown of plasma processes, applications and parameters
Welding processes
and equipment
In DIN EN 14610 and DIN 1910-100 (Welding and allied processes - Vocabulary), plasma cutting is
categorised as follows:
Plasma welding (15), arc welding, whereby the plasma (electrically conducting, ionized gas) of a
constricted arc is used, which in turn is divided into:
 Plasma arc welding (transferred arc), whereby the electrical energy source is connected between
the electrode and workpiece.
 Plasma arc welding (non-transferred arc), whereby the electrical energy source is connected
between the electrode and the constricting nozzle.
 Plasma arc welding with semi-transferred arc, whereby a non-transferred arc and a transferred
arc burn.
 Powder plasma welding, welding with the addition of metal powder.
The respective circuit types are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Arc types in plasma welding (according to Baum)
Welding processes
and equipment
1.1 Plasma welding
The higher power density of the constricted plasma arc allows higher welding speeds to be achieved
compared to TIG welding and also allows thicker workpieces to be welded with a butt joint, without weld
preparation. Otherwise, plasma welding is similar to TIG welding on many fronts. The filler materials are
comparable, although plasma welding is rarely used for filling layers. In principle, all electrically conduct-
ing and fusion-weldable materials can be processed.
1.1.1 Principle of plasma welding
In physics, a plasma is defined as an electrically conducting gas (fourth state of matter). It comprises
charge carriers (electrons, multiply charged ions) and neutral particles. The charge carriers emit the en-
ergy they absorb through dissociation and ionization into the environment and, in particular, into the
workpiece, in the form of recombination heat.
In contrast to the free-igniting and strongly divergent TIG arc, the edges of the plasma arc are practically
parallel and, consequently, the distance between the torch and the workpiece is less critical than it is for
TIG welding, Figure 2.
Figure 2: Free-igniting and strongly divergent TIG arc (left) and constricted and practically parallel plas-
ma arc (right)
Due to the practically parallel edges of the plasma arc, changes in the torch distance do not impact as
much on the penetration as they would with a TIG arc.
The direction of the constricted arc is also considerably more stable, compared to the free-igniting arc,
and is barely diverted by e.g. an edge offset of the workpiece to be welded, Figure 3.
Figure 3: Consequence of the rigidity of the arc
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 4 depicts a comparison between the basic principles of the TIG and plasma welding processes.
Figure 4: Comparison of TIG and plasma welding (procedural principle), according to Baum
A TIG arc burns freely between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece.
Depending on which shielding gas is used, the penetration shapes and or the welding speed can change
quite considerably at times under otherwise constant conditions.
A key reason for this is the heat conductivity of the gases. Figure 5 shows that e.g. He has 5 - 10 times
greater conductivity than Ar in the temperature range from 1,000 - 10,000 K. From the energy realized in
the arc, a good heat-conducting gas (helium) gives off more heat into the environment and therefore also
into the workpiece.
Figure 5: Thermal conductivity of gasses at high temperatures
Welding processes
and equipment
A current can only be transferred via a gas if this gas is ionised. A very hot arc core is formed. The tem-
perature decreases radially towards the outside. This temperature drop (temperature
gradient) differs in the steepness and width of the drop depending on the gas used. In the case of a good
heat-conducting gas (e.g. He), the temperature drop is flatter and in a poor heat-conducting gas (e.g. Ar)
it is steeper, Figure 6.
Figure 6: Temperature profile of TIG (different shielding gases) and plasma arcs
If one considers the temperature drop and compares it to the respective typical penetration shape, one
notices that the progression is the same, Figure 6, above.
In the case of the plasma arc, the temperature decrease from the arc core towards the outside is
strongly increased by the water-cooled copper nozzle (thermal pinch effect). With a plasma nozzle
borehole of e.g. 3 mm, the temperature in the arc centre decreased very steeply over a distance of less
than 1.5 mm radially towards the outside from about 20,000 K, Figure 7.
CATHODE
OPEN ARC CONSTRICTED ARC

40 CFH ARGON (3/16 IN DIA. ORIFICE) Temperatures (Cº)
200 AMPS 40 CFH ARGON
15 VOLTS 200 AMPS
30 VOLTS
ANODE
and higher
Figure 7: Temperature distribution for a TIG and a plasma arc
Welding processes
and equipment
Advantages of plasma arc welding over TIG welding

 Focussed arc, not sensitive to changes in arc length
 Arc with directional stability even at very low current strengths
 Flashlight effect to adjust the torch
 Higher welding speeds particularly with keyhole effect
 Low heat input, low distortion, narrow heat-affected zone
 Good weld shape (weld width to depth = 1:1 to 1:2)
 Secure penetration and low level of excess weld and root sag
Disadvantages of the plasma process
 Special training of the operating personnel
 Equipment is more expensive
Figure 8 shows a comparison of power densities of different welding processes.
MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING

MAG WELDING
PLASMA WELDING
LASER WELDING
EB WELDING
Power Density [W/cm2]
Figure 8: Power densities of different welding processes
1.2 Technical equipment for plasma welding
The technical equipment is comparable to TIG welding; the key difference is in the torches.
1.2.1 Plasma welding systems
Figure 9 presents a sketch of the possible structure of a complete plasma welding system.
Control and regulation device
Choke coil
High Energy sources Energy sources

voltage for the non- for the trans-
pulse transferred arc ferred arc
(indirect plasma (direct plasma
generator
generation) generation)
Figure 9: Fundamental structure of a plasma welding system (here with two power sources) [1]
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 10 presents the possible installation of a real plasma welding system.
Figure 10: Possible installation of a real welding system (photo courtesy of Air Liquide)
1.2.2 Power sources for plasma welding
Constant-current sources (direct current or alternating current) are used, i.e. a small change in the
arc length brings about a large change in the arc voltage and no or only a minor change in the welding
current; as is also the case with TIG welding.
As with TIG power sources, the welding current is controlled via moving core, transductor, thyristors or
transistors.
The open-circuit voltage of these energy sources is generally increased up to the maximum permissible
limit (VDE), in order to guarantee good ignition properties. Depending on the intended purpose, the pow-
er sources are equipped with additional devices, e.g. increase and fall of plasma gas and current, pulsed
welding current etc.
Figure 11: Example of a power source for plasma welding (photo courtesy of SBI)
Welding processes
and equipment
1.2.3 Plasma torch
Plasma torches can be obtained in both manual and mechanical formats. They are a little larger than
TIG torches.
Torches with negatively polarised electrodes achieve very high service life; the wearing part here is the
copper nozzle.
Torches that also permit welding with positively polarized electrodes (welding of Al and Mg materials,
electrode loading up to approx. 8 times higher) are offered only by a handful of companies.
The tungsten electrodes must be centred very accurately, so that the radial distance between the nozzle
and the electrodes is perfectly equal across the scope of the electrodes. The axial distance between
electrodes and nozzle is determined by means of setting gauges and should be kept to  0.1 mm.
If the electrode is overloaded during TIG welding (too much current), it will melt off. The damage is rela-
tively little. If on the other hand, a plasma torch is overloaded, generally a higher level of damage is giv-
en - nozzle melted, electrode damaged, possibly even damage to the torch body. For this reason, the
specified reference values for the max. current strength must be maintained precisely.
For each torch, there are electrodes and nozzles with different bore holes. Nozzles for positively
polarized electrodes are designed differently than for negatively polarized electrodes.
In general: Negatively polarized electrode - Electrode, sharp
- Interior of nozzle, conical borehole
Positively polarized electrode - Electrode, round-head
- Interior of nozzle, semi-circular, drilled out.
Regrinding of tungsten electrodes should be done precisely according to the template (of a new
electrode) on a grinding machine. Regrinding by hand is problematic as even a slight eccentricity would
permit the plasma jet to burn on one side.
The most important settings for plasma arc welding are:
1. Welding current intensity to suit the welding task
2. Plasma gas quantity
3. Diameter of plasma nozzle borehole
Figure 12 shows a machine plasma torch.
Furthermore, a TIG torch with strike aid, a TIG torch
with drag nozzle for welding reactive materials such
as titanium and vanadium and a TIG torch with the
option for magnetic arc deflection through a coil
are shown.
Figure 12: Machine plasma torch with various

TIG torches (photo courtesy of Air Liquide)
Figure 13 depicts other plasma torches.
Welding processes
and equipment
Quick
Connector
torch,
Machine torch Robotics Manual torch
Figure 13: Modern plasma torches (photo courtesy of MIG-O-Mat)
There are also plasma torches on the market that feature “bypass boreholes”.
The aim of these nozzles which have a slightly different design, is to constrict the plasma jet a little more
outside the nozzle, by using cold plasma gas guided along the side from two boreholes in order to in-
crease the achievable weld speed (power density) a little more.
1.2.4 Influencing factors of plasma arc welding.

The most important influencing factors of Plasma welding are
 Current intensity: Adjusted to the welding task; with increasing sheet thickness, the current in-
tensity and plasma gas quantity are to be increased
 Weld type: Higher current strength for fillet welds than for butt welds
 Technology: Higher plasma gas quantity required for keyhole technique
 Plasma nozzle ø: Adjusted to the welding task
 Plasma gas: Always argon (purity 4.6)
 Shielding gas: Structural steels - Ar, Ar+CO2, Ar+O2 CO2
CrNi steels - Ar or Ar-H2 mixtures (e.g. 6.5% H2)
Ti, Zr - Ar (possibly higher purity 4.8 required)
Al, Mg - Ar, Ar-He mixtures
The use of helium as a shielding gas for Al alloys introduces a higher quantity of heat into the welding
point, making faster welding possible; the frequency of pores can be reduced by adding helium.
1.2.5 Weld pool backing/gas backing
In order to obtain a well-formed and oxide-free weld root, gas backing is often used particularly when
welding high-alloy and stainless steels, Figure 14.
As with TIG welding, if a smooth and oxide-free weld root formation is required, a backing gas (argon) or
a purging gas (nitrogen with a small quantity of hydrogen, 5 to max. 15%) is supplied to the weld pool
backside.
Welding processes
and equipment
Weld pool backing
Figure 14: Weld pool backing
1.3 Wearing materials and consumables
Tungsten electrodes with larger diameters than those used in TIG welding are used; either from pure
tungsten or with small quantities of additives (e.g. cerium oxide, lanthanum oxide or similar). The elec-
trodes have a substantially longer service life compared to those used in TIG welding.
The water-cooled nozzles made from copper materials have service lives of, at times, several shifts.
When the nozzle borehole is visibly worn out, it must be replaced. The nozzles have a simple structure
and are not costly.
Only inert gasses are used as the plasma gas.
In the shielding gas, active gasses such as hydrogen, helium and carbon dioxide can also be added in
small quantities, depending on the application.
The filler materials correspond to those used in TIG welding.
Filling layers are generally not created with plasma welding. If filler materials are added (desired weld
reinforcement for butt joint, compensation of weld with lack of incomplete penetration where the gap be-
tween the metal sheets is too large), additives of the same type are used, as, like in TIG welding, there is
no burn off of alloy elements.
1.4 The welding process
Plasma welding is generally mechanized.

The arc is ignited inside the torch, so that there can be no contact between the workpiece and the
electrode.
1.4.1 Striking the arc
Electrode Negative pole

English designations: DCSP (Direct Current Straight Polarity)
For most applications the electrode is negatively polarized (cathode). The workpiece is positively
polarized (anode). A WIG arc is struck without contact using high-voltage pulses. As the electrodes in
the plasma torch are in the nozzle, a pilot arc is required to strike the main arc from the electrode to the
Welding processes
and equipment
workpiece. The pilot arc is struck with high-voltage pulses between the electrode and the nozzle (current
strength approx. 10-20 A). This pilot arc ionises the plasma gas issuing from the nozzle. After switching
on the welding current circuit, the arc jumps from the electrode, through the nozzle, to the workpiece
(Figure 15).
Figure 15: Principle of ignition in plasma welding with negatively polarised electrodes (acc. to Baum)
1.4.2 The welding sequence
With plasma welding, welds can be created with thicknesses ranging from just a few tenths of a millime-
tre through to approx. 10 mm in the butt weld, without weld preparation.
Sheet thickness ranges generally used in practice are listed in Table 2.
Different working methods are applied, from microplasma welding of the thinnest components through
light sheet metal welding (also called the push-through technique or (soft) plasma welding) through to
welding using the keyhole technique (also called keyhole welding or plasma keyhole welding).
In the thinner sheet thickness range, the heat of the plasma jet is applied to the sheet surface and the
welding speed results from the electrical energy supplied in relation to the heat conductivity and thick-
ness of the workpiece.
Relationships between the workpiece thicknesses to be welded, current intensities and the welding pro-
cedure designation are summarised in Table 2.
Welding processes
and equipment
Joining by welding
Current intensity [A] Microplasma welding Plasma and plasma keyhole welding
0.1 ... 10 Foil 0.05 ... 0.2 mm --
1 ... 20 Thin sheet 0.2 ... 0.5 mm --
5 ... 40 Thin sheet 0.5 ... 1 mm --
40 ... 100 Thin sheet 1 ... 2 mm Plasma welding 0.5 ... 1.5 mm
100 ... 200 -- Plasma welding 1.5 ... 3 mm
100 ... 350 -- Plasma keyhole welding 3 ... 10 mm
Table 2: Sheet thickness ranges for plasma welding
1.4.2.1 Key-hole welding.

If the plasma gas quantity is increased when plasma welding with currents > 100 A, the exiting plasma
jet is capable of pushing the molten weld metal to the side and to pierce through the sheet. If, after pierc-
ing the sheet, the torch is moved forward, the weld metal that was pushed to the side flows back togeth-
er again behind the keyhole, Figure 16 and 17.
Figure 16: Techniques for plasma welding (Baum)
Plasma welding torch
Weld
Figure 17: Formation of the keyhole
Welding processes
and equipment
This penetration is visibly identifiable on the backside of the sheet metal and consequently it can also be
checked.
In keyhole welding, the plasma jet pierces the workpiece because of the arc pressure (influenced by the
quantity of the plasma gas). The arc attachment point is not focussed on the workpiece surface but in-
stead moves inside the keyhole. The heat energy of the arc attachment point and the emitting heat of the
gas being cooled down and simultaneously being recombined at the workpiece surface, are giving off
heat across the entire sheet thickness to the component. The degree of efficiency of heat input is there-
by considerably greater than with a heat flow from the sheet surface to the workpiece. The result is a
high welding speed with comparatively large sheet thickness.
Advantages of the keyhole technology
 Reliable penetration
 Uniform weld root
 Butt joints for CrNi steel approx. 3 – 9 mm (without) or with small quantities of filler material
 Butt joints for structural steel approx. 4 – 8 mm (without) or with small quantities of filler material
 Butt joints for aluminium alloy approx. 5 – 7 mm (without) or with small quantities of filler material
 Butt joints for titanium approx. 3 – 10 mm (without) or with small quantities of filler material
Note: The filler material can be necessary if the gap between the sheets, (this should not be
more than approx. 10% of the sheet thickness) is in the upper range and if without filler
material the top of the weld would backslide a little. For thick sheets, the weld root with
plasma keyhole and filling layers can be welded with another procedure. With aluminium
alloys, a filler wire can be helpful during keyhole welding due to the stronger root for-
mation.
 Low heat input (small heat-affected zone)

 Low distortion
 Comparatively high welding speed
 High weld quality
As with TIG welding, plasma welding does not give rise to fusion faults.
The comparatively high welding speed is shown in Figure 18 in the form of a comparison with TIG weld-
ing on the same material.
Figure 18: Comparison of welding speed between TIG and plasma welding
Welding processes
and equipment
As of a sheet thickness of approx. 3 mm, the keyhole effect can be created – exclusively by increasing
the quantity of plasma gas and the welding speed increased.
With smaller sheet thicknesses, the quantity of molten metal surrounding the keyhole can be too little,
thereby no longer forming a coherent weld seam (holes) behind the keyhole after hardening.
From around this sheet thickness of approx. 3 mm, TIG welding would already require a two-layer ap-
proach (with weld preparation and using fillers).
The application of the keyhole technique requires:
 Investments costs
 special training for welders (setting parameters)
 only mechanised welding is possible
 good weld preparation required (gap: max. 1/10 of the sheet thickness)
 Weld positions PA, PC, PG
Due to the high energy density of plasma key-hole welding the weld preparation is different. Up to 10
mm thickness the square but joint can be selected depending on the base material type (figure 19).
Weld preparation TIG welding
Weld preparation Plasma Key-hole welding
Figure 19: Weld preparation for TIG and plasma welding
In general Plasma welding is used in the flat, PA-position but other positions are possible and common.
Welding processes
and equipment
1.5 Welds, materials and applications of plasma welding using images
The following pictures show some applications of plasma key-hole welding.
Figure 20: Weld on stainless steel
Weld surface, left
Weld root, right
Figure 21: Plasma-welded

longitudinal welds on pipes
made from stainless steel
Figure 22: Plasma-welded

stainless steel containers (Air
Liquide)
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 23: Plasma-welding

of a pipe elbow made from
stainless steel (Air Liquide)
Figure 24: Cross-sections of plasma-welded sheets of un-

alloyed structural steel with sheet thicknesses of 4, 6 and 8
mm
Figure 25: Plasma-welded pipes made from low-alloy steel (Air Liquide)
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 26: Plasma keyhole welding

Base material S1100QL t = 6 mm
Plasma gas: Argon 100%, 5 l/min;
shielding gas argon +10% CO2, 13
l/min
Vs = 20 cm/min, gap w = 0 mm
Vd = 1.20 m/min
Pulsed current IP = 250 A;
Base current IG = 62.5 A;
Pulse frequency Pf = 15 Hz
(GSI mbH, NL SLV Munich)
Figure 27: Aluminium, material 5083

Sheet thickness 6 mm
Plasma-welded (DC/+)
Bend test
Stimulated, ductile forced rupture
(Linde, Schalchen)
(photo courtesy of SPB)
Figure 28: Plasma welding of thin-walled components made from aluminium alloys
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 29: Sheet thickness 9 mm
Plasma gas: Argon between 1.5 -3.2 l/min

Shielding gas: Argon 15 l/min
Welding speed: 0.25 m/min
Filler wire: 1.6 mm Ø; wire speed: 2.5 m/min
Welding current 260 A
AC frequency: 80 Hz; AC pulse width: 50%
Figure 30: Plasma keyhole welding on aluminium with alternating current
Figure 31: Plasma welding of hous-

ings made from aluminium alloys us-
ing robots
Welding processes
and equipment
1.6 Process variants
1.6.1 Micro-plasma welding
Due to the particular course of the arc characteristic curve of the constricted plasma arc, there is still an
intersection point, even at the smallest current values, with the characteristic curve of the power source
and therefore a stable working point. Current intensities of approx. 0.3 to around 25 A are applied to
weld workpieces in the thickness range from 0.01 to approx. 1.5 mm.
With micro-plasma welding, e.g. the thinnest of foils and wire netting are welded.
Figure 32: micro-plasma arc (Linde).
Figure 33 shows a micro-plasma torch and figure 34 shows some components.
Bellows made of X 2 CrNiMo 18 12

Figure 33: Microplasma torch
Wire with 0.5 mm diameter,

steel X5CrNi 18 9
Figure 34: Microplasma-welded

components
Welding processes
and equipment
1.6.2 Plasma-powder joining and arc surfacing
With these two processes, two separately adjustable arcs are used. One ignites between the tungsten
electrode and the copper nozzle. With this arc (non-transferred), the powder supplied through or beside
the nozzle can be melted in a targeted manner.
The second arc ignites from the tungsten electrode right through the nozzle (transferred) to the work-
piece and melts the base metal in a targeted manner (little melting of the base metal - low level of dilu-
tion).
The structure of such a torch is presented schematically in Figure 35.
Figure 35: Schematic view of the principle of a torch for plasma joining and arc surfacing [1]
Plasma-powder welding was developed only a few years ago. As the powder is supplied concentrically
around the arc, the torch does not have to be turned in accordance with the component geometry, for
example, when using robots to perform welding - in contrast to TIG welding with filler wire. The good gap
bridging ability and the option to supply very defined amounts of filler material, tailored to the geometry of
the component to be joined, is also advantageous. Components made from aluminium alloys, for exam-
ple, are welded using this process, Figure 36.
Figure 36: Plasma-powder welding of AlMg 5
Welding processes
and equipment
Another weld join is shown in Figure 37.

Plasma-powder weld
Figure 37: Plasma-powder welded, circumferential weld
Plasma-powder arc surfacing (also: PTA procedure “Plasma-Transferred-Arc”) has been used in manu-
facturing for many years. It is used primarily to create a wear- and corrosion-resistant layer. Among other
things, materials are used which cannot be manufactured as wires, e.g. stellites. One particular feature
of the process is the achievably low dilution of up to minimum 5% and the formation of a low heat-
affected zone.
The deposition rate can be up to 20 kg/h. The achievable surface output is comparatively low, which is
why it is the preferred option for coating smaller components (also small-volume runs due to the low heat
input such as e.g. valves of large motors).
The process is usually fully mechanised. Frequently used surface weld powders include wear-resistant
materials and also nickel-based, cobalt-based and iron-based alloys.
A typical, bead-shaped surface weld is shown in Figure 38.
Figure 38: Plasma-powder arc surfacing (SLV Halle)
1.6.3 Plasma MIG welding
This process is used both for joining and surfacing. It can yield high-quality welds on aluminium materi-
als. This procedure improves the efficiency of MIG welding by preheating the welding wire and bringing
additional heat into the component. A further advantage lies in the option offered by the plasma arc to
heat up the welding point to such an extent that the addition of filler material (MIG) does not lead to a
lack of fusion. The high cost (including that for two power sources) and the difficulty in operation (many
setting parameters) restrict its application to special cases. Figure 39 shows the principle underlying the
process.
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 39: Plasma MIG welding, schematic representation (according to Baum)
Welding processes
and equipment
1.6.4 Plasma-hot-wire surfacing
Process for large-area surfacing. By supplying 2 hot wires, very high deposition rates and high surface
outputs can be achieved.
The basic idea of this Plasma-hot-wire process is to separate the fusing of the base metal and the melt-
ing of the filler material.
The plasma torch can be operated with comparatively little power, which has a favourable effect on the
heat input and thereby on the joint between the base metal and cladding as well as on the width of the
heat-affected zone and the dilution. The penetration depth and surfacing thickness can be varied inde-
pendently of one another via the plasma current and the hot wire efficiency and feed.
It is used in particular where submerged arc welding cannot be used due to a lack of powder; thus for
example in the area of materials used in off-shore technology.
Figure 40 shows the process principle.
Figure 40: Plasma hot wire surfacing system, schematic representation
Welding processes
and equipment
1.6.5 Plasma soldering
With plasma soldering, the filler material is not guided live into the arc, in contrast to gas-shielded metal
arc soldering. The filler material is thus melted off largely independently of the supplied energy per unit
length of weld and consequently the weld geometry can be influenced within comparatively broad limits.
The gap bridging ability is particularly high.
Plasma soldering is used particularly in the automotive industry and is preferred here for joining galva-
nized sheets, because the deliberately low heat input via the plasma arc “protects” the zinc layer, Figure
41.
Figure 41: Manual plasma soldering on the door sill of a BMW car body (photo courtesy of BMW, Binzel)
Figure 42: Plasma soldered joint without fusing of the base metal (Figure: EWM)
1.6.6 Plasma spot welding
Like TIG spot welding, the torch is applied to the workpieces to be joined with gentle pressure and, with
the pre-set welding time, the fusing of generally two but possibly of several overlapping sheets is per-
formed. The application is used particularly with sheets of different thicknesses or which can only be
accessed on one side.
Prerequisite for a good quality weld is above all, the cleanliness of the surfaces of the components to be
welded.
Welding processes
and equipment
The welding process is used, e.g. in the stainless steel processing industry, automotive
industry, mechanical and systems engineering, foodstuffs industry, container and cabinet construction.
Sheets that are galvanized on both sides can also be successfully welded whereby due to the high ener-
gy concentrations and the resultant short welding time, only minimal burn-off of the zinc layer around the
welded point occurs.
Figure 43 shows a torch set up for plasma spot welding. Figure 44 shows a cross-section of a corre-
sponding weld, while Figure 45 shows spot welds on a container.
Figure 44: Cross-section of a plasma spot weld

(photo courtesy of SBI)
Figure 43: Torch for plasma spot welding

Figure 45: Plasma spot welds on a

stainless steel wine tank
Welding processes
and equipment
1.7 Bibliography
[1] Baum
[2] Linde, Welding Shielding gases: Development, Consulting and Application
[3] Technology del Plasma, Mario Marconi, Genova 1983
[4] DVS-Leaflet 0937 Root protection in gas-shielded arc welding
[5] Leaflet 822: The processing of stainless steel, Information centre Stainless Düsseldorf 2001
[6] DIN 65153:1997 06 Aerospace – Acceptance testing of Plasma arc welding equipment
[7] DVS leaflet 0919 Tungsten-Plasma arc welding
[8] DVS Leaflet 0966-1 Plasma-MIG/MAG-Welding – Technical equipment
[9] DVS Leaflet 0950 Mechanised TIG- und Plasmas arc welding – Requirements of power sources
and equipment technology
[10] DVS Leaflett 6/2001 Arc welding
[11] DVS-Leaflet 0938-1 Arc brazing – Basics, Processes, Installation requirements -Verlag Düsseldorf
Welding processes
and equipment
1.8 Test questions
(1) What feature of the plasma process gives rise to the significantly higher power density compared
to e.g. the TIG welding process?
 The use of shielding gas containing hydrogen

 The water-cooled copper nozzle
 The use of helium as the plasma gas
 The constriction of the arc while welding with alternating current
(2) What materials can be welded with plasma welding (name at least four)?
(3) Name at least five advantages of plasma welding over TIG welding.
(4) In what sheet thickness range can plasma welding be used to create a butt joint without weld
preparation?
 0.1-1.0 mm
 3.0-9.0 mm
 6.0-12.0 mm
 10.0-20.0 mm
(5) Which physical characteristics of the gasses used during plasma welding have a particular in-
fluence on the formation of the plasma jet and thus on the shape of the weld pool?
 The specific weight

 The dissociation or ionisation energy
 The thermal conductivity
 The recombination heat
(6) How is the arc ignited in plasma welding?
 Using high-voltage pulses between the tungsten electrode and the workpiece
 Through brief contact between the torch and the workpiece
 Using high-voltage pulses between the tungsten electrode and the nozzle to start
a pilot arc
 Using a high-frequency pulsed current
Welding processes
and equipment
2 Electron beam material processing
Abbreviation: EB (electron beam), standardised designation 51
2.1 Basics
Figure 1: Basic design of an electron-beam unit for material processing, high voltage column for high beam power (left),
sketch of a beam column (right).
An electron-beam gun essentially comprises a beam generator which comprises a cathode, Wehnelt
cylinder and anode, as well as various coils for focussing and for beam deflection. Other magneto-optics
are used as options to influence the beam geometry and shape.
There are various options for acquiring free electrons to create the beam. The most commonly used is the
directly heated cathode, whereby power flows through a cathode, heating it up so that electrons are emit-
ted from its surface. In order to accelerate these electrons to one- to two-thirds the speed of light, a volt-
age of up to 150kV is created between the cathode and the anode. In order to avoid discharges between
the potentials and the oxidation of the cathodes, a high vacuum exists throughout the entire electron-
beam gun. This also offers the advantage that the accelerated electrons are not exposed to collisions with
other particles, which would lead to the deceleration and scattering of electrons.
In order to achieve energy densities >106W/cm2 and beam diameters of 100 µm, the beam is focussed
through the objective lens. If the electrons then strike the predominantly metallic workpieces, they are
decelerated to zero over a distance of a few µm and release their kinetic energy in the form of heat. This
leads to the melting and partial evaporation of the material, but also to x-ray radiation, which at accelera-
tion voltages >60 kV must be shielded off by surrounding the gun and chamber with lead.
Welding processes
and equipment
By using magneto optics, it is possible in electron beam technology to divert the beam not just slowly, for
example to follow a contour to be welded, but also to change its direction with hardly any inertia. If this
happens so quickly that the thermal inertia of the beam is overcome and it works on several locations
practically simultaneously, this is termed multibeam technology. Here the beam can be programmed as
desired, and can work on different points of the workpiece in the same way or differently.
Figure 2: Principles of multibeam technology
Nowadays, modern photo-optical systems (CCD cameras) and the signal of back-scattered electrons,
familiar from scanning electron microscopes, are used to observe the processing process or positioning
of the beam on the workpiece.
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 3: Basic design of imaging using back-scattered electrons (left), comparison of photo-optical and
electron-optical component viewing (right).
2.2 System technology
The electron beam as a software-controlled welding tool excels through its high flexibility, precision and
reproducibility. These characteristics have led to this tool becoming widely used in industry.
Modern electron beam systems are machines controlled by a programmable logic controller (PLC).
Designs with a computerised numerical controller (CNC) are capable of automating the joining process-
es. Prerequisites for the operation of the electron beam machines, such as for example the process vac-
uum, are generated and monitored automatically by the machine.
Economic and ecological advantages arise from the high energy efficiency of electron beam technology
and the fact that process media are not required, e.g. shielding gas.
The design of the EB machine is primarily determined by the component to be processed. Here, in addi-
tion to the dimensions, the required process times are also of relevance. Up to date, a wealth of con-
cepts have been developed for machines which realise, in the most different of ways, the movement of
the component in relation to the electron beam under vacuum.
Welding processes
and equipment
Chamber machine Lock machine
Stroke machine Lock rotary machine
Figure 4: Machine concepts
In a closed chamber (recipient) the parts are moved using kinematics relative to the electron beam.
Access to the chamber is generally via a door, which extends across the entire cross-section of the
chamber. The working chamber guarantees on the one hand, the mechanical stability of the machine
under a working vacuum and on the other hand protects the machine operator from the x-rays created in
the process. The working vacuum of the machine for most applications is in the range between ≤2 x 10 -2
and 7 x 10-4mbar and is determined by the application.
The kinematics used for part movement within the chamber are very strongly determined by the purpose
of the task. Typical standard solutions involve a coordinates table installed on the floor of the chamber,
on which various fixtures can be mounted. The fixtures generate additional movements in order to turn,
pivot or raise the parts.
3
Figure 5: Compact EB chamber machines, type K2, with chamber volume of 0.2 m and type K110 with chamber
3
volume of 10 m
Welding processes
and equipment
For large-volume components, the chamber principle is used with an internal EB generator. The
component is positioned on a simple pallet or turning device and the EB generator is moved by means of
kinematics relative to the component.
3
Figure 6: EB large chamber machine with chamber volume of 630 m (left) and EB generator on the robot arm
(right)
The concept of the lock-shuttle machine is a further development in the direction of shorter auxiliary pro-
cess times for the machines. This was achieved by adding a lock chamber to the working chamber. The
machine thus comprises:
1. Station for loading and unloading

2. Lock chamber for evacuation and flooding
3. Working chamber
The parts are moved between the stations in the machine on palettes or devices. Consequently there
are always 3 pallets in circulation.
The parts are loaded onto the pallets at the loading and unloading station. At the next lock cycle, the
pallet is automatically moved into the lock chamber. Simultaneously, on the opposite track, a pallet with
processed parts is moved to the loading and unloading station. After closing the lock door, the lock
chamber is pumped out. At the next lock cycle, the pallet is moved into the working chamber and on the
opposite track, a pallet with processed parts is moved into the lock. Once the working chamber is closed,
the EB processing can start immediately. The working chamber is thus always kept under vacuum
(7 x 10-4mbar).
To process the parts, the pallet can be moved in the working chamber using a coordinates table over the
entire ground surface of the working chamber. If further movements are required to process the parts,
this can be done using kinematics in the pallet. Upon completion of the EB processing, the pallet is
moved at the next lock cycle into the lock and then in a further cycle through to the loading and unload-
ing station. The time required for the lock cycle is determined definitively by the process time required to
process the parts.
The key advantage of this concept lies in the fact that not only can tool-dependent auxiliary processing
times be run simultaneously, but so can the times for evacuation and flooding. The auxiliary process time
is thus reduced to the required driving in/out of the pallets and for opening and closing the doors. Opti-
mal operation is possible if the process time is longer than the pumping time of the lock (approx. 60 sec-
onds), as well as the time for loading and unloading at the first station. As there is frequently space on
the pallets for more than 30 components, the auxiliary process time per component is then reduced to
under one second. Furthermore, the part output of the machine can be easily planned.
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 7: Lock-shuttle machine, type S20
Stroke machines work on the design principle of the chamber machines, whereby the most compact
workpiece carrier possible is used as part of the working chamber. The machine has two positions, the
loading position (loading and unloading) and the working position.
The parts are supplied into the workpiece carrier under atmospheric conditions. Standard components
are used for the supply. Depending on the type of stroke machine, up to 4 parts per workpiece carrier
can be processed. Generally stroke machines are designed as single-purpose machines.
The advantage of the stroke machine is that loading and unloading can take place simultaneously.
This reduces the auxiliary process time to a range of less than 10 seconds. The compact design of the
machine means that its required floor space is minimal. All components are mounted on a platform,
which is container-compatible. The stroke machine is well suited to automation and to interlinking of pro-
duction processes. The machines stand out due to their low investment, operating and maintenance
costs. In order to ensure the highest level of productivity possible, it is important that the process time
should be longer than the auxiliary process time.
The short cycle time means that it is possible to realise modern production strategies (single piece flow),
which are particularly prevalent in the automotive industry.
Figure 8: EB stroke machine (left) with automatic component loading (right)
Welding processes
and equipment
The lock-rotary machine combines the efficiency of the lock-shuttle principle with that of the stroke
machine.
Optimised for processing small parts, the typical chamber volume requires only a few seconds. The
machine has two stations:
1. Loading and unloading station (works additionally as a lock)

2. Working station
After evacuation, the parts are brought to the working station under vacuum by means of a rotary table.
In general, the machine is operated in single piece flow.
Advantages of the machine lie in the shorter auxiliary process times due to making the loading,
unloading and EB processing operations run in parallel.
Figure 9: EB stroke machine as individual machine (left) and integrated in an automated production line
for series production of gear parts (right)
Welding processes
and equipment
2.3 Process variants in addition to welding technology
Table 2: Process variants of EB material processing
Sphere of application Technical requirements Materials

Drilling depths: up to 20 mm e.g.
Drilling Bore diameter: 0.04 - 5 mm turbine materials
special materials
Remelting with and without additives: e.g.
The material is heated slightly above its melting cast iron
temperature. As it cools down quickly, a fine- heat-treated steels
grained microstructure is achieved. Segregations
are removed. By adding filler material, wear-
resistant layers can be obtained.
Surface treatment Remelting depths between 0.1 and 5 (10) mm
Hardenable materials
Transformation hardening:
Heating above austenite temperature. As the mate-
rial cools down quickly, a high degree of hardness
is achieved. Hardening depths of 0.1 to 1.7 mm
without slight surface fusions
2.3.1 EB drilling
EB drilling operates with an energy density of 107 to 108 W/cm2 in pulsed mode. As a result, a lot of
material is melted abruptly. The exit side (side where the beam leaves the workpiece) is furnished with
an ancillary material which upon contact with the molten material evaporates explosively and thereby
expels the material in the opposite direction out of the drill hole.
Bores of up to 20 mm in depth and a diameter of approx. 1 mm can be generated. The smallest bore
diameters are approx. 0.04 mm with a depth of 0.5 mm.
For the technical implementation of EB drilling, a very precise focusing of the electron beam is required
that must also be repeatable. An appropriate high voltage supply is required for the high drilling rate, as
is a CNC controlled moving mechanism for the workpieces.
There are EB drilling applications in the area of aircraft construction (gas turbine parts, combustion
chamber parts) and in general process engineering (e.g. sieves, including for the paper and foodstuffs
industry), as well as the drilling of highly temperature resistant centrifugal disks for manufacturing glass
wool.
Due to the high removal speeds, the electron beam offers above all a highly-effective procedure for drill-
ing lots of small holes (=perforation) in thick, tough material.
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 9: Spinning bowl for manufacturing glass wool (left) and combustion chamber of an engine (right)
Figure 10: Cooling hole at an angle (left) and filter for paper and pulp industry (right)
2.3.2 Surface treatment by electron beam
In surface treatment with an electron beam, the base material is either re-melted or heated above
austenite temperature. As the energy is brought in only locally, big temperature gradients occur. This
makes the workpiece cool down quickly and, in case of hardenable materials, leads to surface layers of
high hardness that often measure less than 1 mm in thickness. Applications are to be found with smaller
components that are partially exposed to high wear and tear (such as bearing bushes, etc.)
Figure 11: Phase transformation options by means of electron beam
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 11: EB edge zone hardening on camshaft made of GGG 60 (left) and EB annealing of medical
fracture pins (right)
Figure 12: EB coating of stellite 6 (left) and EB surfacing (right)
Welding processes
and equipment
2.4 Electron beam welding
Table 2: Electron beam welding
Sphere of application Technical requirements Materials

Minimum sheet thickness: approx. 0.01 mm Almost all metals:
Possible welding depths:  300 mm e.g.
Weld width/weld depth: up to 1:50 low-alloy steels
Welding in vacuum Welding speeds: 0.1 mm to 300 mm/s aluminium
fine-grained structural steels
heat-resistant materials.
Special materials (e.g., CU, W, Ti)
2.4.1 Process flow of electron-beam welding
Due to an energy density of more than 106 W/cm², material at the surface of the workpiece is liquefied
and shortly after, it is evaporated. A vapour cavity is generated, and along this cavity, the electron beam
continually penetrates deeper into the workpiece. When the workpiece is moved, the vapour cavity
moves as well, and directly behind the cavity, due to the surface tension, the melted material flows
together - a weld is created. The general procedure is shown in Figure 13.
Joint before welding Melting at the point of Vapour cavity Vapour and melt Weld seam after
electron-beam im- is created cavity have penetrated solidification
pingement the workpiece
Figure 13: General procedure of EB welding
The width/depth relation of the weld can be up to 1/50. As a consequence, only a minimum of
distortion occurs in EB welding. For this reason, it is also applied as a finishing process. However, the
disadvantage is that high temperature gradients occur which may result in high hardness values.
Depending on the workpiece, material and the performance of the EB machine, welding depths of up to
300 mm can be achieved. Welding speeds of 300 mm/s (18 m/min) and more are possible. The actual
welding speeds specified are determined by part and joint geometry, material and quality requirements
and are generally between 5 mm/s – 80 mm/s.
EB welding can be applied to almost all metallic materials and usually requires no filler materials.
Figures 14 to 17 show a selection of constructive designs of EB welds.
Welding processes
and equipment
2.4.2 Preparation and design of welded joints
Figure 14: Examples of straight EB welds (longitudinal weld)
Figure 15: Examples of circular EB welds (radial weld)
Figure 16: Examples of circular EB welds (axial weld)
Figure 17: EB welding of inaccessible welds
Welding processes
and equipment
To prepare the weld, it is essential to use machined weld flanks without an air gap.
The surfaces should be cleaned as the surface elements evaporating during the welding process
would cause pores due to the poor degasification conditions.
Table 3: Weld preparation requirements for EB welding
Criterion Requirement
Gap Zero gap: 0.0 mm to max. < 0.15 mm, depending
on the penetration depth
Surface finish Surface finish Ra < 3.2 µm
Machining
Free from oil and grease (DVS 3213)

Surface layers (beads) Phosphate layers, nitride layers, etc.
need to be removed.
Other Workpieces must be non-magnetic/demagnetized
-4
(<10 Tesla (1 Gaus))
2.4.3 Sample applications
Figure 18: Spectrum of material and penetration depths of the EB welding technique
Welding processes
and equipment
The application of the EB technique extends across all industries and practically all metallic materials.
Figure 19: EB welding in the automotive industry (gearing parts, turbocharger rotor, damper)
Figure 20: EB welding in railway engineering
Courtesy MTU
Figure 21: EB welding in the aerospace industry (semi-finished product for Ariane tank, engine parts)
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 22: EB welding in energy technology (turbine rotor, low voltage switch)
Figure 23: EB welding in medical technology (planetary gears, prosthesis)
Figure 24: EB welding in the chemicals and food industries (centrifuges, fittings)
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 25: EB welding in mechanical engineering (axle, large pinion)
Figure 26: EB welding in research and development (ITER)
Figure 27: Mixed joints: In the picture, you can see the structure of an EB welded joint made from copper to CrNi
steel. The weld metal contains a mixture of copper and CrNi steel (is white in the image). The welding is free from
defects.
Welding processes
and equipment
2.4.4 Troubleshooting in electron-beam welding
Table presents typical EB welding defects as well as possible remedies.
Table 4: Troubleshooting in electron-beam welding
Failure mode Cause Prevention

Pores Poor degasification conditions Optimizing the welding parameters,
Contaminated surface cleaning the workpieces
Cracks Poor solidification due to high Preheating
cooling rate Putting the component under
pressure (compression strength)
High hardness values High cooling rate Preheating
Different material choice
2.4.5 Process-specific advantages and disadvantages
Advantages of electron-beam welding:

- Low heat input, narrow, almost parallel welds, low distortion and shrinkage
- Low temperature load of components, narrow heat-affected zone
- Welding of finished parts
- Optimum contamination protection of the melt using a vacuum
- Different material combinations can be welded
- High degree of automation, cost advantage when processing thick-walled components
- All process parameters can be obtained and documented directly and online for quality control
(long-term stability, ability to be checked and adjusted)
- Low energy consumption
Disadvantages of electron-beam welding:

- Gap bridging ability is low (alternative with filler wire welding)
- Tolerances of the joining parts and the beam positioning low
- Partially restricted accessibility of the welding point
- For large components, large vacuum chambers are required
- High investment costs
Welding processes
and equipment
2.5 Test questions

(1) What manufacturing processes can be performed using the electron beam and what work steps
can the electron beam integrate here?
(2) The electron beam works in a vacuum. What advantage does the vacuum offer and what system
technology is required in order to enable commercially-viable processing in a vacuum?
(3) What are the most frequent applications of the electron beam?
(4) What materials can be welded?
(5) What prerequisites must be given for electron beam welding to be technically and commercially
feasible?
(6) What weld type is predominantly used in electron beam welding?
(7) What depth/width ratio do electron beam welds display in deep welding and what weld depths
can be achieved?
Welding processes
and equipment
2.6 Bibliography
Source reference: All images that are otherwise unreferenced were provided by pro-beam AG &
Co KGaA.
/1/ Schulz, H. Elektronenstrahlschweißen (Electron-beam welding), Düsseldorf 2000
/2/ Adam, V., Clauß, U., v. Dobeneck, D, Krüssel, T., Löwer,T

Elektronenstrahlschweißen Grundlagen einer faszinierenden Tech-
nik(Electron-beam welding - Principles of a fascinating technology), Publis-
her: pro-beam AG&Co. KGaA, 2011
/3/ v.Dobeneck, D. An International History of Electron Beam Welding
Publisher: pro-beam AG&Co. KGaA, 2007
2.7 Overview of standards: Electron beam technology
DIN EN ISO 13 919-1 Electron and laser-beam welded joints - Guidance on quality levels for im-
perfections, Part 1: Steel
DIN EN ISO 13 919-2 Electron and laser-beam welded joints - Guidance on quality levels for im-
perfections, Part 2: Aluminium
DIN EN ISO 15609-4 Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic
materials - Welding procedure specification, Part 4: Laser beam welding
DIN EN ISO 15614-11 Welding procedure test, Part 11: Laser beam welding and electron
beam welding
DVS 3213 Recommendations for cleaning the joining zone for electron beam welding
DVS 3201 Principles for constructing components for electron beam welding in fine
and high vacuum
Welding processes
and equipment
3 Laser welding
3.1 Summary description of the procedure
3.1.1 Description of the general principle
Since Maiman invented and built the first laser in 1960, it has become a flexible tool in many areas of
industry and science. Lasers have been applied successfully in the field of welding and cutting since the
early 1970s. Since then, the number of applications where laser technology is used has constantly been
growing.
The made-up word LASER stands for the physical effect of “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation”. The emission is based on an interaction between light and material with the stimulated
radiation being emitted by the material.
The breakthrough for lasers into the area of joining technology is due to the fact that laser light can be
focused in one point and thus creates an extremely high energy density of  106 W/cm2. This is possible
because it is monochromatic, coherent and parallel. In contrast to a laser, an incandescent lamp emits a
light spectrum (=several wave lengths) in any spatial direction. This has the result that the light of an
incandescent lamp cannot be focused in one point. Figure1 shows the light emission of an incandescent
lamp and that of a laser.
Incandescent lamp
Laser
Figure 1: Comparison between an incandescent lamp and a laser
3.1.2 Beam generation

A laser is a device for generating and amplifying monochromatic and coherent light of low beam
divergence. A laser, Figure 2, consists of:
 the laser-active medium,

 the excitation source,
 the optical resonator.
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 2: Principle of the laser
The laser active medium consisting of atoms, ions, molecules or crystals, is a quantum-physical system
featuring different energy levels in thermodynamic equilibrium. By absorption of energy, the population
density of the different energy levels is changed and a population inversion is caused.
Energy transfer occurs by emission. In the case of spontaneous emission, during transition from excited
state to ground state, a light quantum (photon) is released that can propagate in any spatial direction. By
contrast, in the case of stimulated emission, the arising photon is emitted in the same direction and at
the same frequency as the excited photon. In the optical, regenerative resonator, mirrors arranged in
parallel as well as the stimulated emission make the conducted light wave to be reflected several times
thus causing an amplification of the light.
The output of the emerging laser beam is realized through a partially reflecting mirror. In order to
maintain the population inversion, energy must be added continually (optical pumping, collision process-
es).
Inside the resonator, a standing wave is formed in the direction of the resonator axis. Due to diffraction at
the mirrors, the transversal intensity distribution may assume different shapes. They are called
transversal electromagnetic modes (TEMmn). The index m indicates the number of knots in x direction;
and the index n the number of knots in y direction. The fundamental mode of a circular, symmetrical
intensity distribution of a transverse vibration has the shape of a two-dimensional Gaussian distribution
and is known as TEMoo mode. In Figure 3 further examples of possible mode shapes are shown.
TEM00
TEM01*
TEM01
Figure 3: Intensity distribution of the laser beam (circularly polarised mode shape)
Welding processes
and equipment
3.1.3 Laser types

A variety of atoms, molecules and ions can be stimulated to emit laser light. In material processing,
 solid-state lasers (e.g. Rubin, Nd-YAG, Nd-glass),
 gas lasers (CO2, Ar),
 semiconductor lasers or diode lasers (GaAs, GaAlAs) and
 excimer lasers (e.g. ArF, KrF, XeCl)
are used.
These laser types differ in wavelength and intensity of laser radiation.
Figure 4: Power, wavelength and application areas of different laser types
3.1.4 Effect of the laser beam

When the laser beam hits the surface, a part of the light energy is reflected according to the reflectivity of
the workpiece, see Figure 5. The remaining part penetrates into the material and there, it is more or less
scattered or absorbed. The absorption coefficient indicates the fraction of the input (=absorbed) radiation
power. This fraction converts into other forms of energy, especially heat, and causes the
material to melt on the surface. The absorption coefficient is a material-specific quantity and depends on
the temperature, the wavelength and the intensity of the laser beam.
Welding processes
and equipment
Laser Optic (focusing lens) Workpiece
; E(r,t) F();  A(,T,E); K(T); (T)

beam generation beam shaping interaction
radiation/material
Figure 5: Interaction laser beam/matter
Figure 6 shows the absorption coefficient as a function of wavelength. Metals are characterized by a
high absorption coefficient in the ultraviolet (UV) and the visible spectrum and a low absorption coeffi-
cient in the infrared (IR) spectrum. In contrast to other metals, iron and steel feature a relatively high ab-
sorption in the IR spectrum. As a result, these materials can easily be welded both with the
solid-state laser as well as with the CO2 laser.
Figure 6: Absorption coefficient as a function of wavelength for various metals
3.1.5 Component geometry and processing materials

Laser material processing, in particular cutting and welding, is used for all component geometries such
as sheets, pipes, profiles etc. The geometry imposes only few limits. For metals, the dimensions of the
workpiece to be processed are between a few µm and up to approx. 40 mm. In principle, all welding
positions are possible, whereby positions such as PA to PC are to be preferred. The welding head is
contaminated significantly less here by spatters and smoke.

Advantages of laser beam welding:
- Narrow, almost parallel weld flanks, little shrinkage, low distortion
- Little to no rework
- Low temperature load of components, low energy input per length
Welding processes
and equipment
- Laser-appropriate design enables new innovative products

- High degree of automation
- Fine-grained microstructure in the weld, narrow heat-affected zone
- Good accessibility to the joint
- High welding speed
Disadvantages of laser beam welding:

- Low gap bridging ability
- Tolerances of the joining parts and the beam positioning low
- Extensive edge preparation (joint gap almost zero)
- Laser-appropriate design required
- Narrow welds - low load-bearing cross-section in overlapping welds
- Higher hardening
- High investment costs
3.1.7 Areas of application

Due to its technical properties and high profitability, laser material processing is not only used in many
areas of the metal-processing industry - more and more new task areas are being opened up all the
time.
Typical areas of application include:
Production engineering: Cutting, welding, depositing surfaces, inscription, drilling, soldering, hardening
Measurement: Length, distance, angle and surface measurement, holographic analyses
Medicine: Ophthalmology, laser surgery, treatment of tumours, dentistry, skin treatment
Environment and energy: Air and water analyses, environmental and atmospheric measurements
Figure 7 shows a typical application.
Figure7: Gearwheel welding in the automotive gearbox
Welding processes
and equipment
3.1.8 Beam focussing

The raw laser beam can be focussed through reflective optics (mirrors) or transmittive optics (lenses),
Figure 8.
Figure 8: Focussing the raw laser beam through mirrors and lenses
Reflective optics (mirror): Transmittive optics (lenses)

Advantages: - Beam is reflected, by cooling Advantages: - Simpler adjustment
the back of the mirror, very high - Simpler optical setup
beam powers can be transferred
Disadvantages: - Beam penetrates the lens ma-
- No dispersion
terial, therefore it is not possible
Disadvantages: - Expensive optical setup to transfer beam powers that are
- More expensive than lenses as high as one might like (e.g.
laser cutting)
- Dispersion: deviation depend-
ent on refractive index and thus
on the wave length (e.g. differ-
ences between the cutting and
adjusting laser when laser cut-
ting)
Welding processes
and equipment
3.2 Laser types – detailed description
3.2.1 CO2 laser

The basic structure of the laser in Figure 2 also applies to the CO2 laser. With the CO2 laser, the reso-
nator arranged between the two mirrors is filled with a gas mixture, consisting of CO2 : N2 : He = 1 : 2 :
10. By applying a voltage between two electrodes, a low-pressure gas discharge is generated. The car-
bon dioxide molecule is directly excited, to a minor extent, by the electrical energy (HF or DC). The main
energy transfer comes from the electron collisions on the nitrogen molecules, which for their part excite
the CO2 molecules. Due to its high heat conductivity, helium is able to cool down the gas mixture and
thus contributes to the stabilization of the process. To maintain the radiation emission, the gas mixture
has to be regenerated. This is achieved by agitation with gas pumps and cooling with heat exchangers.
Depending on their construction type, CO2 lasers can be categorised as:
 cross-flow,
 axial-flow and
 diffusion-cooled.
Nowadays, CO2 lasers are mostly fast, axial-flow direct current (DC) or high-frequency (HF) systems.
They feature a high beam quality along with low investment and maintenance costs. The discharging
chamber is situated in a tube, where the radial compressor or “Roots”-type blower provide a quick gas
flow and thus optical cooling. Fast axial-flow lasers, Figure 9, are built with a range from a few hundred
watts up to currently 40 kW.
New inventions in the field of CO2 lasers have led to the development of diffusion-cooled slab lasers.
In these lasers, the HF discharge takes place between large copper electrodes, see Figure 10. Due to
the small distance between the electrodes, intensive cooling by heat transfer is ensured. In contrast to
flow lasers, new laser gas needs to be added only at certain intervals (approx. 72 h). The essential ad-
vantages of this design are the extraordinarily good beam quality, the compact design and the low oper-
ating costs.
Figure 9: a) Axial-flow HF-excited CO2 laser beam source b) Cross-flow CO2 laser beam source
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 10: Diffusion-cooled CO2 slab laser
In the meantime, laser beam cutting and welding have become established constants in manufacturing.
Some applications can only be joined using a laser beam. CO2 lasers emit a light with a wavelength of
10.6 µm and have an efficiency of approx. 10%. CO2 lasers are predominantly used for cutting but also
for welding. Other applications include the area of surface treatment including surface hardening,
remelting and alloying. The beam is guided, in principle, using a bending mirror.
For laser material processing, entire processing systems are required that include - in addition to the
laser unit - many other components, Figure 11.
Laser gases
Lasergase
(CO
(CO22H,N2He)
2,He)
Systemgas
System gas
y (e.g. N2)
(z.B.N2)
z
c
B
x Compressed air
Druckluft
trfo0134.cdr
Figure 11: Laser processing system with hybrid beam and workpiece guide
The size of the laser machine and the required processing components depend on the specific applica-
tion. The total costs for a processing system comprise the costs for the laser (approx. 35 - 40%) and the
costs for the other machine elements (approx. 60 - 65%) including gas supply, beam guidance etc.
Welding processes
and equipment
3.2.2 Solid-state laser
With a solid-state laser, the active medium (host material) is an artificially grown monocrystal such as
rubin, glass or yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG); its crystal lattice contains impurity atoms like chrome or
neodymium, Figure 12. These impurity atoms represent the actual laser-active atoms. The active laser
medium is generally supplied in the shape of a rod and is arranged between the resonator mirrors.
Solid-state lasers are excited by “optical pumping”. This is realised for pulsed lasers using flash lamps
and for continuous lasers using arc lamps. To better utilize the excitation lamps, double-elliptical reflec-
tors are used.
Source: Trumpf
Figure 12: Basic design of a solid-state laser source
The solid-state lasers mainly used for welding metals are listed in Table 3.
Table 3: Solid-state laser for welding metals
Diode-pumped
Assessment criteria Slab laser Fiber laser
Nd: YAG-rod laser
Efficiency 6 – 10% to 15% 24 – 30%

Capacity (previously
6 kW 8 kW 30 kW
available on the market)
Beam quality up to 12 mm x mrad up to 5 mm x mrad up to 5 mm x mrad
Scalability of performance not possible; ratio always
with a constant beam inversely proportional not possible possible
quality* through thermal lens
Mobility severely restricted severely restricted high
Space required high low very low
An exact evaluation is difficult due to the fact
High after start-up that it is still relatively uncommon in manufac-
Availability
problems turing. In principle, it depends on the diode
life.
Nowadays, diode-pumped solid-state lasers with beam powers from approx. 10 watts to 8 kW are the
industrial standard. With the continuous lasers - featuring a continuous wave (=CW) or continuous beam
- significantly higher process speeds can be achieved than with pulsed systems of the same peak power.
However, with solid-state laser systems, maximum pulse powers of up to 20 kW can be obtained. Pulsed
mode allows for the welding of steels, aluminium, copper, precious metals and many other metals.
Welding processes
and equipment
Classic solid-state lasers equipped with a Nd:YAG rod and excitation lamps have a relatively low
efficiency rate of approx. 3%. Efficiency can be increased to about 10% using diode arrays instead of
excitation lamps, see Figure 13.
Source: Rofin Sinar
Figure 13: Principle of a diode-pumped solid-state laser (Rofin Sinar)
Nd-YAG: Solid-state lasers emit light with a wavelength of 1,064 µm. The most common applications of
the solid-state laser are marking, welding, cutting and drilling.
The solid-state laser also offers the option of coupling the laser beam into a glass fibre and thus carrying
out processing independently from the beam source at a distance of up to 80 m. By using a beam split-
ter, the laser beam can be put into several fibres allowing parallel or - by means of a multiplexer - serial
processing, Figures 14 and 15.
Figure 14: Triple beam splitting with laser light cable Figure 15: Optical switch for six laser light cables
Fibre laser
Welding processes
and equipment
3.2.3 Slab laser
Laser crystal
Cooling
finger
Retro
reflector
optic
Figure 16: Principle and image of a slab laser
The principle of a slab laser

The slab laser is a diode-pumped Yb:YAG laser. The active laser medium is a disk only a few tenths of
a millimetre thick, which is excited by diode lasers through the front face. On the reverse side, the disk
has surface contact to a very effective cooling surface plate. The reverse is also coated with a highly
reflective layer and forms a mirror of the laser resonator, Figure 16.
These geometric relationships of excitation, cooling and resonator lead to the fact that the thermal lens
familiar from rod systems is negligibly small for slab lasers. The beam quality is therefore significantly
higher for the same laser power.
Advantages
In addition to the potential for higher power, the significantly better beam quality of the slab laser can
be used in multiple ways for processing. One option is the reduction of the focal diameter. This can be
realised for welding and cutting of thin components at high advance speeds, thus yielding shorter cycle
times with lower heat input.
When cutting aluminium, the pulsating intensity is achieved with significantly lower laser power.
When working with thick sheets, however, the better beam quality of the slab laser is used to achieve the
working distance and depth of focus or to enlarge the working area of a possible scanner optic (e.g. for
remote welding).
The excellent beam quality can likewise be used to deploy small compact processing optics. This is
advantageous for difficult to access welding or cutting points or when integrating focussing optics into the
workstation.
Welding processes
and equipment
3.2.4 Fibre laser
Figure 17: Principle and image of a fibre laser (TRUMPF)
The principle of a fibre laser

Like the slab laser, the fibre laser is also a special form of solid-state laser. The doped core of a glass
fibre forms the active medium in a fibre laser. Due to the large length of the fibre, the laser radiation
experiences very high amplification, Figure 17. The most frequent doping element for the laser-active
fibre core is erbium (medicine, communications engineering), followed by ytterbium and neodym for
high-performance applications. The fibre laser has an electrical-optical efficiency of more than 30%,
a very good beam quality, a high service life of the pump fibres (> 20,000 h) and a compact,
low-maintenance and wear-resistant structure.
Properties of the fibre laser

• Performances of up to 20 kW and more, subsequently extendable
• The range of sheet thicknesses that can be processed with solid-state lasers is increasing
• High socket output efficiency (>30%)
• High beam quality
• Better focussing ability and greater Rayleigh length for processing larger sheet thicknesses or to
increase the processing speed
• Hybrid welding processes are state of the art and can also be used with fibre lasers
• Adaptation to special framework conditions is also very possible
Advantages
The advantages of the fibre laser are largely the same as those of the slab laser. Consequently the
beam quality of the emitted radiation is up to four times better than that of a comparable Nd:YAG laser;
its power thus opens up numerous fields of application in material processing, such as e.g. high-quality
cutting, soldering and welding of metals. With corresponding beam widening through defocussing, the
hardening of large metallic surfaces is also possible. Due to the high beam quality, comparatively
large working distances are possible (e.g. metal welding approx. 1 m), which opens up entirely new
opportunities in the area of automated manufacturing in 2D and 3D in hard to access areas, or in beam
diversion with mirror scanners (remote welding).
Welding processes
and equipment
3.2.5 Diode laser
In a semiconductor charge carrier, photons are emitted when electrons and holes recombine. If
the semiconductor material is doped accordingly (e.g. GaAs), the probability of a fluorescent transition in
the contact area (pn junction) can be increased. The active area will be limited by the p and n doped
areas, which have a lower refractive index, so that the generated radiation will act as it does in a wave
conductor. The radiation only escapes in the longitudinal direction from the edge of the crystal (edge
emitter). Depending on the doping of the semiconductor material, the wavelength of diode lasers ranges
between 0.78 and 0.94 µm. To achieve a higher beam power, about 25 emitters are combined into one
sub array. In turn, several arrays make the diode-laser bar with its specific beam characteristic.
Depending on the cooling and assembly technique applied, from one bar a power of 10 to 40 W can be
taken. At an efficiency rate of 35 to 50%, enough lost heat is still generated, that - in relation to the small
ground surface of the bar - a power density in the order of kW/cm2 is to be dissipated by corresponding
micro coolers.
The laser beam can be focused by means of micro lenses and micro prisms. To obtain a high-power
diode laser (HPDL), Figure 19, several bars are brought together to form a “stack”. Beam focusing is
carried out mechanically or optically.
The beam quality of the HPDL does not currently match the range of the solid-state laser or the
CO2 lasers. This ultimately explains why a power density (intensity) of 5 x 105 W/cm² is currently
achieved by HPDL.
Figure 18 shows a comparison of beam qualities and laser powers of various laser types.
Possible applications of diode lasers are to be seen in the fields of soldering (electronic components),
hardening, alloying, welding of plastics and (heat conduction) welding of metals.
Diode lasers are the most compact of lasers with the highest efficiency ratings and permit almost
maintenance-free operation.
Figure 18: Beam quality and laser power for different Figure 19: High-performance diode laser
types of lasers (ILT) system for industrial use,
ROFIN DL025 for 2.5 kW incl.
mains adapter (without
cooling unit)
Figure 20 shows a diode laser in use, while Figure 21 shows a cross-section of a weld created using
a diode laser.
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 20: Welding a Cr-Ni steel container using Figure 21: Producing a flat lap-joint fillet weld by means
a 2.5 kW diode laser of a 1.5 kW diode laser
Photo: Fraunhofer IWS Dresden Photo: Fraunhofer IWS Dresden
3.2.6 Summary
Laser systems essentially comprises three modules: resonator, energy supply and beam guidance.
Construction types differ depending on the active medium used:
Gas laser: Electrical excitation DC or HF, gas agitation

Solid-state laser: Optical pumping, water cooling
Diode laser: Electrical excitation, photons, compact construction form
In terms of beam guidance, light can be guided using total reflection (fibre) or via mirror systems. Fibre
guidance does not work for very short or very large wavelengths (e.g. CO2 laser).
The ability to focus is influenced by the beam parameters (K value, wavelength, etc.). There are options
and measures which can be used to change the focussing ability and/or divergence (telescope, mode
shutters etc.).
3.3 Procedure for laser material processing
3.3.1 Laser cutting

Laser cutting is discussed with the cutting processes under 1.13 “Cutting, drilling and other
joint-preparation processes”.
3.3.2 Welding
Laser beam welding is currently already in use for many applications; knowledge about the strengths
and the required framework conditions for optimum application of the procedure serves to extend its area
of application in industry and crafts, Table 2.
Welding processes
and equipment
Table 4: “Laser cutting” technology phases

Technology phase
Process/ Specifica- Ready for Ready for
Technically Ready for State of
Material tion pre-series mass
possible testing the art
production production
1. Micro, fine
welding (electron-
ics, precision
engineering)
a) Stainless steel
b) NE metals
2. Macro, seam
welds
a) Unalloyed steel Up to 1 mm
Up to 10 mm
Over 10 mm
b) Stainless steel Up to 1 mm
Up to 10 mm
Over 10 mm
c) NE metals
Aluminium
Other NE metals Up to 1 mm
d) Ceramic
e) Glass
f) Plastics
Depending on the energy density, laser welding is generally subdivided into conduction welding and deep welding
(Figure 22), whereby its advantages lie primarily in deep welding.
Figure 22: Principle of laser welding
Examples of laser beam welds with different laser systems and materials are shown in Figure 23.
Welding processes
and equipment
3-sheet joining 3 x s = 1.6 mm Spot weld Pt-wire diameter 63 µm
Film weld 2 x s = 80 µm Pipe/pipe edge weld 1.4301
Aluminium t = 10 mm Fine grain steel s = 4 mm

Figure 23: Examples of laser beam welds with different laser systems and materials.
Deep welding is distinguished by the formation of a vapour cavity. The laser beam can thereby penetrate
deep into the material. Laser welds have a width of approx. 1 mm, even at penetration depths of
5 - 8 mm. So only a slight distortion occurs. As an example, Figure 24 shows the achievable welding
speeds as a function of the laser power. The width/depth ratio of laser beam welds is between 1/5 and
1/10.
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 24: Welding speed as a function of laser power
Usually no filler materials are added. The welding speeds reached are significantly above those
of traditional welding processes. An upper limit due to physical effects is generally given at approx. 15
m/min.
In laser beam welding, edge preparation is of particular importance. Consequently, the gap width and
edge offset need to be kept within narrow limits, Figure 25.
Sheet thickness d Gap width b Offset e

0.5 ... 3 mm 0.1 d 0.15 d
3 ... 10 mm 0.05 d 0.1 d
Figure 25: Reference values for permissible joining part tolerances
Welding processes
and equipment
The effects of the gap width in the case of laser welds in the butt joint without filler materials are shown
in Figure 26.
Gap: 0.1 mm Gap: 0.3 mm Gap: 0.5 mm

Power: PL = 10 kW
Material thickness: s = 8 mm
Material: S355J0
Figure 26: Laser beam welds with different gap widths
3.3.3 Variants of laser welding
Procedural variants of laser welding are described below.
In addition to the classic conduction and deep welding processes, hybrid and remote welding (Figures 27
and 28) are increasingly finding their way into the manufacturing industry. Hybrid welding is when two
different joining procedures create the weld in one common molten pool.
Figure 27: Depiction of the principle of laser hybrid welding
The advantages of hybrid technology lie in the exploitation of the individual advantages of the processes.
Thus the laser increases, in particular, the welding speed, the penetration depth, the accessibility and
the stabilisation of the arc. The MIG/MAG process (for example) contributes cost-effective component
preparation, a large a-size and influences the composition of the weld through the use of filler material.
Welding processes
and equipment
Another variant that is experiencing increasing popularity is remote welding. The prerequisite for this
application is the currently available and very good beam qualities of the CO2 and solid-state lasers
(Nd:YAG, slab and fibre lasers). The beam movement takes place via X-Y scanner mirrors, as have
been used in laser beam inscription for decades.
Figure 28: the principle of laser hybrid welding
The advantages of remote welding include, above all, very short jump times for stitch welds, high weld-
ing speeds as well as the ability to set the focal distance for 3D workpieces using adaptive optics.
3.3.4 Surface treatment
At the moment, surface treatment with lasers is not yet implemented on a large industrial scale.
Basically, a distinction is made between:
1. Remelting
2. Transformation hardening
3. Surfacing
4. Alloying
Details with characteristic values of the different methods are shown in Figure 29.
Welding processes
and equipment
Figure 29: Surface treatment with lasers (source: ILV 1999)
Welding processes
and equipment
3.3.4.1 Remelting
Thin edge areas are remelted and quickly cooled down. With some materials, an important microstruc-
tural refinement can be achieved this way.
Examples from wear protection are stellites and Fe40Ni20B20-layers.
The cross-section in Figure 30 shows the microstructure of a ledeburitic remelted edge area of cast iron.
Advantages:
Microstructure can be adjusted in a
defined manner.
Applications:
Surfacing with wear-resistant thin
layers
Figure 30: Microstructure of a ledeburitic remelted edge area of cast iron
3.3.4.2 Transformation hardening
Very thin edge areas are heated above austenite temperature; but the material is not melted.
Due to the material-related quick cooling, martensite is formed with high hardness values.
Advantages:
 No distortion
 Complicated components can be hardened locally
Applications:
 Gear surfaces
 Contact surfaces of bearings
 Contact surfaces of pistons
Welding processes
and equipment
3.3.4.3 Surfacing
The base material is melted, and at the same time, filler material (mainly in powder form) is added.
Thin layers are generated upon the base material. Application, e.g. for components exposed to wear and
tear. Figure 31 shows a sample application.
Advantages:
 Small complex components can be
surfaced without distortion.
Applications:
 Surfacing of turbine blades
 Surfacing of exhaust valves
 Surfacing of log saws
Figure 29: Example of laser surfacing of a screw conveyor
Welding processes
and equipment
3.4 Test questions

(1) Name the three physical properties for generating very high energy densities in the focal point of
the laser beam?
 The radiation is monochromatic.

 The wavelength is in the infrared spectrum.
 The radiation has low divergence.
 The wave trains of the laser beam are in phase.
 The laser beam is polychromatic.
(2) Which laser types are mainly used for material processing?
 The CO2 laser

 The dye laser
 The excimer laser
 The Er YAG laser
 The semiconductor laser
(3) The choice of the laser-beam source used depends on
 the required laser-beam power.

 the material to be processed.
 the material thickness.
 the ambient temperature.
 the efficiency.
(4) The CO2 laser
 is the main beam source that is used for processing tasks in production engineering.
 emits in the visible spectral range.
 is only used for welding and cutting.
 is mainly guided to the processing point via optical fibers.
 can be excited with high frequency or with direct current.
(5) The solid-state laser (Nd:YAG)
 is currently available with a beam power of up to 40 kW.

 can only be guided to the processing point via mirrors.
 requires helium as an internal cooling gas.
 can be excited by excitation lamps or diode arrays.
 can operate several processing stations via a multiplexer.
Welding processes
and equipment
(6) Which are the advantages of a diode laser?
 Excellent beam quality.

 Good focusing ability for micro welds.
 Compact construction volume compared to the Nd:YAG laser.
 Good absorption of the laser beam with regard to metals, compared to the CO 2 laser.
 Poor absorption of the laser beam with regard to metals, compared to the CO 2 laser.
(7) Name the characteristics of laser-beam welding compared to the traditional joining techniques?
 High demands on joint preparation.

 High degree of process automation possible.
 No filler wire can be used.
 Due to the energy input per length, distortion is significantly lower compared to the
traditional shielding-gas techniques.
 The lower energy input per length results generally in low hardness penetration.
Welding processes
and equipment
3.5 Bibliography
DIN EN ISO 15609-4 Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic
materials - Welding procedure specification, Part 4: Laser beam welding
DIN EN ISO 15614-11 Welding procedure test, Part 11: Laser beam welding and
electron beam welding
DIN EN ISO 13 919-1 Electron and laser-beam welded joints - Guidance on quality levels for
imperfections, Part 1: Steel
DIN EN ISO 13 919-2 Electron and laser-beam welded joints - Guidance on quality levels for
imperfections, Part 2: Aluminium
Welding processes
and equipment
SFI / IWE 1.12-2
Other special welding processes Page 1
Chapter 1.12-2: Special welding processes II
Contents
1 Arc stud welding 01 ........................................................................................................................ 5

1.1 Summary description of the procedure ..................................................................................... 5
1.1.1 Description of the general principle ................................................................................ 5
1.1.2 Component geometry and processing materials ............................................................ 5
1.1.3 Process-specific advantages and disadvantages ........................................................... 6
1.1.4 Areas of application........................................................................................................ 6
1.2 Process principle – detailed description ................................................................................... 7
1.2.1 Process variants ............................................................................................................ 7
1.2.2 Instrument technology incl. accessories ......................................................................... 7
1.2.3 Weld pool protection – expendable materials ................................................................. 8
1.3 Question .................................................................................................................................. 9
2 Arc stud welding 02 ...................................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Drawn-arc stud welding .......................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Arc stud welding with tip ignition ............................................................................................ 12
2.3 Requirements, load behaviour ............................................................................................... 13
2.4 Cross-section evaluation and avoiding errors ......................................................................... 14
2.5 Materials used in arc stud welding ......................................................................................... 16
2.5.1 Drawn arc ignition processes ....................................................................................... 16
2.5.2 Materials used in tip ignition welding ............................................................................ 17
2.6 Quality assurance in arc stud welding .................................................................................... 18
2.7 Special welding types and alternatives ................................................................................... 19
2.8 Standards and guidelines: ...................................................................................................... 19
2.9 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 19
2.10 Questions............................................................................................................................... 20
3 Electroslag welding (RES) ............................................................................................................ 21
3.1 Summary description of the procedure ................................................................................... 21
3.1.1 Description of the general principle .............................................................................. 21
3.1.2 Component geometry and processing materials .......................................................... 21
3.1.3 Process-specific advantages and disadvantages ......................................................... 21
3.1.4 Areas of application...................................................................................................... 22
3.2 Process principle – detailed description ................................................................................. 22
3.2.1 The sequence of electroslag welding ........................................................................... 22
3.2.2 Joint preparation .......................................................................................................... 22
3.2.3 Execution variants ........................................................................................................ 23
3.2.4 Welding Flux ................................................................................................................ 24
3.2.5 Welding parameters and process parameters .............................................................. 25
3.3 Process variants .................................................................................................................... 26
3.3.1 Electroslag welding of aluminium ................................................................................. 26
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3.3.2 Electroslag welding of circumferential seams ............................................................... 26

3.3.3 Electroslag strip cladding ............................................................................................. 27
3.4 Similar types of welding ......................................................................................................... 27
4 Aluminothermic welding............................................................................................................... 28
4.2 Description of the general principle ........................................................................................ 28
4.3 Material, additives .................................................................................................................. 28
4.4 Process - specific advantages and disadvantages ................................................................. 28
4.5 Areas of application ............................................................................................................... 28
4.6 Process principle in railway track welding - detailed description ............................................. 29
4.7 Aluminothermic reaction......................................................................................................... 30
4.8 High frequency welding (HF welding) ..................................................................................... 31
4.8.1 Summary description of the procedure ......................................................................... 31
4.9 Component geometry and processing materials .................................................................... 31
4.10 Process-specific advantages and disadvantages ................................................................... 31
4.12 Process types – detailed description ...................................................................................... 32
4.12.1High frequency contact welding (conductive HF welding). ............................................ 32
4.12.2Induction welding (non-contact HF-/MF-welding) ......................................................... 33
5 Ultrasonic welding ........................................................................................................................ 35
5.2 Component geometry and processing materials .................................................................... 36
5.3 Process types – detailed description ...................................................................................... 36
5.3.1 Ultrasonic (continuous) seam welding, figure 38 .......................................................... 36
5.3.2 Ultrasonic ring welding ................................................................................................. 37
5.3.3 Ultrasonic plastic welding ............................................................................................. 37
5.4 Questions............................................................................................................................... 39
6 Friction welding (1) ....................................................................................................................... 40
6.2 Description of the general principle ........................................................................................ 40
6.3 Geometry of used components and suitable materials ........................................................... 40
6.6.1 Process sequences of spin/ rotary welding................................................................... 43
6.6.2 Process variations of spin welding ............................................................................... 44
6.6.3 Types of spin / rotary welding ....................................................................................... 45
6.7 Equipment and accessories ................................................................................................... 46
6.8 Consumables ......................................................................................................................... 48
7 Friction welding (2) ....................................................................................................................... 48
7.1 Process conditions and joint properties in spin welding .......................................................... 48
7.1.1 Preparation of parts...................................................................................................... 48
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7.1.2 Welding parameters ..................................................................................................... 49

7.1.3 Structure of a friction welded joint ................................................................................ 50
7.2 Examples of Application ......................................................................................................... 54
7.3.1 Friction stud welding .................................................................................................... 55
7.3.2 Linear friction welding and orbital friction welding ......................................................... 56
7.4 Workplace safety ................................................................................................................... 57
7.5 Questions............................................................................................................................... 58
7.6 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 59
8 Friction welding - friction stir welding ......................................................................................... 60
8.1.2 Suitable materials and the joints geometries ................................................................ 60
8.2.1 Machines ..................................................................................................................... 63
8.2.2 Tools ............................................................................................................................ 63
8.2.3 Welding sequence........................................................................................................ 64
8.2.5 Structure and properties of the joint ............................................................................. 64
8.4 Questions............................................................................................................................... 68
8.5 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 69
9 MIAB welding, diffusion welding ................................................................................................. 70
9.1 Pressure welding with magnetically impelled arc butt (MIAB) ................................................. 70
9.1.1 Process description ...................................................................................................... 70
9.1.2 Processing materials and geometries........................................................................... 71
9.1.5 Welding machines ........................................................................................................ 73
9.1.6 Magnetic field distribution ............................................................................................. 74
9.1.8 Structure and properties of the joint ............................................................................. 75
9.1.9 Process variants .......................................................................................................... 76
9.2 Test questions........................................................................................................................ 77
9.3 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 78
10 Diffusion welding .......................................................................................................................... 79
10.1 Process description ................................................................................................................ 79
10.2 Structure of a vacuum diffusion welding machine................................................................... 79
10.3 Welding data .......................................................................................................................... 80
10.4 Weldable materials and geometries ....................................................................................... 81
10.6 Applications ........................................................................................................................... 83
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10.7 Questions............................................................................................................................... 84
10.8 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 85
11 Cold pressure welding .................................................................................................................. 86
11.1.1Description of the general principle .............................................................................. 86
11.1.2Weldable materials....................................................................................................... 86
11.1.3Application of the process ............................................................................................ 86
11.2 Detailed description ............................................................................................................... 86
11.2.1Welding units ............................................................................................................... 86
11.2.2Process principle .......................................................................................................... 86
11.2.3Operating conditions .................................................................................................... 87
11.2.4Process variants .......................................................................................................... 87
11.3 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 88
11.4 Questions............................................................................................................................... 88
12 Explosion welding......................................................................................................................... 89
12.1 Process principle.................................................................................................................... 89
12.2 Materials and applications ...................................................................................................... 89
12.3 Operating conditions .............................................................................................................. 89
12.4 Variants.................................................................................................................................. 90
12.5 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 90
12.6 Test questions........................................................................................................................ 91
13 Magnetic impulse welding and crimping ..................................................................................... 92
13.1 Applications ........................................................................................................................... 92
13.2 Welding units ......................................................................................................................... 93
13.3 Process principle of the Magnetic impulse welding ................................................................ 93
13.4 Working conditions of materials ............................................................................................. 94
13.5 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 94
13.6 Questions............................................................................................................................... 95
SFI / IWE 1.12-2
1 Arc stud welding 01

Stud welding is the joining of pin-shaped parts (studs) with flat workpieces using pressure welding (DIN
EN 14610).
Arc stud welding is the solidification of a relatively small melt between stud face and sheet surface,
created with the aid of an arc.
The joining principle of arc stud welding is displayed in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Joining principle of arc stud welding and image of ceramic ferrule stud welding
The arc can be ignited either by lifting the stud from the sheet ( drawn arc ignition) or by evaporating a
defined ignition tip (tip ignition) at the contact with the sheet metal.
Arc stud welding is usually used on studs with a round cross-section. In certain cases, is can also be
used for rectangular cross-sections. In welding processes, the geometric shape is usually irrelevant, with
the exception of the welding point and the stud length. Processes primarily use studs, pins and threaded
bolts that manufacturers offer as DIN EN ISO 13918 standard types. Common diameters are: 2 to 25
mm in the case of steel, and up to 12 mm in the case of aluminium.
The stud is attached to the sheet at a perpendicular angle. Basically, any welding position is possible (in
relation to the sheet). The following limitations apply:
 Welding position PA, horizontal sheet: all diameters,
 Welding position PC, perpendicular sheet: diameters up to 16 mm,

 Welding position PE, overhead/horizontal sheet: diameters up to 20 mm,
Arc stud welding can be used on sheet metals with a thickness no smaller than 0.5 mm. There is no
upper limit to the thickness of the sheet.
There are however limits in the choice of material, due to the rapid melting and cooling limitations set by
DIN EN ISO 14555. Regarding unalloyed steel, alloyed steels and aluminium materials, only a few
commonly used materials are suitable for welding studs as per DIN EN ISO 13918, since only these can
be welded in good quality to similar materials of sheet metals. Copper and brass materials can only be
welded with the capacitor unloading process.
SFI / IWE 1.12-2

Arc stud welding has the following advantages:
- good joint quality by full surface welding,
- economical due to short welding time,
- universal applications by handy, easily transportable instrument technology,
- good options for the automation of the processes with high clock rates,
- only simple manual skills are required from the operator,
- no bores necessary,
- low heat input, resulting in almost no warping,
- welding onto thin plates (thinner than 1 mm) is possible without burn-through,
- the sheet metal only needs to be accessible from one side,
- good static load capacity of the joint,
- low investment costs.
Disadvantages:
- limited choice of materials,
- limited process control,
- sensitive against arc-blow effect,
- less suitable for mechanical-cyclic loads.

Due to its highly economical nature, arc stud welding is used in countless areas of the metal processing
industry. The demand for this efficient jointing method is constantly increasing around the globe. Typical
areas of application include:
Drawn arc stud welding: Construction industry with steel engineering, bridge construction
(composite construction, Figure 2) and facade construction,
shipbuilding, power-plant construction, vehicle construction (Figure 2),
mechanical engineering, container construction, insulation technology,
military technology,
Stud welding with tip ignition: Household appliances, casing construction, facade construction,
vehicle industry.
Composite construction, end stud connector Ø 22 mm Vehicle body (Ø 5 to 6 mm)

Figure 2: Sample applications
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1.2 Process principle – detailed description

1.2.1 Process variants
Arc stud welding offers four process variants for various applications and situations, labelled with ISO
numbers 783 to 786, as detailed in Table 1.
Types of arc ignition:
 Arc stud welding process with drawn arc ignition, no. 783 to 785
 Arc stud welding process with tip ignition, no. 786.
Table 1: Types of stud welding and important parameters /3/

Capacitor
discharge stud
welding with
drawn ac ignition
¼ d with shielding
1/8 d
Both types work with direct current, but with different power sources.
1.2.2 Instrument technology incl. accessories
The following instruments are necessary for arc stud welding: Welding power supply, weld time
adjustment control, manipulation device (welding gun or welding head), welding current cable and
connecting clamps. Figure 3 shows switching arrangement for the different ignition methods.
Depending on the process used, further simple devices are available for supporting the gun on the
sheet. In ceramic ferrule stud welding, the gun is positioned into the ceramic ring on the sheet. In
shielding gas stud welding, a suitable shielding gas device is used instead of the simple foot support.
In the case of drawn arc ignition, conventional welding rectifiers or inverters with amperage of up to
3,000 A are used. In capacitor discharge welding, the power supply includes a capacitor battery with a
capacity between 40 and 140 mF.
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Drawn arc ignition processes 783 and 784 Tip ignition process 786
Figure 3: Switching arrangement of arc stud welding
1.2.3 Weld pool protection – expendable materials

The process types differ in welding time and the requirements of weld pool protection (see Table 1 /4/).
Without weld pool protection: for short welding works (< 200 ms) on steel materials, no weld pool
protection is needed. Shorter weld times however result in more
imperfections (e.g. pores). The fillet is often formed unevenly.
Ceramic ferrule welding: A ceramic ferrule is needed for studs with a diameter exceeding 16 mm,
but it is also highly recommended for smaller diameters. Very high quality
welding results can be achieved by easy repeatability, due to a
comparatively longer welding time and strong melting. The ceramic ferrule
is usually placed manually by the operator.
Objectives of the ceramic ferrule (CF): Concentrating and stabilising the
arc, shaping the welding bead and supporting the pool when welding on a
vertical wall.
Typical applications include: manual welding of 22 mm diameter headed
stud anchors in the construction industry.
Disadvantage: one ceramic ferrule is needed for each welding. This type
of welding is not suitable for batch use.
In the case of stud welding without a ceramic ferrule the weld metal
misses the support. Therefore, when welding among adverse conditions,
arc welding without ceramic ferrule is only possible for very short welding
times.
Shielding gas stud welding: Shielding gas can be used as an alternative to the ceramic ferrule. It
reduces the pore formation in the weld metal. The ignition of the arc is
more even and stable. The requirements are: an effective shielding gas
device and a suitable shielding gas (for steel e.g. Ar+18 % CO2, for
aluminium Argon or Ar-He-mix). This type of welding is highly
recommended for use in batch production, and whenever high quality
results are needed in short-time stud welding.
SFI / IWE 1.12-2
1.3 Question
(1) Which types of arc stud welding are used widely today?
(2) Why is arc stud becoming more popular in the whole metalworking industry?
(3) What limitations restrict the applicability of arc stud welding?
(4) Which conditions require or should be used for weld pool protection in arc stud welding?
(5) In which out of positions can stud welding be used (what diameter)?
SFI / IWE 1.12-2
2 Arc stud welding 02

The welding results of arc stud welding are influenced by several factors. These are the following:
 the weld preparations (e.g. surfaces, studs ends, weld pool protection, ground
connection, power source, manipulation device)
 the welding process (e.g. gun position, current flow, right stud movement, cooling of the
weld pool, effectiveness of the weld pool protection)
 the choice of the (these depend particularly on the stud diameter).
welding parameters
- Drawn arc ignition processes: Amperage, welding time, lift height, plunging depth (projection),
plunging speed
- Tip ignition process: Charging voltage, spring force (impact speed), projection, and
optionally: capacitor capacity and gap.
2.1 Drawn-arc stud welding
The stud is slid into the stud holder. The manipulation device is usually positioned on the workpiece
using a support piece or a ceramic ferrule. First, projection P is set depending on the stud diameter, as
explained in figure 4, in order to ensure a sufficient plunging. The arc is ignited by the lifting mechanism
when the tip is lifted. A secondary arc is ignited first, and the main arc is ignited after lifting the bolt from
the workpiece. The fusion face of the stud and the base material are melting/melted. After the welding
time passed, the stud plunges into the weld pool with a low force (< 100 N); shortly after this, the current
is shut off.
Work sequences
Welding parameters:
- current strength,
- welding time,
- lift,
- plunging depth
(projection
parameter).
View of an actual
welding process
Figure 4: Working sequences in drawn-arc stud welding /4/ and view of welding
SFI / IWE 1.12-2
Extensive collective experience helps in setting the right welding parameters for the most frequent
applications. The results (depending on the stud diameter) are included in the reference value diagrams
of DVS notes 0902 to 0904. The values shown here can be used as reference values for determining the
right welding parameters. Deviations are to be made due to the actual plate thickness, welding position,
coating and weld pool protection. Reference values for ceramic ferrule stud welding: see Figure 5.
Lift / elevation [mm]
Example 1: Stud diameter 16 mm: current 1,200 A, welding time 0.6 sec, flat-tip bolt (with aluminium ball):
lift 3 mm, projection 3.5 mm, submergence speed approx. 100 mm/s.
Lift / elevation [mm]
Example 2: Stud diameter 12 mm: current 800 A, welding time 0.4 sec, round-tip bolt (with aluminium ball):
lift 1.5 mm, projection 4.5 mm or more, plunging speed approx. 200 mm/s.
Figure 5: Diagram of reference values for ceramic ferrule stud welding /6/
Bolts have different tip shapes depending on the welding type. Tapered-tip bolts are usually used for
longer welding times and larger melting of the sheet metal. For very short welding times, flat-tip bolts
should be used to provide an even thickness of the weld metal over the whole cross-section.
Some stud types have an aluminium ball (or a aluminium layer) on the tip. This helps to ignite the arc in
the centre of the bolt. Besides that, aluminium also acts as a deoxidiser during the welding process.
SFI / IWE 1.12-2
2.2 Arc stud welding with tip ignition

Arc stud welding with tip ignition is a capacitor discharge type of welding where the arc is ignited by a
defined shaped ignition tip on the stud face. In this type of welding, the length and diameter of the
ignition tip influence welding quality. The tips are usually manufactured by cold upsetting which
additionally results in a raised flange, as shown in figure 6. This flange has the advantage that the weld
contact area is increased as compared to the diameter of the bolt, and that the highest stress zone lays
outside the welding point under mechanical load situations. No weld pool protection is required.
Figure 6: Different stud shapes with ignition tip and upset flange /5/
The welding can be carried out in two ways.

Gap welding: Before start, the bolt (and therefore, the ignition tip) is placed at a certain,
adjustable distance to the workpiece (figure 4a). When the movement starts and
the thyristor ignites, the bolt accelerates towards the workpiece. As the ignition tip
makes contact with the workpiece, the quickly rising capacitor current melts and
evaporates it instantly. This produces an arc which is able to melt the bolt and
workpiece. The bolt continues to move freely forward, and finally comes to a halt in
the melt of the workpiece. Upon contact with the welding pool, the arc goes out
with a short-circuit. The stud and the workpiece are now connected. Welding time
is approx. 1 ms. This enables the welding of aluminium materials even without the
use of shielding gas.
Contact welding: The difference to gap welding is that the stud is mounted directly on the surface of
the workpiece, slightly pressed onto it by spring force. The welding process is
initiated by the thyristor ignition. The following steps are similar to those described
under gap welding. Welding time is 3 ms. A longer welding time improves the
cleaning effect in the case of slightly oiled or zinc-coated workpieces.
Figure 7: Work sequences of arc stud welding with tip ignition /5/
Gap welding: Sequences a to d
Contact welding: Sequences b to d
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2.3 Requirements, load behaviour

Depending on their application, stud welds have to bear mechanical, and sometimes thermal loads as
well. Accordingly the welding point has to transmit forces and even heat.
Quality requirement Tests

Appearance ( weld shape, etc.). Visual test
Dimensional accuracy Dimensional check
(position, distortion, length)
Strength (fracture behaviour) Tensile test
Ductility (deformation) Bending test
Surface imperfections (pores, cavities) Radiographic test
Penetration (weld zone) Macro-section
Hardening (brittleness) Hardness tests
Constant welding data Parameters control
Reproducibility High number of samples
Figure 5: Quality requirements and allocation of suitable tests /6/ View of an aluminium welding /8/
Visual test: The completeness and homogenity of the weld seam as well as spatter formation are
inspected. Undercuts (incomplete fillet) cannot be accepted. Even if the weld has a good
overall appearance, the load capacity can be reduced by severe internal imperfections.
Visual control therefore should be regularly complemented by mechanical testing.
One of the easier workshop tests is bending. Also tensile and torque tests can be performed. Such tests
may be carried out with a limited load that does not destruct the joint.
Basic requirement: when applying a severe mechanical static load the fracture should be
located in the base material (bolt or sheet), outside of the weld zone,
as displayed in figure 9.
Such load behaviour can be achieved if the materials weldability is good and the weld execution shows
the least possible faults.
bending exceeding 60 ° should be achieved Fracture in the stud after Disconnection from the sheet
applying tensile test
Figure 9: Images of stud welds after applying mechanical loads (image on the right: sheet thickness of 3 mm) /7/
SFI / IWE 1.12-2
2.4 Cross-section evaluation and avoiding errors

Beside mechanical load testing of stud welded joints, the selected welding parameters can be excellently
evaluated using cross-section images. Macro-sections reveal the penetration shape as well as any
welding imperfections, such as pores, cavities, cracks and incomplete fusion in the welded piece.
Relevant characteristics: consistent melting form of stud and sheet
Ceramic ferrule stud welding Short cycle stud welding Tip ignition welding
Figure 10: Cross-section images of different types of steel stud welds (images: SLV München)
Figure 11 shows typical welding imperfections and tips for avoiding them during ceramic ferrule stud
welding.
Good One-sided melting: Fusion problems Broader melt zone above 16 mm

and pores created by arc-blow effect diameter: Good
Insufficient plunging due to friction High edge fusion when using shielding Burn-through: time too long, sheet
or short-circuits gas (6 to 10 mm diameter): Good too thin
Imperfection hazard in stud centre: Crack-like cavity in stud centre: Fusion errors in the perimeter
check lift, projection and lift too low region caused by cold plunging
stud shape
Pores caused by low welding current or

contaminated surface
Figure 11: Schematic representation of good penetration shapes and some typical welding imperfections during
ceramic ferrule stud welding /6/.
SFI / IWE 1.12-2
Prevention of arc-blow effect

Arc-blowing effects frequently affect arc stud welding. These arc-blows usually result from the
asymmetry of the magnetic fields created by the current-carrying conductors, such as the bolt and sheet
metal in this case.
Cause of the arc-blow effect: one-sided current flow Remedy: symmetrical ground clamping of the sheet
direction in sheet
Cause Remedy
Note: the arc-blowing effect is proportional to amperage and can be affected by symmetrical assembly of the
workpiece clamps, or by creation of compensation mass or (for manual welding guns with an external welding cable)
by turning the pistol around its perpendicular axis. This causes one-sided fusion and can increase the number of
pores in the weld metal. It can be minimized by suitable use of different remedies.
Figure 12: Causes of magnetic arc blow and possible solutions in arc stud welding
The solutions shown in figure 12 can usually help to reduce magnetic arc-blow resulting in a complete
weld formation. In shielding gas stud welding, arc blows can also be caused by an asymmetrical gas
flow. In addition to this, pre-magnetised sheets (transport of sheet metals with supporting magnets) can
also cause similar arc-blows.
SFI / IWE 1.12-2
2.5 Materials used in arc stud welding

2.5.1 Drawn arc ignition processes
Drawn arc ignition welding can be used for welding unalloyed, stainless and heat-resistant steel bolts as
well as aluminium or aluminium-alloy bolts. This type of welding allows joining bolts to sheets of the
same material or even different material. For combinations, see table 2 /9/.
Arc stud welding is characterised by a fast cooling rate of the melt after the arc is broken. This allows
hardening of the solidified weld material even in unalloyed steels. Therefore, the preferable stud material
is unalloyed steel S235FF with material properties as per DIN EN ISO 13918 /2/.
Table 2: Weldability of usual combinations of stud and base material in drawn arc stud welding /4/
Base metal
CR ISO/TR 15608 CR ISO/TR 15608 CR ISO/TR 15608 CR ISO/TR 15608
Stud material
Groups 1 and 2.1 Groups 2.2, 3, 4 and 5 Groups 8 and 10 Groups 21 and 22
S235
2)
4.8 (suitable for welding) a b b -
16Mo3
1.4742/X10CrAl18
1.4762/X10CrAl24
c c c -
1.4828/X15CrNiSi20-12
1.4841/X20CrNiSi25-4
1.4301/X5CrNi18-10
1.4303/X5CrNi18-12
1)
1.4401/X5CrNiMo17-12-2 b/a b a -
1.4541/X6CrNiTi18-10
1.4571/XcrNiMoTi17-12-2
EN AW-AlMg3 (-5754)
- - - b
EN AW-AlMg5 (-5019)
1)
Up to 10 mm ø and with shielding gas
2)
Only in short cycle drawn arc stud welding
Explanation of the letters concerning weldability:

-: not suitable for welding
a: well-suited for all applications, e.g. transmission of forces
b: suitable with limitations for transmission of forces
c: suitable with limitations only for transmission of heat
Explanation of the grouping numbers:
2
Group 1: Steels with a guaranteed minimum yield point of R eH ≤ 460 N/mm and with the following analysis values
b b b
in %: C ≤ 0.25, Si ≤ 0.60, Mn ≤ 1.70, molybdenum ≤ 0.70 , S ≤ 0.045, S ≤ 0.045, Cu ≤ 0.40 , Ni ≤ 0.5 , Cr ≤ 0.3
b
(0.4 for casting) ,
b
Nb ≤ 0.05, V ≤ 0.12 , Ti ≤ 0.05
Group 2.1: Thermomechanically rolled fine grain steels and cast steel with a specified minimum yield strength of
2 2
360 N/mm < ReH ≤ 460 N/mm
Group 2.2: Thermomechanically rolled fine grain steels and cast steel with a specified minimum yield strength
2
of ReH> 460 N/mm
Group 3: Hardened and tempered steels and precipitation hardened steels, not including stainless steels, with a specified
2
minimum yield strength of ReH> 360 N/mm
Group 4: Vanadium alloyed Cr-Mo-(Ni) steels with Mo ≤ 0.7% and V ≤ 0.1%
c
Group 5: Vanadium-free Cr-Mo steels with C ≤ 0.35 %
Group 8: Austenitic steels:
Group 10: Austenitic-ferritic (duplex) stainless steels
Group 21: Pure aluminium with max. 1.5% impurities or alloy content
Group 22: Non-hardenable aluminium alloys
Index b: a higher value is acceptable, provided that Cr + Mo + Ni + Cu + V ≤ 0.75%
Index c: “Vanadium free” means that no amount of vanadium was alloyed intentionally
Note: Material groups in this leaflet differ from those described in DIN EN ISO 14555: 2006
SFI / IWE 1.12-2
When using stainless steels studs in construction supervision situations for components with
predominantly static loads, the conditions should be respected as defined in the applicable licence notice
of the German Construction Institute (e.g. Z-30.3-6).
2.5.2 Materials used in tip ignition welding
Stud welding with tip ignition can be used for welding unalloyed and alloyed steel studs, as well as
aluminium and brass studs. The weldability of different combinations of stud and base materials is
described in table 3.
In this very fast welding process the sheet is melted only to a depth of 0.2 mm. This allows the welding of
materials that would result in brittle alloys if melted heavily and mixed. In such fast welding processes
the weld zones of the stud and sheet don't have enough time to mix. The load capacity of joints can be
evaluated by the appropriate mechanical tests.
Table 3: Weldability of usual combinations of stud and base material in tip ignition stud welding /5/
Base metal
CR ISO/TR 15608 Pure copper
Groups 1 to 5, 11.1 and lead-free
CR ISO/TR 15608 CR ISO/TR 15608
zinc-coated and CR ISO/TR 15608 copper
Stud material Groups 1 to 5, Groups 21 and
metallized sheets, max. Group 8 alloys, e.g.
11.1 22
coating thickness CuZn37
25 µm (CW 508L)
S235 a b a b -
1.4301/X5CrNi18-10
a b a b -
1.4303/X5CrNi18-12
CuZn37 (CW 508L) b b b a -
EN AW-Al99,5 (1050A) - - - - b
EN AW-AlMg3 (5754) - - - - a
Explanation of the letters concerning weldability:

-: not suitable for welding
a: well suitable
b: suitable with limitations
Explanation of the grouping numbers:
2
Group 1: Steels with a guaranteed minimum yield point of R eH ≤ 460 N/mm and with the following analysis values
b b b
in %: C ≤ 0.25, Si ≤ 0.60, Mn ≤ 1.70, molybdenum ≤ 0.70 , S ≤ 0.045, S ≤ 0.045, Cu ≤ 0.40 , Ni ≤ 0.5 , Cr ≤ 0.3
b
(0.4 for casting) ,
b
Nb ≤ 0.05, V ≤ 0.12 , Ti ≤ 0.05
Group 2: Thermomechanically rolled fine grain steels and cast steel with a specified minimum yield strength
2
of ReH> 360 N/mm
Group 3: Hardened and tempered steels and precipitation hardened steels, not including stainless steels, with a specified
2
minimum yield strength of ReH> 360 N/mm
Group 4: Vanadium alloyed Cr-Mo-(Ni) steels with Mo ≤ 0.7% and V ≤ 0.1%
c
Group 5: Vanadium-free Cr-Mo steels with C ≤ 0.35 %
Group 8: Austenitic steels:
d
Group 11.1: Steels of group 1 , but 0.25% < C ≤ 0.35%
Group 21: Pure aluminium with max. 1.5% impurities or alloy content
Group 22: Non-hardenable aluminium alloys
Index b: a higher value is acceptable, provided that Cr + Mo + Ni + Cu + V ≤ 0.75%
Index c: “Vanadium free” means that no amount of vanadium was alloyed intentionally
Index d: a higher value is acceptable, provided that Cr + Mo + Ni + Cu + V ≤ 1%
SFI / IWE 1.12-2
2.6 Quality assurance in arc stud welding

The quality of a stud weld is the result of the production process. Non-destructive tests only offer partial
evaluation of the quality, and do not guarantee the detection of all imperfections. If mechanical tests with
limited load are used to assess the quality of the stud weld, the cost efficiency will be reduced. Because
of this, it is usual to conduct random tests by simple non-destructive tests /10/.
Legally regulated area (steel constructions)

Qualification for stud welding on steel structures in construction supervision situations can be obtained
by service providers that hold a big (or small) “suitability certificate” in accordance with DIN 18800. To
obtain this, a stud welding process test as per DIN EN ISO 14555 is carried out, in which the welding
situation is only examined prior to start of production. The operators need to detect if there are any
changes in the working conditions throughout the production, in order to carry out the necessary
modifications. Therefore, it is essential to conduct production tests before a new shift and before a new
production sequence.
The extent of the procedure test of arc stud welding is shown in Figure 13.
Type of the test
Procedures
Application ≤ 100°C Application > 100°C
d ≤ 12 mm d> 12 mm all diameters (d)
Visual test: all studs
Drawn arc stud welding with Bending test with torque
ceramic ferrule or shielding gas 60° bending test: 10 Studs wrench: 10 studs
and a b
Short cycle stud welding with Tensile test: 10 studs Tensile test: 5 studs
drawn arc ignition or optional radiography test: -
b
5 studs
Macro cross-section (offset by 90° through stud centre): 2 studs
Capacitor discharge stud weld Visual test: all studs

with tip ignition and
Tensile test: 10 studs
capacitor discharge stud
weld with drawn arc ignition
30° bending test: 20 studs
a
Tensile tests are only needed when the material of the stud is from group 8 as per ISO/TR 15608 and the material of the
base metal is from group 1 or 2 as per ISO/TR 15608.
b
Only for dynamic loaded components.
Figure 13: Scope of the procedure tests for stud welding as per DIN EN ISO 14555 /1/.
A welding procedure specification (WPS) is developed for the welding task, to be authorised by an
examining body. A welding procedure specification can cover a whole range of workpiece thicknesses
and stud diameters. An authorised welding procedure specification is valid for an unlimited period, as
long as no crucial quality-impacting changes occur and the production book is kept updated /1/.
When applying the inspection criteria, one need to consider what kind of support functions are expected
from the welded stud or pin. We have to distinguish between simple or secondary support functions,
load-bearing support function with static or dynamic load, and pins undergoing thermal stress. Apart
fromf this, the quality requirements of DIN EN ISO 3834 can be divided into a) general requirements (EN
ISO 3834-2), b) standard requirements (EN ISO 3834-3) and c) elementary requirements (EN ISO 3834-
4). The test criteria (e.g. allowed imperfection surface) decrease from a) to c).
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2.7 Special welding types and alternatives

Penetrating weld technology:
Based on arc stud welding, penetrating stud welds are mainly used in Anglo-Saxon countries, as they
enable a cost-effective technique for attaching a cover sheet on a steel beam via a headed stud anchor.
At the welding point, the arc pierces completely through the thin cover sheet resting on the steel beam,
thereby allowing the headed stud anchor to be joined directly to the steel beam. At the same time the
cover plate is also joined to the fillet.
Nut welding, pad welding:
In this type of arc stud welding an externally produced magnetic force is used on the arc, in order to flow
this around the face surface of a ring-shaped hollow body. This forced rotation produces a very even
melting between the pad and the sheet metal on capsule-shaped parts with an external diameter
between approx. 10 and 30 mm. Depending on the application, the sheet metal may already be prepared
with a hole.
Alternatives of arc stud welding:
Differences arise from the heat input type /1, 3/:
Resistance stud welding:
Because equipment is quite complex and stationary it is not being applied to studs with a diameter
bigger than 4 mm. Requires high amperage and high forces.
Friction stud welding:
Machines with electric motor drives are available since 1999. Studs of up to 10 mm diameter can be
used. The friction connection between stud and workpiece requires an appropriate mounting facility,
therefore it can only be carried out in stationary mode. Essential advantage: welding of material
combinations such as aluminium bolts on steel sheets. The sequence of friction welding is explained
under point 1.10.
2.8 Standards and guidelines:

DIN EN ISO 14555: Arc stud welding of metallic materials /1/
DIN EN ISO 13918: Studs and ceramic ferrules for arc stud welding /2/
DVS leaflet 0901: Stud welding processes for metals – overview /3/
DVS leaflet 0902: Drawn-arc stud welding /4/
DVS leaflet 0903: Capacitor discharge stud welding with tip ignition /5/
DVS leaflet 0904: Practical notes – arc stud welding /6/
2.9 Bibliography
/1/ DIN EN ISO 14555: Welding, arc stud welding of metallic materials. 2006-12.
/2/ DIN EN ISO 13918: Welding, studs and ceramic ferrules for arc stud welding. 2008-10.
/3/ DVS leaflet 0901: Stud welding processes for metals – overview. 1998-12.
/4/ DVS leaflet 0902: Drawn-arc stud welding. 2000-12.
/5/ DVS leaflet 0903: Capacitor discharge stud welding with tip ignition. 2000-12.
/6/ DVS leaflet 0904: Practical notes – arc stud welding. 2000-12.
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/7/ Research report from project 79 of SLV München: Examination to reduce the possibility of errors in
drawn arc ignition stud welding. Studiengesellschaft für Anwendungstechnik von Eisen und Stahl
e.V., Düsseldorf (1983).
/8/ Welz, W., A.W.E. Nentwig and A. Jenicek: Drawn arc stud welding on aluminium materials.
Aluminium 67 (1991), H. 2, pp. 153-159 and SLV note no. 90 (1991).
/9/ Trillmich R., W. Welz: Stud welding – fundamentals and applications. Fachbuchreihe
Schweißtechnik Bd. 133, DVS-Verlag Düsseldorf (1997).
/10/ Trillmich, R.: Quality assurance concepts and regulations for arc stud welding. Manuskript zum
Vortrag anlässlich des Seminars “Qualitätssicherung beim Bolzenschweißen” der SLV München
GmbH, 12.06.1997, (1997) pp. 1-14.
/11/ Hahn, O., K.G. Schmitt: Examination of affecting parameters in capacitor discharge stud welding.
Schweißen + Schneiden, volume 34 (1982) issue 11, pages 521-524.
2.10 Questions
(1) What are the basic work sequences of drawn-arc stud welding?
(2) What are the appropriate welding parameters for welding a 22 mm flat-tip headed stud of
unalloyed steel using a ceramic ferrule?
(3) What are the respective advantages of the gap welding and contact welding variations of arc
stud welding with tip ignition, regarding welding time, strike speed and application possibilities
(materials)?
(4) What non-destructive tests can be applied to arc stud welding?
(5) What are the causes of arc-blows and how can these be avoided?
(6) Which material combinations are well suitable for arc stud welding, i.e. for transmitting forces?
(7) What qualification prerequisites have to be fulfilled by a manufacturer concerning stud welding
of steel structures in construction supervision situations?
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3 Electroslag welding (RES)

Electroslag welding (RES, short for resistance electroslag) is a resistance melting process with a very
high melt efficiency, in which one or more wires or a strip is used as filler material. The weld pool is
supported by movable shoes on both sides, see figure 13.
Slag bath
Figure 13: Electroslag welding (RES)

- Welding of almost of any sheet thickness,
- Used predominantly on unalloyed and low-alloy steels.
- Welding the entire cross-section of the seam in one run (uphill),
- the preparation of joints is simple using flame cutting (no limiting tolerances),
- large melt and slag pool, with a slow solidification and cooling process:
- free of pores, thanks to good degasification,
- comparatively less inherent welding stresses,
- lowest segregations within the welding block,
- almost completely distortion-free welding,
- no fusion errors and inclusions, resulting in excellent quality,
- low, even penetration and low dilution (regarding surfacing compared to UP),
- high effective welding speed thanks to a high deposition rate and the parallel melting of several wire
electrodes,
- significant savings in welding time and cost.
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ES-welding is used to create joints on thick cross-sections in a single run (> 20 mm) in an uphill position.
The significant amount of weld metal enables this kind of welding to be used for surfacing of large areas
(drums, pipes, containers) as well. Increasing welding applications appear in the area of the electroslag
strip usage with different broad bands, for example, to the production of a wear-resistant cladding on
fibre board rollers, to continuous casting rollers or also to the cladding of hydro former, pipe heads, pipe
welds or in vessels.
3.2.1 The sequence of electroslag welding
The welding process is triggered by igniting an arc between the wire electrode and the gap bottom.
The arc melts the flux. Since the liquid slag resulting from this process is a better conductor than the
arc, the arc extinguishes. The current now flows from the electrode through the liquid slag and the
metallic melt into the base material. The slag's resistance heating melts the filler material and the
seam flanks, see figure 14.
The welding gap is welded bottom up, in one run and in a single step. The shoes move continuously
upward, along with the melt and slag pool. Consumed slag is refilled by adding welding flux.
Figure 14: The sequence of electroslag welding (schematic)
3.2.2 Joint preparation

The gap width is about 20-35 mm. The minimum value depends on the type of wire guide, to avoid
short circuits. Too wide gaps cannot be processed cost-effectively. To prevent imperfections and
homogeneity issues within the joint, the weld is extended by a start plate (run-on) and a run-off plate,
see figure 15. The weld has to be completed in one sequence, without interruption.
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Figure 15: Preparation of the joint
3.2.3 Execution variants
Different types can be distinguished depending on the process adding filler material, see
figure 16 and 17.
Gap width: 30 – 35 mm
Position: vertical
Plate thickness:  25-30 mm
Materials: unalloyed, low-alloy
and high-alloy types
of steel
Figure 16: Electroslag welding with non-melting wire feed and two electrodes
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Position: vertical
Plate thickness:  15 mm
Materials: unalloyed, low-alloy
and high-alloy types
of steel
Filler materials and auxiliary materials
Wire electrodes: 2.5 – 4 mm 

Strip electrodes: 60 x 0.5 mm
Plate electrodes: 80 x 60 to 1ß x 120 mm
Depositing
Wire feed: 10 – 15 mm 
Welding flux: must produce a slag
with high conductivity
Figure 17: Electroslag welding with depositing (melting) wire feed (channel welding)
3.2.4 Welding Flux
The type of flux used (see table 4) influences the welding results by affecting the electrical conductivity of
the slag (the slag of flux B conducts better than flux A), see figure 18.
Table 4: Typical flux mixtures used in electroslag welding
Flux type SiO2 Al2O3 CaO MgO CaF2 Na3AlF6

A 15 20 15 15 35 --
B 5 -- 55 -- -- 40
Influence of the flux
The slag produced by flux A has a higher

resistance (therefore lower conductivity),
therefore causes more heating.
(effect can be compared to an increase in
current).
Figure 18: Influence of the flux

Flux A Flux B
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3.2.5 Welding parameters and process parameters

Regarding welding parameters, penetration depth and width is influenced both by the welding current
and the voltage, see figures 19 and 20.
Effects of current
The penetration depth first increases as the

current grows, however, decreases again as
the climb speed of the pool accelerates.
low middle high Figure 19: Effects of current
Effects of voltage
The penetration width grows as the voltage

increases.
Figure 20: Effects of voltage

low high
Table 5 shows the connections between welding parameters by considering plate thickness and number
of electrodes.
Table 5: Welding parameters and process parameters
Plate Number of wire Current Welding Deposition

Wire  Voltage
thickness electrodes strength speed rate
mm fixed weaving mm A V m/h kg/h
30 1 -- 2.5 550 41 1.9 14.0
50 1 -- 3.0 600 40 1.2 15.0
50 2 -- 2.5 480 each 38 1.6 21.7
150 -- 2 3.0 550 each 45 0.6 35.2
Depending on the plate thickness, 1 to 3 electrodes can be used at the same time, arranged after each
other and optionally weaving alongside the plate thickness. With this option, plates of almost of any
thickness can be welded in a single vertical run.
The respective data are compiled in table 6.
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Table 6: Application areas of single-wire and multi-wire welding
Plate thickness (mm)

Electrode number
fixed electrode weaving electrode
1 30 - 60 60 - 150
2 50 - 100 100 - 300
3 100 - 150 150 - 450

3.3.1 Electroslag welding of aluminium
Generally, aluminium materials can also be welded using ESW.
Weldable base material for pure aluminium
(The necessary strength- and deformation properties of the base materials in the weld metal have not
yet been achieved for aluminium alloys.)
Pool backing: graphite plates

(Copper pool backing draws away too much heat, which can result in fusion faults)
Welding flux composition for welding aluminium:

18.5 % NaF, 30.0 % LiF, 45.0 % NaCl, 6.5 % SiO2.
Typical welding data: (aluminium 99.5 – 50 mm)

Wire Electrode: 5 mm 
Amperage: 1,000 – 1,100 A
Arc voltage: 35 – 42 V
3.3.2 Electroslag welding of circumferential seams

The ES-welding of circumferential welds requires the component to be positioned on a rotating support,
so that the rotational weld can be executed in one continuous, uphill run.
Starting and run-off plates are fixed on the outside and inside of the pipe cross-section, see figure 21.
Figure 21: Electroslag welding of

circumferential welds
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3.3.3 Electroslag strip cladding

Strip cladding or surfacing is an interesting type of electroslag welding.
The process is shown in figure 22. It is similar to submerged arc strip cladding, but it uses different flux
powders and involves a resistance process as well. The maximum welding speed is slightly higher and
the dilution is slightly lower than in submerged arc strip cladding.
Figure 22: Electroslag strip cladding, process

principle
Figure 23 shows strip claddings created by ES-welding.
Figure 23: ESW strip cladding (Plant image: ESAB) Shielding

gas supply
3.4 Similar types of welding Arc
Electrogas welding (EGW) is similar to the

process of ES-welding, which uses an arc to
meld filler wires into a vertical joint, backed by Power Source
shielding gas. Just like in other types, water-
cooled copper shoes keep the weld laterally
contained, see figure 24. A non-contact height
sensor controls the climbing speed of the
welding equipment.
Used electrodes:
Ø1.6 mm for sheets of 8 – 15 mm thickness, Cooling water supply
Ø2.4 mm for sheets of 12 – 20 mm thickness. Figure 24: Electrogas welding
Deposition rate: up to app. 12 kg/h
Where high-quality welds are needed, this technology is significantly cheaper and faster than MIG/MAG-
welding.
Applications: Ship hulls, storage tanks, vertical welds in pipes and turbine pipelines
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4 Aluminothermic welding
Other names: - Aluminothermic casting welding
- TW
- Thermit welding
4.2 Description of the general principle
This process is a type of cast welding. Heat is transferred by casting liquid filler material into a preformed
(and preheated) welding area, fusing the joint surfaces.
In aluminothermic welding this liquid weld metal is produced from a chemical reaction in a crucible. The
starting materials of this reaction are aluminium powder and iron oxide. The reaction (ignition
temperature approx. 1,200 °C) is started using a special igniter (magnesium chip). Aluminium starts to
burn and turns into slag. The oxygen necessary for this violent reaction of the aluminium is supplied by
the iron oxide, which itself is also reduced to iron. Oxygen has a higher affinity for aluminium than for
iron. Due to the different densities, iron collects in the bottom of the crucible, with the aluminium slag on
top. This is an exothermic process.
After the welding process is completed, the sand mould and the surrounding weld seam are removed,
and optionally – such as in the case of rail welding – the upper surface is grinded. The rail can be used
immediately afterwards.
4.3 Material, additives
Aluminothermic welding can be used with unalloyed and low-alloy steels.
By adding alloying elements (such as C, Mn, Si, Cr, Mo, V) to the reaction mixture, one can
adapt the properties of the produced weld metal to the base material used in the welding. For
example, adding vanadium will make the welding steel harder than the rail steel. The iron oxide
and aluminium powder necessary for aluminothermic welding are usually kept granular by a
binding agent, so that they remain free-flowing and don't absorb water.
4.4 Process - specific advantages and disadvantages
The welding process.

- requires no electrical energy,
- can be applied independently of location, e.g. on any building site of the world,
- does not require complex instrumentation or costly investments.
Note:
If the activation energy is high enough, the substances can even ignite at room temperature
and liquefy in the severe exothermal reaction. Also, because thermite does not require oxygen
for combustion, the reaction cannot be stopped by sand nor by water. Water would actually
aggravate the reaction, since contact with water would explosively fling out the liquid materials
from the mixture and produce oxyhydrogen, an explosive mixture of hydrogen and oxygen.
4.5 Areas of application
With the TW-process fusion and surface welding can be produced whereby joint welding found the
higher spreading. Because the molten liquid filler material in aluminothermic welding can be produced
without external energy, this process is highly preferred in the welding of railway tracks.
Aluminothermic casting welding can be applied to relatively large cross-sections as well.
The aluminium redox reaction is also used to reduce metal oxides - ores, such as uranium ore, chrome
oxide, silicon dioxide or manganese oxide - to their respective metals.
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4.6 Process principle in railway track welding - detailed description

The basic process sequences of welding rail joints are displayed and described below, see figures 25
and 26.
Rail welding (e.g. T-welding, also known as self-preheating method of TW)
Figure 25: Schematic drawing of the Thermit Welding (self-preheating method)
Process sequences
1. Aligning the rail joint and preparing the welding gap
(approx. 24 - 26 mm)
2. Assembling and securing the refractory

moulds on the rail joint
3. Pre-heating the rail joint using

an autogenous welding torch
(1.5 - 2 min, approx. 600 °C)
4. Initiating the chemical reaction and

pouring the steel (weld metal) which melts onto the
shaped track ends and fills up the welding gap.
5. After the liquid steel has solidified

(approx. 3 - 4 min) the mould is removed and the
joint is returned to its original section shape using
mechanical treatment.
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Prepared rail joint Attaching the moulds Pre-heating of the joint
Attaching the reaction crucible Cast welding process Finished weld
Figure 26: Aluminothermic welding of railway tracks
4.7 Aluminothermic reaction
The aluminothermic reaction that enables this type of welding is described in figure 27 below.
Figure 27: Description of the aluminothermic reaction process

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4.8 High frequency welding (HF welding)

4.8.1 Summary description of the procedure
High-frequency welding can be either conductive (with contact) or inductive (without contact). Heating is
caused by the resistance within the current-conducting material. Because of the high frequency used,
the current flow concentrates on the joint surfaces of the parts which heats up and are welded together
by an applied force.
4.9 Component geometry and processing materials
- the welding of small wall thicknesses is particularly economical. The method can also be applied to
relatively thick walls as well.
- Pipe dimensions: diameter: 10 – 1,000 mm
Wall thickness: from a few hundredths to approx. 20 mm
Materials
- unalloyed steels, even with higher carbon content,
- aluminium, copper, nickel and their alloys
4.10 Process-specific advantages and disadvantages
- no wear caused to the energy carrier since it makes no contact
- the pipe does not need to be descaled continuously, the molten zone is narrow,
the base material receives only a low heat impact
- very high welding speed
The process is used mostly in pipe manufacturing.

- possible joint shapes see figure 28.
Figure 28: Possible joint shapes in high-frequency welding (by Hörmann)

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4.12 Process types – detailed description

4.12.1 High frequency contact welding (conductive HF welding).
The process is shown schematically in figure 29.
Sliding contacts
(fixed)
The component moves forward, while the
sliding contacts are secured on the welding
unit and they slide / grind along on the
component surface.
Figure 29: Basic assembly of high-frequency pipe welding (by Hörmann)
Practice-relevant parameters:
- usual frequency: 450 kHz
- Operating Voltage: 100 V
- Welding current: 1,000 to 2,000 A
- Setup of welding heads for welding outputs of 25, 60, 140 or 280 kW
The heating depth is only a few hundredths millimetre; the actual depth however is a lot bigger due to
heat transfer.
Figure 30 shows the process principle of HF-welding with sliding contact.
Figure 30: Process principle of sliding contact welding (by Hörmann)

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4.12.2 Induction welding (non-contact HF-/MF-welding)

The basic working of non-contact welding is displayed in figure 31.
a) b)
Figure 31: Process principle of induction welding of pipes(by Hörmann)
a) with a coil inductor (medium to high frequency up to 450 kHz)
b) with a straight inductor (medium frequency up to 10 kHz)
Induction welding is mainly used for thin-walled pipes due to the small heating depth. Losses can be
reduced by introducing magnetisable materials inside the pipe.
Figure 32 shows the high welding speeds which can be achieved by induction welding, depending on
wall thickness and power.
Figure 20: Welding speed in induction welding, in relation to wall thickness and power
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Figure 33 shows the application of HF welding on thick plates.
Figure 33: Sheet metal feed (left) and welding of two parts (right), (Plant picture: SMS Meer)
Figure 34 and 35 show cross-sections of welded joints.

Most important welding data are also indicated.
In figure 34, the flashes on both sides have not been removed. In figure 35 any external and internal
flash is directly shaved off by the unit (at a distance of app. 600 to 800 mm behind the welding point),
using the residual welding heat, to keep the cutting forces low. Carbide plates are used for the shaving
phase. The shavings produced on the external and internal surface are cut into chips and disposed of.
Figure 34: HF welding (material: S 355) where the flash produced on both sides has not been removed
(Plant image: SMS Meer)
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Figure 35: HF welding (material: X 65) where the flash was directly shaved off both sides (Plant picture: SMS Meer)
5 Ultrasonic welding
Ultrasonic welding (USW) joins components with the use of mechanic oscillation energy, by plastic
deformation of surfaces and destruction of optional surface coatings under pressure. The periodically
oscillating magnetisation of the coil core produces length changes with the same periodic movements. A
high frequency electrical oscillation will therefore create a high frequency mechanical oscillation.
Figure 36 shows a schematic illustration of the process principle.
Sonotrode (tip) for increasing
the oscillation amplitude
Fixing of the arrangement in in Press /contact force
the nodal point of vibration
Oscillator (constant frequency)
Vibration direction
Coupler
Workpiece
Anvil
Amplitude
Figure 24: Schematic illustration of US welding

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The tangential oscillation is transferred to the workpiece. The upper workpiece thereby carries out a
parallel oscillating movement on the contact surface of the bottom workpiece. At the same time, the
contact force causes friction and friction heating between the workpieces. The dynamic and static forces
destroy possible layers of impurities on the surface of the components; the “clean” metal layers make
contact and fuse together. The welding process is facilitated by local plastic deformation and
temperature increases.
5.2 Component geometry and processing materials
Figure 37 summarizes materials and material combinations (along with the parameters) which have
been successfully welded in the past using ultrasonic welding.
This technology enables the joining of aluminium and glass, the creation of mixed joints between metal
and plastic as well as metal and ceramic.
Figure 37:
Materials and
material combinations suitable for US welding
(by Ruge) and parameters
Ultrasonic welding enables the creation of various material combinations. However, the process can only
be used on thin components.
Ultrasonic welding is used for joining thin foils, sheets and wires in electrical engineering, electronics and
precision mechanics.
Example: Connecting (bonding) thin aluminium wires to chips, welding of contacts, seal welding of
housings.
5.3 Process types – detailed description

5.3.1 Ultrasonic (continuous) seam welding, figure 38
The end of the sonotrode is disk-shaped, the oscillator is rotating in point K1, the contact force is applied
to the oscillation node K2. Welding speed 0.4 ... 10 m/min
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Figure 38: Ultrasonic (continuous) seam welding, schematic illustration of operation
5.3.2 Ultrasonic ring welding

The circular sonotrode is forced to torsion vibrations by the tangentially operating oscillator,
see figure 39. Figure 39 also shows component shapes suitable for welding.
Component shapes
Figure 39: Ultrasonic ring welding, schematic illustration of operation
5.3.3 Ultrasonic plastic welding

In contrast to ultrasonic metal welding, the vibrations are directed to the weld contact area at a
perpendicular angle, see figure 40. The joint arises out of the plastic state. Depending on the preparation
of the joint, workpieces can also be welded in butt joints or corner joints.
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Butt joint Corner joint
Figure 40: Ultrasonic plastic welding
During the ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics the generator and the oscillating unit resonate together.
As the sound-radiating tip of the sonotrode reflects the mechanical vibrations, a standing wave is created
which transmits energy to the components.
The mechanical oscillations transferred to the workpieces under a certain contact pressure are absorbed
and reflected onto the interface. The resulting molecular and interface friction produces heat. Plastic
starts to soften and creates a sound barrier in the area around the joint zone as a result from the
plastification and strong evaporation of the plastic layer. This sound barrier enables a high intense
melting, i.e. the reaction accelerates automatically as more and more oscillation energy is transformed
into heat. Inner friction also contributes to welding. After a certain stopping and/or cooling period, the
welding joint is created by maintaining the contact force.
Characteristics of US plastic welding

Frequency (fixed value for each machine): 20… 65 kHz
Amplitude: 1 ... 50 µm
Contact force: 1 ... 6000 N Settings
Welding time: 0,005 ... 1 s
Surface preparation: not required
Maximum temperature in the < 60 % of the metal's melting temperature
welding zone
Deformation: < 5 % of the workpiece thickness
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5.4 Questions
(1) Electroslag welding is used for welding
 Sheets of thickness 5 – 15 mm in flat position
 Sheets of thickness > 20 mm in flat position
 Sheets of thickness 5 – 15 mm in uphill position
 Sheets of thickness > 20 mm in uphill position
 Sheets of thickness 5 – 15 mm in downhill position
(2) What are the characteristic properties of electroslag strip cladding?

 High performance regarding deposition and surface
 Strong penetration by high arc energy
 Low dilution
 High quality surface (few ripples, no spatter)
 Risk of fusion faults and inclusions
(3) What are the raw materials used in the thermit mixture of aluminothermic welding?
 Al2O3
 Fe
 Fe2O3
 Al
 Mg
(4) What working conditions are usual in thermit welding of railway tracks?
 The gap between the adjusted bar ends may not exceed 10 mm.
 The welding point is surrounded by a refractory mould made of luting sand.
 The bar ends must be pre-heated (approx. 1,000 °C)
 The weld bead is hydraulically shaved off in its hot state.
 The hardness necessary for wear protection is ensured by cooling with water.
(5) What is the function of high frequency in HF-welding?

 It ensures the safe ignition of the arc
 It generates a current flow close the surface with high current density.
 It produces a fast heating with a small heating depth
 It produces slow heating, with a large heating depth
 It enables welding with slow cooling and low hardness.
(6) What is the maximum temperature when using ultrasonic welding on metals
(TS = Melting temperature)
 T < 0.3 TS
 T < 0.6 TS
 T > 0.6 TS
 T = TS
 T > TS
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6 Friction welding (1)

Friction welding is classified to the (heated) pressure welding processes. The heat input is produced
purely mechanically by frictional heat – involving a relative movement and a simultaneous force
application on the joint surfaces. Depending on the type of the relative motion, we can distinguish
between several process variants:
 Spin /rotary welding, with a revolving relative motion (DIN EN ISO 15620, /1/)
 Linear / orbital friction welding, with translationally oscillating relative movement, linear / circular
 Friction stir welding, with rotating-stirring friction movement (DIN EN ISO 25239, /2/)
Spin/ rotary welding is the most frequently used variant for end-to-end connections of metallic materials
(figure. 41). Therefore process 42 is specified as “friction welding” (FRW) both in practice as well as in
regulations (DIN EN ISO 4063 – 42, /3/), without additional indication concerning the type of relative
movement.
6.2 Description of the general principle
F1
n
Figure 41: Joining process of spin/rotary welding and view of a friction-welded shaft
The contacting fusion faces are heated by frictional heat. The material is plasticised, but not melted
(T < Ts) in this process. The joint is created by ending the relative movement and applying a (usually)
increased contact force (upsetting). Since plastic material is being displaced, the joined parts will be
shortened (length allowance), resulting in a typical weld bead (flash).
6.3 Geometry of used components and suitable materials
This type of joining is preferentially used for rotational symmetric full and hollow sections, but the joining
parts do not need to be rotational symmetric. It is best to use the same cross-section shapes, but this is
not necessary. This means that even parts of different diameters or pipes with different wall thickness
can be welded together, just like a circular steel profile to a rectangular one. As the angle-rotation can be
stopped very precisely (optional: “positioned friction welding”) this technology also allows exact fitting of
non-rotationally symmetrical parts.
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Preferred
Figure 42: Weldable cross-sections

Weldable: Full cross-sections of  3 to 250 mm,
Reibschweißen - Geometrievarianten
hollow structural steel sections, currently to 
900 gleicher
Standard: Wellen x 6 mm, Durchmesser,
wall thickness Rohre
from 1.2 mm Wanddicke
gleicher
Figure 43: Typical geometry of joints involving different diameters
Friction welding is more suitable for joining standard and special materials than traditional welding
processes (fusion welding), because materials are not melted but joined in a plastic state under applied
force (similar to forging).
Friction welding enables the use of economical standard materials or easily produced blanks, such as
bars, pipes, cast or forged parts. Steels with a high carbon content (e.g. C45, 42CrMo4) are particularly
well suited for friction welding, they often don't require additional processes such as preheating or
subsequent heat treatment. This technology also allows the joining of porous sintered or PM-materials.
Furthermore, it can also be used to create dissimilar joints (mixed joints, where brittle, intermetallic
phases are generated in fusion welding) that are usually not suitable for fusion welding, of material
combinations such as steel/aluminium, aluminium/copper, titanium/steel, aluminium/ceramics, etc.
Friction welding offers good weldability even for many “difficult” materials and material combinations. The
applicability of friction welding mainly depends on the alloy type and physical properties (e.g. friction
interface, thermal expansion coefficients, diffusion properties), but partly also on the surface area and
the geometry of the interface.
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Advantages  Fully mechanised or automated welding process

 Good reproducibility and process monitoring.
 Simple integration in production lines.
 Low materials consumption ( offers a good alternative for machining
production processes by joining standard blanks such as rods, pipes or plates,
etc.).
 No filler materials or shielding gas necessary.
 No harmful emissions (radiation, spatter, fumes etc.).
 No melt (T < Ts) and short welding time compared to the size of the joint surface,
resulting in low thermal load on the material.
 Favourable microstructure state (forged structure) of the joint (no melt or cast
microstructure).
 Suitable for welding “difficult” materials and material combinations.
 Symmetrical heating and cooling: distortion low, symmetric internal stresses.
 High accuracy of the connected parts.
Disadvantages:  Weldability is limited to joining surfaces which are quasi rotationally symmetric.
 Flash formation - requires subsequent treatment (process-integration possible).
 In some cases, high mechanical load on material or component (upsetting force,
frictional torque).
 In some cases, increased positioning/clamping efforts.
 The possibility of non-destructive tests is limited.
 High machine costs ( as an alternative: commissioning).
Different branches of industry use this process in batch production.
 Mechanical engineering: gear-wheels, shafts, hydraulic cylinders, radial pump pistons and piston
shafts,rods, spindles, crank shafts, drilling pipes
 Automotive industry: Axle beams, exhaust valves, cardan shafts, shift rods, brake camshafts,
turbochargers, gear parts, pipe shafts, sling tubes, ring links, airbag gas generators, cables
 Air and spacecraft construction: Rotors, turbines, shafts, combustion chamber nozzles
 Tools: Twist drills, cutters, milling cutters, punches, chisels, reamers, tool holders
 Electrical industries: Long-life soldering tips, switching contacts, cable connectors, EDM-anodes
 Medical technology: Rotating anode shafts for x-ray tubes, hip prostheses, bone wires
 Equipment and pipeline manufacturing: Equipment, pipes, flanges, fittings, valve casings, transitional
pieces
 Construction industry: Anchors, façade anchors
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Figure 44: Examples of automotive applications of friction welding /KUKA Systems GmbH/
6.6.1 Process sequences of spin/ rotary welding
One of the two tightly clamped

workpieces is put into rotation. The
pieces are brought together at the
joining point by an axial lining
mechanism.
Force F1 (frictional force) and the

rotating relative motion produce F1
friction that heats up the ends of both n
parts. A part of the plasticising

material is pushed outside. During
this, the parts shorten somewhat.
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The revolving workpiece is stopped by

an additional brake or due to frictional
resistance; at approximately the same F2
time, the parts are pressed together
with an increased force F2 (upsetting
force). The two workpieces are now
n=0
welded.
Figure 45: Process flow of spin welding
Welding occurs in the moment when the relative movement stops or the rotating motion is brought to a
halt (revolution: n = 0). The upset pressure is maintained for a short time (upset time), depending on the
area of the joint surfaces, until the pre-warmed, plastified material solidifies again during the cooling of
the joint area.
6.6.2 Process variations of spin welding
Spin welding and the friction welding machines accordingly, can be grouped into two categories:
 Continuous drive friction welding, ISO 4063 - 421 (Direct drive friction welding)
 Friction welding with flywheel drive, ISO 4063 - 422 (Inertia friction welding)
In the case of continuous drive friction welding (figure 46) a connected rotary drive adds energy
continuously during the friction process. The friction revolution speed is usually constant, but may be
variable in special cases. Heat input depends on the contact force applied, the rotational speed and
friction time or potentially on the shortening caused by the friction (time or path controlled). With high-
performance drives and a variable rotational speed, the process of inertia friction welding can be
characterised.
1 - Drive
2 - Break
3a - Clamping tool, rotating
3b - Clamping tool, not rotating
4a - Workpiece, rotating
4b - Workpiece, not rotating 1 - Upsetting on rotating workpiece
5 - Working (force) cylinder 2 - Upsetting on braked workpiece
Figure 46: Continuous drive friction welding Development of process parameters in time
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In inertia friction welding (figure 47) the power stored in a flywheel is converted into heat. The rotating
drive accelerates the flywheel to a certain preset starting speed, to be uncoupled from it shortly before
the friction surfaces come into contact. No more motoric energy is added during the friction process, only
kinetic energy (flywheel, speed of revolution) is transformed into frictional heat. There is a typical
decrease in speed by the “self-braking” effect of the friction surfaces, until the rotational motion stops
completely (n = 0). As the rotating motion stops, the contact force is increased (upsetting) or maintained.
Friction time is not an adjustable machine parameter - it is the reproducible result of the kinetic energy
and the friction resistance of the joint surfaces.
1 - Drive
2 - Flywheel, variable
3a - Clamping tool, rotating
3b - Clamping tool, not rotating
4a - Workpiece, rotating
4b - Workpiece, not rotating
5 - Working (force) cylinder
Figure 47: Friction welding with flywheel drive Development of process parameters in time
To increase the accuracy of the process - and especially to reduce length tolerances to under +/- 0.1 mm
- modern machines are equipped with a so-called “path control” function. The continuously monitored
shortening of the parts is immediately compared to a “trained” reference curve, and the unit automatically
corrects any detected potential deviations by regulating the contact pressure (e.g. +/- 5% of the
reference pressure value).
6.6.3 Types of spin / rotary welding
Friction welding with one part being rotated and the other
one being translated (standard procedure)
Friction welding with one part being rotated and

translated, while the other part is stationary (e.g. in the
case of small friction welding machines used for friction
stud welding)
Rotation and translation of two joining parts against a

stationary connecting part in the middle (special
procedure)
Rotation of the middle connection part, with a linear

movement of the two outer parts (special procedure)
Figure 48: Process types of friction welding

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6.7 Equipment and accessories
Due to their dimensions, friction welding machines are usually stationary units, carrying out the welding
process fully mechanised (manual loading and unloading) or fully automated. Small friction welding
machines are an exception, as they allow a more mobile used, mounted on a gantry or a carriage. The
axial feed and the contact force are usually produced by a hydraulic unit, although some smaller
machines can also have servo-motors or pneumatic units. Asynchronous motors are becoming more
popular as rotating drives, since they are more compact, they can supply a high torque output for a wide
range of rotational speed values, and they also offer a dynamic control attributes due to low dead weight.
Figure 49: Design of a continuous drive friction welding machine, horizontal construction (DVS MB 2909-2)
Machine equipment, optional parts and accessories
 Control unit / controller /

input/storage of welding parameters and programmes
logging measured values, process control and data storage (documentation)
 Tool kit
Component-specific clamping tools for one welding task
 Turning-off unit
friction surface treatment of the revolving part before welding
removing flashes after welding (alternatively: shaving or punching)
 Positioning unit
breaking and welding of the parts in a rotation-accurate manner
loading / unloading of not round parts in the specified clamping position
increasing the accuracy (decreasing axis offset)
 Stationary support
prevention against buckling in the case of long, thin parts
for guidance of long overhanging parts during flash removal
 Fume extractor unit

mainly for extracting oil vapours (oil remnants, corrosion protection of steel parts)
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The choice of which friction welding machine is to be used depends on the size of the surface to be
welded (mm²), the required material-specific contact pressure (N/mm²) and the resulting frictional torque
(required performance of the rotating drive).
Table 7 provides an overview of some widely used friction welding units from 1.5 t to 2,000 t (max.
upsetting load) and the cross-section surfaces weldable with each one.
Table 7: Choice of friction welding machines (differentiated by maximum contact force)

Contact force Classification Welding surface Manufacturer/country
max. (by max. load) up to app. e.g.
(depends on material
and geometry)
2
kN t mm
15 1,5 100 Harms & Wende / D
20/ 50 2/ 5 160 / 330
200 / 450 20 / 45 660 / 3,750 KUKA / D
800 / 1,250 / 3,000 80 / 125 / 300 6,600 / 10,000 / 24,000
10,000 1,000 85,000
2,700 / 4,000 270 / 380 19,500 / 27,000 MTI / USA
6,800 / 20,000 670 / 2,000 48,000 / 145,000
H&W RSM210, 1.2 t (SLV München) KUKA RS15, 15 t (SLV München)
KUKA RS30/45, 30/45 t MTI Model 800, 2,000 t
Figure 50: Friction welding machines - examples

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6.8 Consumables
Shielding gas is not necessary for the friction welding of surfaces that are rotationally symmetric, as the
joint surfaces cover each other totally from the atmosphere. An oxidised welding flash does not affect the
joint, and can be removed if necessary.
Shielding gas can be required if the joint surfaces are not rotationally symmetric, with some edge areas
temporarily exposed and a low amount of material displacement occurring.
Shielding gas is also used in cases where flash removal is not possible and the oxidisation/scaling of the
flash has to be prevented.
Filler materials are not necessary for friction welding, since the original materials of both welding parts
are directly joined. The proportionate shortening of the joint parts should be factored in as length
allowance (“welding allowance”) in friction welding.
7 Friction welding (2)

7.1 Process conditions and joint properties in spin welding
7.1.1 Preparation of parts
DVS leaflet 2909-2 provides information on the preparation of the joint surfaces. Foreign materials which
prevents or decreases friction heating should be removed from the joint surfaces. This includes scaling,
rolling & cast skin, forging powder, bonding material, oil, grease, paint, thin oxidation layers (rust film)
and other oxide layers. Hardening layers should be avoided or removed from the contact surfaces before
welding.
For solid shaft joints a saw section is usually sufficient (piston rods). Motor valves are usually friction-
welded without additional preparation: with a forged shaft at the valve head, and a pressed valve shaft
surface. The friction welding process itself more or less takes over the task of “mechanical preparation”,
like adjusting the parts to enable a total surface contact of the joint surfaces before the process starts.
This however also implies a higher load for the clamping tools, the machine and the welded parts.
In the case of hollow sections and wherever a high degree of accuracy is needed the contact faces are
usually face-turned, as to enable that friction surface contact, pressure distribution and heat input are all
immediately symmetrical at the start of the process.
This benefits welding processes with short friction time, less reduction in length (bulge formation) and
high dimensional accuracy.
To reduce peaks in friction torque at the beginning of the process (material is cold) there are several
“friction helping” options for decreasing the initial friction diameter.
Examples include coned surfaces or a convex front face in the case of friction stud welding. In this way,
the joint surface area increases only after plastification starts and the heated joint zone starts to shorten.
This can also have a positive effect on the displacement of surface impurities, the penetration of coatings
and less component shortening, e.g. when using friction stud welding on galvanised or painted sheet
metals.
The accuracy of clamping the joining surfaces has an influence on the dimensional stability of the
friction-welded parts. Therefore for clamping of cast or forged parts, it is essential to pay attention to
have suitable and even surface quality of clamping-, securing- and supporting surfaces (ridges,
separation edges).
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7.1.2 Welding parameters
The main welding parameters in spin welding are:

 Revolution speed [1/min], or peripheral speed [m/s] (depending on diameter).
 Friction pressure pR [N/mm², bar] or axial friction force FR [kN]
 Friction time [s]
 Friction shortening (friction path) [mm]
 Upsetting pressure pSt [N/mm², bar] or axial upsetting force FSt [kN]
 Upsetting time [s]
 Total shortening (friction + upsetting path) [mm]
Further welding parameters result from the different process variations, such as flywheel mass,
(reduced) initial friction force, breaking (time) point, upsetting (time) point, etc.
Formula for conversion between pressure “p” and axial contact force “F”:
pM AM = F = pB AB Machine: pM: Hydraulic pressure (bar), AM: effective piston surface (mm²)
Component: pB: axial contact pressure (N/mm²), AB: friction surface (mm²)
Conversion of pressure measurement units: 1 MPa = 1 N/mm² = 0.1 kN/cm² = 10 bar
Example: If a steel shaft with a diameter of 20 mm (314 mm²) has to be friction-welded with a friction /
upsetting pressure of 60 respectively 120 N/mm², then a friction / upsetting force of 18.8 or 37.7 kN is
needed, or a friction welding machine with no less than 3.8 t upsetting load.
The reference values of friction welding parameters published in the leaflets (tables 8 and 9) are usually
only valid for certain materials or diameters. They may widely vary depending on the alloy, the heat
treatment attributes and the geometry-specific deformation resistance of the material. Parts with big
diameters and thick walls are usually friction-welded with higher pressure than small diameters or thin-
walled hollow sections (of the same material).
Table 8: Welding parameter reference values for continuous drive friction welding
of parts of the same material and equal full cross-sections* (by DVS-MB 2909-2)
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Table 9: Welding parameter reference values for inertia friction welding of parts of the same material group, pipe
sections with wall thickness of 6 - 10 mm and welding times of 0.5 - 10 s (from DVS leaflet 2909-2)
7.1.3 Structure of a friction welded joint
In friction welding, materials are not melted: they are joined under their melting temperature, in a plastic
state. Therefore, it creates no melting zone and no solidified melting-casting structures, but rather a
joining zone where the original joints of the base materials are significantly deformed – similar to forging.
Bonding mechanisms include plastic base material mixing (in the case of similar materials), diffusion
(depending on temperature, time and grade of deformation) and adhesion (influence of forces). Friction
welded joints are expected to weld the original sections with their full surface and without defects.
Usually, the joint surface is even increased by the process (diameter of the flash). The flash can be
machined of in this way without undercut.
Steel joints
Figure 51 shows friction-welded steel shaft parts – with different diameters and with equal diameters. If
the joined parts are of the same diameter and material, the created flash is symmetrical to the joint zone,
and both parts are proportionately shortened to the same extent. If the joined parts are different in
diameter or the materials have a different heat resistance, the shortening of the two parts will be
proportionately different. If the diameters are different, a tendentiously higher “friction performance” (e.g.
a higher contact pressure) is needed to create more frictional heat that compensates for the increased
Reibschweißen
heat - Querschliffe
dissipation, in order to reach the temperature level needed for plasticising the joint zone.
Ø 16 mm / Ø 25 mm Ø 16 mm / Ø 16 mm
pR/St = 80/160 N/mm², t = 3,7 s pR/St = 40/80 N/mm², t = 4,2 s
n = 2000 1/min, l = 7 mm n = 2000 1/min, l = 7 mm
Wellenverbindungen S235 artgleich

Figure 51: Cross-section of friction-welded steel shaft joints using S235, similar type
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Friction welding is especially well suitable for joining steels with a high carbon content, equipment and
tempered steel (C45, C60, 42CrMo4). Preheating and after-heating is often not necessary, as the
hardening can be limited by selecting friction welding parameters (such as a longer friction time). Due to
symmetrical cooling, friction welded joints have good residual stress characteristics. Therefore, even
increased hardness values can be accepted in practice, provided that other criteria (bending test,
ductility) are met.
S355
C45
Figure 52: Friction-welded joint of a hollow and a solid shaft (S355/C45), external bulge removed by turning
Aluminium joints
Aluminium materials have better heat transfer properties and lower heat resistance than steel. This
results in a rapidly spreading softening in and around the heat affected zone. In order to maintain the
required intensity of friction and frictional heat, it is important not to allow the material to plasticise too
much in the friction zone. Therefore aluminium joints are welded with very short friction times (aluminium
shock absorber pipes: approx. 0.5 s, aluminium auto car wheel: 1.5 s). The plastification and shortening
of the parts happens almost as fast as the heat-dependent softening which comes ahead. The short
friction time prevents an excessive shortening of the parts. The softened material is displaced by feeding
the base material. The heat-affected zone is hereby kept small.
Friction welding allows the use of economical standard materials or easily produced blanks, such as
bars, pipes, cast or forged parts. Due to the low joining temperature (T < Ts), this technology also allows
the welding of porous sintered, PM (powder metallurgy) or MMC (metal matrix composite, such as
particle-reinforced) materials.
Material combinations and mixed joints

Friction welding is well-suitable for joining dissimilar materials (mixed joints) which cannot be welded by
fusion, e.g. Material combinations steel/aluminium, Al/copper, titanium/steels, Al/ceramic, etc.
The applicability of friction welding depends on the alloy type and its physical properties (e.g. the friction
interface, different thermal expansion coefficients), but partly also on the dimension and geometry of the
section surfaces to be joined.
When using friction welding for mixed joints, brittle intermetallic phases can be decreased under a critical
level – i.e. without adversely influencing the properties of the joint created – by the right choice of
suitable alloys and by an appropriate process design (short friction times, good material displacement
properties).
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Table 10: Friction-welded materials and material combinations (selection by DVS-MB 2909-1)
NOTE:
This schematic table does not contain
application-oriented data concerning the
quality of the welding.
a) Aluminium/steel propeller shaft ( 60 x 3 mm) /BMW/

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b) Copper/aluminium, c) Titanium/steel tube joint  12 x 2 mm

for electrical connections /MTI/ Tensile test fracture in the steel part
Figure 53: Examples of friction-welded mixed joints
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7.2 Examples of Application
Figure 54: Sample applications

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7.3.1 Friction stud welding
Friction stud welding (ISO 4063 - 423) is a type of friction welding and a geometric variation of rotational
friction welding. It is mainly used in as an alternative to arc stud welding in the following cases:
 stud joints with high load bearing capacity

 stud joints with a large diameter (e.g. concrete anchors), even >25 mm
 stud welding without shielding gas (no risk of pore formation in aluminium)
 stud welding on coated or painted surfaces
 stud welding of materials not or hardly suitable for fusion welding and of
Reibschweißen - Varianten
mixed joints (e.g. St/Al, St/Cu)
 socket welding (e.g. threaded sleeves)
Figure 55: Friction stud welding – schematic process

Reibbolzenschweißen
The technical requirements and the applied forces are higher than in arc stud welding. It requires the
joining parts to be securely fixed to each other, and therefore a backside support (accessibility of both
sides needed).
Friction stud welding is mainly used in situations where the application of arc stud welding is limited.
Friction stud welding of small-diameter parts (up to app.  10 mm) can be carried out using compact
weld heads on gantry units or by mobile equipment. When welding threaded bolts, the transfer of forces
and the momentum has to be warranted e.g. by using a suitable bolt socket.
Suspension strut mount with 3 friction- Aluminium gas pressure absorber Aluminium ribbon cable
welded steel threaded bolts with friction-welded aluminium stud with friction-welded steel
threaded bolts /14/
Figure 56: Examples of friction stud welding
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7.3.2 Linear friction welding and orbital friction welding
Linear and orbital friction welding are types of friction welding with a vibrating relative motion of the
friction surfaces, using a linear or a circular oscillating movement respectively. The area of plastic
welding also uses the terms “vibration welding” (umbrella term) and “circular friction welding” (the same
Reibschweißen
as orbital friction- welding).
Varianten
The relative motion is the same as used by an “orbital sander”, but with a higher drive performance,
rigidity and a final centring process involved. Apart of round cross-sections, both processes allow the
friction welding of not-round sections, such as a longitudinal structural profile or box profile (open or
closed). It is also possible to weld several joints at the same time, within the same process.
Figure 57: Linear/orbital friction welding – schematic illustration of process (f: frequency, S: stroke)
The vibration drives used for welding metals generate the friction movement using hydraulics or a
Linearreibschweißen
mechanical eccentric. Plastic welding units (lower friction performance) can even have electromagnetic
drives.
The following welding parameters apply, depending on the friction movement:

 Linear friction welding: Oscillation amplitude “S” (2x amplitude), frequency of oscillation “f”
 Orbital friction welding: Oscillation circle“S” (2x oscillation radius), frequency of oscillation “f”
The operating ranges of welding machines – depending on design – can reach 50 Hz / 6 mm or
100 Hz 2 mm.
The oscillation causes temporary misalignment, where the edges of joint surfaces become uncovered.
This necessitates the use of shielding gas, unless it is assured that edge oxides are fully discharged by
material displacement.
The oscillation drives have a restoring mechanism, which aligns the joint parts at the end of the process,
securing the final position in the centre of the oscillation. The positioning must be carried out within a
very short time frame (a few tenths of a second) in a plastic state, to avoid stress or damage to the joint
and to keep edge misalignment at a minimum. Upsetting takes place after the final central position is set.
Linear friction-welded titanium turbine blades /13/ Electric ribbon cable Al/Ms /14/
Figure 58: Applications of linear friction welding
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Linear friction welding has a successful track record in the construction of aircraft engines, producing
new parts as well as in repair processes.
Some factors still restrict the further spreading of the process to intermetallic joints: specialized
machinery is needed for the specific applications (there are no universal friction welding units), it requires
complex clamping fittings and the post-processing of the flash also adds to the cost. The process is used
in cases where no other production alternatives (from a technical, quality or economical aspect) exist,
taking into consideration the expenditure/cost compensation of secondary effects.
The joining of plastics by vibration welding has found many applications areas in manufacturing.
Vehicle intake housings Vehicle fitting housings Vehicle liquid tanks

Figure 59: Some application examples of vibration welding of plastics /15/
7.4 Workplace safety
The potential hazards of friction welding arise from the movement of the parts (rotation, oscillation) as
well as from the clamping- and process forces generated. Attention should be paid to the appropriate
use and assembly of clamping tools, mounting aids and arrestors. Operators also need to take care of
the proper functioning of all protective facilities of the machine (e.g. clamping protection against crushing
risks, protective doors, monitoring of limit values). Sound protection has to be provided for the use of
uninsulated machines. The joining parts have to be placed and secured precisely.
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7.5 Questions
(1) What are the 2 process variants and designs of spin welding to be distinguished according to the
rotating drive?
(2) Name the main welding parameters of spin welding
(3) What kind of joint surfaces are preferred in spin welding?
(4) How can you recognise a friction welding joint (without post-treatment)?
(5) How does the weldability of the materials in friction welding compare to those in traditional fusion
welding processes?
(6) What are the reasons that enable friction welding to successfully join material combinations
which are not “suitable for welding” per definition by fusion welding processes?
(7) List 3 advantages of friction welding
(8) List 3 disadvantages of friction welding
(9) Name typical application areas of friction welding

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7.6 Bibliography
/1/ DIN EN ISO 15620 (2000): Friction welding of metallic materials.
/2/ DIN EN ISO 4063 (2011-03): Welding and allied processes - Nomenclature of processes and
reference numbers.
/3/ DVS leaflet 2909, part 1 (June 2009): Friction welding of metallic materials.
Processes, terms, materials. DVS-Verlag, Düsseldorf.
/4/ DVS leaflet 2909, part 2 (the 2011): Friction welding of metallic materials.
Characteristics and manufacturing of joint and monitoring of the welding process.
/5/ DVS leaflet 2909, part 3 (June 1994): Friction welding of metallic materials.
Characteristics and manufacturing of joint and monitoring of the welding process.
/6/ DVS leaflet 2909, part 4 (January 1999): Friction welding of metallic materials.
Requirements to friction welding personnel.
/7/ DVS-leaflet 2909, part 5 (August 2005): Friction welding of metallic materials.
Quality Levels for rotation friction welding.
/8/ DIN EN ISO 17660-1 (December 2006)
Welding of reinforcing steel - part 1: Load-bearing welded joints
/9/ DVS Guideline 2218, Part 1 (February 1994):
Welding of thermoplastic materials in the batch production.
Rotation friction welding equipment -, process, characteristic
/10/ Neumann, A. and D. Schober: Friction welding of metals. Fachbuchreihe Schweißtechnik
volume 107, ISBN: 978-3-87155-124-6, DVS-Verlag, Düsseldorf, 1991.
/11/ Grünauer, H.: Friction welding of metals.
Reihe Kontakt und Studium, Vol. 198, Expert Verlag, 1987.
/12/ Vill, V.I.: Friction welding of metals. DVS-Berichte, Volume 2, DVS-Verlag Düsseldorf (1967)
/13/ Raiser E., S. Kallee: “LinFric” - Entwicklung einer hydraulischen Linearreibschweißmaschine.
Vortrag zum 12. Erfahrungsaustausch Reibschweißen, SLV München, 2002.
/14/ S. Martens: Aluminium als elektrische Leitung im Automobil - Reibschweißen und alternative
Fügetechnologien. Vortrag zum 19. Erfahrungsaustausch Reibschweißen, SLV München, 2011
/15/ L. Appel, Cramer, H.: Orbitalreibschweißen - Eine neue Schlüsseltechnologie zum Fügen
metallischer Werkstoffe und Mischverbindungen. DVS reports Bd. 250 to GST 2008, pp. 155 - 161.
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8 Friction welding - friction stir welding

Friction stir welding (FSW) was developed and patented in the United Kingdom in 1991. Based on
EN 14610:2004 /1/ friction stir welding was defined in Germany as a subtype of friction welding. The
process is described as follows: “Pressure butt welding in the viscoplastic phase, where heat is
generated from friction between a rotating wear-resistant tool and the workpieces.”
Process name/reference number: Friction stir welding, DIN EN ISO 4063 – 43
As defined by EN 4063 friction stir welding (43) became an independent process within the umbrella
group pressure welding (4), similar to friction welding (42).
Friction stir welding uses a rotating cylindrical friction tool with a profiled nib that has an offset, broader
shoulder. The joining parts are clamped firmly onto a backing support. Under pressure, the rotating pin
moves along the gap-free butt joint (see figure 21). The friction heats up the material of both parts in
front of the pin, to be displaced around the nib, to be mixed behind the pin and lastly to combine into a
weld seam. The solid clamping of the parts, the backing and the shoulder of the tool all help to avoid
external material displacement, while the contacting shoulder also produces additional friction heat. The
process works best on materials which can be plastified well by heat, such as aluminium or copper
alloys. A fully mechanised process can treat sheet thicknesses of up to 20 mm in one single run (“one-
Reibschweißen - Varianten
layered”) with a simple I-seam preparation and a low thermal load (no melt).
Friction Stir Welding (Rührreibschweißen)

Figure 60: Friction stir welding - schematic process; welded aluminium section (SLV-BB)
8.1.2 Suitable materials and the joints geometries
Materials:
 Mainly low melting metals, aluminium, copper, magnesium and their alloys
(as well as cast and die-cast materials)
 Material combinations such as Al/Cu, Al/Mg, Cu/CuSn, Cu/CuZn, Al/St, Al/Ti
 Less suitable for materials with a higher melting point, such as steel, titanium and nickel
(too much tool wear, potential addition of external heat, e.g. from induction)
SFI / IWE 1.12-2
Geometry of joints:
prior to welding after welding
a. Combination of overlap/butt joint
b. Butt joint (welded on one or both sides)
c. Combination of overlap/butt joint
d. T-joint
e. Corner joint
f. Overlap joint
g. Corner joint
h. Butt joint (pipe peripheral welding)
Figure 61:
Geometry of joints in friction stir welding,
shown before and after welding
/Source: DVS AG.V 11.2, document of the presentation

on friction stir welding/
Advantages Disadvantages
• High quality welds with good reproducibility, • Backside support is generally required under the
no pores, low tendency of cracks, low distortion component (the other side has to be accessible)
• Post-treatment is unnecessary with the right • The remaining end hole must be taken into
backing, the weld surface can also be left intact account (leaving intact, filling or cutting)
• Joining of materials (e.g. AlLi-alloys) and • Reduced possibilities for refractory materials
material combinations (e.g. Al/St) not suitable (tool life)
for fusion welding • Strong clamping facilities are needed at a
• No special joint preparation is required transverse angle to the weld
• No filler material or support materials required • A relatively low tolerance is expected
• Thick walls can be welded in one run concerning sheet thickness (< 0.1 - 0.2 mm)
• Depending on the application, welding can be • The acquisition of strong and precise equipment
done using milling machines is expensive
• Joining of several metal sheets is possible • Patent licensing is required
• No harmful emissions (radiation, spatter,
fumes etc.).
SFI / IWE 1.12-2
Processing aluminium industry

• Production of aluminium panels from metals sheets and extruded profiles (External cladding and
baseplates of ships, offshore drilling platforms, railway racks, cooling units)
• All kinds of joint welds, production of semi-finished products
Shipbuilding
• e.g. FSW prefabricated panels for Fast-Ferry aluminium catamarans with a length of 60 m
Railway vehicle construction

• Production of large, low-distortion aluminium panels of metals sheets and extruded profiles
(external cladding and baseplates of railcars and carriages)
Automotive construction
• Tailored blanks: Aluminium plate joints of different thicknesses for further reshaping
• Battery cell connections for E-cars from Cu/Al/Cu or Ms/Al/Ms
(welding of long welds, subsequent transverse cutting into contact bridges)
• Aluminium loading area panels for lorries (increased payload)
• Aluminium telescope tubes for lorry cranes
Spacecraft
• pore free welding of special spacecraft alloys (not well suited for fusion welding) E.g. tank
containers of rockets and space shuttles
Energy industry
• Generators: Joining electric copper conductors (flat band sections)
• Castor container outer cladding: Cu contact profiles (t = 50 mm)
• Aluminium pipes, orbital friction-stir-welded
Medical technology:
• e.g. highly vacuum-tight aluminium-high grade steel connections
Panels made of extruded Al sections Mobile crane telescope pipe, aluminium,

/www.SapaGroup.com/ wall thickness 6 mm, length max. 4.8 m,
/HAI, Hammerer Aluminium Industries GmbH/
Figure 62: Friction stir welding of longitudinal seams on aluminium panels and profile sections
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8.2.1 Machines
Friction stir welding is usually done using gantry units, parallel carriages, adapted CNC machines or by
robots. Apart from the usual long straight welds, two or three dimensional contours can also be welded.
a) stationary FSW machine b) FSW gantry unit /ESAB/ c) FSW robot unit /EADS, iwb,
with C-frame, ESAB Legio 3UT KUKA/
(SLV-BB)
Figure 63: Friction stir welding machines
8.2.2 Tools
The simplest kind of FSW tool consists of a flat welding shoulder with a cylindrical or slightly rounded
welding nib (pin). The use of a tool with this geometry is restricted to thin sheets (actual thickness
depends on the part's material and the process parameters). The shoulder diameter is relatively large
compared to the pin length. In order to have a better hold on the plastified material during the process,
the shoulder design should be slightly concave and/or equipped with a screw conveyor or other
conveying aid. Concave shoulder however can only be used in friction stir welding at a slight angle.
To improve the transfer of material even in the welded depth, the welding pin can be designed with a
threadlike conveying aid and/or with flat or spiral milling threads (Figure 64).
Figure 64: Tool for friction stir welding /SLV-BB/

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8.2.3 Welding sequence
The welding process can be divided into three phases:
1) Submersion
The rotating tool is pressed onto the workpiece under application of an axial force. The resulting frictional
heat softens the material, allowing the tool to penetrate deeper into the workpiece.
2) Welding
The sliding motion (welding speed) can start as soon as the tool shoulder makes contact with the
workpiece surface. The shoulder of the rotating tool (rotational speed) presses onto the workpiece
(welding force) during the welding process. Thereby frictional heat is not only generated by the pin but
also by the friction of the shoulder on the surface.
3) Emerging
At the end of the weld the rotating tool emerges from the welded part, leaving an exit hole
(FSW end hole).
The main welding parameters are speed of revolution, contact force and travel speed.
e.g. for AW 6082 with a sheet thickness of 6 mm: 1,000 rpm, 25 kN (2.5 t), 1 m/min, “single run”
8.2.5 Structure and properties of the joint

• Asymmetrical cross-section of the seam
• The result is a generally finer granular microstructure than the base material
• Limited grain growth in the heat-affected zone
• Zones:
– Agitated zone with the strongest deformation zone (nugget)
– Thermomechanically affected zone (TMAZ)
– Heat-affected zone (HAZ)
– Base material (GW)
Figure 65: Structure of the joint zone, I-joint Al/Al /SLV-BB/
Aluminium joints
– Thin sheets: strength can be added in the area of the base material
– Thick plates: lower feed speed → more heat energy introduced → softening increases in the heat-
affected zone (still, there are advantages in comparison to arc, laser or hybrid processes: fee of pores,
low distortion, process stability).
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Copper joints
– Strength approx. 90% of the base material
– Interesting applications in electronic engineering: conductance identical to base material
If penetration is insufficient and produces a root gap, fatigue strength properties can be significantly
impaired by its strong notch effect. This can be prevented by a sheet thickness with low tolerances and a
process management using force control.
Properties of friction stir welding joints

 Low joining temperature (below the solidus temperature), no melt
 No major metallurgical changes, no solidification structures
 Weld seams well formable after joining
 Weld seams are impermeable and pressure tight (suitable for tanks)
 Low distortion of the parts compared to fusion welding
 Excellent mechanical characteristics under static and dynamic load, in some cases as good as the
base material, depending on the alloy
 Mixed joints possible
Friction spot welding

Friction spot welding uses a single- or multi-part stir tool to produce a point-based overlap joint. In both
cases, double-side accessibility is required with backside support in the welding area, e.g when using a
friction spot welding head.
 Friction spot welding with one-piece stir tool
Friction spot welding with one-piece stir tool uses a conventional stir tip like friction stir welding. In this
case, the welding process of friction stir welding is reduced to the submersion and emersion – without
any longitudinal movement on the surface. The immersion and the stirring motion generate a joint
between the overlapping parts (plastic dispersion joint) around the stirring pin. When the tool is retracted,
an dent of the tool remains in the joint surface. The process can be executed by simple robotic welding
heads and simple stirring tools. Additional clamping is recommended in the case of rounded or warped
parts, to prevent accidental damage to the still “soft” joint by the extraction of the tool.
Application: “Friction spots joints” FSJ (Kawasaki) in the aluminium doors of a passenger vehicle (Mazda
RX8)
Bottom sheet: aluminium 2 mm, upper sheet: aluminium 1 mm, friction tool shoulder: 10 mm
Figure 66: Friction spot welding joint with one-piece friction tool
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 Friction spot welding with multi-part friction tool (FSpW - Friction spot welding)
Friction spot welding with three-part stir tool enables precise overlap joints without a remaining exit hole.
A pressing unit (3) squeezes the joint zone together. Within the pressing unit, a rotating pin (1) is
enclosed by a sleeve rotating in the same direction (2), but carrying out a stroke in the different direction.
As the rotating pin is immersed into the material, the rotating sleeve withdraws from it and pulls the
displaced plastic material upwards (4). Subsequently, the pin withdraws and the then downward directed
sleeve forces the material back into the friction bore hole produced by the pin. By this, an overlap joint is
created in the plastified zone, and the surface will be flat on the sheet, without an indented hole.
Principle by RIFTEC
1) Pin (rotating)
2) Sleeve (rotating in the same direction,
but with an opposite stroke movement)
3) Stamp
4) Plastified sheet material
Figure 67: Friction spot welding
Experience shows that a modified stroke sequence is more successful, where the sleeve immerses first
and the pin draws back. This can create a “point diameter” equal to the diameter of the sleeve (e.g. 9
mm), independent of the sheet thickness. The immersion depth has to be set in a way that it penetrates
the top sheet completely, and enters the bottom sheet a few tenth of a millimetre deep. The process can
also be executed by robotic welding heads.
Cross-section of a friction spot weld

AlMg3Mn0.4, t = 1.5 mm / AlSi12 (Fe), t = 2.5 mm
Welding parameters:
Rotational speed 2,000 rpm, immersion depth 1.8 mm, friction time
1.0 sec
Figure 68: Friction spot welding head and cross-section of a welded joint (SLV München)
With a friction time of app. 1s for a 1.5 mm immersion depth the process seems quite slow compared to
alternative or competing methods such as resistance spot welding, TIG and MAG spot welding or
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mechanical joining of aluminium parts. Still, it has its advantages and unique characteristic for some
special applications, such as:
 no special surface preparation required (oxide layers not critical)
 low material impact, due to the plastic joining without melting
 good weldability properties for aluminium alloys not suitable for fusion welding (air and spacecraft)
 enables the welding of sheets with a considerable difference in thickness, of multi-layer sheets and
of wrought/cast alloys
 high load-bearing capacity of the point diameter, even on thin sheets
 smaller flanges are required than in resistance spot welding
 any kind of spacing allowed between spots (no parallel connection)
 can easily be welded over (suitable for repairing)
 no indentation on the back side (suitable as visible surface)
 no foreign materials required as in certain cases of mechanical joining (recycling-friendly due to pure
materials)
 tool requirement is low in comparison and in itself
Not all of the above listed comparisons stand for fusion welding processes.
Friction spot-welding can also be used for the repair of small bored defects or for closing the exit hole of
friction stir welded compounds. For this, a plug of the same material is inserted into the hole,
thermoplastically stirred and bonded.
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8.4 Questions
(1) What construction types are used in friction stir welding?
(2) What is the basic design of a friction stir welding tool?
(3) Name the main welding parameters of friction stir welding
(4) Which weld shape should be considered for the butt-welding of an aluminium sheet 20 mm thick,
in large quantities?
(5) What unique feature occurs at the end of the joint and what measures does it require?
(6) What material groups are preferred in friction stir welding?
(7) List 3 advantages of friction stir welding
(8) List 3 disadvantages of friction stir welding
(9) Name typical application areas of friction stir welding
(10) Why is it possible to create joints of dissimilar material combinations using friction stir welding
which would not be “suited for welding” per definition by fusion welding?
SFI / IWE 1.12-2
8.5 Bibliography
/16/ DIN EN 14610:2004 Welding and allied processes - Definitions of metal welding processes
/17/ DIN EN ISO 4063 (2011-03): Welding and allied processes - Nomenclature of processes and
reference numbers.
/18/ DIN EN ISO 25239-1(2011): Friction stir welding — Aluminium — Part 1: Terms
/19/ DIN EN ISO 25239-2 (2011): Friction stir welding — Aluminium — Part 2: Design of weld joints
/20/ DIN EN ISO 25239-3 (2011): Friction stir welding — Aluminium — Part 3: Qualification of
welding operators
/21/ DIN EN ISO 25239-4 (2011): Friction stir welding — Aluminium — Part 4: Specification and
qualification of welding procedures
/22/ DIN EN ISO 25239-5 (2011): Friction stir welding — Aluminium —Part 5: Quality and inspection
requirements
/23/ Boywitt, R.: Grundlagen und Anwendungsbeispiele des Rührreibschweißens. Vortrag zum 18.
Erfahrungsaustausch Reibschweißen, SLV München, March 2009.
/24/ Storch, W., R. Boywitt: Rührreibschweißen von Kupferleitern. Paper to 18. Substitutional of
experience friction welding, SLV Munich, March 2009.
/25/ Ellermann, F.: Rührreibschweißen von Aluminiumprofilen bei einem Halbzeughersteller. Paper to
18. Substitutional of experience friction welding, SLV Munich, March 2009.
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9 MIAB welding, diffusion welding
9.1 Pressure welding with magnetically impelled arc butt (MIAB)

MIAB welding /1/ belongs to the group of the arc pressure welding processes. Other procedure
designations are also common, such as “Magnetarc-”.
9.1.1 Process description
1. Initial position
The axial connecting of the

clamped workpiece faces,
welding current, magnetic
field and shielding gas are
switched on.
2. Welding start
Separation of the
workpieces up to a defined
gap width (lifting movement),
with simultaneous arc
ignition.
3. Heating
Moved by the magnetic

force, the arc rotates along
the contour, uniform heating
and starting and melting of
both joint faces.
4. Welding end
Bringing together and

upsetting the workpieces,
Switching off of the welding
current, the magnetic field
and the shielding gas
(delayed).
Figure 69: Schematic illustration of an MIAB weld (acc. to DVS Merkblatt 2934)
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9.1.2 Processing materials and geometries
The following material combinations are welded in practice under production conditions:
(Weldability strongly depends on the component geometry)
spheroidal graphite
Cast iron with
Materials
Cast steel
unalloyed
alloyed
Steel,
Steel,
Steel, unalloyed
Steel, alloyed (ferrit., austen).
Cast iron with spheroidal

graphite
Cast steel
Figure 70: MIAB - materials and material combinations suitable for welding
Requirements for the joint geometries: “thin-walled closed hollow geometries”
 hollow cross section (no full cross section),

 thin-walled (0.7 - 5 mm)
 closed section (not broken orbit for the arc),
 electrically conductive and meltable materials,
 equal wall thickness (heating) as much as possible on both parts.
Figure 71: Suitable connector cross sections for the MIAB welding (acc. to DVS leaflet 2934)
According to the state of the art, pipe cross-sections with 0.7 … 5 mm wall thickness (in special cases up
to 10 mm) and between 5 / 300 mm diameter or with appropriate weld length and with non-rotation-
symmetrical joint surface contours, can be MIAB to welded. The joint faces should be plane parallel,
bare metal (rotated or milled) and deburred.
SFI / IWE 1.12.2
Advantages:  Precise welding - also thin pipe cross sections.

 Good weldability for steels with high carbon contents and machining steel.
 Symmetric heating, favourable residual stress state, low distortion.
 Low reduction of hardness and strengths with hardened or quenched and tempered
steels in the heat affected zone.
 Low susceptibility to cracking.
 Relatively clean, almost spatter free process.
 Good potential for automation.
 Short welding time and short cycle times for mass production.
 No filler material necessarily.
Disadvantages:  No weldability for full cross sections.

 Length shortening through the upsetting process.
 Uneconomical for materials with increased shielding gas requirements.
 Low flexibility of the process (usually stationary single-purpose machines).
Sample applications: passenger car rear axles, drives, filter casings, water connection nipple for
radiators, bicycle bottom bracket axles, gear rods for car steering elements.
Front wheel drive-shafts of passenger car Rear drive-shafts of passenger car
Figure 72: MIAB-Examples of use

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Brake- und steering parts passenger car
Passenger car rear wheel axle
Figure 73: MIAB-Sample applications
9.1.5 Welding machines

For MIAB welding, stationary machines with fully mechanized process management (manual un-
/loading) or fully automated process management are used. The machines are generally designed as
single-purpose machines for mass production. The machines can be executed in vertical or horizontal
types (related to the component axis). The horizontal type is preferred due to simpler un-/loading. The
most important machine components are a lift-/upsetting apparatus, the power supply(s) for welding- and
solenoid coil current, and a coil system for magnetic field generation.
Figure 74: Work space of an MIAB welding machine in horizontal construction / KUKA System GmbH
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9.1.6 Magnetic field distribution
F  B  L
B = magnetic flux density (radial) L = Length of the electrical conductor (of the arc)
 = welding current (DC) (axial) F = Force on the arc (tangential)
Figure 75: Separable outer coil system and theoretical magnetic field distribution in the welding gap
Through the superposition of an externally generated radial magnetic field in the welding gap, an arc-
blowing effect (magnetic force) affects the arc in tangential direction. As a result, the arc is moved in the
welding gap at high speed along the front face contour (orbital frequencies e.g. 200 Hz, depending on
the component). The joint faces are heated and melted at the same time. In order to keep the force
orientation and the orbital movement of the arc the same, this is operated with direct current.
Important parameters of MIAB welding are:
Welding data Adjustment range

lift (arc length) 1.5 ... 3.0 mm
Welding current 50 ... 1,500 A
Magnet coil current 1 ... 25 A
arc time 0.4 ... 15 s
Upsetting time 0.5 ... 5 s
upsetting force, surface-related 15 ... 150 N/mm²
Shielding gas - flow rate 0 ... 15 l/min
Figure 76: Setting values of the most important welding parameters (acc. to DVS leaflet 2934)
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(I) Ignition- and start-up phase

(II) Warm-up phase
(III) Melting phase
(IV) Upsetting phase
Additional measures to the increase the

arc and process stability:
 Staggered current changes for arc

and solenoid coil
 Chokes for current rise and current

drop
Figure 77: Current flow with MIAB welding, with and without current program (acc. to DVS leaflet 2934)
9.1.8 Structure and properties of the joint
Figure 78: Three-part drive, two-times MIAB welded, weight advantage of hollow shaft up to 40% against solid
shaft /KUKA-Systems GmbH/
With press welding with magnetically impelled arc the melted mass of the fusion faces that has been
created by the temperature rise, is completely upset outside. In the joining zone no solidified molten
metal remains, but the non-melted, upset material of the “heat-affected zone.” So a “forged structure” is
formed in the joint zone, similarly as in friction welding, with good technological characteristic values.
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 Distinct cross-section enlargement; variable

by heat input and upsetting force
 Top edge melting of the front faces and
possible oxides completely upset outside
 Joining plane with narrow strip ferrite in
Widmanstätten structure by carbon burn-off
 Flash mostly smoothly workable
(if inside accessibility is possible
Figure 79: Macro-photo-micrograph of an MIAB joint zone, pipe wall segment, wall thickness 4 mm, SAE1040 with
edge hardening
Fusion welding with magnetically impelled arc (MIA) respectively. Arc welding with magnetically moved
arc butt welding (DIN EN ISO 4063-185). The joint is being produced only by melting – without upsetting.
Figure 52: MIA welding - design as peripheral- and front face weld
This melting welding type did not succeed in being successfully implemented in batch production in
comparison to the press welding processes.
During Arc stud welding hollow cross-sections (cans, nuts, etc.) are welded on with a magnetically
moved arc. The instrument technique for arc stud welding (arc welding gun) will be supplemented with a
solenoid coil around the component support. With this, the rotation of the arc at the hollow section and
the support part is generated and the circular joint surface is melted on both sides. The joining process is
followed by stud arc welding with lower spring or spindle forces with one side design (no backside
support and no back accessibility required). The exact process design allows all around density and
almost spatter-free joints.
Application: e. g. Exhaust threaded sleeves from alloyed steels for the absorption of an exhaust sensor.
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9.2 Test questions
(1) Which are the three most important asset components to MIAB welding
(2) Name the main welding parameters of MIAB welding
(3) What are the requirements for the preparation of the joint surfaces?
(4) Which joint geometries can be MIAB welded?
(5) Why do MIAB joints have a low distortion?
(6) List 3 advantages of MIAB welding
(7) List 3 disadvantages of MIAB welding
(8) Name typical application areas of MIAB welding
(9) Which welding current type (DC, AC) is used for MIAB welding? Why?
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9.3 Bibliography
/1/ Leaflet DVS 2934: Pressure welding with magnetically moved arc (MIAB welding).
(2001-11), DVS-Verlag, Düsseldorf.
/2/ Leaflet DVS 2922: Testing welded burn stud and press stud and MBP welded joints
(2001-12), DVS Verlag, Düsseldorf.
/3/ Grünauer, H.: MBP welding – friction welding, a comparison.
DVS reports Bd. 139 (1991), S. 43 - 49.
/4/ N.N.: Einfluss der Magnetfeldverteilung auf das Schweißergebnis beim Schweißen mit magnetisch
bewegtem Lichtbogen. Abschlußbericht zum AiF-Forschungsvorhaben 8241 der SLV München
(1993)
/5/ Tölke, P.: Schweißverfahren für das Konstruktionsschweißen von Gusseisen mit Kugelgrafit (GGG)
unter Großserienbedingungen. Vortrag zum 15. Erfahrungsaustausch Reibschweißen, SLV
München, 8.3.2005
/6/ Weh, W.: Magnetarc-Schweißen - das innovative Fertigungsverfahren für Chassisteile. Vortrag zur
Tagung “Fügen rohrförmiger Bauteile”, SLV-München, 5.12.2005
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10 Diffusion welding
Diffusion welding is a process for joining similar and dissimilar materials in solid - state (below the
melting temperature: T < TS) without filler materials. The welded joint takes place by diffusion, i.e. by
material transport in the atomic range.
Process number and designation: DIN EN ISO 4063 - 45, Diffusion welding
10.1 Process description
The joining parts are fixed in a vacuum chamber and are admitted at the bare contact points with
sustained low pressure (1 - 30 N/mm²) and temperature (0.5 - 0.8 x melting temperature). Through
diffusion over the contact surface(s), the components are firmly bonded in solid state (without melt).
Figure 81: Schematic illustration of a diffusion welding unit with direct resistance heating
10.2 Structure of a vacuum diffusion welding machine
1. Vacuum system
The parts that are to be joined are in a vacuum chamber. A high purity of the weld areas contact is
achieved through vacuum, because diffusion-obstructing pollution layers on the surface must be
excluded.
2. Heating
The choice of heating depends on the cross-section to be welded (stove heating, inductive heating and
direct resistance heating).
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3. Pressure facility
The parts that are to be welded are pressed together with low pressure during the diffusion process. The
pressure has to be set to such extent that a good contact of the weld areas is assured, but so less that
no plastic deformation occurs in the selected temperature. In some cases you can work even without
pressure facility, if the required contact pressure is built up solely by the thermal strain of the joining
parts.
10.3 Welding data
 Component dimensions: within wide ranges arbitrary, however limited by the type of the
vacuum chamber
 Weld contact area preparation: flat and grease-free, polished: Roughness 15 - 30 m,
polishing not required
 Vacuum: 10-4 - 10-1 Pascal
(1 N/mm² = 106 Pa = 10 bar = 10.2 kp/cm² = 7.5 x 10³ Torr)
 Welding temperature: 0.5 - 0.8-fold of the melting temperature (T < Ts),
with different materials to be orientated to the material with lower
melting temperature
 Welding pressure: low; 1 - 30 N/mm2 usually sufficient
 Welding time: classified into 3 phases: Heating, keeping the temperature, cooling
- 10 min to 60 min for materials with similar expansion coefficient
- longer heating-/cooling times for material combinations with strongly
different expansion coefficients, e.g. 60 min heating, 30 min keeping
the temp, - 150 min cooling
Welding time and temperature can be varied in relatively large limits. The higher the welding
temperature, the shorter welding time. A high welding temperature possibly means a higher deformation
and possibly also a de-strengthening of thermal-mechanically strengthened material states (annealing).
A compromise between welding time, dimensional accuracy, and strength properties of the welded parts
is to be set.
Figure 82 shows a diffusion-welded joint of a high temperature lightweight construction material TiAl.
Due to low ductility at room temperature and high thermal shock sensitivity, this material is not fusion-
weldable conventionally. The almost isotherm diffusion welding can be well applied here. Joining
temperatures up to 950° correspond to tempering (not annealing) of this material. The base material
properties are not impaired, not even in the area of the joining zone.

Joining
zone
a) Overview, welded round specimen b) Joining zone-edge, diffusion welded (with edge offset,
 18 mm clamp inaccuracy)
Welding parameters: 950°C, 180 min, 5 N/mm², < 10 -4 Torr
Figure 82: Diffusion welding (similar) of titanium aluminide high-temperature material

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10.4 Weldable materials and geometries
Metals and mixed (material) joints can be diffusion welded.

Similar to friction welding of mixed joints, the formation of brittle intermetallic phases can be limited by
selecting suitable alloys and by setting the process variables to an uncritical level, i.e. without adverse
effects on the joint properties.
Intermediate layers (“filler material”) can also accelerate the welding process and avoid the possible
formation of brittle diffusion layers (intermetallic phases). Intermediate layers of ductile materials are also
used for brittle materials or for material combinations with very different coefficients of expansion in order
to improve stress equalisation. Plus, in this way the surface contact of the two joining parts is already
improved with low pressing forces.
Figure 83: Successful diffusion-welded material combinations /3/
If during diffusion welding of metals being connected an eutectic occurs below the welding temperature,
then it is to be labelled as diffusion soldering.
Figure 84 shows typical joint geometries for diffusion welding. Large-scale or multi-surface joint
geometries, also in multiply stacked arrangement, can be joined at the same time, even several joining
parts in one working cycle (pallet production). This relativizes long welding times. A direct accessibility of
the joint zone is not required. Depending on the joining geometry heat and force can indirectly affect the
joint zones via heat transfer and force transmission.
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a) Cooling duct b) Hollow body structure c) Joint of metal with

glass or ceramic
d) Lightweight construction honeycomb structure

e) Pipe transition pieces of
different materials
Figure 84: Examples of joining geometries for diffusion welding
Advantages:
 Potential for automation of the process.
 High quality of the welded joint: no changes to the physical-mechanical characteristics (joining
without melt)
 Weldability for many materials and the mixed joint materials
 welding several joints (large areas) at the same time, in a process cycle
 slow heating and cooling (almost isothermal), thus reduced residual stresses, low risk of cracking,
low distortion
 plastic deformation low (negligibly): Processing after welding does not apply.
Disadvantages:
 long welding times,
 complex surface preparation,
 great machine expenditure,
 De-strengthening of materials with heat or mechanically strengthened state is possible
(annealing treatment)
SFI / IWE 1.12.2
10.6 Applications
The process is used in special cases, if other joint processes cannot be used, or only conditionally, e.g.
according the material properties and/or the joining geometry (e.g. accessibility, cavities, etc.). Diffusion
welding is especially suitable for the production of wide joints, or several joints simultaneously in one
process cycle. It is used e.g. in cost-intensive industry areas, such as in aerospace, in reactor
construction and in the electric industry.
Example:
- Welding of compact connectors at ends of upper Cu-flat band-conductor stacks
- Production of cooling units with special inner channel route through stacked metal plate packages
- Generative production processes through bundle-wise welding of layers-wise added structures; e.g.
for the design of special cavity contours for moulds
- Quasi-isothermal welding of thermal-shock-sensitive materials or mixed joints, e.g. intermetallic high
temperature lightweight materials, such as titanium aluminide, copper/glass, copper/ceramic bonds.
SFI / IWE 1.12.2
10.7 Questions
(1) Name the three most important asset components of diffusion welding
(2) Name the main welding parameters of diffusion welding
(3) What are the requirements for the preparation of the components to be welded?
(4) What are the requirements for the post-processing of the joint?
(5) Which welding temperature arises (related to the melting temperature)?
(6) How can the welding temperature affect the base materials?
(7) Which possibilities are available for the diffusion welding of mixed joints for avoiding intermetallic
phases, for accelerated diffusion and for reduced residual stresses?
(8) Name 3 important advantages and particular aspects of diffusion welding
(9) Name the most important disadvantages of diffusion welding

SFI / IWE 1.12.2
10.8 Bibliography
/1/ Owczarski, U. A. et al.: Application of Diffusion Welding in the USA, Welding Journal, February 1981
/2/ Lison, R.: Diffusion welding and nuclear application example , Schweißen und Schneiden, Jg. 23
(1971)
/3/ Ruge, J.: Handbook of welding technology, Vol. II. Springer Verlag, 1980.
/4/ Greitmann, M. J., Wiesner, P.: Applications of Special Welding Processes - Part 2, Diffusion Welding.
der praktiker, Düsseldorf 54 (2002) 9, S. 314 - 315.
/5/ Wilden, J., Bergmann, J.P.: Joining of dissimilar materials of Titan- and Aluminium at low
temperatures by diffusion welding. DVS reports 2004 (231), P. 312-316.
/6/ Wiesner, P.: Pressure welding process. Vortragsmanusskript zum Lehrgang Fügen von
Kupferwerkstoffen, Deutsches Kupfer Institut / GSI mbH NL SLV Duisburg, März 2012.
/7/ NF L06-391: Welding and brazing processes in Aerospace. Joining of metallic materials by diffusion
welding. Weld quality, Norm, Ausgabe: 1994-03-01, French
/8/ DVS reports strip 243: Hard – and high temperature soldering and diffusion welding,
ISBN: 978-3-87155-799-6, DVS-Verlag, Düsseldorf (2007)
SFI / IWE 1.12.2
11 Cold pressure welding

Cold pressure welding is joining of similar or dissimilar materials with high pressure without heat supply
(at room temperature). Through high pressure over the yield point, plastic cold forming happens.
11.1.2 Weldable materials
Plastic cold deformations are only possible with comparatively soft materials such as aluminium and
copper which are the most typical materials in this process. Furthermore tin, lead and silver are also
welded, among others. Hard materials can be joined together with the help of intermediate layers made
of soft material, e.g. St-Al-St, St-Cu-St.
11.1.3 Application of the process
For the joining of parts in electrical engineering, like production of bimetal switches, welding of
conductors and in capacitor production. It is also used for joining parts in the field of precision
engineering and in the packaging industry.
11.2 Detailed description

11.2.1 Welding units
- Hand pincers, for welding of smaller cross-sections, e.g. Al: 3 to 40 mm², Cu: 3 to 20 mm².
- Welding machines, for welding of larger cross-sections, e.g. Al: 20 to 400 mm²,
Cu: 20 to 150 mm². One or several repeated upsetting is common.
11.2.2 Process principle
Cold pressure welding is used for butt welding or for spot-welding, as shown in Figure 85 and 86. The
significant material deformation leads either to a displacement with considerable surface magnification
as in butt welding, or to material compression as in spot-welding.
Figure 85: Cold pressure butt welding (acc. to Ruge) Figure 86: Cold pressure spot-welding
(acc. to Ruge)
SFI / IWE 1.12.2
11.2.3 Operating conditions

- Condition: mechanical processing of the joint faces and thorough cleaning before the welding
process.
- Destruction of the oxide layers in the welding area by surface magnification and flow processes.
- in butt welding, the high deformation grade manifests itself in surface magnification, and in the case
of spot welding by cross-section reduction.
- Required surface magnification: Al - 160 %, Cu - 180 Ag - 60%.
- Join mechanism: Atomic attractive forces (adhesion) and location changes of mobile atoms close the
surface (diffusion).
Cold pressure welding can be used in connection with forming processes (pulling, rolling, extrusion) as
well.
Figure 87: Cold pressure welding in the

drawing process (acc. to Ruge)
Figure 88: Cold pressure roll cladding

SFI / IWE 1.12.2
Forward - hollow extrusion Forward - full extrusion Backwards - cup shaped extrusion
Figure 89: Process variants of extrusion (acc. to Ruge)
11.3 Bibliography
/1/ Ruge, J.: Handbook of welding technology, Vol. II. Springer Verlag, 1980.
/2/ Eichhorn, F.: Production processes in welding technology, Vol. 1, welding and cutting technology,
VDI Verlag, Düsseldorf, 1983.
11.4 Questions
(1) Describe the process principle of cold pressure welding
(2) Which properties must the materials have to be eligible for cold pressure welding?
(3) In connection with which production processes can cold pressure welding be used?
(4) What size of weld cross-section can be joined in cold pressure welding, using stationary
machines, depending on the material?
(5) How large must the required surface magnification be in cold pressure butt welding, and which
joint mechanism is achieved with it?
SFI / IWE 1.12-2
12 Explosion welding
Explosion welding is also called impact or shock welding.
12.1 Process principle
In explosion welding the effect of a blast wave, which emerges during the detonation of explosives (e.g.
Nitropenta, Hexogen, Nitroglycerin) is utilized for the welding of overlapped workpieces. The parts to be
joined are arranged parallel to each other or in case of smaller dimensions on top of each other and
under a certain angle, with the help of spacers.
Figure 90: The principle of explosive

welding (cladding)
Plate to be cladded (base component)
12.2 Materials and applications

The process is relevant especially for metal combinations, that are not soluble among themselves, and
their differences in melting temperature and deformation strength are too large which would cause brittle,
intermetallic compounds. The advantage of this process is the cladding of special materials such as
titanium, tantalum and molybdenum on steels, like combinations of e.g. aluminium with austenitic steel,
copper with aluminium and aluminium with Inconel.
The process lends itself particularly to wide surface claddings, and to coating of a carrier material
(substrate), for example with a corrosion-resistant layer.
Practical examples of application is the wide cladding of sheet metal of up to 40 m² width, the interior
cladding of vessel barrels and vessel bottoms, and the production of pipe fittings in apparatus
engineering.
12.3 Operating conditions
The surfaces to be joined must be metallic clean. Type and quantity of the used explosive depend on the
thickness of the overlay and the characteristics of the metals to be connected. The explosive material is
brought to explosion from a line or a point. Under the progressing detonation front, the overlaid sheet is
accelerated in downwards direction and is bend.

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SFI / IWE 1.12-2
Between the two joined parts, a liquid metal beam is formed due to the local pressure load on the
material, well beyond the yield point, which is then blown out of the gap due to the pressure. In the so-
called point of collision, the metals fuse and are joined together. The connection plane of both
workpieces is formed to a wave-like shape.
Section: AlMg3 (t = 12 mm) on S235 (t = 40 mm) Multi Layer explosion cladding

Figure 91: Examples of explosion-cladded join zones
12.4 Variants
Figure 64: Principle of inside pipe welding (heat exchanger)
12.5 Bibliography
/1/ Richter, U.: Explosive cladding - a sensible special process for broad surface joining of metals, DVS
reports Vol. 25 (1972)
/2/ N.N.: The compound from vacuum, special issue GVM, Bocholt, 1990
/3/ Boes, P.J., et al.: For the explosive welding of metals, strips,
/4/ Sheet metals, pipes, Düsseldorf 6 (1965)

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12.6 Test questions
(1) Describe the process of explosive welding.
(2) Which attributes does the joining zone of an explosion-welded cladding have?
(3) For which areas of application is explosive welding suitable?
(4) In which process step of explosive welding is the joint generated?
(5) Which basic operating conditions must be satisfied in explosive welding?

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.12-2
13 Magnetic impulse welding and crimping

The force action of a magnetic impulse causes a fast material transformation in the appropriate
components. These transformations can be used for welding, crimping, shaping, and punching/perfo-
rating. In this technique, the transforming force is transferred to the component without contact.
Due to missing standardisation different process designations are in use, e.g.:
- MPW (Magnetic Pulse Welding)
- MPT (Magnet Pulse Transformation)
- EMPT, EMPW, EMPT (Electromagnetic Pulse Technology, -Welding, -Types)
The solenoid impulse process is a process for mass production. It is characterized by single-purpose
machines of low flexibility, singular properties regarding the joint geometry and the possible material
combinations, as well as high economy due to short process cycles.
13.1 Applications
At the moment, the first applications are taking place in the areas of automotive, electrical engineering
and vessel construction.
Figure 93: Automotive application, solenoid-pulse-welded Al/Al AC accumulator /PULSAR/
Figure 94: Solenoid-pulse-welded cable connections /PULSAR/ Figure 95: Al/St sp-welded and St/St
sp-crimped,  50 mm/
PSTproducts/

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.12-2
13.2 Welding units

Machines for shaping and welding with solenoid pulse technology mainly consist of a capacitor battery,
which are currently driven with a charging voltage of 10 or 25 kV with powers between 5 and 100 kJ, and a
solenoid coil system for generating the magnetic force effect on the component. The most common
installation type is equipped with a compression coil, i.e. an external solenoid compresses an internal
component.
The only machine parameter is the capacitor charging voltage (e.g. 3 … 9 kV). If necessary the pulse
shape can be modified with the help of an additional inverter: lower pulse frequency = more pulse width.
All remaining working conditions are determined by the adaptation of the components and of the coil
system:
- Component/compound geometry (diameter, wall thickness, overlapping, bevels, gap)
- Materials/alloys (deformation capability, el. conductivity:
- Surface preparation
- Arrangement within the solenoid coil system
- Design of the field-shaper within the coil for the concentration of the magnetic field on the component
Expansion coils placed inside a component part, and flat coils for the creation of axial forces are also
available as further system designs. The coil system must absorb the magnetic counter acting force, and
is therefore exposed to high workloads during operation. In serial operation, the replacement of the coil
system has to be scheduled after every 50,000 welding cycles. In contract production, an amount of 4 -
20 ct “Cost Coil by weld” will be charged per weld cycle. Compared and in contrast to other welding
processes, no prorated costs accrue here for filler materials, gases, etc.
For complex component geometries divisible field formers can be used, or in special cases divisible coil
systems as well. Special coil- and field shapers also enable the manufacturing of several joints
simultaneously with one unloading pulse (e.g. Alu-caps crimped contactless and germ-free, for infusion
cylinders).
13.3 Process principle of the Magnetic impulse welding
In magnetic pulse welding, the effect of a pressure wave is used to weld tubular, overlapped workpieces.
The pressure wave is created by a pulse-like electromagnetic induction and force action. The join
mechanisms are comparable to those in explosive welding.
/PULSAR/
Figure 96: Principle of the fast electromagnetic deformation and typical joining geometries

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SFI / IWE 1.12-2
The following basic principle is used: A high capacitor (E = 5 - 100 kJ) is discharged very quickly (pulse
duration approx. 40 s) by a solenoid coil. Thereby a strong magnetic field is created in the coil. Inside
the coil there is a component part (e.g. pipe). The induced current in the pipe creates the magnetic field
of the opposite direction. By the emerging magnetic force, the coil and component part are pushed away
from each other. The discharging current pulse is converted into an electromagnetic force impulse.
Under the precondition of a stable, deformation-free coil, the electromagnetic force causes a deformation
on the component inside of the coil, in the form of a radial compression. If two joining parts are placed
within the solenoid coil, e.g. two overlapping pipe endings, then the external pipe will pressed up
suddenly against the inside lying pipe, and will be joined to it.
For the transformed energy applies: E (kJ) = ½ Cu ² = ½ LI²
13.4 Working conditions of materials
The very short pulse time (e.g. pulse width 50 s) limits the induction depth comparable to a high
frequency induction. Therefore only the outside component will be radially compressed by the magnetic
force, but not the internal part. Still it may be necessary to prevent a mechanical deformation of the
internal part by the outside part, eventually by a sufficiently large wall thickness or a supporting device.
In stable, circular coils, which operate with single or multiple loops, normally thin, tubular overlap joints
are produced by non-contact compression. The material of the outside part which needs to be deformed,
must be cold-ductile and a good electrical conductor (Cu, aluminium alloys are preferred) In connection
with a radial air gap (acceleration path), high enough deformation and collision speeds can be achieved
to produce the welded joint. The material of the internal, deformation-free joining part can be similar or
dissimilar. Therefore this cold process lends itself especially to the production of mixed joints (e.g. Cu -X,
Al -Y) as well. The materials remain without thermal effects, i.e without thermally caused de-
strengthening or hardening.
With steel materials in the exterior pipe, both ductility and conductivity are decreased (induction force
effect). The lower transformation rate, despite the higher pulse energy, is then too low for welding, but
can be used for crimping. For that, suitable ring- or longitudinal slots are added to the inner part which
has now a gap-free overlapping. Density can be achieved in crimping with additional soldering agents or
bondings, if necessary.
13.5 Bibliography
[1] Zech F., Cramer H. and Appel L.: “Metallografic Investigation of MPW interfaces”, First technical
conference on industrialised magnetic Pulse welding and Forming, SLV Munich, July 3rd 2008
[2] Kallee S.W.: “Magnetic Pulse Welding as an Enabler of Light-Weighting in the Automotive
Industry”, First technical conference on industrialised magnetic Pulse welding and Forming, SLV
Munich, July 3rd 2008
[3] Shribman, V.: “Magnetic Pulse Joining of Light Metal Castings”, First technical conference on
industrialised magnetic Pulse welding and Forming, SLV Munich, July 3rd 2008
[4] Mussi, P.: “Magnetic Pulse Welding on Receiver Drier for heat Ventilation Air Conditioning”, First
technical conference on industrialised magnetic Pulse welding and Forming, SLV Munich, July 3rd
2008

equipment
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13.6 Questions
(1) Describe the process principle of Magnetic impulse welding
(2) In which applications can solenoid pulse technique be used?
(3) With which instrument can Magnetic impulse welding be carried out?
(4) With which special welding processes is Magnetic impulse welding comparable, concerning the
formation of the joining zone?
(5) Which properties must materials have in Magnetic impulse welding?

equipment
Cutting, Drilling and other edge preparation SFI / IWE 1.13
processes Page 1
Chapter 1.13: Cutting, Drilling and other edge preparation processes
Contents
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 3
2 Thermal cutting ............................................................................................................................... 3
3 Flame cutting................................................................................................................................... 4
3.1 Process gases............................................................................................................................ 8
3.2 Flame cutting equipment .......................................................................................................... 10
3.3 Practical application of flame cutting ........................................................................................ 14
3.4 Flame-Cutting Machines .......................................................................................................... 17
3.5 Special and Auxiliary Equipment .............................................................................................. 18
3.6 Special techniques of flame cutting .......................................................................................... 19
3.6.1 Flame Gouging ............................................................................................................ 19
3.6.2 Metal-powder oxygen cutting ....................................................................................... 20
3.6.3 Oxygen lancing ............................................................................................................ 20
3.7 Workplace safety ...................................................................................................................... 20
4 Water jet cutting ............................................................................................................................ 21
4.1 Principle of processing ............................................................................................................. 21
5 Plasma cutting .............................................................................................................................. 23
5.1 Classification and application area ........................................................................................... 23
5.2 Direct plasma cutting ................................................................................................................ 24
5.2.1 Process principle .......................................................................................................... 24
5.2.2 Process variants .......................................................................................................... 24
5.2.3 Examples of Application ............................................................................................... 28
5.3 Indirect plasma cutting ............................................................................................................. 29
5.3.1 Process variant “nozzle as anode” ............................................................................... 29
5.3.2 Process variant “auxiliary anode” ................................................................................. 30
5.3.3 Examples of Application ............................................................................................... 30
5.4 Other plasma processes .......................................................................................................... 31
5.4.1 Marking, notching and punching................................................................................... 31
5.4.2 Gouging ....................................................................................................................... 32
5.5 Gases for plasma cutting .......................................................................................................... 33
5.6 System structure ...................................................................................................................... 34
5.6.1 Guiding systems for plasma cutting .............................................................................. 34
5.6.2 Fume extractor ............................................................................................................. 36
5.6.3 Plasma power supplies ................................................................................................ 36
5.6.4 Plasma cutting torch..................................................................................................... 37
5.6.5 Longitudinal (distance) control...................................................................................... 38
5.7 Cutting speed in relation to cut quality ...................................................................................... 39
5.8 Safety ....................................................................................................................................... 40
6 Additional special processes - Thermal material removal by gas discharge ........................... 41

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6.1 Oxygen arc cutting ................................................................................................................... 41

6.2 Air arc gouging ......................................................................................................................... 41
7 Laser beam cutting ....................................................................................................................... 42
7.1 Operations of laser flame cutting .............................................................................................. 42
7.2 Process variants....................................................................................................................... 42
7.2.1 Laser-flame cutting....................................................................................................... 43
7.2.2 Laser-fusion cutting ...................................................................................................... 43
7.2.3 Laser-sublimation cutting ............................................................................................. 43
7.3 Cutting gases ........................................................................................................................... 43
7.4 Materials .................................................................................................................................. 44
7.5 Cutting speed ........................................................................................................................... 45
7.6 Guiding systems for laser cutting.............................................................................................. 46
8 Test questions............................................................................................................................... 47
8.1 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 50

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processes Page 3
1 Introduction
Before semi-finished products and products like sheet metals, profiles etc. can be processed and welded
in manufacturing processes of the metal processing industry, they often must be cut accurately. For this
purpose, in addition to the mechanical cutting processes, thermal cutting processes like flame cutting,
plasma cutting and laser cutting are used. These three processes are widely used frequently together.
All thermal cutting processes are similar in terms of point-like energy input and a high-energy cutting gas
jet. The goal of thermal cutting is to produce components in such a way that they can be further
processed with the lowest possible amount of rework. In addition to this thermal cutting also the “cold”
waterjet cutting processing did find its specific application during the years.
Because of the continuous further development of the thermal cutting processes, oxy-fuel gas cutting,
plasma and laser cutting are economically competing processes today for non-alloy and low alloyed
steels in the medium wall thickness range.
2 Thermal cutting
Classification of the thermal cutting processes

Thermal cutting processes can be classified according to different aspects.
According to the common physical processes, a distinction can be drawn between flame cutting, fusion
cutting and sublimation cutting.
The material is treated as follows:
 When flame cutting, it is mainly burned, and the combustion products are expelled by an oxygen jet
of high kinetic density.
 When fusion cutting, it is mainly melted and blown out by a high-speed gas jet.
 When sublimation cutting, it is mainly evaporated and blown out by expansion and/or by a gas jet.
Figure 1 shows a classification of thermal cutting processes dependent on the type of energy carriers
affecting the workpiece externally.
Thermal Removal
by Gas by Gas Discharge by Beam
Oxy-acetylene flame
Plasma Laser
(Oxyfuel) cutting
Flame gouging
Arc with O2 Electron Beam
Flame Drilling
Arc with air Ion Beam
Flame Spraying
Figure 1: Classification of the thermal cutting processes according to DIN 2310 Part 6
According to the degree of mechanisation, we can distinguish between hand cutting (manual cutting),
partly mechanical, fully-mechanised and automated cutting.
DIN EN ISO 9013 describes the thermal cutting processes, in particular the evaluation possibilities of cut
surface qualities.

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3 Flame cutting
Flame cutting is a thermal cutting process of which the biggest
energy part, necessary for the continuous processing, is
extracted from the heat release due to the combustion of the
material. The upper surface of the material to be cut is locally
heated by the oxy-fuel gas flame to ignition temperature and
then burned by the oxygen jet stream. The heat resulting from
the combustion of the material allows a continuous combustion
into the depth and feed direction. Flame cutting has the largest
application in terms of workpiece thickness. Standard torches
are generally suitable for the range of 3 - 300 mm, special
torches up to 1,000 mm and more. Figure 2 shows flame cutting
during processing.
Figure 2: flame cutting processing

Process principle of flame cutting
 Heating of the workpiece to be cut by the heating flame to ignition temperature in the area of the
effective zone of the cutting oxygen jet. The ignition temperature depends on the carbon content of
the steel at 1,150 °C to 1,200 °C.
 Supply of oxygen and thus introduction of the combustion of the material inside of the kerf, whereby
the exothermic reaction during the combustion of the material with oxygen allows considerable
amounts of heat to be released.
 Exhausting the burned material (the slag) from the kerf by means of the cutting oxygen jet.
 The kerf is generated by the uniform movement above the workpiece.
Figure 3: Schematic representation of flame cutting processing

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Hints
 The condition of the workpiece surface (e.g. rusted, scaled, painted, etc.) influences the cutting
quality and the feed rate.
 The flame cutting process is interrupted, if the continuous heat transfer in the workpiece is
interrupted. Consequence: Sheet metals with laminations or several sheets upon each other are not
suitable for cutting without special measures.
 Cutting with several torches at the same time on a machine increases the cutting capacity according
to the number of torches. The special advantage of flame cutting is that several torches can be
operated at the same time with a relatively low expenditure level. For example, it is possible to
execute the complex double-bevel butt weld preparation process in a single operation by using three-
torch units.
Preconditions for flame cutting (flame cutting conditions)

To enable the start of the heat generating (exothermic) process, the material to be cut must meet the
following requirements:
1. The material heated to ignition temperature must burn in pure oxygen. This requirement is met
by all metals with a sufficiently high affinity to oxygen; it is met particularly well by pure iron.
2. The slag generated during the combustion must be fluid, so that it can be blown out from the
kerf by the oxygen-cutting-stream. In particular chrome and silicone form viscous slag.
3. Its ignition temperature must be lower than its melting temperature. The ignition temperature of
structural steels is approximately 1,200 °C, the melting point is just around 1,500 °C. Such materials
can burn before they become liquid. With increasing carbon content, the burning temperature
increases as well, and the melting temperature decreases. For steels of about 1.6 % carbon content,
this requirement is no longer met - the material melts before it is burned. Therefore, e.g. tool steels
and cast iron are not suitable for flame cutting.
4. The melting temperature of the oxides must be lower than the melting temperature of the
material. Some metals and alloying elements form highly melting oxides. A typical example is
aluminium. Its melting point is at 660 °C, the melting point of its oxide at approximately 2,050 °C. The
oxygen jet cannot even reach the metal as it is covered by a solid oxide layer. Aluminium materials
are therefore not suitable for flame cutting. It is similar with chrome, which also forms highly melting
oxides. As nickel only has a low affinity to oxygen, it contributes not much to the combustion heat.
This is the reason, why stainless CrNi steels are not suitable for flame cutting. Also some other
alloying elements of steel such as silicon, manganese, tungsten, molybdenum and copper make - in
high amounts - flame cutting more difficult.
5. The emerging oxides need to be thin fluid. If, during combustion, a slag is built that is very viscous
and thus cannot be expelled from the kerf easily, flame cutting can naturally be impeded. This
characteristic is also influenced by chrome and silicon.
6. The heat conductivity of the material may not be too high. Namely, if more heat is dissipated as
it is added during combustion, the cutting process dies down - especially in deeper layers of the
material where the heating flame does not reach. This condition applies for, for example, copper and
aluminium base materials.
The above mentioned conditions for flame cutting are met by non-alloyed and low alloyed steels.

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Flame-cutting suitability of materials
For evaluation of the cutting ability of steel, its carbon content is primarily decisive, figure 4.
Figure 4: Detail from the iron-carbon diagram
Apart from the carbon content, the suitability of steel for flame cutting also depends on the number and
amount of the alloying elements of the material to be cut. The more a steel is alloyed, the less it is
suitable for flame cutting. The impact of some alloying elements can be seen from Table 1.
Table 1: Influence of alloying elements on the suitability of steel for flame cutting
Steel Upper limit Remarks
C alloyed Up to 1.6 % C If % C > 0.45, when no heat treatment is applied, hardening and
cracking will occur
Mn-alloyed Up to 13 % Mn If % C  1.3
Si-alloyed Up to 2.9 % Si If % C  0.2 to 4 % Si, suitable for cutting
Cr-alloyed Up to 1.5 % Cr If % C  0.2
W-alloyed Up to 10.0 % W If 0.5 % Cr, 0.2 % Ni, 0.8 % C
Ni-alloyed Up to 7.0 % Ni If 0.3  % C  0.5 to 34% Ni, suitable for cutting
Mo-alloyed Up to 0.8 % Mo In case of higher W-, Cr- and C content, not suitable
For roughly evaluating the suitability for flame cutting, for determining the required preheat temperature
and for estimating the hardening, the carbon equivalent CEq for steels is used.
CÄq= C + Mn/6 + P/2 + Cr/5 +Cu/13 + Mo/4 + Ni/15
Up to a carbon equivalent of about 0.4, the steels are suitable for flame cutting without requiring any
special pre-treatment. If the value is higher, steel must be pre-heated and the cutting surfaces possibly
be machined. From a carbon equivalent of 1.0, flame cutting can no longer be applied.
The carbon equivalents of different steels and therefore their cutting suitability are shown in table 2.

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Table 2: Flame-cutting suitability of different steels
Steel Type Carbon equivalent
S235 0.20
B500 0.23
P265GH 0.29
16Mo3 0.37
suitable for flame cutting

GC25E 0.35
S355 0.41
E360 0.57
P235G1 0.61
17MnMoV6-4 0.59
17MnCrMo3-3 0.63
22NiMoCr3-7 0.62
20MnMoNi5-5 0.63
20MnCrSiMoZr4-3 0.60
13CrMo4-5 0.51
10CrMo9-10 0.88
X2Ni9 0.79
X45NiCrMo4 1.06
not suitable for flame cutting
X2NiCoMo18-9-5 2.20
X20Cr13 2.80
X8CrNiNb19-9 4.30
X10CrNiTi18-9 4.58
X10CrNiMoTi18-10 5.20
X15CrNiSi10-12 5.40
X3CrNiMoNb25-7 5.51
The height of the preheat temperature depends, along with the chemical composition, also on the plate
thickness and the required cut quality.
Table 3: Standard values for preheat temperatures in flame cutting
Preheat Temperatures
Carbon equivalent up to approx. 50 mm plate from approx. 50 mm plate
thickness / for separation cuts thickness / for shaping cuts
[%] [°C] [°C]
Up to 0.3 - -
0.3 – 0.4 - max. 100
0.4 – 0.5 max. 100 100 – 200
0.5 – 0.6 100 – 200 200 – 350
Higher 0.6 200 – 350 350 – 500

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3.1 Process gases
For starting and maintaining the flame cutting process, a high-power heating flame is required. The fuel
gases which are used for flame cutting differ in flame efficiency, flame temperature, ignition and
combustion rate. See figure 5.
In flame cutting, hydrocarbon compounds are used as fuel gases. They are burned in two steps. Inside
the primary flame, an incomplete combustion occurs due to the added heating oxygen. Through oxygen
absorption from the air, the fuel gas is burned completely in the secondary flame. When flame cutting,
especially the heating impact of the primary flame is of importance.
Figure 5: Flame temperature, ignition speed and primary flame efficiency of different fuel gases depending on the
mixing ratio of fuel gas/oxygen
Acetylene
 The highest flame temperature and flame intensity

 Higher cutting output (in particular for bevel cuts) compared to other fuel gases
 At a constant consumption of more than 700 l/h several cylinders are to be inter-coupled to a cylinder
battery; the gas discharge is therefore slightly more complex than e.g. with propane and ethylene
(fuel gas C2H4, cryogenically liquefied)
 Tends to self-decompose at higher pressures and high temperatures
Propane
 Lower flame intensity, reduced cutting speed in particular for bevel cuts.
 The gas is stored in liquefied state, therefore high amounts are storable
 Oxygen consumption for the flame (not for the flame cutting process) is, compared to
acetylene, approx. four times as high.

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Natural gas (mainly methane)
 Trouble-free supply, when it is supplied from an already existing pipe system.
Oxygen (cutting gas)
 Oxygen is required for burning the fuel gas.

 It starts the flame cutting process, burns the material and creates the kerf by blowing out the slag.
 Oxygen with normal commercial purity of 99.5% (2.5) is suitable for flame cutting.
Summary
An exact description of which fuel gas is the most economic for the different flame cutting tasks is
difficult, because apart from pure costs for the gas, in particular the workpiece thickness, the type of the
parts to be cut - whether straight, bevel cut or contour cut - have to be considered, too. Exact indications
regarding this provide only suitable cost calculations.
 Acetylene has advantages for thin plates, since the material is brought fast to ignition temperature.
The attainable cutting speed is high.
 For thick sheets, the flame cutting process takes longer than for thinner sheets. The heat input by a
propane-oxygen flame is quite sufficient in order to get the material to ignition temperature within the
available time (with lower gas costs).
 Basically each fuel gas is suitable for bringing the material to ignition temperature.
 The manual cutting torch is often an integrated component of welding and cutting equipment, which
is common for the universally usable acetylene.

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3.2 Flame cutting equipment
Cutting torches
For manual cutting, besides combined welding and cutting devices, special handheld cutting torches are
used. To a hand-held cutting torch, the oxygen is fed mostly via a hose and is only separated into
heating and cutting oxygen in the torch (so-called two-hose torch).
Figure 6: Handheld cutting torches
To an automatic flame cutter, the fuel gas as well as the heating and cutting oxygen are generally fed via
three tubes (so-called three-tube torch). Thus the heating flame is not affected when adding the cutting
oxygen.
Figure 7: Machine-cutting torch

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Mixed systems
According to the mixing system of oxygen and fuel gas, we distinguish between torches with suction
effect and torches without suction effect.
Cutting torch with suction effect (injector or injector pipe)
Example for designation:
i = Injector torch, A = Gas type (Acetylene)

S = 2.5 – 3.5 bar = Oxygen pressure
Injector type torches are torches where the fuel gas is sucked via an injector nozzle into the torch by the
heating oxygen. Oxygen flows with high velocity from the pressure nozzle to the mixer nozzle. In the gap
between the pressure nozzle and the mixer nozzle, a vacuum is generated which sucks the fuel gas
inside. The fuel gas /heating oxygen mixture of the cutting nozzle is fed through the mixing tube. Cutting
oxygen is supplied separately by the cutting oxygen tube of the cutting nozzle in all torches.
An excessive heating of the cutting torch - e.g. by piercing holes or cutting thick workpieces - can ignite a
backfire. The heating flame extincts, the oxy-acetylene mixture ignites in the mixing tube. The torch
“whistles”.
As a countermeasure, both valves on the torch shall be closed immediately and the torch be cooled
since otherwise it is destroyed within a few seconds.
Cutting torch without suction effect (pressure torches)
Example for designation:
II = Pressure torches
APMY = Gas type; this torch can, if the tip provided is suitable for the given fuel gas, be operated with
acetylene, propane, methane and gas mixtures.
With this torch type, fuel gas and heating oxygen flow separately into the cutting nozzle, where the two
gases are mixed. Pressure torches do not have an injector. The mixing point is in the cutting nozzle,
therefore they are also called gas-mixing nozzles. Such torches are preferably used where the cut must
be performed in a hot area, e.g. when cutting with a multi-torch aggregate, in case of frequent hole
piercing and thick plates.
Pressure torches are less sensitive to backfires than injector type torches but the risk of flashbacks is
higher. Because of the missing suction effect, it happens more easily that oxygen reaches the fuel gas
pipe and forms an explosive mixture there.
Flame-cutting nozzles
The tool for flame cutting is the cutting nozzle. Specially shaped cutting channels allow the cutting-
oxygen jet to leave the nozzle with 1.5 times the speed of sound without diverging fast after the outlet.
Development in the sector of flame-cutting nozzles is moving towards high speed nozzles which enables
an increase of cutting speed with a better cutting surface quality at the same time.
In practice, the following construction types of nozzle are used:

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Annular nozzle (two-piece)
It has a ring-shaped outlet of the flame gases and thus a closed flame. So the heat is fed into the
workpiece evenly around the cutting jet. This provides advantages for contour cutting. A non-centred –
e.g. damaged - cutting nozzle significantly reduces the cutting performance and increases the sensitivity
to flashbacks.
Slot nozzle (two-piece)
Slot nozzles, also consisting of two pieces, are characterized by a higher cutting performance and a
good cleanability compared to the annular nozzle. The gases are mixed very well. Due to the tapered fit
of the heating and the cutting nozzle, a precise arrangement of the heating flame to the cutting oxygen is
achieved. Slot nozzles are often used for machine-cutting torches.
Block nozzle (one-piece)
Block nozzles only consist of one piece which allows a precise arrangement to the cutting-oxygen jet.
The disadvantage is that, in case of damage, the entire nozzle needs to be replaced.
Figure 8 shows different types of nozzles.
Heating Cutting
Gas Gas
Annular flame cutting nozzle Slot-shaped nozzle Block-type nozzle
Figure 8: Typical forms of flame cutting nozzle

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Gas-mixing nozzles for pressure torches
Gas-mixing nozzles are available in one piece (for acetylene) and in multiple pieces (for slow-burning
gases, e.g. propane). Gas-mixing nozzles are characterized by the fact that the gases are fed to the
nozzle separately. The mixing takes place in the nozzle. Consequently, cutting nozzles for different types
of fuel gas can be operated with one cutting torch.
Figure 9 shows gas-mixing nozzles for acetylene and slow-burning gases
Figure 9: Gas-mixing nozzles for acetylene (left) and slow-burning gases, e.g. propane and natural gas (right)
The front sides of the cutting nozzle and the heating nozzle are flush with each other when acetylene is
applied as fuel gas. When using slowly burning gases such as propane and methane, for stabilizing the
flame, the front side of the cutting nozzle is usually set back towards the inside.

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3.3 Practical application of flame cutting
Putting the cutting torch in operation
After choosing an appropriate cutting nozzle for the respective plate thickness, the parameters for the
gas pressures are to be taken from the cutting table and adjusted accordingly with the torch valves being
opened. When adjusting the pressures, losses up to the cutting torch must be considered.
Adjustment of the heating flame
 Open the heating-oxygen valve completely, the fuel-gas valve only slightly.
 Ignite the mixture.
 First adjust fuel-gas surplus via the fuel-gas valve.
 Choke the fuel-gas valve until the flame cone is to be seen clearly.
 Open the cutting-oxygen valve and check if the cutting-oxygen jet leaves the nozzle straight and
concentrically so that it does not expand or oscillates.
Due to the dimensioning of the cutting nozzles, the heating flame can be adjusted to the practical
requirements. In case of rusty, scaled or primed surfaces or for bevel cutting, stronger heating flames
are to be set.
Starting the cutting process
There are two possible ways of starting the flame cutting: start of cut at the workpiece edge and the start
of cut on the workpiece surface.
When cutting starts at the workpiece edge, this is brought to ignition temperature by the heating flame,
the oxygen is switched on and the feeding of cutting torch takes off. The cutting torch is guided at
constant distance and with a uniform feed rate over the workpiece.
For cutting inner counters, the cut must be started from the workpiece surface which is called hole piercing.
There, the workpiece is first preheated to ignition temperature in the area affected by the cutting-oxygen
jet. Then the cutting-oxygen valve is opened slowly and the torch head shall be lifted slightly. At a low
feed rate, the torch shall be re-adjusted to the correct distance. By using low cutting-oxygen pressure for
some seconds, a flat groove is cut. Then the cutting-oxygen pressure is raised to the value indicated for
the respective workpiece thickness, and the cutting jet pierces through the workpiece.

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Cutting parameters
The cutting parameters – oxygen, heating oxygen, fuel gas pressure, the nozzle distance and cutting
speed – are included in a cutting table valid for the respective cutting nozzle. Deviations from the
parameters provided in the cutting table lead to flame-cutting imperfections.
An overall specification of the cutting speed, which would lead to good results, it is not possible. The
cutting speed depends on:
 The type of the cut whether a vertical or a bevel cut, whether straight or contour cut; for bevel cuts
and for curved cuts with a small radius, the speed is to be lowered, for bevel cuts 30° by approx.
25%, bevel cut 45° by approx. 45%, curved cut by approximately 10%.
 The requirement for the cut surface, whether construction or separation cut
 The material composition
 The surface quality, whether rusty, sand-blasted or primed
 The structure of the cutting torch and the choice of the cutting nozzle
 The type of fuel gas
 The workpiece thickness
An extract from a flame cutting table for standard flame-cutting nozzles is shown in table 4.
Table 4: Extract from a flame-cutting table for standard flame-cutting nozzles with acetylene as fuel gas
Workpiece Cutting Acetylene Heating- Cutting- Kerf Cutting Acetylene Heating- Cutting-
thickness nozzle pressure oxygen oxygen width speed consump- oxygen oxygen
pressure pressure tion consumption consump-
tion
mm bar bar bar mm mm/min m³/h m³/h m³/h
10 10…25 0.5 2.5 4.0 1.8 620 0.35 0.46 2.3
15 10…25 0.5 2.5 4.3 1.8 520 0.35 0.46 2.5
20 10…25 0.5 2.5 4.5 1.8 450 0.35 0.46 2.6
25 10…25 0.5 2.5 5.0 1.8 410 0.35 0.46 2.8
The cutting speed also depends on the nozzle type. Figure 10 shows the cutting speeds of standard and
high-performance cutting nozzles. Specially shaped cutting channels allow the cutting-oxygen jet to
leave the nozzle with 1.5 times the speed of sound without diverging after the outlet.
Figure 9: Cutting Speeds of Different Cutting-Nozzle Types

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Cutting force and cut sequence
With the correct cutting direction (figure 11) and cutting sequence, distortion resulting from the heat input
of the heating flame can be reduced.
The following are to be observed:
 Initially cut inner cut-outs

 Select the cut route so that the waste can move away
 The part to be cut should remain connected with the base plate as long as possible
correct wrong
Figure 11: Cutting direction (route)
Irregularities during flame cutting
Components produced by flame cutting often show imperfections on the cut surfaces. The most
frequently occurring faults are:
- Adhering slag
- Edge fusions
- Gouging
- Excessive drag lines
- Angular misalignments of the cut surface
Detailed information about the causes is found in DVS leaflet 2101 – Imperfections and their causes in
flame cutting.
The following possibilities are offered to the practitioner to find the causes for incorrect flame cuts:
1. Review of the cutting ability of the material
2. Checking the cutting nozzle condition (mostly the main cause for incorrect flame cuts)
3. Cutting parameters - cutting oxygen pressure, cutting speed, nozzle distance, flame
adjustment - to check
4. Check the surface quality of the workpiece

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3.4 Flame-Cutting Machines
An easy way of automatic flame cutting is using manual flame cutters. Through an electric motor, the
travel speed can be continuously adjusted. The machine is guided manually according to the marking on
the workpiece or along the guide rails. Via a number of auxiliary devices, joint preparations, grinding
cuts, circular cuts and stripes can be produced. Manual cutting machines can be transported to the
component due to their low weight and can thus also be used on building sites.
Figure 12: Manual flame cutters
For stationary machines, numerical controlled flame cutters are usually used in a boom or gantry
construction.
When using computer-numerical controls, the cutting programs are mostly transferred to the machine
control via network connections from the programming spot in the work preparation or they are first
stored on data carriers and read in at the machine. Manual operation of programs is possible as well.
Using predefined macros to produce geometrically simple parts and a graphical operator wizard can
reduce the time required. Figure 13 shows an CNC controlled flame cutting machine.
Figure 13: CNC controlled gantry flame cutting machine

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For the production of fitting and penetration cuts on tubes, tube-flame cutters are used that are mostly
operated by computer-numerical controls (figure 14).
Depending on the machine's level of equipment and the functionality of the control, cutting contours of
varying complexity with and without joint preparation can be achieved.
Industrial robots with vertical hinged arms are increasingly used for cutting complex contours on 3D
components, such as pipes and profiles and for the production of welding bevels.
Figure 14: Pipe flame cutting machine
3.5 Special and Auxiliary Equipment
The corner delay reduces the cutting speed around the edges so much until the back run of the drag line
is zero. Thus it is avoided that the edges in the lower cutting area become irregular due to the lag of the
cutting-oxygen jet.
The purpose of different types of torch-height adjustments is to keep the distance between nozzle and
workpiece surface at a constant level. The mechanical scanning works very precisely and is used for
straight multi-bevel cuts and for trimming. In case of capacitive torch-height adjustment, the change in
capacity is measured between the workpiece and a sensor that is mostly ring-shaped and arranged
concentrically around the head of the cutting torch. Deviations to the set target value are observed with
an accuracy of ± 1.0 to ± 0.5 mm.
With the aid of a hole-piercing automatic device, initial cut openings for cutting inner contours can be
pierced into a workpiece automatically. But also the multi-torch operation requires the initial cut to start in
the plate as a precise placing of several torches at the workpiece edge causes difficulties, particularly in
case of follow-up cuts. Furthermore, the dimensional stability of the components is increased because
the closed scrap frame largely prevents heat distortion. Hole piercing is possible up to a plate thickness
of 130 mm.
Pneumatically operated punch-marking tools produce markings for the following work processes (such
as bending lines, bore-centre marks). Also by means of powder-marking devices, lines can be drawn on
plates and labelling for marking can be performed.
To reduce heat distortion when cutting thin sheets, air- and water sprinklers are used that are arranged
around the cutting nozzle.
Ignition devices allow a centrally controlled ignition of all cutting torches that often are equipped with an
integrated inner ignition. Ignition control systems prevent the uncontrolled leakage of unburned gases.
With the aid of flame controls, a flame interruption can be detected.

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For the preparation of welding edges, flame cutters with multi-torch units are used. With the available
versions of three-torch units (figures 15 and 16), smooth welding grooves can be produced. With
swivelling units for rectangular components and with endlessly rotating units also for curved cuts.
Figure 15: Three-torch unit Figure 16: Endlessly turning three-torch

unit for Producing V, Y, X and K grooves
3.6 Special techniques of flame cutting
These include flame gouging (gouging torches), powder flame cutting and arc oxygen cutting with
special oxyarc cutting electrode. Flame cutting is also possible under water (water displacement by
shielding gas, ignition electric or through water).
3.6.1 Flame Gouging
Flame gouging is a type of flame cutting. In addition a cutting torch with a special nozzle is set with
angles of max. 20 degrees to the sheet surface. Like for flame cutting, the material is heated locally to
ignition temperature, oxidised in the oxygen jet and is removed in feed direction from the resultant kerf,
figure 17. Depth and the width of the generated kerf can be influenced by changing the angle, but
particularly the nozzle type, the feed rate and the oxygen pressure. With a single flame gouging, a depth
of up to 8 mm can be achieved; the feed rate is maximum 1,200 mm/min.
Flame gouging serves for:
 Production of welding grooves

 Removal of root imperfections in welds, pockets of slags and porosities as well as crack spots before
depositing a back run in the root side
Regarding the possibilities of the flame gouging on different materials, the same limitations apply as for
flame cutting.

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Figure 16: Flame gouging (gouging torches)
3.6.2 Metal-powder oxygen cutting
Metal-powder flame cutting can be used for materials like CrNi steels, cast irons and non-ferrous metals,
which cannot be flame cut. Fine-grained iron powder is fed to the cutting area using special powder
cutting torches or cutting torches with separate flux supply with the aid of dry compressed air. The
temperature at the cutting point is increased by the burning of the iron powder (exothermic processing) in
the cutting-oxygen jet. The viscosity of slag is limited by this increased temperature and the mixing with
burned iron powder in such a way that it can be blown out.
Attainable cut quality is significantly poorer than for flame cutting.
It is usually used only rarely because of its process-dependent disadvantages.
3.6.3 Oxygen lancing
Flame drilling with oxygen lances is a version of thermal hole piercing. A steel tube filled with steel wires
burns in the oxygen flow developing an high heat that fuses the material. The fused material is blown out
by the oxygen flow. This process, besides punching holes in mineral materials such as stone and
concrete, also serves for producing cutting-start holes for flame cutting in thick steel plates when
mechanical hole piercing is no longer applicable.
3.7 Workplace safety
 When flame cutting and flame grooving, only one part of the supplied cutting-oxygen is used for
flame cutting or kerf. The rest drives the slag out and enriches the ambient air with oxygen.
 Because of the strong flying sparks, fire risk increases considerably.
 The noise level is above 85 db (A) during flame cutting. Use of hearing protection is necessary.
 When flame cutting, fumes and dusts are generated in larger amounts. The vapours consist mainly of
iron oxides and are irritating to the lungs. Extraction is required depending on the surrounding
conditions.
 Optical radiation from the heating-flame requires wearing safety glasses (protection level 4-5,
depending on gas throughput).

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4 Water jet cutting

4.1 Principle of processing
High-pressurised water
Abrasive sand: Nozzle

Garnet, Olivin,... Mixing chamber
Cutting tube
Work piece
Figure 18: Schematic principle of water jet cutting
During water jet cutting filtered water will be compressed by a high pressure pump up to 6000 bar.
Through a tube system this water is guided into the cutting head in which it will be deflected by the cut-
ting nozzle towards the surface to be cut. The exit velocity of the water jet reaches up to 1000m/s and
generates the cutting kerf through its high kinetic energy.
This processing cuts plastics and foams, rubber, wood, even metals and up to sapphire. Cutting accura-
cies even better than 1/10 mm can be achieved with high-quality 3-axis machines. Water jet cutting is
not only used for cutting but also for deburring purposes. As a result of the high exit velocity of the water
a high acoustic pressure of up to 120dB is being generated. Due to cutting under water and to the water
bell around the nozzle the noise emission can extremely be reduced.
The effectivity of the processing can highly be improved by adding abrasive particles (e.g. garnet sand),
being extracted from a storage reservoir, into the highly accelerated water jet of droplets inside the mix-
ing chamber. The jet stream, containing air, water and abrasive particles will be focussed by a hard met-
al nozzle and enables a micro machining processing on the work piece. The water jet contribution to the
material abrasion is only very limited.
Advantages of water jet cutting are:
 Almost any material can be cut (non-, low-alloyed, non-ferro metals, plastics, foams, glass, rub-
ber, natural stone, composites, etc.)
 small cutting kerf width
 angular cutting faces
 no thermal stressing of the cutting faces, no heat affected zone, no oxide-layer on the cutting
faces.
 low environmental pollution
Cutting results of stainless steel and granite are shown in figure 19

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Figure 19: water jet cutting of stainless steel (10mm) and granite (40mm). source: Fa.Hohl)
Table 5 contains some reference values for water jet cutting of different base materials.
Base material Work piece Cutting speed Base material Work piece Cutting speed
thickness thickness
[mm/min] [mm/min]
[mm] [mm]
Rubber 2 25.000 High alloyed 10 230
10 10.000 steel 40 50
20 2.000 100 15
Plastics (PU) 2 20.000 Titan 10 270
5 6.000 40 55
10 2.000 100 20
Plastics (PTFE, 2 6.000 Aluminium 10 700
PVC) 5 2.000 40 140
10 800 100 35
Plywood 2 25.000 Marble 10 800
5 4.000 40 150
10 500 120 40
Foam 10 25.000 Glass 10 600
100 5.000 40 120

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5 Plasma cutting
5.1 Classification and application area
Developments in the last few years contributed to the widening of the technical and economic
applications of plasma cutting. Originally designed for thermal cutting of materials not suitable for flame
cutting, like high-alloyed steels, aluminium and copper, by today different types have evolved. Beside
metallic materials, now conductive materials can be cut, too. Figure 20 gives an overview of the different
process variants.
Figure 20: Overview of plasma cutting
Plasma-cutting can be divided into two process variants, direct plasma cutting (with transferred arc) and
indirect plasma cutting (with non-transferred arc). Plasma cutting was mainly used earlier in the process
variant direct plasma cutting. Special process variants, like plasma marking and plasma gouging,
supplement the application possibilities of this technology.
With plasma cutting an arc is strongly constricted through a water-cooled nozzle and its energy density
and temperature significantly increased compared to the non-constricted, freely burning arc. A super-
imposed gas flow in the nozzle channel brings additionally kinetic energy into the process, thus this
process is especially suitable for cutting workpieces from different materials.
To make sure that there are no length changes of the plasma arc and there are small or no cutting
current variations, power supplies with steeply falling characteristics are used for plasma cutting.
Constant current characteristic is used.

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5.2 Direct plasma cutting

5.2.1 Process principle
1. The plasma gas (in some torch systems, the pilot gas or ignition gas) is switched on and flows
through the torch and the plasma-cutting nozzle.
2. By means of high frequency, an auxiliary arc is ignited between the electrode (cathode) and the
plasma-cutting nozzle. The task of this pilot arc is to partial ionise the gas gap between the cathode
and the workpiece.
3. The partial ionisation of the gap between electrode and workpiece leads to the ignition of the so-
called main arc when switching on the voltage between the electrode and the workpiece. This is the
actual cutting arc. The main arc burns from the electrode (cathode) via the constricting plasma-
cutting nozzle to the workpiece (anode).
4. Plasma cutting jet melts (fusion cutting processes) the workpiece by its high temperature (approx.
10,000 to 50,000 °C).
5. The molten material is blown out of the kerf due to the kinetic energy of the plasma gases.
Figure 21 shows the schematic view of the processing principle
Figure 21: Process principle –

schematic
The workpiece thicknesses to be cut range from approx. 0.5 to 160 mm.

The individual process types differ by cutting speed, workpiece thickness and achievable cut quality.
Amperage, current density of the plasma arc and the material to be cut have essential influence here.
The following basic types are distinguished.

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Regular plasma cutting

For traditional plasma cutting, which is the “prototype”
of this process, the plasma arc is only constricted by
the internal diameter of the plasma nozzle. No
secondary medium is used. The shape of the arc
creates a typical V-shaped kerf. This type is referred to
often simply as standard plasma cutting. Figure 22.
Today, plasma cutting without secondary medium is
used for manual and mechanical cutting, gouging and
removal. This easy plasma technology is used if the
quality requirements are not too high for the cut
surface.
Figure 22: Process principle of traditional plasma

cutting (without secondary medium)
Plasma cutting with secondary medium

A defined atmosphere around the plasma arc and a
constricted arc can be created by a secondary medium.
The secondary medium can be a gas or water. Figure 23.
- Secondary gas -
The supply of the secondary gas forms a shielding gas
around the plasma arc. This constricts it further in. Due
to this, the temperature and energy flux density are
increased. Cross-section quality and cutting speed are
improved. The electrically isolated protection cap
protects the cutting nozzle; this prevents short circuits
between nozzle and workpiece as well as nozzle
damages due to slag spatters when hole piercing. In
addition, the secondary gas improves the cooling of the
cutting nozzle and therefore the service-life.
Oxidising gases, e.g. air can be used as secondary
gases.
Figure 23: Process principle of plasma cutting with
secondary gas
- Secondary water -
Secondary water emerges in form of a spray mist between the plasma nozzle and the shielding gas
nozzle and is decomposed by the plasma arc. Figure 24. This process variant is preferably used for
cutting aluminium and high-alloyed steels up to 50 mm material thickness, since the reducing effect of
hydrogen leads to pure metallic cut surfaces.

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Plasma cutting with water injection

The constriction of the plasma arc is provided in this
process variant by the circular, mostly tangentially fed
water (the water jacket). A smaller part of the water
evaporates (approx. 10%). The larger part of the water
cools the nozzle system and the workpiece, on the one
hand extending the service life of the plasma nozzle
and on the other hand limits the deformation of the
workpiece. In addition, oxidation is reduced on the cut
surfaces. Cuttable workpiece thickness is within the
range of 3 mm to 75 mm. For this type, a part of the
torch is preferably under the water surface.
The goal of this process variant is, among others, to
reduce the environmental stress through noise, UV
radiation, dust and cutting smoke that occur during
plasma cutting. Disadvantage is the fact that the Figure 24: Plasma cutting with water injection
induced rotation of the plasma arc causes different
angular misalignments of the two cut faces and only
one cut surface meets the quality requirements. In
practice, the torch can be fed e.g. when using robots in
a way that the “GO side” always falls in the required
range.
Plasma cutting with increased constricting effect
With this process variant, increased constriction and a respective concentration of the current density is
achieved through additional constricting mechanisms. This can be managed by using special nozzles,
gas rotations (figure 25) or multi-stage nozzles that drive off gas partially (figure 26). The advantage here
is that almost orthogonal cut edges with increased form accuracy can be produced with this accordingly
formed plasma arc within the range of 0.5 mm to 50 mm plate thickness1.
Figure 25: Constriction by a secondary medium Figure 26: Constriction by multi-stage nozzles
Preferably, a secondary gas is used for work, which can rotate around the plasma jet at high speed and
constrict this more strongly and stabilise it.
1
Manufacturer and system dependent

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Plasma cutting under water

The individual process variants have broadly different application areas. They are partly suitable not just
for dry cutting but also for cutting under water. In underwater plasma cutting technology, the secondary
medium has the task, apart from constriction, to shield the operation of the plasma jet from the water.
As water can only absorb gases to a certain extent, the gases need to be extracted near the torch.
Physically this process used more energy because of the cooling effect of the water than dry plasma
cutting with the same material thickness. Through fast cooling, the cutting surface is slightly more rilled
than with dry cuts. Advantages of this variant are the low heat distortion of the components, the creation
of a narrow heat-affected zone and almost oxide-free cut surfaces since the workpiece is shielded from
the atmosphere. Figure 27 shows different kind of processing cuts
1 Underwater plasma cutting, 130 A,

plasma gas Ar/H2, cutting speed 1.1 m/min
2 Underwater plasma cutting, 80 A,
plasma gas N2/H2, cutting speed 1.15 m/min
3 Dry plasma cutting, 130 A,
plasma gas Ar/H2, cutting speed 1.15 m/min
4 Dry plasma cutting, 100 A,
plasma gas air, cutting speed 1.1 m/min
Figure 27: Comparison of underwater and dry

plasma cutting of alloyed steel (1.4301) with
1 2 3 4 different gases
In the following pictures 28 to 35 different types of applications are shown.

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5.2.3 Examples of Application
Figure 28: Chamfer cut on pipe Figure 29: Aluminium sample
Figure 30: Plasma cutting of samples with water Figure 31: Cutting of copper faces for cutting table
Figure 32: Specimen cut on a marine propeller Figure 33: Cutting a perforated tile (non-alloyed steel,
(aluminium bronze casting, material thickness material thickness 10 mm, hole diameter 10 mm)
24 mm… 48 mm)

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Figure 34: Plasma cutting of alloyed steel Figure 35: Cut sample from non-alloyed steel with hole
(material thickness 40 mm) diameters in ratio to the material thickness of 1:1
(3 mm… 30 mm)
5.3 Indirect plasma cutting

5.3.1 Process variant “nozzle as anode”
In indirect plasma cutting, the arc burns between the electrode and the nozzle of the plasma torch,
picture 36. Therefore, non-conducting materials, such as glass-fibre reinforced plastics and textiles can
also be cut.
The energy input into the workpiece is mainly achieved by the hot gas jet. The heat input, which results
otherwise from the anodic starting point of the arc in case of direct cutting of metals, does not exist here.
This heat is fed into the nozzle and must be removed by an effective cooling. Therefore the nozzle is
exposed to a higher thermal load than with direct cutting. The adjustable power levels are therefore
limited. Nowadays torches with cutting currents of up to 100 A are available which corresponds to a
power of 15 kW. Primarily non-oxidising gases like argon-hydrogen-mixtures are used as plasma gases.
Figure 36: Indirect plasma cutting with nozzle as anode

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5.3.2 Process variant “auxiliary anode”

With this new plasma cutting technology, neither the workpiece nor the nozzle, but a wire is used as the
anode, in the simplest case this is a filler wire. Pictures 37 and 38. This is continuously fed to the cutting
process. Using this melting or sacrificial anode, the high thermal power of the direct plasma cutting can
be combined with the advantages of indirect plasma cutting of non-conducting materials.
Contrary to “classic” indirect plasma cutting, the plasma torch with the same electric power can be
operated in “Hot wire plasma cutting” as with direct plasma cutting.
Figure 37: Hot wire plasma cutting (schematic) Figure 38: Hot wire plasma cutting
The maximum component thickness is determined in particular by the power of the plasma power source
and therefore the energy available.
The speed of the wire is setup in a way that the plasma process is just maintained and the wire
completely melts. For the continuous supply of wire, a motor-controlled wire feed is used.
A disadvantage of this process is that spatters are deposited from the melted wire onto the workpiece
surface.
5.3.3 Examples of Application
Figure 39: Sample applications - cutting of: sheets, stone, pipe batches, wired glass, gratings
(from left to right)

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5.4 Other plasma processes

5.4.1 Marking, notching and punching
Marking, notching, punching and also gouging belong to direct plasma cutting. The more complex
components or component groups are, the higher the importance of markings as marking lines or centre
punches. The advantages of plasma marking are increasingly recognised and used by the industry,
since this process can save work steps and additional costs. Advantages of this processing are:
 Variable intensity, i.e. marking, centre punching and notching with a single system
 No extra equipment required
 Cutting and marking with the same plasma torch without changing wearing parts
 Simple integration into a CNC controlled guide system
Many plasma cutting equipment have a marking function. The strength or depth of this marking can be
defined by the user. The type of marking depends on the cutting current, the marking speed and the gas.
When centre punching is applied for subsequent bores, the plasma jet stays for a few seconds above a point
on the material. Notching works in a similar way. The only difference is that in this case material is removed.
Notching is primarily used if, after a surface treatment, orientation or marking points shall still be visible.
Pictures 40 and 41 show examples of marking, notching and punching via plasma beam
Figure 40: Surface marking, notching and punching with plasma

Almost all marking tasks can be performed using plasma, from simple tempering colours of the metal
that are not visible any more after painting, up to deeper surface notches and centre punches by melting
the material surface.
Figure 41 2: Cutting samples with different edges and

surface markings

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5.4.2 Gouging
Surfaces cannot only be marked by using a plasma beam, also material can be removed. The torch is slightly
tilted and guided into a forward direction, so that the melt in front of the arc is being removed and blown away
(pictures 42 and 43), similar to the known principle of oxy-fuel technology.
Figure 42: Principal sketch of plasma gouging Figure 43: Plasma gouging in application
Applications of the processing are:

 Gouging of weld seams
 Elimination of material defects such as shrinkage cavities, inclusions and cracks.
The process can be supervised well by the operator. Furthermore, little heat is introduced into the
material and thus almost no distortion occurs. As opposed to gouging with carbon electrodes, the noise
level and the developing fumes are considerably lower. The risk of carbonisation of the workpiece edges
is avoided here.
Gouging can be performed both by hand and automated.

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5.5 Gases for plasma cutting

Basically inert and active gases as well as their mixtures are suitable for plasma cutting according to DIN
EN ISO 14175:2008 06 (formerly DIN EN 439). The designations, mix accuracies and purities specified
by this standard apply to plasma gases. The quality and economic efficiency of a plasma cut depends
also from the type of plasma gas or mixture being used. Decisive criteria for selecting plasma gases are
their atomic or molecular weight, heat conductivity, the chemical reactivity as well as the dissociation and
ionisation energy.
Table 6 shows gases, different characteristics and application areas of plasma cutting.
Table 6: Overview of plasma gases

Compressed air
Hydrogen (H2) Argon (Ar) Nitrogen (N2) Oxygen (O2) Gas mixtures
(air)
- high thermal - high atomic - low reactivity - concerning heat - changes surface - combination of the
conductivity weight, thus - concerning heat conductivity and tension and advantages of the
- dissociates at high high energy conductivity and along N2 viscosity of the individual gases
temperatures required for molecular weight, - acts as an melt possible
(i.e. a lot of energy expelling the middle position oxidant to the - fine-drop mist-
is dissipated in the melt between Ar and H2 melt like material Example:
arc - > outer zones - low ionization - is used as a clean - reduces viscosity escape
cool down - > arc energy allows - N2/H2,
gas or mixture of the melt, thus - very high cutting
is constricted) good ignition better expelling speed with good - Ar/N2/H2
behaviour - as additive to
- good heat transfer argon, increases - lower edge cut quality and - Air/O2
Characteristics
- low molecular - low heat conductivity and rounding, low low slag - N2/H2
weight, therefore conductivity, cut quality bevel angles formation
- Ar/H2
not suitable as a low energy - pore formation - low slag - pore formation
single gas content, possible during formation possible during
(insufficient kinetic therefore not welding due to welding due to
energy to remove suitable as - is used as clean nitrogen
nitrogen gas or in N2/O2-
the melt) single gas enrichment at enrichment at
mixtures the cut edges
- serves as an the cut edges
additive for argon
for increa-sing the
cutting speed and
provides a good
cut quality
ArH2 N2 O2 Air Other gas

mixtures
Areas of application
high alloy steels, aluminium alloys, non- high-alloyed steels, Non-alloy steels Non-alloy steels
ferrous metals, titanium, molybdenum Al, Ti, Cu CrNi steel
ArN2 O2, Air

High-alloy steels Non-alloy steels
ArH2N2
High-alloy steels

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5.6 System structure

5.6.1 Guiding systems for plasma cutting
How the torch is being guided, depends on how high the degree of automation of the cutting system is.
Whereas during mechanised or automated cutting, cutting portals, industrial robots, pipe cutting
machines and simple guide systems are used, for manual cutting guides such as rulers, templates, orbits
and mounting nozzles are used. These are comparable with those of autogenous flame cutting.
When choosing the guiding devices in the mechanical/automated area, higher cutting speed for plasma
cutting is to be considered compared to autogenous cutting.
Cutting portals (also known as oxygen cutting machines or equipment) are used most frequently in the
industry and are ideal for CNC guided 2D-cutting applications. The advantage of these machines is that
the appropriate contours can be cut out fast based on drawings. Apart from different longitudinal controls
(altitude controls) that are indispensable for high-quality cutting results, there is a possibility to connect
additional components to the cutting portals. For example, automatic torch head exchange units or
revolving and swivelling units can be integrated into the system.
Simple guides permit the cutting of straight and simple contours. Furthermore, manual plasma torches
in suitable fixtures or circular drive equipment can be clamped in, too. Figures 44 and 45.
Figure 44: Simple bevel cutting equipment for manual Figure 45: Circular equipment for manual cutting of
plasma cutting circles with plasma
Industrial robots are universally applicable and have multiple axes. Their movements are freely
programmable regarding motion sequence and displacement or angles. Robots are therefore ideal for
cutting tasks in the 3D range. All the same whether in the automotive industry, in equipment and
container construction or in the cutting of pipes – they are precise in making perpendicular or bevel cuts.
Figures 46 and 47

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Figure 46: Combination of flatbed guiding machine and Figure 47: Robot on the guide crane
pipe cutting machine
Pipe cutting devices are conceived for the cutting of pipes. The pipe is rotated in a special chuck, so
that the optimal run of the cutting process is always ensured. Besides a rigid torch support, that keeps
the distance to the turning centre point constant, there is also the possibility to guide the torch flexibly
and to match it to the pipe movement. In addition, bevel cuts or cut-outs with bevel are producible for the
subsequent welding tasks.
Torch head-exchange systems allow a quick exchange of wearing parts and torch heads. The basis for
the exchange is a quick exchange system which allows exchanging the complete torch heads fast and
automated. Alternatively, the tool stations of the revolver-like system can be equipped with wearing parts
for the same or different cutting tasks or e.g. for marking. Cutting processes can take place almost
completely without supervision this way. Only the filling of the guide system and the exchange unit must
be carried out manually.
Figure 48: Exchange station for a guide system Figure 49: Exchange station in detail

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For the preparation of welding edges, rotating and tilting equipment for edge cutting are available that
are normally used for producing V grooves. In a second operation, it is possible to produce other
geometries (Y, X and K grooves) as well. Consequently, an extremely precise joint preparation is
possible with angles up to 50°. Figure 50.
Multi-torch units as used for flame cutting are not commonly applied in industry so far.
Figure 50: 2D-chamfer sample with Y and K chamfering Figure 51: 3D-chamfer sample with Y-
chamfering
5.6.2 Fume extractor

When plasma cutting, smokes and gases are formed that need to be kept away from the operator for
safety reasons. This task requires fume exhaust hoods that are integrated in the immediate vicinity of the
cutting equipment. It is recommended to apply exhausting under the workpiece surface.
When using cutting portals, metal residues and coarse contaminants fall down into a slag sump. The
sparks and smoke resulting from the cutting process are also blown down by the pressure of the plasma
jet. The pressure is so high that a whirl is generated to a certain extent on the floor. Therefore, dusts,
fumes and sparks can get up again in this way. The exhaust hood operates to avoid this. The fine dust
particles rising up are drawn in by means of surface extraction and collected in a closed filter unit.
To have an efficient exhaust operation, the exhausted areas of the cutting table can be individually
activated mechanically. This means exhausting takes place at the cutting locations. This way, a lower
exhaust power is required and the energy costs are kept minimal.
5.6.3 Plasma power supplies

The power supplies are usually rectifiers, primarily or secondarily cycled frequency converters.
Depending on the process, material thicknesses up to approx. 160 mm can be cut depending on the
material with cutting currents up to 1,000 A. The operating voltages are up to 250 V, the open-circuit
voltages up to 400 V.
Today, plasma power supplies of low power and reduced duty cycle for manual cutting are mostly
inverters. The resulting weight reduction is of advantage for location-independent applications.

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An additional major task of the power supply is to control the whole process of current and gas flow. In
new plasma equipment, microprocessors control these programmable sequences.
5.6.4 Plasma cutting torch

The plasma-cutting torch essentially determines the performance of a machine and the achievable cut
quality. Its task is to generate a continuous and geometrically constant plasma jet and to transfer it to the
workpiece.
There are a vast number of possible process variants and available cutting torch types; the cutting
torches can be classified according to:
 application purpose (manual or automatic cutting)
 type of cooling (gas cooling, direct or indirect water cooling)
 the plasma gas (inert, non oxidising, oxidising),
 the cathode material (tungsten, hafnium, zirconium)
 the cathode shape (flat electrode, tapered electrode)
 the secondary medium (with or without secondary medium)
Figure 52 shows an example of a plasma torch head.
Figure 52: Plasma torch head (plasma cutting with

increased constricting effect) in an exploded drawing
A cutting torch for conventional plasma cutting basically consists of the torch head with the cooling
system and the gas feed as well as the electrode (cathode) and the nozzle. For plasma cutting with
secondary medium, additional nozzles and caps are necessary for the jet generation. Via a hose
package, the cutting torch is linked with the power source.
Nozzles and electrodes are wearing parts, their service lives are determined particularly by the time and
amount of the thermal load, the number of ignitions, the size of the cutting current, the cutting time, the
choice of the plasma gas (inert or oxidising) and the heat dissipation.
For manual cutting, mostly gas-cooled cutting torches of low power and duty cycle (Figure 53 a) are
used. For medium and high-power plasma-cutting machines, mainly used for automatic cutting, torches
with indirect and direct water cooling are used (Figure 53 b, c) due to the high thermal stress of the
torch's wearing parts, especially the cutting nozzle.

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a) Gas cooling b) Indirect water cooling c) Direct water cooling
Figure 53: Cooling types of traditional plasma cutting torches

Depending on the plasma gas used, different cathode materials are applied. In case of non-oxidizing
gases (argon, hydrogen, nitrogen) tungsten is used as a material. To increase the service life, often
tungsten tips are inserted in water-cooled copper fasteners.
In case of oxidizing plasma gases or mixtures, hafnium or zirconium inserts are used (in a copper body)
instead of tungsten as electrodes. Influenced by oxygen and nitrogen, these elements form highly
melting oxides and nitrites that protect the electrode from a continuous reaction with oxygen and nitrogen
and allow continuous usage.
5.6.5 Longitudinal (distance) control

The correct and constant distance between the plasma torch and the workpiece is very important for the
quality of the cutting results.
To ensure the optimal cutting distance, arc voltage-dependent, dynamic longitudinal controls are also
used in addition to the principles originating from flame cutting. As the plasma arc voltage is affected by
different factors (among others cutting current, cutting speed, gas quantity), these have to be kept
constant as much as possible during cutting, so that it is only the change in distance that affects the
voltage. Where this is not possible, for example during cutting edges with reduced cutting speed or
overriding kerfs, the longitudinal control is temporarily to be “suspended”. The arc extends at the
grooves, edges and corners and the arc voltage increases accordingly. The automated kerf recognition
and corner function switches off the longitudinal control, if the given arc voltage exceeds the adjustable
limit value and activates it again, if the voltage returns to its original level.
Also capacitive distance control is being used for plasma cutting, figure 54.
Figure 54: Dry plasma cutting with capacitive

distance sensor

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5.7 Cutting speed in relation to cut quality

The cutting speed for plasma cutting depends on several factors: the material, the workpiece thickness,
the available arc power, the cutting gas used, the gas amount, the cutting nozzle geometry and the
plasma cutting type.
Figure 55 shows additional values regarding cutting speed and material thickness depending on
processing type and base metal.
Figure 55: Example cutting speeds of different plasma cutting equipment (manufacturer and system dependent)
In principle, cutting quality decreases from a certain point if the cutting speed is increased. For this
reason, the cutting tables often contain “Quality” and “Separation cut values” as well as values for outer
and inner contours. If the highest quality of the cut is required, work shall be performed with the quality
values at normal speed. However if the speed of the cutting process and not the quality are the most
important, the separation values shall be chosen.
In comparison to the highest quality, the cutting-surface is more scratched with cutting data of separation
and angle misalignments may occur. DIN EN ISO 9013 summarises the parameters that are used for the
determination of the quality of a plasma cut. Beside the angularity and tilting tolerance u, also the
average roughness Rz5 is used for the evaluation. Optional statements could be made about the top
edge melting, the slag or drop formation at the bottom edge as well as the back run of the drag lines.

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5.8 Safety
Like for all welding and cutting operations, occupational safety regulations also must be observed for
plasma cutting. To protect both the operators and maintenance staff, special attention must be paid to
the following criteria. Potential risks come from:
 electric current,
 radiation,
 noise,
 smoke, dust and gases,
 hot metal sprays/ spatter,
 and in the broader sense also environmental impacts.
For the keeping of safety, the respective warning, requirements, prohibition, rescue and fire protection
symbols must be observed. They are usually attached in the form of labels on the cutting system or in
the building, for example on doors.
Electric current
In plasma cutting, work is performed under high inactive (open-circuit) and cutting voltages. The risk
potential is therefore high. Electric current can flow through the body in the worst case and cause
massive damage. In connection with the high voltages, also a cardiac arrest is possible apart from
muscle cramps and heartbeat disturbances. For this reason, all cutting devices must fulfil a series of
safety requirements. For example, by using constructive safety measures in the plasma equipment,
which ensure that the equipment cannot be activated, when no torches are connected or these are not
installed correctly. In the manual cutting field, the protection circuit operates so that the torch cannot be
activated, if the safety cap is not attached. It acts by insulating and is to prevent that the operator
contacts the live nozzle cap accidentally.
All hazards shall be considered that are caused by electromagnetic radiations. Electromagnetic fields
resulting from the brief high-voltage ignition, which can lead to the influence of medical devices such as
pacemakers, hearing aids or implants.
Light and thermal radiation

With plasma cutting, strong visible and invisible (ultraviolet) radiations and thermal radiation occur. They
can lead to eye injuries and skin burns. Therefore the operator should in every case wear safety clothing
(helmet, gloves, safety shoes) and a protective shield. The working area is to be arranged in such a way
that the reflection and transmission of the UV light is reduced. This can be realised by partition walls and
dark surfaces.
Noise
Since the gas exits the nozzle opening with high pressure and high speed, a high-level noise is heard in
the form of whistling. Depending on how the geometry of the nozzle is configured, which current is used
and how high the cutting pressure of the gas is, the noise level is influenced. Noise measurements with
(automatic) dry plasma cutting in 1 m distance from the arc centre point showed that the sound level is
between 90 dB (A) and 122 dB (A). Lower sound levels can be only achieved with manual cutting by
lower currents or under water by additional protection.
Noise shall be regarded as risk, because it can lead to hearing damages. For this reason, always wear
hearing protection in the form of ear muffs or ear plugs.
Fumes, gases and dust

Gases, fumes and dusts hazardous to health emerge as a result of the melting and blowing-away of the
material together with the reactions between the material and the cutting gases. To avoid health
consequences, good ventilation and exhaust shall always be ensured. Additionally, it should be
considered that the surfaces of the materials shall not be treated with solvents or degreasing agents,
because they can decompose under UV light from the arc and form toxic gases.

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An important limit value is the Maximum Allowable Concentration (maximum workplace concentration),
which must not be exceeded. Therefore, the operator of the plasma equipment shall ensure in each case
by measurements that the ventilation equipment works effectively.
Metal spatter
Hot metal spatters represent acute danger of injury and fire. These are present for instance when cutting
into the metal. In addition, it cannot be avoided during cutting that slag, small sparks or spatters fly off
through the near working environment. Therefore it is very important to wear safety clothing (safety
shoes, leather apron, gloves). Furthermore, a fire extinguisher is to be placed in the vicinity of the
workplace. The most important point is however that in the working area no flammable materials or
liquids shall be stored.
Environment
Besides capacity and productivity, the environment is moving gradually into the field of vision of the
users, because environmental impacts can easily also be hazardous. Here, different criteria shall be
taken into account. On the one hand, dust and slag residuals generated during cutting shall be disposed
of in accordance with legal regulations (economic and waste act). Furthermore, plasma equipment itself
is to be handled after deactivation on the basis of local regulations by a qualified recycling company.
The training course documents for plasma cutting were prepared with the kind support of Mrs. Dipl.-Ing.
N. Dönicke, KjellbergFinsterwalde Plasmaund Maschinen GmbH, having provided also numerous figures and
documents.
6 Additional special processes - Thermal material removal by gas discharge

6.1 Oxygen arc cutting
In this process, which is also known as “Oxy-arc cutting”, an arc is drawn to the workpiece by means of a
hollow, coated electrode, whose emitted heat partially melts the material. The added oxygen, supplied
through the hollow oxyarc cutting electrode, burns the material being heated to ignition temperature and
blows it out of the kerf (Figure 56). This process is mainly applied for scrapping components of non-, low
and high alloyed steels as well as different non-ferrous metals.
6.2 Air arc gouging
This process is also known as “Arcair”. An arc is drawn between a copper-clad carbon graphite electrode
and the workpiece (Figure 57). This melts the material. The molten material is blown from the kerf by a
compressed air jet (3…10 bar). An advantage over autogenous flame gouging is the higher working
speed and the possibility to process materials that are not suitable for flame cutting. Disadvantages are
the rough surface, the bad recognisability of defects to be eliminated as well as the high noise and
smoke that are generated. Attention must be paid that carbonisation of the workpiece edge is possible. It
can also be used for cutting (scrapping) components.
Figure 56: Oxygen arc cutting Figure 57: Air arc gouging

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7 Laser beam cutting
Laser cutting is suitable for cutting different materials. Next to steels and non-ferrous metals, also
plastics, ceramics, wood and glass can be processed.
Today, with industrially available laser sources, workpiece thicknesses above 30 mm for non-alloy steels
and above 25 mm for high-alloy steels can be cut.
Process-specific characteristics are the excellent cut quality, the low kerf width, the most perpendicular
and edge-parallel cut edges and the low heat input; this makes laser cutting a precision-cutting process
for maintaining similar measurement tolerances as with mechanical machining processes.
7.1 Operations of laser flame cutting
1. During laser-flame cutting, the workpiece to be cut is heated to ignition temperature by a focused
laser beam on the surface.
2. The cutting oxygen burns (oxidizes) the material in the kerf.
3. Thin slag from the kerf is driven out through the kinetic energy of the cutting-oxygen jet and thus a
workpiece contour is created.
4. The kerf is created by the movement of the laser-cutting torch across the workpiece and/or by the
movement of the workpiece under the fixed laser beam.
Laser beam Gas supply
Cutting nozzle
Cutting gas
Work piece movement beam
Work piece
Fusion metal / Slag

(for fusion cutting or flame cutting
Figure 55: Schematic principle of laser flame cutting
According to DIN 2310 part 6, depending on the prevailing type of material transformation, a distinction is
made between the following variants:
 Laser-flame cutting
 Laser-fusion (melt and blow) cutting
 Laser-sublimation cutting

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7.2.1 Laser-flame cutting
During laser-flame cutting, the workpiece to be cut is heated to ignition temperature by a focused laser
beam on the surface. The cutting oxygen burns (oxidizes) the material in the kerf. Due to the kinetic
energy of the cutting-oxygen jet, the thin fluid slag is expelled.
The exothermic reaction of the oxygen with the material generates approx. 40 % of the energy required
for the cutting process. Thus even with relatively low laser powers, high cutting speeds can be achieved.
Cutting non- and low alloy steels is the most common application of laser-flame cutting. However, even
high-alloy steels can be cut, as, compared to flame cutting, due to the higher temperature, a thinner
fluidly slag is formed.
7.2.2 Laser-fusion cutting
During laser-fusion cutting, the material to be cut is melted by a focused laser beam of high intensity
throughout the entire workpiece thickness and expelled from the kerf by a gas jet of high kinetic energy
(high pressure cutting). Nitrogen, argon, helium or compressed air are used as cutting gases. In contrast
to laser-flame cutting where the cutting gas supports the cutting process through exothermic reaction,
here, the entire energy required for melting the material in the kerf comes through the laser beam.
Therefore the maximum cutting speed for medium and larger sheet thickness (≥ 4 mm) is below that of
the laser beam flame cutting process. Thin sheets below 3 mm can be processed faster with this high
pressure process. This is explained by the kerf dimensions and the melting or combustion processes in
the kerf.
7.2.3 Laser-sublimation cutting
During laser-sublimation cutting, the material to be cut is spontaneously vaporized by a focused high-
intensity laser beam throughout the entire workpiece thickness. The vaporized material is blown out of
the kerf through expansion and a highly kinetic gas jet. As cutting gases, nitrogen, argon or helium are
used. As with laser-fusion cutting, here, too, the entire energy required for mainly vaporizing the material
in the kerf comes through the laser beam. A further process, which is based on the smaller dimensions
of the focussed laser beam and therefore higher intensities of the beam, so-called remote cutting, is
being used in industrial practice increasingly. The laser beam of a solid-state laser is directed over fast
mirror beam deflection systems (so-called Galvo-heads) at several points and with high speed (= several
thousand mm/second) over the workpiece contour. Cutting nozzles and gases cannot be used here as
supporting cutting medium. The kerf is produced by evaporating the material. This process provides also
burr-free cut qualities and is used currently exclusively with thin sheets < 3 mm.
7.3 Cutting gases
For a smooth run of the individual process variants of laser cutting, it is important to use a suitable
cutting gas. The cutting gas expels slag, melts and metal vapours out of the kerf, supports, in some
cases, the cutting process of certain metals by exothermic reaction, cools the cut edges, protects the
focusing optics from fume and cutting particles and the base material from undesired reactions with
oxygen from the surrounding air. The cutting gases supporting the cutting process shall be at least of
99.95% quality. Usually the cutting gases are prepared from liquefied petroleum gas container
equipment.
Oxygen
Oxygen is used for laser-flame cutting. Due to the exothermic reaction of the oxygen with the material,
additional energy is fed to the cutting process besides the energy of the laser beam. The material of the
kerf is burned here and blown out by the oxygen jet. Because of the energy-rich burning reaction,
imperfections can occur in areas of the workpiece, which are characterised by sharp-edged contours,

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which do not occur when cutting with nitrogen. This is particularly the case with larger sheet thickness.
Therefore sharp workpiece edges with radius r=0 should be replaced by small radii r≥0.5 mm.
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is used for cutting high-alloy steels and non-ferrous metals. A high purity is required to avoid
annealing colours (thin oxide layers) at the bottom-cut edges. For expelling the melt, nitrogen pressures
of 8 - 25 bar are applied (high-pressure cutting) to obtain burr and slag-free cuts. With the aid of
nitrogen, the cut edges remain free from oxides and can be further processed without post-treatment
(surface finishes).
Argon
Argon is preferentially used for cutting titanium and titanium alloys.
7.4 Materials
Non- and low-alloy steel
When laser cutting of non- and low-alloy steel, laser-flame cutting with CO2 lasers is the most common
method used. With a laser power of 3 kW, sheets of up to 20 mm can be cut economically.
Cutting sheets between 12 and 30 mm requires a constant laser power of above 5 kW and a very good
beam quality.
A low and stable cutting-oxygen pressure (approx. 0.5 to 1 bar) is necessary to avoid erosions/scouring
at the cut surface. It needs to be considered that a thin oxide layer is built on the cut surface, especially
with medium to larger sheet thicknesses, that may disturb (the oxide layer grows with the sheet
thickness) some additional processing (post surface machining). The oxide layer must be removed
before further processing.
During high-pressure nitrogen cutting, oxide-free cut surfaces can be achieved with significantly lower
cutting speeds.
Coated steel
Coated sheet surfaces (primer, painting) can lead to spontaneous or continuous burr or slag formation if
oxygen is applied as the cutting gas. Cut quality decreases with increasing and varying thickness of the
surface coating. By using high pressure nitrogen cutting, a good to satisfying cut quality can be achieved
for thin to medium workpiece thicknesses of coated sheet metals.
High-alloy steel
In industrial practice, nitrogen is primarily used for cutting high-alloy steels.

Clean and oxide-free cut surfaces can be obtained when cutting with inert gases such as nitrogen or
argon. In practice, mostly nitrogen is used when operating with gas pressures of 10 - 25 bar. The purity
of the nitrogen impacts the cutting speed only slightly. However, oxygen impurities cause stained cut
edges which impede the corrosion resistance of the material.
The cutting of high alloyed steels with oxygen does not have industrial relevance any more.
Aluminium and aluminium alloys
High heat conductivity and high reflectivity make CO 2 laser cutting of aluminium and aluminium alloys
difficult for the CO2 laser beam. High laser power and very good beam quality improve the cutting
suitability. Laser-flame cutting results in a raw cut surface and strong slag formation. High-pressure
cutting with cutting-gas pressures of 10 - 25 bar provides burr and slag-free cuts. The cutting speed in
aluminium materials decreases over-proportionally with the workpiece thickness. Both with aluminium

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alloys and non-ferrous metals, solid-state lasers with their shorter wavelength and therefore better
absorption of radiation are increasingly suitable for these materials.
Copper and copper alloys
Copper features a very high reflectivity for CO2 laser beams. Also the very high melting temperature and high
thermal conductivity impact negatively on the cutting suitability of copper and its alloys (copper, bronze). For
copper, oxygen is frequently used as the cutting gas. Brass and bronze may also be processed burr-free with
the high-pressure method (N2). Despite high laser power, cutting is limited to the smaller sheet thickness
(sheet thickness up to approx. 4 mm). Solid-state lasers are appropriate for this task.
Titanium
Oxygen and nitrogen are unsuitable for the cutting of titanium, because it leads to the formation of fine
cracks on the cutting surface due to the formation of oxides and nitrides. So preferentially high-pressure
cutting with high-purity argon is applied.
Non-metallic materials
Also non-metal materials such as wood, glass, ceramic, rubber and plastics can be cut with laser cutting.
For these materials, the absorption behaviour of CO2 laser light of the wavelength 10.6 µm is particularly
good. Solid-state lasers of wavelength of 1 µm are not well suitable for this. As cutting gas, mainly
compressed air is used. When easily inflammable materials like textiles are to be cut, nitrogen is used,
too. Since, when cutting some materials such as synthetic textiles, toxic fumes or dust can arise, the
cutting machines in question must have high-power fume-extraction and filtering equipment.
7.5 Cutting speed
Possible cutting speed depends in case of laser cutting particularly on the material of the workpiece, its
thickness and the process type (melt/flame cutting). The laser power used, the intensity distribution in
the beam, the burning width of focus optics (burning spot dimensions) have important functions.
The diagrams in Figure 56 provide informative help regarding the achievable cutting speeds when using
CO2 lasers of different power for the cutting of different materials – see left. The diagram on the right
shows the relationship between sheet thickness and the achievable cutting speed in comparison of the
two laser types CO2 and fibre lasers in the efficiency class 2 kW.
Figure 56:
Left: Cutting speed for laser-flame cutting in structural steel and laser-fusion cutting in high-alloy steel
and Al-Mg3 (CO2 laser)
Right: Cutting speed comparison between CO2 and fibre lasers

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7.6 Guiding systems for laser cutting

For laser cutting, systems for 2 and 3-dimensional cutting are available.
The most common application is the cutting of two to 2.5 dimensional sheet workpieces. Here, different
construction types of machines are used differing in the kind of component that is moved: laser source,
laser beam or workpiece. When cutting standard format sheets up to 1.5 x 3 m, the “flying optic” variant
in 2 axes (fixed laser, fixed workpiece, guided laser beam) has proved its worth. When cutting long,
large-scale sheets, the laser source is moved along in longitudinal direction, and the laser beam is only
moved in cross direction. For cutting V and Y grooves, laser-rotary heads are available.
For CO2 laser cutting of 3D contours, 5-axis portal systems or pivot-arm robots with integrated beam
guidance are used. Due to the simpler beam guidance via optical fibres, Nd:YAG solid-state lasers are
increasingly used in this field.
Figures 57 to 59 are showing a large-sheet laser beam cutting machine, a 45° torch head positioning
during laser beam flame cutting and a workpiece with a weld face bevel of 45°.
Figure 57: Large-sheet laser beam cutting machine
Figure 58: View of laser beam flame cutting with Figure 59: work piece with weld face bevel of 45°
45° torch head positioning

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8 Test questions
(1) When plasma cutting
 the material burns due to the high temperature of the plasma jet.
 the arc is extremely constricted due to the narrow cut.
 the molten material is blown out of the kerf through the kinetic energy of the
plasma gases.
 the material evaporates due to the high temperature of the electric arc.
 the arc only burns between the electrode and the plasma nozzle.
(1) Which material characteristics are essential for flame cutting suitability?
 Yield strength
 Chemical composition
 Heat conductivity
 Electric conductivity
 Combustibility by oxygen
(2) Which of the following listed materials are suitable for flame cutting?
 Aluminium
 Non-alloyed steel
 High alloyed steel
 Copper
 Cast steel
 Cast iron
(3) Which distinctive characteristics are there for flame cutting nozzles for acetylene and slow com-
bustible gases (like Propane)
 Labelling on the nozzle

 Propane nozzles do have a two-part design
 Propane nozzles are only available for pressure torches
 There are no differences
(4) Which of the following statements regarding flame cutting are correct?
 During flame cutting the material is being vaporised as the temperature rises above
3200°C
 During flame cutting the material will be burned inside the oxygen stream
 The oxygen expansion splits/cuts the base material
 During flame cutting usually a heating gas is being used
 Just before the ignition of a steel base metal it reaches the melting phase
(5) Which of the following conditions are correct for flame cutting?
 Ts (Oxide) < Ts (base material) < T (ignition)

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 Ts (base material) < T (ignition) < Ts (Oxide)

 T (ignition) < Ts (base material) < Ts (Oxide)
 Ts (base material) < Ts (Oxide) < T (ignition)
 Ts (Oxide) < T (ignition) < Ts (base material)
(6) The processing of hole piercing
 describes the manufacturing of the lower opening of oxygen cutting nozzle

 describes the phased cutting of the base material
 is not any longer required for today’s autogenous flame cutting
 Is a pre-condition if a straight cut starts inside the component
 applies only during laser cutting processing
(7) Which pressure values are used for water jet cutting?
 40 bar
 4000 bar
 40000 bar
 40000 bar
(8) Which materials can be cut by water jet cutting?
 Foam
 Steel
 Leather
 Wood
 Aluminium
(9) The following materials can be cut by plasma cutting:
 Aluminium
 Non- and low alloyed steels
 Ceramic materials
 Stainless Steel
 Nickel based materials
(10) Which of the following types of laser beam sources are specifically suitable for cutting metallic
materials:
 Gas laser (e.g. CO2-Laser)

 Semiconductor laser (e.g. Diode laser)
 Solid State laser (e.g. Fibre laser)
 Liquid laser (z.B. Dye-Laser)

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(11) For 3-dimensional laser beam cutting CO2-laser systems are more suitable due to the longer
wavelength of the CO2-laser beam which enables a much easier transport of the beam through
the thin fibre.
 Correct
 Incorrect (up till today the CO2 laser beam cannot be transported via fibres on an industrial
way due to the much longer wavelength (Lambda=10,6 µm) of this beam and the corre-
sponding strong absorption of today’s common fibre materials. Beam transport via fibres
is specifically suitable for solid state lasers having short wave lengths, around 1 µm.
(12) The following gases or gas mixtures will be prepared inside the cutting nozzle to be at the dis-
posal of the laser beam flame cutting processing:
 Oxygen with a limited amount of air (in which the air takes over the task of additional cool-
ing medium in order to prevent the distortion of the workpiece)
 Oxygen- Nitrogen-mixture. The pure oxygen supplies additional energy for the combustion
processing. The nitrogen ensures the blowing off of the liquid melt inside the cutting kerf.
 Oxygen. Oxygen of high purity (3.5) provides the cutting processing additional combustion
energy and should not be polluted with other, for example; inert gases.
 Nitrogen. The high pressurised nitrogen which is exiting the nozzle blows off the semifluid
slag out the cutting kerf.
(13) The achievable cutting speeds for sheet metals up to 4mm are almost the same for the CO2 and
fibre laser. The fibre laser has a better efficiency than the CO2 laser and is therefore more suita-
ble for cutting sheet metal.
 Correct
 Incorrect
(14) Up till this moment laser beam cutting is not suitable for weld joint bevelling. The reasons are the
high investments cost of the laser machine and the still insufficient cutting quality in this area of
sheet metal processing with the laser beam.
 Incorrect (laser beam weld joint bevelling is a very good and economic alternative (espe-
cially for larger work pieces) for mechanical processing of cutting and subsequently weld
joint bevelling processing. Laser beam inclined cutting can replace multiple processing
steps of joint preparation)
 Correct

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8.1 Bibliography
DIN 32516: Thermal cutting - Ability for thermal cutting of components of metallic materials - Terms
DIN 2310-6 Thermal cutting - Part 6: Classification, processes
DIN 32510-2 Thermal cutting – fusion cutting with metal powder of mineral materials
DVS-Leaflet 2102 Defects and causes during autogenous flame cutting of non- and low alloyed steel
DVS-Leaflet 2101 How to use oxygen lances.
DIN EN 60825-1 (VDE 0837-1), Safety of laser products - Part 1: Equipment classification and require-
ments
DVS leaflet 3206 (1994-12), Imperfections and their causes with Laser cutting of metallic materials.
DIN EN 12584: Imperfections in oxyfuel flame cuts, laser beam cuts and plasma cuts - Terminology
DVS leaflet 2107 (2010-01), Plasma cutting of metallic materials
DVS leaflet 2103 (2010-07), Defects and causes during plasma cutting of non- and low alloyed steel
VDI/DVS 6005 (2005-10), Ventilation systems for welding workplaces
DIN 2310-6: Thermal cutting - Part 6: Classification, processes
DIN EN ISO 9013:2003-07: Thermal cutting - Classification of thermal cuts - Geometrical product speci-
fication and quality tolerances

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Surfacing and Spraying Page 1
Chapter 1.14: Surfacing and Spraying
Contents
1 Surface technology ............................................................................................................. 2

2 Surface coating process ..................................................................................................... 2
3 Thermomechanical surface coating processes – thermal spraying ............................... 3
3.1 Process principle ........................................................................................................................ 3
3.2 Preparing the components for spraying, surface pre-treatment .................................................. 5
3.3 The thermal spraying procedure ................................................................................................. 6
3.4 Spray materials ........................................................................................................................ 14
3.4.1 New European standards and directives for the qualification of personnel ........ 17
3.4.2 Preventive quality assurance and quality control on the component ................. 18
3.5 Standards, directives and leaflets on thermal spraying ............................................................. 18
4 Potential hazards during thermal spraying ..................................................................... 20
5 Thermal surface coating processes – surface welding ................................................. 21
5.1 Welding processes for surface welding .................................................................................... 22
5.2 Filler materials for surface welding ........................................................................................... 24
5.3 Standards and leaflets for surface welding ............................................................................... 24
5.4 Sample applications ................................................................................................................. 25
6 Test questions ................................................................................................................... 26
7 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 28

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1 Surface technology
Increasing the productivity and performance of technical equipment and machines inevitably also
increases stress (loading), for example the wear and corrosion of certain components and segments.
These facts require the application of protective layers to the surfaces of components in order to enable
them to withstand the high loads. In addition, in order to satisfy economic criteria and to protect raw
materials, surface technology can be used to manufacture parts from “low-grade” base materials and
then to finish and protect these using surface protection layers so that they meet the desired
requirements.
Protective surface layers are generally used to improve the properties of workpieces, for example in
relation to wear, corrosion, tribological behaviour, thermal transition or insulation, electric conductivity
and insulation, appearance and/or to restore operability in new products and repairs /1/.
2 Surface coating process
Protective surface layers can be applied to workpiece surfaces mechanically, thermally, thermo-
mechanically, galvanically, chemically and physico-chemical (Table 1).
Table 1: Options for applying protective surface layers, coating processes.

Mechanical
grit blasting, rolling, pressurised polishing
(surface hardening)
Thermochemical (diffusion Carbonising, carbonitriding, borating, chrome plating
processes): vanadium plating, nitrating, oxidising, sulphidising
Thermal (processing of edge Induction, flame, electron beam, laser beam
zones by:) Electromagnetic pulses
Mechanised Plating, roll and explosive cladding, coating
Surface welding
- Weld cladding
Thermal - Hardfacing
- Buffering
Soldering, sintering, fusing
Flame spraying, plasma spraying
High-velocity oxy-fuel flame spraying
Thermomechanical Detonation spraying, arc spraying
Wire explosion spraying, laser spraying, PTA (plasma
transfer arc), cold spraying
Galvanic Cathodic separation, anodic oxidation
Chemical Currentless material separation

Chemical reaction layer formation
Physicochemical PVD (physical vapour deposition)

(gas phase separation) CVD (chemical vapour deposition)
Plasma polymerisation

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3 Thermomechanical surface coating processes – thermal spraying
In recent years, the thermomechanical processes in the listed surface coating processes - thermal spray
processes - have gained increasing importance both in new part production and repairs.
The reasons for this are mainly as follows /1/:

 Thermal spraying offers numerous options for combining base materials with composite layers.
 The flexibility of thermal spraying offers excellent opportunities for repairing high-quality worn parts.
The low repair costs and the relatively short downtimes are major advantages compared to other
repair processes.
 The workpieces to be coated are only heated slightly, largely avoiding microstructural changes and
warping. The exception to this are processes involving additional thermal treatment (e.g. smelting).
 Coatings can be applied irrespective of the size of the workpiece or component.
 Even complex components can be coated following the appropriate design principles.
 Depending on the spray material and process variant, different layer thicknesses can be applied, with
30 m as the current lower limit.
 Equipment, spray materials and overall technology have made enormous progress.
Because of their structure, thermally sprayed coatings behave differently from corresponding compact
materials or surface welding.
Examples of process-specific disadvantages /1/:

 Micro-porosity of the sprayed coating
 Limited bond strength of the sprayed coating
 Sensitivity of certain sprayed coatings to edge pressure, spot and linear loading and impact
 Restrictions in relation to the geometric dimensions, e.g. when applying internal coating to bodies with
a low internal diameter.
3.1 Process principle
All thermal spray processes require two energy sources to produce sprayed coatings: thermal energy
and kinetic energy.
The amount of thermal energy is dictated by the chosen spray process, i.e. the energy carrier. At
present, energy carriers are the oxy-fuel gas flame, the kerosene oxygen flame, electrical energy,
plasma, the laser beam or a preheated gas. Thermal energy is required in order to melt and fuse the
spray material on the component.
Kinetic energy, which is measured and quoted in particle speed, is also a criterion that influences the
density of the layer, the adhesive strength of the sprayed coating itself and the adhesive tensile strength
of the layer on the base material. Kinetic energy varies greatly in the various thermal spraying processes
and depends on the spray material and the particle size.
Due to the different energy levels of the two energy carriers mentioned, the individual thermal spray
processes have their preferred areas of application and thus are not in competition, but rather
complement one another across the whole range of applications.
As a result of the thermal and kinetic energy of the sprayed particles, a compound is formed between the
sprayed carriers and the workpiece surface and also between the particles themselves, so that the main
mechanism involved in the bond is physical fusion. A new surface is formed, consisting of abutting strips
and criss-crossing layers of flattened, lamellar sprayed particles (Figure 1, Figure 2).

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The parameter setting is adjusted so that the spherical spray particles pancake upon impact to form a
layer that is adapted to the surface. Ideally, this deformation should not be too low, as this would mean
that spherical particles would be embedded within the layer, or too great, as this would cause particles to
burst. Both would have a negative impact on the layer properties.
Figure 1: Schematic diagram showing the formation of a

sprayed coating
Corner joint view.
1, 2 - Cut sprayed particles with already solidified surface
3 - Partial bursting upon impact
4 - Temporary oxide layer
5 - Particle anchorage
6 - Part-alloyed or welded particles
7 - Particles already solidified prior to impact
8 - Microcavity caused by excessively fast solidification
9 - Micropore caused by gas pocket already trapped

in the particle
10 - Pre-treated interface, roughened by grit blasting
11 - Base metal
Figure 2: Microsection of a sprayed coating

Material in the layer: 13% chrome-plated steel
Prepared surface: NiCr
Base metal: Steel
Spray process: Wire flame spraying
Microstructure description: Perfect sprayed coating with
low porosity and good adhesion
Magnification: approx. 140 : 1
To make the process reproducible and to satisfy all safety and technical requirements, a complete
system also needs, next to the torches, a number of other important components as well. This starts with
the correct gas supply and controls for the process and ends with an efficient exhaust system, including
filter elements for separating the sprayed metallic dust. There is a schematic diagram showing all these
components in Figure 3.

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Figure 3: Components of a thermal spraying system
3.2 Preparing the components for spraying, surface pre-treatment
Good adhesion for thermal sprayed coatings requires the professional pre-treatment of the surface of the
base material to be coated. This includes:
 Cleaning the surface

To remove scaling, oxides, rust, greases, oils, paint residues and dirt, so that the surface is
completely metallically clean. Solvents and chemicals approved for use in the metalworking industry,
as well as ultrasound and steam, can be used for cleaning purposes.
 Roughening the weld surface by

- Gritblasting with corundum and chilled cast blasting gravel, in exceptional cases also
- Grinding
- Machining
- Electric surface roughening using nickel electrodes to create a large, highly reactive surface on the
base material.
Surface roughening by grit blasting with corundum and chilled cast blasting gravel is to be preferred to
the other processes, as the sharp-edged particles create a greatly defibrillated, oxide-free surface. In
addition, grit blasting has a positive effect on the fatigue endurance limit of the component to be coated
(hardening in the surface area).
Because the high reactiveness of surface decreases over time, the base material should be coated as
soon as possible (a few hours) after the pre-treatment.
 Application of intermediate layers

to increase the adhesion of different material combinations, in particular with widely divergent thermal
expansion coefficients of layer- and base materials. Nickel aluminium, nickel chromium and
molybdenum have proven successful as intermediate layers.

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3.3 The thermal spraying procedure
The spray processes are classified according to:
 The type of spray material (wire, powder, rod, cord, and molten-bath spraying)
 Application (e.g. layers for protection against corrosion and wear)
 Type of manufacturing (partially mechanised, fully mechanised and automated spraying)
 Type of the energy carrier (oxy-fuel gas flame, electrical energy, plasma, laser).
All thermal spray processes require two energy types when generating sprayed coatings:
 Thermal energy
 Kinetic energy.
The amount of thermal energy is dictated by the chosen spray process, i.e. by the energy carrier.
Thermal energy is required in order to melt and fuse the spray material on the component. Kinetic
energy, which is measured in terms of particle speed, is also a criterion for determining the density of the
layer, the tensile adhesive strength of the sprayed coating itself and the tensile adhesive strength of the
layers in relation to the base material.
Kinetic energy varies greatly in the various thermal spraying processes and depends on the spraying
material and the particle size.
Due to the different energy levels of the individual thermal spray processes, these have their preferred
areas of application and thus are not in competition, but rather complement one another across the
whole range of applications (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Energy levels of the thermal spray processes

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 Flame spraying with wire
During wire flame spraying, the spraying material in the nozzle system of the spray gun is continuously
melted with an oxyacetylene flame (thermal energy) and is applied with appropriate speed (kinetic
energy) to the relevant workpiece areas (Figure. 5).
Figure 5: Flame spraying with wire
1 Fuel gas/oxygen
2 Wire, spraying material
3 Blowpipe nozzle
4 Oxyacetylene flame + sprayed particles
5 Workpiece
Gases: Flame Material: Particle Deposition rate:

Acetylene temperature: Mostly metals speed: 6 – 8 kg/h
Ethylene Max. 3,160 °C Up to 200 m/sec.
Oxygen Spray material:
Hydrogen Wire or rod
Propane
Flame spraying with wire is a very commonly used process that achieves a very high sprayed coating
quality standard. Accordingly, several hundred tonnes of molybdenum are sprayed onto shift forks,
synchronous rings or piston rings in the automotive industry.
 Flame spraying with flux
A propellant gas draws in the flux (injector principle) and carries it into the nozzle. The flux particles are
accelerated by the expansion of the acetylene-oxygen mixture as a result of combustion (kinetic energy)
and fused onto the component by the thermal energy from the oxyacetylene flame (Figure. 6). The
quantity of flux and propellant gas can be controlled. Electric vibrators enable malfunctions in the flux
supply to be avoided. However, unlike wire spraying, it is not possible to spray in every position. The
layer structure is similar to that in wire spraying.
Figure 6: Flame spraying with flux
1 Fuel gas/oxygen
2 Flux dispensing hopper, spray material
3 Blowpipe nozzle
4 Carrier gas + flux
5 Oxyacetylene flame + sprayed particles
6 Workpiece

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Acetylene temperature: All speed: 3 – 6 kg/h metals
Ethylene Max. 3,160 °C Up to 50 m/sec. 1 – 2 kg/h ceramic
Oxygen Spray material:
Hydrogen Powder
Propane
There are special filler materials for flame spraying with flux, referred to as self-fluxing powders on a
nickel or cobalt basis with portions of boron, chromium and silicon, which enabling gas and liquid-tight
sprayed coatings to be produced through additional thermal treatment, known as “fusing (of sprayed
deposits)”. During fusing of sprayed deposits, an oxyacetylene flame is used to heat up the whole coated
area to temperatures of between 1,020 and 1,140 °C, depending on the filler material. Application areas
include: shaft bushes, pillow blocks, fans, rotors of barrel extruders, etc.
 Flame spraying of plastics
The flame spraying of plastics differs from other flame spraying processes in that the plastic material does
not come into direct contact with the oxyacetylene flame. There is a flux feed nozzle in the centre of the
flame spray gun. This is enclosed by two circular output nozzles, the innermost of which supplies air or inert
gas, while the outermost supplies the acetylene-oxygen mixture for the thermal energy carrier (Figure. 7).
Thus, the plastic is not melted directly by the flame, but rather by the heated air and radiation heat.
Figure 7: Flame spraying of plastics
1 Acetylene/oxygen
2 Plastic granulate, spray material
3 Blowpipe nozzle
4 Air mantle
5 Oxyacetylene flame
6 Fused plastic
7 Workpiece

Acetylene temperature: Plastics speed: 2 – 4 kg/h
Propane Max. 3,160 °C Up to 30 m/sec.
Oxygen Indirect Spray material:
thermal transfer Granulate
Thanks to the good mobility of plastic flame spraying, the range of applications is becoming increasingly
diverse.
Application areas include railings of all kinds, fan blades, pipe conduits through walls, tanks for drinking
water, garden furniture, swimming pool markers, etc.
 High-velocity oxy-fuel flame spraying
During high-velocity oxy-fuel flame spraying, continuous gas combustion takes place at high pressure in
a combustion chamber where the powder spray material is supplied at the central axis (Figure 8). The
high pressure created in the combustion chamber and the use of a secondary expansion nozzle allows a
particularly high gas flow rate. This accelerates the sprayed particles to particularly high speeds, leading
to extremely impervious sprayed coatings with excellent adhesive strength and low porosity.

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Figure 8: High-velocity oxy-fuel flame spraying
1 Fuel gas or kerosene/oxygen

2 Flux + carrier gas
3 Blowpipe nozzle with or without water cooling
4 Flame + sprayed particles
5 Workpiece

Propane temperature: All speed: 4 – 15 kg/h metals
Ethylene Max. 3,160 °C Up to 600 m/sec. 2 – 4 kg/h ceramic
Hydrogen Spray material:
Propylene (Propene) Powder
Oxygen
As high-velocity oxy-fuel flame spraying generally involves spraying with fuel gas pressures of 3 – 7 bar,
it is only possible to use fuel gases that can be used in this pressure range without compromising on
safety. In German-speaking countries these are primarily propane, as well as, ethylene, hydrogen and
propylene (propene). When choosing fuel gas, it is necessary to consider economic aspects as well as
the influence of the fuel gases on the spray material to be processed.
“Jet-Kote spraying” is at the forefront of high-velocity oxy-fuel flame spraying.

Various newer systems have recently been developed in the area of the high-velocity oxy-fuel flame
spraying with flux and have quickly proven their worth in practice. These differ mainly in the use of fuel
gas or liquid combustibles, as well as the point at which the flux is introduced to the flame.
The layers created with high-velocity oxy-fuel flame spraying are generally characterised by the following
properties:
 Very low porosity, making them more suitable for corrosion resistance applications than the other
processes of thermal spraying
 Carbides (such as WC-Co and Cr3C2) undergo only a slight change into mixed carbides as they pass
through the hot gas process of high-velocity oxy-fuel flame spraying
 The generated sprayed coating surfaces are very smooth and enable significant savings in post-
treatment costs, for example grinding, which can constitute up to 60% of the overall costs in some
applications.
Almost all spray materials can be processed using high-velocity oxy-fuel flame spraying. These are
mainly:
 Pure metals (e.g. copper, molybdenum, nickel, etc.)
 Metal alloys such as chromium-nickel-steels, nickel and cobalt alloys (e.g. CoNiCrAlY; CoMoCr;
NiCrMo)
 Carbides, coated as carbide chromium/chromium nickel and tungsten carbide (e.g. WC-12Co;
WC-17Co; WC-27NiCr; WC-14CoCr; WC/Ti-C-17-Ni; Cr3C2 -25NiCr)
 Self-fluxing powders on a nickel and cobalt base, with and without thermal post-treatment
 Oxides (e.g. Cr3O2)
 Austenitic steels, babbitt metal alloys.
Application areas for high-velocity oxy-fuel flame spraying include sliding surfaces for electric irons,
rollers for the photographic industry, parts for chemical and petrochemical machines, such as pumps,
slide valves, ball valves, etc.

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 Cold gas or cold spraying
Figure 9: Cold spraying
1 Nitrogen or helium as process gas

2
2 Flux + carrier gas
4
3 Laval nozzle
5
3 1 4 Gas and sprayed particles
5 Workpiece
This new development uses comparatively more kinetic energy, i.e. particle speed is increased, while
thermal energy is reduced. It is therefore possible to create sprayed coatings almost without oxides.
The spray material is accelerated to particle speeds > 1,000 m/s by a gas stream heated to approx. 800
°C and corresponding pressure (Figure 9). The deposition rate is between 3 and 15 kg/h.
Initial laboratory tests showed that layers produced via this process demonstrate extreme tensile
adhesive strength and are extraordinarily dense. Whereas in previous thermal spraying processes the
flux is heated to above its melting temperature, in the new process it is only heated to a few hundred
degrees, so that the spraying material does not oxidise. Coated substrates do not involve material
changes due to the low heat effect.
The first applications of cold spraying were coatings of copper having the advantage of very good
thermal conductivity, as well as excellent electric conductivity. Current applications are contact areas for
electronic components. However, tantalum, titanium or niobium are also in demand as spray materials
because their affinity to oxygen and consequent strong oxidisation under all other thermal spraying
processes enables cold spraying to capitalise on its advantages.
Another important and interesting aspect is the fact that up to 95% of all new applications of this process
are also new thermal spraying applications.
Other possible coatings include all stainless steels, which are applied as a passive corrosion protection
layer and therefore must be as free of oxides as possible.
The most important advantages of cold gas sprayed layers are:
- High spraying efficiency

- Low proportion of oxides
- High density
- High electric and thermal conductivity
- Low residual stresses
- Minimum heat input into the component
- High-forged microstructure, high hardness compared to traditional layers
- Stability of the phases and composition
- Capping hardly required – low spatter loss
- Surface contours can be followed precisely
- Little surface post-processing required
 Detonation spraying (American term: D-Gun spraying)
In detonation spraying, a controlled explosion is used to generate the kinetic energy. This involves
feeding a powder spray material into an extended tubular reactor chamber (Figure. 10). The chamber
contains a precisely proportioned mixture of acetylene and oxygen which is electrically ignited.
The energy released when the gas mixture is detonated starts to melt the flux particles (thermal energy)
and accelerates them to very high particle speeds (kinetic energy.)
Detonation spraying is an intermittent process with about 4 to 8 spraying processes per second. After the
explosion, the reactor chamber must be purged to remove the combustion residues using nitrogen. The

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noise generated is extremely loud (approx. 150 dB), which is why the process has to be carried out in
noise control chambers.
In detonation spraying it is only possible to process flux whose grain size has been precisely modified
(grain size 5 to 60 µm.)
Figure 10: Detonation spraying
1 Acetylene
2 Oxygen
3 Nitrogen
4 Flux, spray material
5 Ignition device
6 Outlet pipe with water cooling
7 Workpiece

Acetylene temperature: All speed: 3 – 6 kg/h
Oxygen > 3,160 °C Approx. 600 m/sec.
Spray material:
Powder
The very good quality standard of these sprayed coatings justifies the increased effort of this process in
many cases. Application areas include pump plungers in radial or gas pumps, turbine rotors in steam
turbines, gas compression or expansion turbines, copy rollers in wet production or calendar rollers for
the paper industry, cutting edges of blades, etc.
 Arc spraying
Electricity is used as the energy source for thermal energy in arc spraying. The spray materials, as
electric conducting tubular- or filler wire, are feeding and fused in an arc and are passed on to the
prepared workpiece by means of an atomising gas, e.g. compressed air or nitrogen (kinetic energy)
(Figure. 11). The electric arc is created between the two wire ends by applying a voltage (anode and
cathode) using contact ignition.
The variation in spraying droplet size is characteristic of arc spraying which results from the different
melting characteristics of materials at the anode and cathode. The different kinetic energy and
solidification temperature of the sprayed particles as well as the hugh burn-off of alloy elements (max. 2 -
3%) are not always a disadvantage for arc spraying in practice. The influence of oxygen on sprayed
particles in the melting range can have an unfavourable effect. Certain additional measures, for example
the use of nitrogen as a carrier gas, can minimise this influence, as well as burn-off.
This process only allows electrically conductive materials to be processed and no powder spray
materials.
Figure 11: Arc spraying
1 Atomising gas
2 Wire feeding adjustment
3 Torch head
4 Electrically conducting, wire-type spray material
5 Workpiece

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Energy: Arc Material: Particle Deposition rate:

Electric current temperature: Only electrically speed: 8 – 20 kg/h
Approx. 4,000°C conducting speed: Approx. 150 m/sec.
Atomising gases: Spray material:
Compressed air, Wire or
nitrogen, argon tubular
Because of its high deposition rates, arc spraying is used in wear protection and has also been used in
corrosion protection for some time, thanks to the development of the closed nozzle system. The large-
scale coating of containers/vessels is a typical application. The current rapid developments in this area
mean that many high-quality coatings can now be used with this technology, for example cylinder
bushes in automotive construction or the application of steel layers in power station construction.
 Plasma spraying
During plasma spraying, the powder spray material is melted inside or outside the spray gun by means
of a plasma jet and applied to the surface of the workpiece with high kinetic energy (Figure. 12). The
plasma is generated by a constricted electric arc which is bundled and ignited in argon, helium, nitrogen,
hydrogen or their mixtures. The arc is non-transmitting, i.e it ignites inside the spray gun between a
central tungsten electrode (cathode) and the water-cooled spray nozzle (anode). The gases are
dissociated and ionised in the arc and flow at very high speeds from the spray nozzle toward the
workpiece. With the help of a carrier gas (usually the same as the plasma gas) the powder spray
material is fed into the plasma jet, where it is melted and accelerated at the same time.
Figure 12: Plasma spraying
1 Plasma gas
2 Cooling water
3 Direct current
4 Powder spray material
5 Tungsten electrode (cathode)
6 Water-cooled spray nozzle (anode)
7 Workpiece
Energy: Plasma Material: Particle Deposition rate:

Electric current temperature: All speed: 4 – 15 kg/h
Up to 20,000 °C Up to 450 m/sec.
Plasma gases: Spray material:
Argon, helium, nitrogen, Powder
hydrogen and their mixtures
An advanced plasma torch has been available for a number of years under the names TriplexTM and
Axial IIITM and DeltaGunTM. There are three electrodes instead of one, each with its own power supply,
which are arranged within the torch (pistol) at 120° angles. Particular advantage: only one third of the
power is applied to each electrode, resulting in a significantly better service life.
Plasma spraying systems are applied in a normal atmosphere, in a shielding gas under argon (inert
atmosphere) and in a vacuum. A specially shaped nozzle element can also be used to generate a high-
velocity plasma.
Application areas for plasma spraying include aerospace technology (e.g. turbine blades, intake areas),
implants in medical technology and thermal insulation.

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 Laser spraying
During laser spraying a powder spray material is fed through a suitable flux nozzle into the laser beam
(Figure 13). The laser beam melts both the flux as well as a tiny part of the base material surface
(microscopic range) and enables the metallurgical bonding of the spray material with the base material.
A shielding gas is used to protect the melting pool.
Figure 13: Laser spraying
1 Laser beam
2 Shielding gas
3 Powder spray material
4 Workpiece
Shielding gases: Temperature: Material: Particle Deposition rate:

Carbon dioxide, > 10,000 °C All speed: 1 – 2 kg/h
argon, helium, > 1 m/sec.
nitrogen Spray material:
and their mixtures Powder
Laser spraying uses the spotting effect of the laser beam for the coating of precisely, well-defined areas
of the workpiece surface.
Examples of application areas for laser spraying include partial coating of punching, bending or cutting
equipment.
 Wire explosion spraying
This process is a special development for a very specific application – e.g. the internal coating of
cylinders with wear-reducing layers.
A very high current is applied to a wire, causing it to explode so that overheated melt or vapour hits the
cylinder wall to be coated. The required energy is applied to the wire through the discharge process of a
capacitor. For complete evaporation, electrical energy must be applied in very short times (1… 10 µs).
In Japan the process is used for coating the cylinders of motorcycle engines among other things. New
areas of application are opening up through the further development of the process, e.g. the move to a
vacuum chamber.

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3.4 Spray materials
Spray materials are classified according to their form. A distinction is made between solid wires, rods,
cords, flux-cored wires, tubes and flux.
 Solid wires are predominantly treated in flame and arc spraying. The most important solid wire
materials are all steels, non-ferrous metals and their alloys.
 Rods are being processed in special flame spraying guns. The main rod materials are all oxides.
Cords made from metal and oxides are also processed by flame spraying.
 Flux-cored wires and tubes made from Fe-Cr-C-carbides are used in wire and arc spraying.
 The fluxes cover the whole range of materials. They are processed by all thermal spray processes
except arc spraying. There is no limit to the variety of fluxes and for thermal spraying powdered filler
materials have become increasingly significant over recent decades. Fluxes are predominantly produced
by mechanical shredding of solid materials in crushers and mills or by atomising of melts.
Basically, any material that can be changed into a plasticising state can be sprayed.
Table 2 offers a general overview of spray materials and their areas of application.
Table 2: Overview of spray materials and their areas of application.
Wear protection, e.g. deflection rollers for rope, which are

coated in their high-stress zone using high-velocity oxy-fuel
flame spraying.
Alloy steel coatings Repair, e.g. turbine blades or impeller casings of Kaplan
turbines using flame spraying with a 13.5% Cr layer.
High-temperature wear
Recycling
(Low) alloy steel coatings Non-corrosive wear
Friction elements (piston rings, synchronisers)
Molybdenum coatings Sliding and wear protection, e.g on rollers in the
paper industry
Capacitor soldered joints
White metal coatings
Babbitt metal
Zinc coatings Corrosion protection
Aluminium coatings Heat corrosion
Bronze coatings Bearing (good fail-safe property of the porous layer)
Tin coatings Protection against corrosion in the food industry
Lead coatings Chemical corrosion
Monel coatings
Sea water corrosion
Low temperature protection against cavitation e.g. turbines

and diesel engines
Iron, nickel, cobalt and stainless steel Particle erosion of screw elevator conveyors
coatings Repair and recycling
At high temperature up to 840 °C, engine, gas turbine
and engine construction

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Carbon steel coatings – depending on Resistance layers against friction

hardness Grain abrasion and particle erosion, recycling
Micro-porous layer stores lubricants, so that emergency
Exothermic material coatings operating features and abrasion resistance is very good
Intermediate layers (prepared surface)
Roller table rollers for the steel industry
Continuous casting rollers for the metallurgical industry
Straightening rollers for wires of all types
Moulds in the glass industry
Self-fluxing alloy coatings Drive shafts for roller double joints - running surfaces
coated with self-fluxing Cr-Ni alloy
Yokes
Shut-off valves
Coating for the sliding surface of irons
Gap compensation in turbines
Intake layers in turbines
Non-ferrous metal coatings
Chemical industry
Electrical industry
Hard-wearing and corrosion-resistant layers
Chemical and textile industry, foundries
Graphic arts industry for roller coating
Oxide-ceramic coatings
Insulating properties in the electric industry
(chrome oxide, aluminium, zirconium
Thermal protective layers
oxide)
Simmering valve seat on axle flanges for lorries
Repair of shaft bushes
Surfacing of frying pans and extrusion nozzles
Carbide alloy coatings Engines, barrel extruders, extruder housings pump anchor,
(tungsten-carbide, chromium carbide) shaft protection sleeves
Tungsten, tantalum and molybdenum
High-temperature resistance
coatings
Protection against corrosion in the chemical industry,
Plastics
e.g. pump casings, containers
Sample applications for thermal spraying
Blades for use in the agricultural sector (surfacing of the cutting edge with Ni-based materials)

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Protection against under-surface corrosion and wear on cookware and irons
Surfacing of cylinder surfaces Laser-engraved chromium oxide layers for the

graphical arts industry
Sandwich layers, e.g. insulation layer Al2O3

under a conductive Cu layer

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Surfacing of implants with a porous titanium layer, 3.5 quality control for thermal spraying
3.4.1 New European standards and directives for the qualification of personnel
If sprayed coatings need to meet increased requirements, the company that applies thermal spraying is
required to provide suitable quality control. This is the case in the aerospace and chemical industry for
example, when a layer failure would result in extremely high costs or even in a risk for public safety or
environment.
From this reason, product-based quality management was internationally adopted in 1999/2000,
DIN EN ISO 14922 – Quality requirements of thermally sprayed structures.
Parts 2 to 4 of the standard include three levels of quality requirements for spraying, i.e. comprehensive,
standard and elementary quality requirements. Thus, users have three options for the design of their QM
system which can be used independently or in conjunction with ISO 9000.
Quality assurance during operation is mainly based on three core elements /2/:
 Working equipment, resources and materials

 The spray coordinator
 The thermal sprayer.
To achieve and maintain a certain quality for the relevant products is generally largely connected with
the qualification of personnel.
Parts 2 and 3 of DIN EN ISO 14922 require both a qualified spraying supervisor in accordance with DIN
EN 13214 – Thermal spray coordination - and thermal sprayers, who have received training in
accordance with DIN EN ISO 14918 – Approval testing of thermal sprayers.
The EWF (European Welding Federation) has used the requirements to create a concept for the training
and testing of spraying personnel which is directly linked to DIN EN ISO 14922 or DIN EN ISO 14918. The
qualification system applies to the whole of Europe and is also recognised world-wide and assumes three
levels of training:
 Spraying specialist (ETSS) European Thermal Spraying Specialist

 Spray practitioner (ETSP) European Thermal Spraying Practitioner
 Thermal sprayer (ETS) European Thermal Sprayer.

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3.4.2 Preventive quality assurance and quality control on the component
Preventive quality assurance measures include:
 Intake control of filler materials  Control of working equipment
 Regular service of spray equipment and machinery  Cleanliness during work processing
 Mechanisation and automation of the spray process
The evaluation of the sprayed coating quality must always be viewed in connection with the subsequent
function and the resulting profile of requirements. Quality control is mainly only possible by a destructive
processing. Here, metallurgical examinations (section evaluations) and adhesive strength tests with the
following quality characteristics can be carried out using reference specimens:
 Chemical composition  Microcracks and separations
 Microstructure development and phase distribution  Layer hardness
 Non-melted particles and reaction products  Particle and phase hardness
 Layer thickness  Porosity and pore size
 Adhesion to the base material and internal bonding of

the sprayed coating, adhesive strength according to
DIN EN 582
At present the non-destructive testing of thermal sprayed coatings is only possible to a very limited
extent in practice.
3.5 Standards, directives and leaflets on thermal spraying
Table 3: Important German and European standards on thermal spraying
DIN EN ISO 14919:2001-10 Thermal spraying - Wires, rods and cords for flame and arc spraying
DIN EN 13507:2001-07 Thermal spraying - Pre-treatment of surfaces of metallic parts and components for thermal spraying
DIN EN 1395-1 to 7:2007 07 Thermal spraying - Acceptance inspection of thermal spraying equipment
DIN EN 1274:2005-02 Thermal spraying - Powders - Composition, technical supply conditions
DIN EN ISO 12944:1998-07 Protection against corrosion of steel constructions by coating and coatings; preparing and testing surfaces
DIN 65144:1986-4 Aerospace; thermally sprayed components; technical specification
DIN EN 582:1994-1 Thermal spraying; determination of tensile adhesive strength
DIN EN 657:2005-6 Thermal spraying; terms, classification
DIN EN ISO 2063:2005-05 Thermal spraying - Metallic and other inorganic coatings - Zinc, aluminium and their alloys

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Table 4: International standards for thermal spraying

Thermal spraying – ISO/TC 107/WG 1
ISO 2063:2005-03 Metallic and inorganic layers – Therm. spraying, zinc aluminium and its alloys DIN EN ISO 2063 IDT
ISO 14231:2000-06 Thermal spraying – Acceptance inspection of thermal spraying equipment – DIN EN 1395 IDT
ISO 14232:2000-06 Thermal spraying – Powders - Composition and technical supply conditions DIN EN 1274 IDT
ISO 14916:1999-08 Thermal spraying – Determination of tensile adhesive strength DIN EN 582 IDT
ISO 14917:1999-08 Thermal spraying; terms, classification DIN EN 657 IDT
ISO 14918:1998-10 Thermal spraying – Approval testing of thermal sprayers DIN EN ISO 14918 IDT
DIN 8566-1 to 3 E VGL
ISO 14919:2001-08 Thermal spraying – Wires, rods and cords for flame and arc spraying
DIN EN ISO 14919 IDT
ISO 14920:1999-02 Thermal spraying – Spraying and fusing of self-fluxing alloys DIN EN ISO 14920 IDT
Therm. Thermal spraying – Procedures for the application of thermally sprayed coatings for engineering
ISO 14921:2001-08 DIN EN ISO 14921 IDT
components
ISO 14922-1:1999-06 Quality requirements of thermally sprayed structures – Part 1: Guidance for selection and use DIN EN ISO 14922-1 IDT
ISO 14922-2:1999-06 Quality requirements of thermally sprayed structures – Part 2: Quality requirements DIN EN ISO 14922-2 IDT
ISO 14922-3:1999-06 Quality requirements of thermally sprayed structures – Part 3: Standard quality requirements DIN EN ISO 14922-3 IDT
ISO 14922-4:1999-06 Quality requirements of thermally sprayed structures – Part 4: Elementary quality requirements DIN EN ISO 14922-4 IDT
ISO 14923:2003-07 Thermal spraying – Characterisation and testing of thermally sprayed coating DIN EN ISO 14923 IDT
ISO 14924:2005-08 Thermal spraying – Post-treatment and finishing of thermally sprayed coatings E DIN EN ISO 14924 IDT
ISO 17834:2003-12 Thermal spraying – Coatings against corrosion and oxidation at elevated temperatures E DIN EN ISO 17834 IDT
ISO 17836:2004-11 Thermal spraying – Determination of the application rate for thermal spraying E DIN EN ISO 17836 IDT
Explanations of the footnotes and abbreviations
IDT DIN is IDENTICAL to the international standard/draft standard: ISO = International standard
Contents complete and unchanged; faithful in structure ISO/R = ISO recommendation
ISO/DIS = International draft standard
VGL DIN is similar to the international standard/draft standard ISO/TR = ISO technical report
1) under preparation ISO/CD = International call document
AD = Addendum

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Table 5: DVS leaflets or DVS directives for thermal spraying

DVS leaflets or DVS directives for thermal spraying
DVS leaflet 2301:2001-06 Thermal spray process for metallic and non-metallic materials
Protection against corrosion of steels and cast iron materials by thermally sprayed layers of zinc and
DVS leaflet 2302:2003-11
aluminium
DVS leaflet 2303-1:2003-12 Non-destructive testing of thermally sprayed layers; measuring of layer thickness
DVS leaflet 2304:2005-03 Checklist for quality control during thermal spraying
Part 1: Safety when degreasing and grit blasting surfaces for thermal spraying, 1999-01
DVS leaflet 2307
2: Occupational safety and environmental protection during thermal spraying, 2005-01
DVS leaflet 2308:2000-07 Basic principles for the design of components and workpieces for thermal spraying
Part 1: Guide to the production of metallographic microsections and the evaluation of thermally sprayed
layers: 2007-12
DVS leaflet 2310 Part 2: Guide to the production of metallographic microsections and the evaluation of thermally sprayed
layers
Comparison of professional and defective microsection preparations, 2007-12
DVS leaflet 2311:2008-02 Surface preparation of non-metallic materials for thermally sprayed layers
DVS leaflet 2312:2005-10 Guidelines for thermal spraying of plastics
DVS leaflet 2314:2004-11 Environmental protection during thermal spraying
DVS leaflet 2315:2005-10 Thermally sprayed coatings on components made from non-reinforced and fibre-reinforced plastics
4 Potential hazards during thermal spraying
Early detection of hazards and the implementation of appropriate measures to avoid hazards require
appropriate knowledge. Regulations for occupational health and safety are included in statutory
provisions and safety regulations.
Basic international regulations for occupational health and safety are included in two articles of the EU
treaty. The German Occupational Health Act (ArbSchG), the German Ordinance on Industrial Safety and
Health (BetrSichV), Accident Prevention & Insurance Association Health and Safety Regulations (BGV),
Rules (BGR), Principles (BGG) and Information (BGI) have acquired special significance for the national
implementation of the EU treaties and the resulting European regulations. There, the basic duties of
health and safety for employers and employees are stated which apply to all companies and
administrative bodies.
10.2 Hazards during thermal spraying

Personnel deployed in thermal spraying plants can be exposed to various stresses. The type and extent
of the actual stresses are largely dependent on the respective processes, the machine and, not least, the
spray material.

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All possible hazards are listed and evaluated in a risk analysis. A complete risk analysis should
determine and document the risk in detail posed by each point, the required research and the measures
to avoid the risk. The following points require particular attention in relation to the risks and stresses in
Figure 15.
 Risk from electric current
 Risk from by radiation
 Risk from noise
 Risk from pollutants such as gases, dust and fumes.
8.2.2 Electric current 8.2.3 UV/IR radiation 8.2.5 Dust and gases 8.3.4 Noise
Dust Gases
fibrogenic* toxic* carcinogenic irritant toxic*
Copper oxide Zinc oxide Chromium Ozone Carbon monoxide

Metal fume fever Metal fume fever compounds Irritant gas Highly toxic
Iron oxide Manganese oxide Cobalt oxide Nitrogen oxides Carbon dioxide
Irritation of the Gradual effect Irritant gas, dropsy Risk of suffocation
mucous mem-
branes
Silicon oxide Nickel oxide Phosgenic Fuel gases

Silicosis CFCs in the arc
Figure 15: Possible hazards posed by thermal spraying
5 Thermal surface coating processes – surface welding
Due to their process-specific properties, surface coating processes like thermal spraying and surface welding
have special application areas that can be difficult to distinguish from one another. Whereas thermal spraying
is mainly used in mechanical engineering and power engineering to prevent wear and corrosion, surface
welding is also used in high-wear areas involving feeding, shredding, grading and screening.
In practice, depending on its purpose, surface welding is subdivided into:
Table 6: Subdivision of surface welding according to use
Use Explanation
 Surface welding of reinforcements Surface welding with a cladding material that should be more
(welded reinforcements) wear resistant than the base material
 Surface welding of cladding Surface welding with a cladding material that should be more
(welded cladding) chemically resistant than the base material
 Surface welding of buffer layers Surface welding using a cladding material with properties that
(buffers) allow an appropriate bond between dissimilar materials

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5.1 Welding processes for surface welding
During surface welding, the level of dilution of the auxiliary and base material is extremely important (14).
Whereas deep penetration is required and beneficial in joint welding, the smallest possible penetration
depths and dilution levels are targeted in surface welding, so that the overlay layer should consist of just
one layer of filler with the appropriate properties. A low level of dilution also means that fewer layers are
required, in order to obtain the properties of the pure filler on the surface. Table 7 lists appropriate
welding processes for surface welding and their levels of dilution and deposition rates, as well as their
application areas.
Figure 14: Level of dilution of surface welding,

Example:
Welding process: MAG tandem welding

Filler Metal: Ni based alloy
Base metal: S235
Deposition rate: 12.7 kg/h
2
Coverage: 0.5 – 1.0 m /h
MAG tandem surface welding with special surfacing

technology is a new development in the area of surface
welding that allows very low dilution levels to be achieved.
Table 7: Suitable welding processes for surface welding, their dilution levels and deposition rates, as well as
application areas.
Dilution and
Welding process deposition rate Application area
(reference values)
Manual arc welding with
>20% Smaller cladding tasks in the vessel
Basic-coated electrode
>15% / up to 4 kg/h and valve, hard facings on construction
Stick electrode with rutile coating
>10% machines and equipment
Particular surfacing technic (piggyback)
MIG/MAG welding Corrosion and wear resistant surface
>20% / up to 8 kg/h
MIG/MAG tandem with special surface welding in vessel,
>5% / up to 15 kg/h
technology valve and tool construction
Submerged arc welding with Large-scale plating/cladding work in
>50%
Wire electrode vessel, apparatus and valve
>15% / up to 30 kg/h
Strip electrode construction
Large-scale plating/cladding work in
Electroslag welding with strip electrode >10% / up to 40 kg/h vessel, apparatus and valve
construction
Small-scale surface welding - corrosion
TIG welding >10% / up to 4 kg/h and wear-resistant surface welding in
vessel and valve construction
Corrosion and wear-resistant surface
Plasma Powder surfacing >5% / up to 6 kg/h welding in power engineering, in tooling
and mechanical engineering
Corrosion-resistant surface welding in
Plasma hot wire welding >10% / up to 14 kg/h
the offshore area

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The degree of dilution is heavily dependent on:

 Energy per unit length (heat-input)
 Surfacing technology and torch orientation (e.g. weaving, piggyback method, Figure 15)
 Polarity of the electrode (with SAW and MIG/MAG surface welding)
 Welding position
 Arc type and shielding gas (with MIG/MAG surface welding).
When choosing a welding process for surface welding, coverage is a fundamental criterion alongside the
dilution degree and deposition rate. The coverage indicates what area can be coated in one hour using
the welding process in accordance with the required layer properties. The coverage of a welding process
depends on the deposition rate, the thickness of each coating layer and the number of layers required, in
order to obtain an appropriately low degree of dilution at the surface of the coating layer.
Figure 15: Manual metal arc welding using the

“piggyback method”

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5.2 Filler materials for surface welding
Filler materials for surface welding are standardised in DIN EN 14700 in relation to classification,
description and designation. Classification involves 10 “iron-rich” alloy groups, 4 “iron-poor” alloy groups
and 3 “non-ferrous” alloy groups. The alloy groups identify the corresponding alloy elements, as well as
sample applications /3/.
Table 8 lists a selection of wear-resistant filler materials for depositions from the liquid (droplet) phase
during surface welding and thermal spraying.
Table 8: Choice of wear-resistant filler materials for surface welding and thermal spraying /4/
Processing Processing
Defined in Defined in
Element group Material system through through thermal
DIN EN 14700 DIN EN 1274 *
welding spraying
FeCrMoC X X
FeCrTiC X X
FeCrB X X
FeCrMoVC X X
Fe base FeCrMnC X X
Fe1-Fe20 FeCrC X X
FeCrNiMoC X X
FeCrNbC X X
FeCrMoNbWVC X X
FeCrCB X X
Ni base NiCrBSiFeC X X X X
CoCrWC X X
CO base CoCrWCBSi X X X
CoMoCrSi X X
Al2O3 X
X
Al2O3TiO2 X
Oxide ceramics
Cr2O3 X
X
Cr2O3SiO2 X
MoMoO3 X
Special materials
MoC X
Cr2C3NiCr X X
WCCoCr X X
Mixtures
WCNiCrBSi X X
MoNiCrBSi X X
* DIN EN 1274 sets down the standard for the composition and delivery conditions for fluxes of thermal spraying.
5.3 Standards and leaflets for surface welding
Table 9: Standards and leaflets for surface welding
DIN EN 14700:2005-08 Filler materials - filler materials for hardfacing

DVS leaflet 0935:1988-07 Electroslag surface welding with strip electrode
DVS leaflet 0940:1991-03 Submerged arc welding with strip electrode
DVS leaflet 3215:1999-02 Laser beam surface welding

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Welding cladding for increasing the service life of steam Reinforcement of a sand spinner gate for blasting
generator heating surfaces in incineration plants. machines.
Conveying fan in the timber industry with composite

slabs, wear-shielded. Wheeled loader shovel protected against abrasion and
impact.
Figure 16: Sample applications of surface coatings by surface welding

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6 Test questions
(1) Which of the listed processes is not associated with thermal spraying?
 CVD process
 Laser spraying
 Flame spraying of plastics
 Vacuum plasma spraying
 Cold gas spraying
(2) Why is the surface grit-blasted before coating?
 To clean the component.

 The surface is keyed and roughened.
 Grit blasting is cheaper than chemical cleaning
 The surfaces do not need to be roughened.
 So that as many spray particles as possible adhere during spraying.
(3) Which forms of energy are always required for thermal spraying?
 Thermal and potential energy.

 Electrical and thermal energy.
 Kinetic and potential energy.
 Internal and radiation energy.
 Thermal and kinetic energy.
(4) Which elements enable the “self-fluxing property” of nickel based alloys to be achieved during
flame spraying?
 Carbon and boron

 Boron and carbon
 Carbon and silicon
 Boron and silicon
 Boron and silicon and carbon
(5) How does plasma spraying differ from other spraying processes?
 It has the highest coverage due to the highest flame temperatures.

 Plasma spraying is suitable for processing ceramic materials.
 All materials can be processed for plasma spraying in wire form.
 It is the least expensive spray process.
 All materials can be processed for plasma spraying in powder form.

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(6) What are zinc layers used for?
 Wear protection
 Electrical insulation
 Corrosion protection
 To protect against high-temperature corrosion
 Thermal insulation layer
(7) Which measures are not associated with preventive quality assurance?
 Mechanisation and automation of the spray process.

 Intake control for materials and gases.
 Compliance with regular service intervals for spraying equipment.
 Monitoring the spraying personnel during thermal spraying.
 Cleanliness during work processes.
(8) What is the fundamental difference between thermally sprayed layers and surface-welded
coatings?
 There is no difference.
 Only wire-type materials can be processed using surface welding.
 During surface welding, the base material is fused on, resulting in a dilution.
 Thermally sprayed layers have a higher bond strength.
 During surface welding the base material is not fused on.

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7 Bibliography
/1/ Leaflet DVS 2301: Thermal spray process for metallic and non-metallic materials
Issue 2006-06
/2/ Böhme, D.: Qualitätssicherung beim Thermischen Spritzen – neue QM-Normen und neue
Richtlinien für die Personalqualifizierung. Tagungsband zur Großen Schweißtechnischen Tagung,
27. – 29.09.2000 Nuremberg
/3/ DIN EN 14700:2005-08: Filler materials - filler materials for hardfacing
/4/ Reimann, H.: Thermische Spritzschichten zum Verschleiß- und Korrosionsschutz im Vergleich zu
auftraggeschweißten Schichten. Tagungsband SLV Halle zur 3. Fachtagung Verschleißschutz von
Bauteilen durch Auftragschweißen, 17 - 18 May 2000
/5/ Lugscheider, E. (publishers): Handbuch der thermischen Spritztechnik

Technologien-Werkstoffe-Fertigung
Fachbuchreihe Schweißtechnik, Volume 139, DVS-Verlag, 2002
/6/ Mathesius, H. and Krömmer, W.: Praxis des thermischen Spritzens

Anleitung für das Fachpersonal
Die Schweißtechnische Praxis, Volume 37, DVS Media GmbH, 2009
The training course materials, including numerous tables and diagrams, have been prepared with the kind support
of Mr. Heinrich and Mr. Krömmer from the Linde Gas Division of LINDE AG.

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Fully mechanised processes and robotics Page 1
Chapter 1.15: Fully mechanised processes and robotics
Contents
1 Reasons for mechanisation ........................................................................................................... 3

2 Auxiliary material for mechanisation ............................................................................................. 3
3 Levels of mechanisation according to DIN 1910-100.................................................................... 5
4 Weld pool backing supports .......................................................................................................... 6
5 Assemblies and components ......................................................................................................... 7
6 Structure of industrial or welding robots ...................................................................................... 9
6.1 Definition of an industrial robot (according to DVS 0922) ........................................................... 9
6.2 Motion options for a body in the space ....................................................................................... 9
6.3 Kinematic structures ................................................................................................................. 10
6.4 Work zones .............................................................................................................................. 11
6.4.1 Hazard zone ...................................................................................................... 11
6.4.2 Main work zone .................................................................................................. 12
6.4.3 Secondary work zone (orientation area) ............................................................ 13
6.5 Axes and degrees of freedom of a welding robot ...................................................................... 13
7 Welding equipment for an industrial robot for gas-shielded metal arc welding....................... 15
7.1 Overview .................................................................................................................................. 15
7.2 Requirements for the sub-systems ........................................................................................... 17
7.2.1 Requirement for power source and control ........................................................ 17
7.2.2 Requirement for the shielding gas supply .......................................................... 17
7.2.3 Requirement for the filler material wire .............................................................. 17
7.2.4 Requirement for the wire feed, hose assembly and welding torches ................. 18
8 Programming................................................................................................................................. 18
8.1 Play-back programming (on-line).............................................................................................. 19
8.2 Teach-in programming (on-line) ............................................................................................... 19
8.3 Sensor-supported programming (on-line) ................................................................................. 19
8.4 Mixed programming (on-line/off-line) ........................................................................................ 19
8.5 Alphanumeric programming (off-line) ....................................................................................... 20
8.6 Graphical programming (off-line) .............................................................................................. 20
9 Control of movement sequences ................................................................................................. 20
9.1 Point-to-point controller (PTP) .................................................................................................. 20
9.2 Continuous path controller (CP) ............................................................................................... 21
9.3 Tool centre point (TCP) ............................................................................................................ 23
10 Coordinate systems for programming ........................................................................................ 23
10.1 Robot-related coordinate system (origin: robot base) ........................................................... 25
10.2 Manual axis-related coordinate system (origin: middle of the wrist joint) ............................... 25
10.3 Tool-related coordinate system (origin: reference point in the welding equipment) ............... 25

equipment
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10.4 Workpiece-related coordinate system (origin: workpiece) ..................................................... 25

11 Programming functions ................................................................................................................ 26
11.1 Functions with workpiece position changes .......................................................................... 26
11.2 Functions for movement control ........................................................................................... 28
11.3 Process guiding functions..................................................................................................... 28
12 Workpiece positioner .................................................................................................................... 28
12.1 Overview .............................................................................................................................. 28
12.2 Control and programming ..................................................................................................... 31
12.3 Loading manipulators ........................................................................................................... 31
13 Safety requirements...................................................................................................................... 32
14 Design and device information .................................................................................................... 33
15 Sensor systems ............................................................................................................................ 36
15.1 Overview .............................................................................................................................. 36
15.2 Geometry-oriented sensors .................................................................................................. 36
15.3 Process-oriented sensors ..................................................................................................... 40
16 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................. 43

equipment
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1 Reasons for mechanisation
 Economic reasons
 Shortage of trained manual welders
 Quality reasons
 Saving on expensive filler materials
 Humanisation and occupational safety
 Use of new technology
2 Auxiliary material for mechanisation
 Retaining and holding device

 Clamping devices in combination with backing strips
 Execution of weld movements
 Travel carriages
 Tool carriers
 Pylons or pivoting masts
 Positioning systems (DVS 0922 Part 5)

 Welding turntables and manipulators
 Turning facility
 Roller trestles
 Other auxiliary materials

 Torch switching systems
 Torch cleaning systems
 Anti-adhesion spray for sprayers
 Welding robot

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.15
Tractor travel carriage Beam travel carriage
Welding portal Jib crane
Turntable Container manipulator
Welding robot

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.15
3 Levels of mechanisation according to DIN 1910-100
In mechanised welding, the welding current strength, welding voltage and welding speed parameters are
set to fixed values. However, conditions on the workpiece change over the course of the weld (e.g. air
gap or temperature of the sheet metal).
Thus, although the roots may be correctly through-welded with the given parameters at one point, the
penetration may be too low at other points, or the weld pool created may be so big that the surface
tension is not sufficient to secure it to the workpiece, i.e. the weld pool “droops through”.
If the root is to be reliably executed along the whole weld, the parameters must be chosen accordingly
and falling through must be prevented using a backing strip.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.15
4 Weld pool backing supports
Web
Hand run
Ceramic backing
Backing strip
Copper backing
CB method (Copper-Backing)
Flux copper backing

FCB method (Flux-Copper-Backing)
Flux backing
FB (Flux-Backing)

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5 Assemblies and components
Example of a compact unit
No. Assembly Task Components Notes

1. Welding power Supply with welding Welding power source with Max. current with
source current servo unit standardised operating
voltage, duty cycle,
classification VDE 0540-43
2. Supply mechanism Generating the welding Reel for wire spool, wire Steady feed,
for filler material material, maintaining drive, regulator  I or  U regulation
the arc length
3. Welding head Bringing together the Wire guide, contact nozzle Setting and oscillating the
wire, current and (possibly with cooling), wire, current supply close to
auxiliary materials at auxiliary material nozzle the melting wire end
the welding point (flux or shielding gas),
guide, alignment mechanism
4. Workpiece holder Clamping and Clamping, rotating and Maintaining a steady welding
positioning the turning device, motor, gap, trying to weld in a
workpiece pneumatics, hydraulics, favourable position
magnets, ground connection
5. Device for changing Automated changing of Interchangeable platen, Only worthwhile with large
the workpiece the workpieces in the rotary table, grip arm, numbers of pieces
welding cycle longitudinal drive
6. Main drive for Relative movement Adjustable motor, Drive affects either the
welding speed between the welding continuous gears, welding head, receiver or both
head and workpiece servo unit
7. Auxiliary equipment Dosing the auxiliary Supply and removal of the Recovery of auxiliary
materials, occupational auxiliary materials, radiation materials, observe the
safety and protective shielding, safety regulations
extraction of welding smoke
and fumes

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8. Controller cabinet Switching, controlling Switching, measurement and Plug-in construction,

and regulating all control devices (also with sequence control
procedures, monitoring registering capability), control
and measuring panel, regulator for wire feed
in accordance with. 2
Examples of mechanised welding units
Degree of By hand Partially Fully mechanised Automatic

mechanisation mechanised
Designation Welding Welding Welding machine Automatic welding
equipment equipment machine
Associated assembly 1 1; 2; (4); (6) 1; 2; 3; 4; 6; 7; 8 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8
Characteristic data for arc welding
Deposition rate 1 – 3.5 2 - 25 3 - 10 3 - 25
kg/h (steel)
Welding time as a % 20 - 30% 30 - 50% 50 - 80% < 80%
of the basic time
(over 8 h)
Design of power 55% (35%) < 70%  100% 100%
source (Duty Cycle)
All All, preferably Flat, horizontal Flat, horizontal
welding position flat, horizontal vertical, horizontal, vertical, horizontal,
vertical position vertical up vertical down /up
Workpiece movement Usually none Usually none Mechanical or Mechanical or
during welding none none
Workpiece holder Any Any Fixed/roll support Fixed/roll support
Accuracy of Low Low- precise Precise Highly precise
workpiece preparation

equipment
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Robots are increasingly used in industry for handling tasks. Most robots are used for assembly, as well
as for spot and continuous welding. The main client for industrial robots, accounting for approx. 25% of
units, is still the automotive industry, although the use in small and medium-sized companies (e.g. for
continuous welding tasks) has significantly increased in recent times. As many robots are used for
applying coatings and a majority are used for spot-welding in the automotive industry, their increase is
very dependent on individual model cycles and the economic situation and is therefore subject to
extreme fluctuation.
6 Structure of industrial or welding robots
6.1 Definition of an industrial robot (according to DVS 0922)
Industrial welding robots are automatic motion machines with more than 3 axes whose movements in
terms of motion sequence and travel or angles can be freely programmed (i.e. without mechanical
intervention) and that may be sensor-guided. They are equipped with welding equipment and carry out
welding tasks.
6.2 Motion options for a body in the space
The degree of freedom is understood to mean the maximum of

six independent movements, that a body can perform in a
three-dimensional axis system. These are the three
translational (linear) degrees of freedom x, y, z, as well as the
three rotational degrees of freedom A, B, C.
The requirements for the free motion of a body in the space are
usually met by a 6-axis folding robotic arm.
Figure 1: Degree of freedom of a body in the space

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6.3 Kinematic structures
According to the definition, the mechanics of an industrial robot are characterised by more than three
freely programmable axes. A distinction is made between the main and secondary axes. They can
perform translational or rotational movements. Depending on the combination and dimensions of the
axes, different work spaces are created. The major axes are generally used to move to the points in
work space, while the – usually rotational – secondary axes determine the orientation of the equipment
at these points.
Figure 2:
Six-axis industrial robot with main and
secondary axes
The following pictures show possible combinations of translational and rotational axis systems – each
divided according to their main and secondary axes.
Figure 3: Different kinematic structures for industrial robots

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Figure 4: Industrial robot with a folding arm design
6.4 Work zones
6.4.1 Hazard zone
The hazard zone of a welding robot is the zone that can be covered by the robot and its parts, including
the connected welding equipment, based upon its assigned movement options. Figure 5 contains a
general representation of the space to be taken into account for planning purposes.
Work Zone Work Zone

Main work Secondary Main work Secondary
zone work zone zone work zone
Figure 5: Representation of the layout of the space for a welding robot

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According to VDI 2861, page 2, the work zone is divided into the main work zone (zone of the major axes)
and the secondary work zone (zone of the secondary axes, orientation zone). The dimensions of the
secondary work zone depend on the tools used (e.g. welding torch or spot welding head) and the
workpieces to be handled. Together with the unusable area, e.g. the area required for axes that protrude to
the rear, the work zone constitutes the fixed movement zone. For reasons of safety, the fixed movement
zone has also an adjoining variable movement zone (hazard zone). When a robotic welding system is
implemented, other moving system components, such as the workpiece positioner, must also be
considered.
The usable work zone is differently shaped, depending on the kinematic structure of the robot. Existing
ceiling levels, obstacles or cabin walls are to be taken into account when designing a robot system. In
this case, the work zone must be restricted by mechanically and electrically actuated limit switches.
6.4.2 Main work zone
The main work zone for a welding robot is the part of the work zone that can be reached by all main axial
movements. The following pictures show examples of different robot types with their main work zones.
Figure 6: ø 5,000 mm radius of the work zone for an “upright set-up” (left) and “suspended set-up” (right)
Figure 7: Extended work zone with subordinate 7th axis

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6.4.3 Secondary work zone (orientation area)
The secondary work zone is that part of the work zone that can be reached by the tip of the welding
torch or welding electrode in addition to the main work zone with the totality of all secondary axis
movements. For clarity in explaining the secondary work zone, the main axis can be regarded as
stationary.
Figure 8: Alternative representation of the secondary work zone
6.5 Axes and degrees of freedom of a welding robot
Robot kinematics using a folding arm construction with 6 rotational axes have proven particularly useful
for arc welding and also for resistance spot welding and are now in predominant use.
Figure 9: Schematic diagram of a 6-axis folding robot arm (source: KukaRoboter GmbH)

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SFI / IWE 1.15
In line with the loads that occur during arc welding, the load-bearing capacity at the wrist joint of such
kinematic structures is usually between 5 and 15 kg. For purposes of mechanical pressure joining,
resistance spot welding and workpiece handling, however, higher tool and workpiece weight requires a
load-bearing capacity at the wrist joint of up to 120 kg and more. As well as the absolute weight, the
resulting tilting moment plays an important role here (cf. “Loading on manipulators”). Repeating accuracy
and track accuracy depend on the joining technique used and are within the range of approx. . 0.05 mm
for TIG and plasma arc welding, approx. 0.1 mm to 0.2 mm for gas-shielded metal arc welding and
approx. 0.5 to 1.0 mm for resistance spot welding.
These days, robots are usually arranged in an upright position. A suspended set-up is also possible as
an alternative (cf. work zones). In addition to improving utilisation of the work zone, this arrangement
also leaves the floor free for positioners and workpiece transporting equipment. The work zone can also
be further increased by placing upright or suspended robots on linear travel carriages. These may take
the form of additional robot axes that are either freely programmable or that can be deactivated using
suitable reed switches.
Figure 10: Placement of welding robots on linear travel carriages
Figure 11: Further set-up options

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7 Welding equipment for an industrial robot for gas-shielded metal arc welding
7.1 Overview
The welding robot performs its purpose not as a single device, but rather just as a system. The following
components are involved in gas-shielded metal welding (Figure 12).
Figure 12: Basic design of a robot system for gas-shielded metal arc welding
Figure 13: Robot cell with workpiece positioner and safety equipment
Besides the robot mechanics, robotic controller, welding unit and corresponding sensor system, if any,
the system also features positioners for the workpiece and, of course, the appropriate safety devices
(Figure 13). The efficiency of each system depends on how well as its individual components comply
with certain tolerances. The individual components are discussed below. DVS leaflet 0922, T3 contains
an overview of the welding equipment for a robot system.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.15
Welding equipment
3 Welding power 4 Wire feed 5 Welding torch and 6 Monitoring

source system additional equipment
3. 1 Control 4.1 Wire unwinding 5.1 Torch

device
4.2 Wire feed unit 5.2 Hose assembly
5.3 Torch holder
5.4 Shutdown safety switch
5.5 Torch alignment device
5.6 Torch change device
5.7 Torch cleaning equipment
5.8 Torch cooling equipment
Figure 14: Welding equipment for an industrial robot (according to DVS leaflet 0922 Part 3)
The power supply for the system can enable previously saved programs to be called up by means of
digital inputs or outputs of the robotic controller, or can be activated by the control by means of analogue
control voltages. The wire feed unit must ensure the even feeding of the wire electrode. The hose
assembly, as an elastic connection between wire electrode drive and torch, should be as short as
possible for technical reasons on the one hand, while also permitting the unrestricted motion of the robot
in the whole work zone on the other. The torch should be small and slim, in order to ensure that the
welds are easily accessible, while at the same time being robust enough to withstand challenging
operations with a long duty cycle. In addition to the classic wrist joint, in which the torch hose assembly
is arranged along the outside of the bionic arm, robots with a hollow shaft structure are becoming more
common in production. The robot hose assembly is routed within the fourth axis. This reduces the
disturbance variable for the welding torch and torch holder and the hose assembly is no longer at risk of
catching on the component or peripherals.

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7.2 Requirements for the sub-systems
The requirements for the individual elements of a welding robot system are listed briefly below.
7.2.1 Requirement for power source and control
 Suitability of the power source for robotic controller (parameter transfer)

 Design of the power source for 100% duty cycle with welding current
 High open-circuit voltage for reliable ignition
 Compensation of mains voltage
 Adjustment options for:

- Flow and return time of shielding gas
- “Creeping” by the filler material wire
- Free arcing time of the wire (burn-back)
- End crater filling weld
- Oscillation/weaving
 Pulse technology for:
- Thin sheets
- Positional welding
- Aluminium
- Low spray formation (avoidance of mixed/ globular arc mode)
7.2.2 Requirement for the shielding gas supply
 Constant composition and flow

(oxygen-acetylene mixers up to 10% tolerance)
 Reduction of the formation of spray by decreasing the amount of CO2
 If necessary, forming equipment for welding CrNi steel
7.2.3 Requirement for the filler material wire
 Robot quality if possible:

- Surface, coppering (distortion testing)
- Geometry (roundness)
- Restrictions in the chemical analysis
(e.g. the volume flow characteristics of the melt are influenced by the elements Mn and Si)
 Low and constant wind-up and straightening of wire
(particularly with barrel coils)
 Large wire spools:
- Large mass (start-up problems)
- Possible imbalance (damper gap, propulsion)

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7.2.4 Requirement for the wire feed, hose assembly and welding torches
 4-roller drive (alignment of the wire)

 Push/pull technology, particularly for:
- Thin wires
- Aluminium filler materials
 Design of the hose assembly:
- Few large arcs
- Adjustment in main welding direction
- Peen relieving (gallows)
 Regular control and replacement of the wire contact tube and wire core, for example.
 Water-cooled torch (as far to the front of the gas nozzle as possible)
 Dynamometer (collision monitoring)
 Torch gauge
 Torch replacement system (optional)
 Torch cleaning equipment
8 Programming
A basic distinction can be made between on-line (direct) and off-line (indirect) programming. In addition,
there are also mixed types.
On-line: Production of the program on the robotic controller
(Robot is not available for production purposes during programming)
Off-line: Production of the program on special programming stations
Direct programming Mixing process Indirect programming
On-line On-line/off-line Off-line
Play-back Teach in Sensor-supported Alphanumeric Alphanumeric Graphical

programming, programming programming
Completion of a Movement to points Automatically learned points
sequence followed by followed by saving generated
saving support points
 Direct movement  Movement through  Specification of  Definition of  Description of  Sequence points

through the axis by the axes and input support points by space points the handling from CAD data
means of manual of the program teach-in (on-line) sequence using  Addition of
intervention sequence by  Intermediate  Program a programming welding data
 Input of technical means of the sequence calculated preparation at a language
information programming with sensor support separate station
device
Figure 15: Programming process for producing robot programs

equipment
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8.1 Play-back programming (on-line)
Instead of the welding tool, a guide stylus is usually used here during programming. The programmer
applies this to the workpiece “by hand” and with appropriate orientation (corresponds to subsequent tool
orientation) along the seam to be welded.
The controller saves the respective position of the robot axes at short intervals. Finally, the saved
movement program is supplemented with the necessary additional information, such as process speed,
welding on/off, welding parameters, etc. by means of a corresponding input device.
8.2 Teach-in programming (on-line)
The teach-in process is currently most frequently used, for gas-shielded arc welding using robots, for
example. This is where the space points are approached based on the TCP of the welding tool and
under consideration of subsequent torch orientation. The robot moves along the axes at the press of a
button or with the aid of a joystick on the hand-held programming device (HPD). Besides saving space
points, it is also possible to supply additional information to the robotic controller on the HPD:
- Speed and acceleration
- Determination of the controller type (e.g.: PTP or CP)
- Setting and sensing input and output signals
- Welding on / off
- Input of welding parameters
A prompt is generally provided during programming to allow additional information to be entered:
- Set-up of a subroutine structure

- Variable declaration
- Program inquiries and changes
- Input of welding and sensor data
When the program runs in automatic mode, the instructions are carried out in the given order. This
means that the programmer makes all decisions about what the robot has to do in the individual points
when entering the space points.
8.3 Sensor-supported programming (on-line)
The sequence of the robot movements is set in general terms by the programming of support points (e.g.
teach-in). The intermediate sequences are recorded automatically in a special sensor routine. In
addition, the robot moves through the sequence under the guidance of the sensor. The position of all
robot axes is queried and sequentially registered by the controller in given temporal and spatial intervals.
The resulting movement program is subsequently supplemented by the additional information
(e.g. welding parameters).
8.4 Mixed programming (on-line/off-line)
This is generally where teach-in programming takes place in conjunction with alphanumeric command
input. The program sequence is defined by a program created in a controller-specific language. It
contains information about:
- Sequence of entered space points
- Welding data
- Control of peripheral devices

equipment
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8.5 Alphanumeric programming (off-line)
This type the programming involves entering the space point coordinates and the torch orientations
on the keyboard of the programming station. In order to create the program, it is necessary either
to enter each instruction separately or to compile the entire program sequence using given macros.
8.6 Graphical programming (off-line)
The sequence points are transferred from the usual CAD data of components and the torch orientation
and welding data are added. All data must be transformed in line with the geometric conditions of the
robot cell into the robot reference system. This requires that the entire robot cell, including the
equipment, should first be modelled in a graphic 3D model. The input of a collision-free movement
sequence in accordance with the torch orientation continues to cause difficulties with complex workpiece
geometries in particular. Thus, local “fine corrections” are always possible using the robot in the teach-in
process. CAD-based off-line programming offers the following advantages, among others:
 Parallel work on the virtual machine and the real production equipment
 Accessibility and collision test
 Feasibility studies
 Process planning
 Determination of cycle times
9 Control of movement sequences
A distinction is generally made between two types of controller in the procedure options between two
space points.
9.1 Point-to-point controller (PTP)

The PTP controller (point-to-point) is not generally
applicable to continuous welding, because the
sequence of the TCP is not defined between two space
points. In addition, only axis-related speeds can be
defined, so that it is not possible to move the torch head
at a constant speed. For this reason, the PTP controller
is generally only used for resistance spot welding or for
placement and repositioning movements. The possible
collisions by the welding tool due to the undefined
sequences must be excluded in a test pass. If
necessary, ancillary points must be programmed to
avoid collisions.
In an improved version of the PTP controller, all axes
reach the given target position at the same time
(synchronised PTP). Because the track points are
programmed at short intervals within a given time,
synchronised PTP control can also be used for
continuous welding tasks. The programmed sequence
Figure 16: PTP controller is observed with increasing accuracy the more space
points there are for each sequence unit.

equipment
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9.2 Continuous path controller (CP)

Continuous path controllers have the advantage of
guiding the welding equipment through defined
sequences (straight lines, circles) through the functional
correlation of the axial movements. This is achieved
through internal controller interpolation and coordinate
transformation. Continuous path controllers are
generally used with robots for gas-shielded arc welding,
as the torch nozzle can be moved between two chosen
space points at a constant speed and selectable torch
orientation.
Programming effort is minimal because, for example, it
is only necessary to program the starting point and
finishing point for a straight line. This means that the
programmer can concentrate on the programming task,
without having to take the kinematic structure of the
robot into consideration.
In case of additional external axes, the movement
processes can be taken into account on the controller
when controlling the robot.
Figure 17: CP controller
The following pictures again show the different movement sequences of the two controller types.

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.15
Point-to-point controller (PTP) Continuous path controller (CP)
[1] [1]
Start position Start position
[2] [2]
[3] [3]
Figure 18: Movement sequences in PTP and CP mode

equipment
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9.3 Tool centre point (TCP)
The term TCP refers to a point on the welding equipment that can be given to the robot by the
programmer via the hand-held programming device. The TCP processing allows the robot to move
around the TCP. This makes it possible to adjust the tool's orientation to the workpiece, without leaving
the TCP.
The TCP is placed on the wire electrode end for gas-shielded arc welding. Based on robot spot-welding,
the TCP is to be chosen above the upper electrode. Thus, the clamp can retain the point welding
position in extreme situations, e.g. close to the clamping device. The robot can be guided around this
point in order to obtain the necessary additional free space or a better clamp position.
It should be noted that a new TCP must be defined for every welding tool adapted to the manual flange
of the robot. The spatial coordinates of the tool are stored in the controller as a variable. For this reason,
the previously declared tool is called at the start of each program.
In particular, after the welding tool has collided with the device, for example, the tool is to be checked to
ensure if dimensional accuracy is correct, or the TCP is to be redefined. The manual measurement of
the TCP can be relatively complex. That is why almost all manufacturers now offer automatic TCP
measurement. This can be achieved using photosensors along the x, y and z axis, for example. Another
option is to move towards a probe tip from four different directions and to use the necessary axial
movements to determine the position of the TCP on the equipment.
Figure 19: Automatic measurement of the TCP (gas-shielded arc welding)
10 Coordinate systems for programming
The position of any point in space is clearly determined by three parameters, which are expressed in
intervals and/or angles in relation to the origin of the coordinate system. The following picture shows how
different coordinate systems are defined.

equipment
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Cartesian coordinate system Cylinder coordinate system Polar coordinate system

Figure 20: Different coordinate systems
In addition to the movement of individual robot axes, it is also possible to program movements in
different coordinate systems.
Robot-related Manual axis-related
Tool-related Workpiece-related
Figure 21: Programming coordinate systems

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10.1 Robot-related coordinate system (origin: robot base)
The origin is located at the centre of the robot base and is defined by this, irrespective of the position of
the robot. The direction of the x-axis of the coordinate system is clearly defined by the reference position.
10.2 Manual axis-related coordinate system (origin: middle of the wrist joint)
The origin is located at the intersection of the axes of rotation of the wrist joint. A change in the position
and orientation of the manual axes also causes the manual axis-related coordinate system to change
direction. The direction of the x-axis is dictated by the position of the manual axis flange.
10.3 Tool-related coordinate system (origin: reference point in the welding equipment)
The origin is located in the TCP of the welding tool (e.g. wire tip). In gas-shielded arc welding, the z
direction is normally the direction of the wire as it leaves the torch and must be defined by a second
ancillary point.
10.4 Workpiece-related coordinate system (origin: workpiece)
The origin and position of the coordinate system on the workpiece are defined by the programmer.

equipment
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11 Programming functions
A series of different auxiliary materials are available to the programmer to enable the robot to be
programmed. A distinction is made between functions with workpiece position changes, functions for
controlling movement, functions for process control, and subroutine technology.
11.1 Functions with workpiece position changes
Program translation
Program translation involves the parallel movement of
the program along the three basic coordinates. The
program or a subroutine can be executed at a different
point in the work zone by defining two reference points
(P1, P1).
Figure 22: Program translation (“move ”)
Program rotation
This function allows the program or subroutines to be
rotated on any axis, involving the adjustment of welding
tool orientation.
Figure 23: Program rotation

equipment
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Program translation and rotation

Program translation and rotation are parallel actions.
A program or program section can be executed at a
different point in the work zone by defining six reference
points (P1, P2, P3 or P1, P2, P3).
Figure 24: Program translation and rotation
Program reflection
Program reflection means that the program is
transformed as in a mirror. A program or program
section can be executed as in a mirror by defining six
reference points (P1, P2, P3 or P1, P2, P3).
Figure 25: Program reflection

equipment
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11.2 Functions for movement control
Linear motion
The movement of the TCP between two programmed space points is linear and at a constant speed.
The orientation of the welding tool is freely selectable and is defined by the orientation at the starting and
final positions.
Circular motion
The movement of the TCP is circular. Full or partial circles are defined by at least three circle points.
Speed between any two of these points is constant. The orientation of the welding tool is freely
selectable and is defined by the orientation in the three track points.
Weaving motion
The movement of the TCP oscillates and overlays a programmed track. The oscillating motion is defined
by entering an oscillation figure, amplitude and frequency or length.
11.3 Process guiding functions
In order to guide the process during gas-shielded arc welding it is necessary to supply the following
parameters to the robotic controller:
 Welding speed
 Welding parameters
 Oscillating parameters, if necessary
 Sensor parameters, if necessary
These parameters are processed internally within the controller, or output by the robotic controller as
analogue or digital signals in order to control the welding equipment, for example. The given parameters
can be changed during welding.
Subroutine technology
If a section of a program is to be run several times within a procedure, then this program section is
defined as a subroutine. Further subroutines can be called within a subroutine (nesting).
12 Workpiece positioner
12.1 Overview
A general distinction is made between robot positioning and component positioning. The purpose of
positioning is to rotate the component and robot in relation to one another in order to reach the optimum
welding position and to enlarge the work zone of the robot for large components. The motion options are
adjusted to the relevant workpiece. Component positioners also carry tools for holding and clamping the
components before and during the welding process. Compact units are often equipped with
interchangeable or reversible positioners that allow the component to be welded and fitted in parallel.
This reduces auxiliary process times and increases the economic efficiency of the machine.

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The following is an overview of possible execution variants:
Figure 26: Manipulator Figure 27: Manipulator with inclined tilting axis
Figure 28: Single-axis positioner with swivel axis Figure 29: Single-axis positioner with linear axis
Single-axis positioners with swivel axis or linear axis (Figure 30 and Figure 31) are only suitable for
placing the clamped workpiece in the robot's work zone and for clamping the workpiece outside the
robot's work zone.
Figure 30: Single-axis positioner with axis of rotation Figure 31: Orbital manipulator with stroke axis

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Standard manipulators are two-axis, rotatory positioners with one rotating and one tilting axis.
The direction of rotation is usually n x 360°, while the tilting axis is 135°, rotating. When the workpiece is
tilted, a simultaneous forward and downward movement takes place within the robot's working zone.
The table axis is located at a distance x from the tilting axis.
Figure 32: Tilting motion
Further examples for the arrangement of workpiece positioners
Figure 33 Figure 34
Figure 35 Figure 36

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Single-axis and multi-axial positioners can be mounted as single or as multiple arrangement on a vertical
swivel axis. As an alternative to a multiple arrangement with a vertical swivel axis, two or more
positioners can be moved into the robot work zone by translation. The loading stations are then
alternately to the left and right of the robot.
12.2 Control and programming
Additional axes for the robots and workpiece positioners can be clocked by suitable controls and drives,
and are programmable or CNC controlled.
Clocked positioning axes can be operated pneumatically, hydraulically or electrically. The retaining
positions are mechanically fixed, e.g. by means of cam shafts. Sufficient positioning accuracy in the
small number of positions is usually achieved by low-backlash drives or additional stops.
In the case of programmable axes, a higher number of retaining positions is possible than with clocked
axes. The retaining positions can be distributed at random along the axis and are then fixed in place.
Travel is recorded by incremental generators or resolvers.
Positioning axes with their own CNC control communicate via a computer interface or via digital signals
with robotic controller. The programmable positions are stored separately from the robot positions.
The external axes cannot be controlled simultaneously with the robot. They can, however, be operated
independently of the robot.
In the case of CNC robotic controllers, additional robot axes and positioning axes are controlled in the
form of external axes. Control and peripherals form a single unit, so that it is possible to synchronise the
positioner and the robot.
12.3 Loading manipulators
A manipulator moved to vertical position cannot be loaded with a workpiece of any conceivable weight.
The permissible loads are summarised in loading diagrams. These diagrams do not allow tilting moment
or torque to be determined, but rather define the maximum permissible load for guaranteed safety
against overturning.
Figure 37: Example for the calculation of safety against tilting
In the above example, the distance between the centre of gravity of the component to the top edge of the
table (dimension a) with a load of 2,750 kg may be max. 750 mm in order to avoid the possible tilting of
the table. Or, to put it another way: at a distance of a = 750 mm, the component may have a maximum
weight of 2,750 kg, if the table is still guaranteed not to tilt.

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13 Safety requirements
The robot workplace must comply with the accepted, applicable rules for occupational safety, which also
apply to other automated manufacturing equipment. Furthermore, your attention is drawn to DIN EN ISO
10218-1 “ Robots And Robotic Devices - Safety Requirements For Industrial Robots - Part 1: Robots”.
When establishing a robot cell, the following safety measures are to be considered:
 Separating safety device for shielding the robot's hazard zone during automatic mode. This can be a
fence, for example, in which the entrances to the cell are protected with a door monitoring by means
of a safety switch.
 In the case of supply and discharge openings, risky movements (e.g. by turntables and supply carts)
are to be protected by:
- a light curtain or light barrier
- a switching mat or safety shut-off mat
- two-hand control device
- mobile protection device
 Safety precautions involving the limitation of the movement area to avoid crushing and shearing can
be achieved through:
- mechanically adjustable stops
- technical control measures
 Safety precautions in automatic mode:
- “automatic” mode selection switch
- an effective protection device (door monitor, light curtain, safety shut-off mat)
- an unmanned work zone (no personnel in the separate zone)
 Safety measures in set-up mode:
If possible, the operator should be outside the protected area during set-up. Since this is often not
possible, it must be ensured that dangerous movements are only carried out at reduced speed
during set-up operations in the direct vicinity of the robot. This is achieved with the hand-held
programming device in touch control mode and with the appropriate EMERGENCY STOP
equipment.
 The following requirements apply when testing at operating speed:
- a key switch is used to override the mandatory reduced speed
- the operator is outside the hazard zone
- an activator switch and EMERGENCY STOP are required in addition to the touch control switch

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14 Design and device information
Welding by means of robot systems has different requirements than manual or semi-automatic welding
in terms of designs suitable for welding or device construction. The principles for robot-appropriate
design are set out below.
Figure 38: Influence of the welding fixture on component design
Joint preparation:
Preferred weld joint forms:

- Fillet weld, butt weld with backing strip or root face, lap joint, single bevel butt weld seam
Feasible weld joint forms:

- Butt weld between plates with raised edges
Weld joint forms to be avoided:

- Butt weld without backing strip, corner weld without overlapping, single bevel butt weld
Figure 39: Application of general structural principles (1)

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Backing strip methods involving structural

arrangement on the component (notch effect must
be considered, especially with dynamic loading)

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Figure 43: Robot systems: Component-specific (top) and torch-specific (bottom) accessibility

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15 Sensor systems
15.1 Overview
Sensors can increase the flexibility of robot welding systems. Assembly-related tolerances or off-line
programming requirements (divergence between programmed and actual track progression) may make it
necessary to use a sensor. Of the familiar geometry- and process-oriented sensor systems, arc sensors
in conjunction with tactile sensors are the most widely used in industrial applications.
Every physical measurement principle that can supply information about the position or geometry of a
workpiece can serve as the initial source for a sensor. The special environmental conditions during arc
welding and the demands made by material, component geometry and robotic system may lead to
considerable restrictions. Sensors for arc welding are subdivided into geometry- and process-oriented
systems (Figure 44).
Geometry-oriented sensors take their signals from the geometry of the groove or from a defined edge or
surface running towards it. They are differentiated according to whether or not they measure through
contact. Process-oriented sensors are divided according to the evaluation of primary process parameters
(e.g. the arc) or secondary process parameters (e.g. visual recording of the weld pool). During arc welding
with industrial robots, sensors with different measurement principles are used for different tasks.
Figure 44: Overview of applicable sensor principles (according to DVS 0927-1)
15.2 Geometry-oriented sensors
Tactile sensors
In addition to the commonly used mechanical sensors, such as styluses or pressure rollers that scan the
surface, the gas nozzle sensor is a particularly simple way to register the position of the component and
thus to calculate the actual position of the weld. By applying the gas nozzle (or stick-out) to the
component, differences in potential in the nozzle, to which a low voltage is applied, are converted into
geometric data and processed in the control. For this purpose, a test area (range of tolerance) is
programmed in which the edge to be detected is assumed to be located. The torch moves along the
search path at an extremely slow speed, until it encounters the workpiece and passes the determined
position to the robotic controller. The length of the test area defines the measurement range of the
sensor. The larger the area selected, the greater the variations that can be determined, and the more
time spent searching for the edge, depending on how far the edge is from the beginning of the test area.

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Figure 45: Tactile sensor above the gas nozzle
Non-contact sensors
Laser sensors are easily the most common non-contact sensors used in welding technology.
A distinction is made between laser off-line and laser on-line sensors. In the case of so-called laser
scanners, the beam from an integrated laser light source is deflected across the relevant measurement
area by means of mirror systems. At every moment of the scan process just one point on the workpiece
surface is lit up and at the same time reflected on an opto-electronic detector by the reflected laser light.
The synchronisation of transmitter and receiver produces a surface profile signal of the weld area.
Figure 46: Principle of the laser scanner (triangulation principle)
Restrictions with the application of a laser scanner measuring system arise from the size of the forward-
moving measuring system and the distance to the actual welding process. The application of such
sensors in small area-restricted clamping devices and in weld geometry with small radii is difficult or
complicated.
In the case of laser off-line sensors, the sensor, which is mounted directly next to the torch, often does
not move across the workpiece in the same direction as the electrode, without arcing. Workpiece edges,
clamping position, workpiece rotation, workpiece tolerances, weld start and finish, joint preparation
tolerances and the gap width can be determined in this way. This data can even be used to calculate the
filling volume. Following measurement, the robot directs the sensor out of the weld area and positions
the stick-out above the starting position found.

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Laser on-line sensors perform measurement directly in front of the arc during the welding process and
can register the same parameters as the off-line sensors. Because it is used during welding, it can also
detect thermal distortion. Furthermore, there is no need for separate measurement, enabling a clear
reduction in the cycle time.
Figure 47: Laser off-line sensor Figure 48: Laser on-line sensor
Adaptive welding
The robot uses the determination of thermal distortion by the laser on-line sensor for so-called “adaptive
welding”. The control adjusts the welding parameters to changing groove geometry. If this changes, e.g.
due to changing tolerances or thermal distortion, the sensor recognises this and causes the welding
parameters to be adapted accordingly. If a groove contracts, the control reduces the oscillation/ weaving
width or the wire feed, for example, or increases the welding speed to prevent excessive weld metal or
the drooping through of the root.
Developments in recent years have mainly concentrated on the development of visual measurement
principles and their implementation in corresponding sensor systems. Relatively simply constructed laser
distance sensors can be used to measure distances between the component and the sensor head
according to the triangulation principle.
A wide variety of physical measurement principles can be used in sensor technology. Further examples
are the inductive sensor (variation of inductivity in different coil systems, Figure 49) or even the
capacitive distance sensor familiar from cutting technology (Figure 50).

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Figure 49: Active principle of the inductive sensor Figure 50: Active principle of the capacitive sensor

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15.3 Process-oriented sensors
Space tracking with the arc as sensor
Weld guidance systems with process-oriented sensor systems use the arc not just as an energy carrier,
but also as a sensor. The electric signals derived from a change in arc length are used to control servo-
motors.
The use of an arc sensor generally requires a mechanical oscillation/weaving of the welding torch
(Figure 51 and Figure 52). The magnetic deflection of the arc is used much less often (Figure 53).
Mechanical oscillation
Figure 51: Equal amperage on both sides - Wire Figure 52: Amperage higher on left than right - Wire
electrode correctly positioned electrode too far to the left

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Magnetic oscillation
Figure 53: Placement of the magnets for deflecting the arc and
deflecting the arc in a magnetic field
Arc sensor - limits of the process

When an arc sensor is used, the following points can lead to errors during measurement:
- Arc is too broad (A)
- Melting weld flank (B)
- The groove opening angle is too large
- The weave amplitude is too broad
Figure 54: Arc sensor: Process limits

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If recent developments in the area of sensor systems are considered, then the hypothesis that
“no sensor is the best sensor” cannot be sustained. However, it is important to recognise that every
sensor system has its specific area of application and therefore a universal sensor for all areas of
welding technology does not exist.
The total costs in production cannot be reduced by “exaggerated” sensor use. Instead, every case entails a
compromise between limitations in component tolerances thanks to optimised prefabrication and developed
welding technology, which does not exclude the economically efficient use of sensors (Figure 55).
Figure 55: “Component tolerance” as a cost factor

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16 Bibliography
/1/ DVS 0921 Load-carrying diagrams for turntables and manipulators

/2/ DVS 0922, Part 1 Industrial robot systems for welding, cutting, bonding and coating
/3/ DVS 0922, Part 2 Industrial robot systems for gas-shielded arc welding
Control and programming functions
Welding equipment for TIG/MAG welding
Positioning systems for workpieces and industrial robots
/6/ DVS 0929 Structural information for TIG/MAG welding for industrial robots
/7/ DVS 0939 Tolerances for fully mechanised gas-shielded metal arc welding and cutting
with industrial robots
/8/ DVS 2937 Resistance welding with industrial robots
/9/ VDI 2860 Handling functions, handling equipment, terms, definitions, symbols
/10/ DIN EN ISO 10218-1 Industrial robots – safety requirements – Part 1: Robots

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Brazing and soldering Page 1
Chapter 1.16: Brazing and soldering
Contents
1 Importance of soldering technology.............................................................................................. 2

2 Definition of soldering, delineation with respect to other joining techniques ............................ 2
2.1 Definition of soldering ................................................................................................................. 2
2.2 Classification of soldering processes .......................................................................................... 3
2.3 Commonly used terms ............................................................................................................... 4
3 The processes that occur during soldering .................................................................................. 5
3.1 Important prerequisites for soldering .......................................................................................... 6
3.2 Activation of surfaces for soldering ............................................................................................. 6
3.3 The solder process during flame soldering ................................................................................. 7
4 General rules for soldering ............................................................................................................ 7
5 Geometric influences on the strength properties ......................................................................... 8
5.1 Influence of the braze gap width during gap brazing................................................................... 8
5.2 Design rules for soldered joints (selection): ................................................................................ 9
6 (Minimum) overlap on soldered joints ......................................................................................... 10
7 Base metals that can be soldered................................................................................................ 10
8 Solders and welding consumables .............................................................................................. 12
8.1 Solders ..................................................................................................................................... 12
8.2 Classification of solder groups .................................................................................................. 12
8.3 Standardised designations of solders ....................................................................................... 13
8.4 Fluxes ...................................................................................................................................... 14
8.5 Alternative options for surface activation .................................................................................. 15
9 Classification and selection of soldering processes.................................................................. 16
9.1 Classification into groups and sub-groups according to DIN EN ISO 4063:2011-3 ................... 16
9.2 Selection of a number of typical or important processes based on ISO 4063 ........................... 17
9.2.1 Brazing with local heating .................................................................................. 17
9.2.2 Brazing with complete heating ........................................................................... 19
9.2.3 Braze welding (97) ............................................................................................. 20
9.2.4 Arc brazing/gas-shielded metal arc soldering (972, 973) ................................... 20
9.2.5 Laser soldering (976) ......................................................................................... 21
10 Testing options on soldered joints .............................................................................................. 22
10.1 General requirement for a soldered joint .............................................................................. 22
10.2 Test standards for soldered joints ......................................................................................... 22
11 Imperfections and quality classes in brazed joints .................................................................... 23
12 Occupational safety when soldering ........................................................................................... 23
13 Test questions............................................................................................................................... 24
14 DVS guidelines/leaflets, referenced standards, bibliography .................................................... 25
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1 Importance of soldering technology
Soldering is an important joining technique; it is required to manufacture an extremely diverse and large
number of bonded joins. Over the last approximately 30 years, soldering has seen a rapid growth in
popularity in the field of joining; it is a totally indispensable joining technique in all areas of technology.
Soldered joints are part of the group of metallic, bonded and inseparable joints. Soldering technology
has reached a never before seen technical level and is constantly developing into new directions. The
options and application advantages are not always sufficiently known within engineering, or are still
underestimated.
2 Definition of soldering, delineation with respect to other joining techniques
2.1 Definition of soldering

In contrast to fusion welding, the parts to be joined are not heated to melting temperature during
soldering. The alloy composition of the filler metal (solder) is not the same as the base metal. The sol-
dered joint is created by filling a braze gap using the capillary effect or by filling a soldering groove (Fig-
ure 1). A transition zone is formed, through the interaction at the interface between the solder and the
workpiece, creating a bonded, metallic connection.
The actual joining mechanism derives from a diffusion process between the alloy elements of the solder
and the base metal.
The resultant metallic “bonded” joint offers the advantage of very good heat and current transmission
and generally with a mechanical strength that is on a par with the base metal.
With soldering, the filler material (“solder”) possesses two characteristic properties with respect to the
base metal:
 The melting point of the solder is lower than that of the base metal.
 The solder wets the pieces to be joined, i.e. at the interface between the solder and the base metal an alloy
is formed through diffusion in the area close to the surface (bonding mechanism).
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2.2 Classification of soldering processes

The following are the most frequent classification criteria
According to the melting temperature of the solder:
 (Soft) soldering process: Solders have a liquidus temperature below 450 °C

 Brazing process: Solders have a liquidus temperature above 450 °C
According to characteristic features:
 Type of oxide removal

– Using fluxes
– Shielding gas soldering
– Auto shielding gas soldering
– Vacuum soldering
– Friction soldering
– Ultrasonic soldering
– Soldering with self-fluxing solders
 Methods of solder feed

– Soldering with face-fed solder
– Soldering with applied or pre-placed solder (solder pre-form)
– Soldering with solder-coated parts
– Soldering with reaction solder
– Dip soldering
 Type of manufacturing procedure

– Manual soldering
– Partially/completely mechanised soldering
– Automatic soldering
 Shape of the soldered joint

– Braze welding
– Gap brazing
– Surfacing by brazing
With gap brazing the surfaces of the workpieces to be joined have a small, often parallel braze gap. The
maximum permissible braze gap is often in the range from 0.1 to 0.3 mm (in exceptional cases up to
0.5 mm). Gap brazing is performed for all joint forms as butt or lap joints (Figure 1).
With braze welding the surfaces of the workpieces to be joined together are separated by a gap that
is larger than 0.5 mm, or have a V or X-shaped, prepared (weld-like) joint form.
Figure 1: Examples of bonded joints

Welding: Joining by melting the base metals
Braze welding: Base metal is not fused, joint is filled with solder
Gap brazing: Classic solder joint; solder is drawn into the braze gap via the capillary effect
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A comparison between welding and soldering with respect to the relevant melting or process
temperature is shown in Figure 2. Typically, soldering is performed at a much lower process
temperature compared to welding.
Figure 2: Characteristic differences between welding and soldering
2.3 Commonly used terms
 Melting range of the solder

Temperature range from the start of melting (solidus temperature) through to complete liquidation (liquidus
temperature).
 Working temperature
The working temperature is the lowest surface temperature at the soldered joint, at which the solder is wetting
or forms a fluid phase via interface diffusion. When using suitable flux, it is a constant dependent on the solder.
 Soldering temperature
The temperature prevailing at the soldered joint during soldering. It is higher than the working temperature.
 Wetting
Wetting in soldering technology is the irreversible spreading or propagation of a molten solder over the material
surface.
 Capillary filling pressure

The pressure that moves the molten solder into the braze gap, even against gravity.
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3 The processes that occur during soldering
When a liquid comes into contact with another material, forces of attraction are created between its
molecules and to those of the material; the level of this attraction depends on the nature of both materi-
als. The molten solder behaves like a wetting liquid. This characteristic leads to solder that was face-fed
outside the braze gap, erupting independently as soon as it is heated to the working temperature. This is
where another process, the transposition of flux and solder occurs. A diffusion zone occurs between the
base metal and the solder, which is very restricted spatially. The process is illustrated schematically in
Figure 3; the structure of a real soldered joint is shown in the microsection at a high degree of
magnification in Figure 4.
DG = Diffusion zone in the base metal

VL = Propagation speed of the solder
DL = Diffusion zone for solder
Figure 3: Diffusion zones in the base metal and the solder (schematic representation)
Diffusion zone 1 Diffusion zone 2
Figure 4: Vacuum soldering; solder joint between steel and

titanium alloy, joined by a Ni-based solder
Formation of spatially limited diffusion zones
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3.1 Important prerequisites for soldering
It must be possible for solder wetting (Figure 5) to take place directly on the metallic lattice of the base
metal. This gives rise to certain basic prerequisites for soldering with flux:
 the melting temperature of the solder must be lower than the melting temperature of the base metal
 the material surface must be completely free of oxides
 the flux must be sufficiently intensive and have the corresponding effective temperature
While the level of the solder temperature (process temperature) for the solder process can be arbitrarily
selected, it is however between the solidus temperature of the solder and the melting temperature
(liquidus temperature) of the base metal.
3.2 Activation of surfaces for soldering
The surfaces to be soldered must be “activated” before soldering, e.g. mechanically cleaned. During the
soldering process, fluxes ensure that solder wetting on the metal lattice of the join partners is even pos-
sible (Figure 5); for example through:
- breaking down and reducing oxides on the base metal and the filler material,
- preventing the re-formation of oxides during heating,
- reducing the surface tension of the solder, leading to better propagation,
The surfaces for wetting can also be activated by reducing gases (H2, or CO), or via thermal effects,
such as e.g. with high-temperature soldering, arc brazing, laser soldering or electron beam soldering.
Only after activation of the surface, the molten solder can wet the material surface. The degree of wet-
ting (and thus the quality of the solder joint) is shown via the contact angle (Figure 5). The smaller the
contact angle, the better the wetting.
Factors influencing the wetting
 Solder alloy
 Type of base metal
 Surface condition of the solder area
 Nature and condition of the flux
 Type of brazing atmosphere
Figure 5: Wetting during soldering; important factors influencing wetting

lv = Surface tension of the liquid solder
sv = Surface tension of the material surface
 = Contact angle
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3.3 The solder process during flame soldering
When the area of the joint is heated (Figures 6a and 6b) the flux melts and activates the surfaces of the
join partners to be welded. The fed in or already positioned solder becomes liquid, wets the heated are-
as, runs along the material flanks and is, at the same time, being drawn into the braze gap via capillary
effect. Here it displaces the flux (“transposition process”), as soon as the joint surface is free of oxides.
Finally the braze gap is completely filled with solder; outside on the material flanks, the solder forms a
“concave fillet”).
The braze gap ensures good mechanical force transfer; the concave fillet provides a good appearance,
enables good force deflection, prevents initial crack notches and serves as an indicator that the braze
gap was supplied with at least a sufficient quantity of solder.
Solder is
placed
Figure 6a:Solder process at the start Figure 6b: Solder process completed
4 General rules for soldering
The specifications previously described and listed again in the following give rise to a number of funda-
mental rules for successful soldering:
 The components to be soldered must be designed and prepared such that they are suitable for welding.
 Base metal, solder, flux/shielding gas/vacuum must be suitable for one another.
 The lower effective temperature for the flux should be at least approx. 50 K below the solidus temperature
of the solder.
 In the case of base metals with very different heat extension coefficients, solder stresses occur which can
lead to cracks in the solder joint or base metal.
 So that the solder can flow and bind, the base metal in the joint area must have at least the same working
temperature as the solder. If this is not achieved, the solder will roll. The desired effect is facilitated when
the heat comes from the component itself rather than being applied directly to the surface of the joint.
 For large workpieces in the oven, the time/temperature parameters must be carefully determined and coor-
dinated. This likewise includes the “through heating” below the solidus temperature of the solder before the
soldering temperature is achieved.
 The solder quantity should be restricted to the minimum required; the flow paths kept short.
 Overheating is to be avoided as is heating the fluxes for too long.
 Depending on the material, the cooling speed must be specified (fast/slow).
 Flux residues must be removed after soldering, if they are hygroscopic and can have a corrosive effect.
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5 Geometric influences on the strength properties
Achieving and securing the greatest possible strength when soldering is influenced by numerous
parameters, in particular by the joint geometry. Examples of these and further influencing factors include:
 Geometry of the soldered joint (gap brazing/braze welding)

 Chemical composition and the strength of the solder and base metal
 Gap width, size and surface condition of the areas to be soldered
 Soldering temperature and time
 Nature and condition of the flux and/or shielding gases
 Fill level
 Soldering process
Soft soldered joints demonstrate the lowest strength ratings, and high-temperature brazed joints the
highest strength ratings. In general, one can assume (with twice the reliability) that brazing will produce a
tensile strength of 200 MPa and a shear strength of 100 MPa.
5.1 Influence of the braze gap width during gap brazing

Higher joint strengths are achieved with the smallest possible braze gap. Depending on the specified
framework conditions, a suitable braze gap width influences braze gap filling through the capillary
suction effect. Figure 7 below shows the dependence of the capillary lift on the gap width.
Figure 7: Capillary effect and braze gap width depending on different soldering systems
Further criteria, which enable or perhaps prevent having the smallest gap width possible:
- Soldering process and process temperature
- Different coefficients of thermal expansion of the base metals
- Unfavourable component geometries, difficult braze gap settings
- Requirements for smaller or larger flux quantities in the braze gap
- High-temperature brazed joints as well as flux-free joints under reducing atmospheres
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Special case, braze welding

Braze welding represents another form of joining - for this the braze gap is larger than 0.5 mm (Figure 8)
or could even feature a v-shaped joint preparation. This brazing method is often used, for example, when
“braze welding galvanised steel pipes”. The strength of the solder joint corresponds to the strength of the
solder in the as-cast condition. With brass solder, which is frequently used for this, the strength is given
at a yield strength of approx. 235 N/mm².
Figure 8: For classifying the solder process (braze welding/gap

brazing/surfacing by brazing/diffusion brazing)
5.2 Design rules for soldered joints (selection):
Technical procedures exist, in addition to optimising the geometry, to enhance and secure the strength
of the joint. The following are a few examples:
 Braze gap/joint edges as parallel as possible

 Never having a gap that opens (diverging) in the flow direction of the solder
 The solder must be applied to the braze gap; the flow path should be as short as possible
 When soldering with fluxes, a minimum gap width is required
 The solder must be able to displace the flux (enable the transposition process)
 The braze gap must have the specified gap width when the soldering temperature is reached
 Changes in stiffness, stress peaks etc. are to be avoided
 A secure positioning of the joining parts must be guaranteed (press fit, self-centering, affixing, beading, riv-
eting. etc.)
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6 (Minimum) overlap on soldered joints
When creating overlapped joints, basic requirements exist, which were originally developed for soldering
but which were later also applied to brazed joints. In principle one dimension, depending on the
minimum sheet thickness, applies for the minimum overlap length. The type of base metal also exerts an
influence (Figure 9).
Figure 9: Examples of overlap specifications for soldering
7 Base metals that can be soldered
In general practically all metallic materials and their alloys can be soldered.
Figures 10, 11 and 12 provide examples.
The frequent, common main groups are:
Steels Practically all steels are suitable for soldering, compared to welding, particularly while maintaining
material-specific properties. The soldering temperature can be selected such that a heat treatment
can be integrated in the soldering process, (e.g. tempering, annealing, precipitation hardening etc.)
Aluminium Nowadays, aluminium and aluminium alloys are brazed and (soft) soldered. Mixed joints are
possible, thus, e.g., aluminium is very frequently mixed with corrosion-resistant, high-alloy steel
Copper Unalloyed copper, as well as low and high-alloy copper alloys can be brazed and (soft) soldered.
Mixed joints with steel do not pose a problem either.
Copper brazing is often restricted because of the issue of undesired softening of cold-formed or
precipitation-hardened copper. The oxygen content in the copper determines whether it is suitable
for soldering or even whether it can be soldered at all.
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Figure 10: Application examples: Automotive parts (steel parts,

soldered with Cu paste in the continuous furnace)
Figure 11: Application examples: Aluminium heat exchanger

(furnace soldering), braze-clad flat tube with
corrugated ribs
Figure 12: Application examples: Mixed joint specimen

(steel, aluminium, copper, brass)
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8 Solders and welding consumables
8.1 Solders
Solders are, in principle, “filler materials”; they generally comprise suitable alloy components, which are
adjusted to the relevant soldering task. A pure metal can also be used as a solder. Solder is available as
a wire, rod, foil, powder or paste.
Solders are designated by their chemical composition, their properties or their application. Solders are
usually organised into alloy groups.
8.2 Classification of solder groups
(Soft) solders for copper materials (example):

Previously the most important solders were the tin-lead solders. Nowadays they have been replaced with
tin-copper or tin-silver solders. Tin-lead solders containing antimony are found to be disruptive when
soldering pure copper (only for rough soldering). With few exceptions, eutectic, low-antimony or antimo-
ny-free tin-lead solders (known as “tin solder”) are still used. Specially for lead-free electronic soldering
operations and for copper pipe installation (example drinking water lines), the lead-, cadmium- and anti-
mony-free tin-copper (Sn97Cu3) or tin-silver solders (Sn97Ag3) are used.
Brazing (hard) solders for copper materials (example):

Copper-based brazing solders belong to the most frequently used solders, including on copper materials.
Alloys include: copper-zinc, copper-silver (<20%Ag) and copper-phosphorous systems.
Silver brazing solders with their resultant, significantly lower melting point contain copper along with
further alloy elements such as zinc or tin. Example:
Silver brazing solder Ag 145 Ag45%, Cu, Zn, Sn, melting range 640/680 °C
or
Silver brazing solder Ag 134 Ag34%, Cu, Zn, Sn, melting range 630/730 °C
Important solder systems:
 Silver-based solders Brazing of almost all materials (excluding aluminium and magnesium)
 Aluminium-based solders Brazing of aluminium and its alloys
 Zinc-based solders (Soft) soldering of aluminium and its alloys
 Active solders e.g. silver brazing solders, titanium-alloyed for soldering ceramics
 Gold-based solders High-temperature solder for iron, nickel, cobalt-based materials
 Copper-based solders Brazing solder used for many metals
 Nickel-based solders High-temperature solder, corrosion-resistant, for many materials
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Figure 13 below shows frequent solder systems organised according to melting ranges and process:
Figure 13: Overview of the solder systems and their melting temperatures/ranges
8.3 Standardised designations of solders
Brazing solders are standardised in DIN EN ISO 17672 (2010-11) (at the same time, their chemical
designation is also standardised in DIN EN ISO 3677); soft solders are listed in DIN EN ISO 9453
(2006-11). Approximately 50 solders traditionally used in Germany and not yet contained in DIN EN ISO
9453, are collated in the national standard DIN 1707-100 (2012-06).
Solders are usually organised into groups, corresponding to their composition. These groups are formed
on the basis of the basic element and are stored in order of their melting points.
In joining technology, the designation for soft solders is the prefixed letter “S”; for brazing and
high-temperature solders it is the letter “B”.
The brazing solder must be designated with the name “solder” under standard number
DIN EN ISO 17672:2010-11 and an abbreviation. Details of both options from the identification system
are contained in the following example (Figure 14) of the current designation options for a silver
brazing solder.
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Figure 14: Designation options for a frequently used silver brazing solder
8.4 Fluxes
Fluxes are non-metallic substances (frequently substances such as silicate, carbonate, borate, chloride,
fluoride) which have the following tasks and properties:
 Melting point approx. 50°C below the solder melting point

 To lay a dense coating, which remains, even at working temperatures
 Viscosity should be so high that adhesion even to vertical surfaces is ensured
 To eliminate oxides and prevent their formation during heating
 To protect the area of the join from air penetrating it
 The working temperature of the solder must be in the effective range of the flux.
Copper-phosphorous brazing solders (“CP solders”) represent an exception here. When soldering cop-
per, no flux is required. This solder group is self-fluxing and has an oxide-solving effect through the ele-
ment phosphorous.
No flux is required with shielding gas and vacuum soldering either. In these cases, the soldered parts
have a clean, metallic surface and require very little post-treatment.
Figure 16 shows flux groups, categorised according to the effective temperature ranges, in which they
are chemically active.
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Flux for hard-surfacing alloy

Fluoride, Chloride, Boratethe alkaline and
alkaline-earth metals
Flux for brass and new silver solders

Boron compounds of the alkaline
and alkaline-earth metals
Aluminium flux
Silver solder flux Alkali and aluminium chloride and fluoride
Alkali fluoride
and borate
Soft solder flux

Alkali chlorides and fluorides, ammonium com-
pounds, organic substances
Figure 15:Flux composition and thermally active ranges
Fluxes for brazing heavy metals (“FH”) and light metals (“FL”) are named according to DIN EN 1045.
The categorisation of fluxes for (soft) soldering is contained in DIN EN ISO 9454 Part 1.
Fluxes for (soft) soldering and brazing are differentiated according to the effective temperature (up to
450 °C and over 450 °C respectively).
8.5 Alternative options for surface activation
Gaseous media: At higher temperatures, reducing shielding gases/shielding gas mixes (H2, Co) can activate
the surfaces to be wet, instead of using fluxes. This is customary with furnace soldering.
Vacuum, inert gas: With high-temperature soldering, remaining surface oxides expand much more than the
base metal. This leads to the loosening/release of oxides, thus facilitating solder wetting.
Gas flow process: In this case, when flame soldering, the fuel gas is enriched in a special apparatus using
boric anhydride. The mixture burns in the flame, giving off heat and flux at the same time.
With that the torch flame has a shielding and de-oxidising effect. The application of this
flame thus permits brazing without the addition of powders, pastes or coated solders.
A wafer-thin, water-soluble layer that is left behind can be easily washed off. With larger
braze gaps (gap brazing), a flux must however be used in addition.
Arc, laser: The arc reduces the surfaces/loosens oxides. This enables the necessary activation for
wetting. Laser beams and electron beams have a similar mode of operation here.
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9 Classification and selection of soldering processes
9.1 Classification into groups and sub-groups according to DIN EN ISO 4063:2011-3
As for welding processes, DIN EN ISO 4063:2011-03 provides process numbers to categorise the most
frequent soldering processes (superordinate group “9”). For example, flame brazing has the (already
frequently used) process number ISO 4063 - 912.
An excerpt from DIN EN ISO 4063 for the procedural area of soldering is shown in the following table
(Figure 16):
Figure 16: Classification of the soldering processes according to DIN EN ISO 4063:2011-03
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9.2 Selection of a number of typical or important processes based on ISO 4063
9.2.1 Brazing with local heating
Flame brazing (912)

Flame brazing is performed manually (manual brazing) or mechanically (e.g. flame brazing systems);
generally at atmospheric conditions and using fluxes. The flame, as the source of heat, can be set to be
neutral or slightly reducing. Flame brazing permits commercially feasible soldering both of small and
medium quantities and of large series. Flame soldering is the most commonly used technique in the in-
stallation area and on building sites.
Induction brazing (916)

Induction heating is used for soft soldering, brazing and high-temperature soldering, whereby all variants
are possible for surface activation. By means of a power source and an inductor, an electromagnetic
field is generated in the component without contact. The alternating field results in the creation of an in-
duction current, which heats the area close to the surface due to a skin effect.
As a result, the following typical properties, among others, arise for induction soldering:
 direct heat generation in the workpiece, locally concentrated close to the inductor
 transmission of very high power densities
 contactless energy transmission, irrespective of the soldering atmosphere
 very short soldering times
 good reproducibility
 good suitability for mechanisation and automation
Figure 17 Induction brazing:
Inductor coupling to the

workpiece (closed inductor)
Figure 18 Induction brazing:
Inductor coupling via a tunnel

inductor (open inductor)
Higher and lower AC current frequencies can be used. For larger components/penetration depths, low
frequencies are used where possible. The performances are also based on the varying suitability for
induction of the metallic substances to be heated.
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Resistance brazing (918)

The heat generated by the electrical resistance of the conductor, through which current is flowing (Joule
effect), is used for soldering. The heat generated is a function of the current strength, the resistance and
the time.
The soldered joint can be heated either through direct or indirect heating (Figure 19). With direct heat-
ing, heating takes place via the material resistances and the contact resistance; similar to the situation
for resistance spot welding. Multiple variations are possible to optimise adjustment and heating.
Indirect heating is generated via the internal resistance of a workpiece; this heat is transported via heat
transfer to the soldered joint. This is typical for materials with a high electrical resistance (e.g. soldered
joint between a carbide alloy and steel).
Figure 19: Resistance soldering heating principle

(left, internal resistance heating – right, contact resistance heating)
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9.2.2 Brazing with complete heating
With furnace brazing, complete heating (through-heating) of the component takes place. In addition, the
actual soldering takes place under a controlled atmosphere. In accordance with the solder conditions,
furnace brazing can be categorised as follows:
 Furnace brazing with flux

 Furnace brazing with flux and shielding gas
 Furnace brazing with reducing shielding gas
 Furnace brazing in inert shielding gas
 Furnace brazing in a vacuum
Example: Furnace brazing (921)

Furnace brazing is generally a flux-free soldering process under a controlled furnace atmosphere. Fur-
nace atmospheres are:
 Normal atmosphere (flux is required)
 Reducing shielding gas (flux-free)
 Inert shielding gas and vacuum (flux-free)
In mass production the following are frequently used: continuous-type furnaces for brazing of steels (with
copper-based solders).
Furnace brazing is characterised by:
 Brazing of components with several joints in one soldering process

 Uniform heating/through-heating of components
 Low distortion
 Low heat stress
 Option for staged brazing
 Brazing of covered joints
 Ability to link brazing with subsequent heat treatment in one cycle
Example: Vacuum brazing (922)

With vacuum brazing, the interaction between high temperatures and the vacuum enables an oxides-free
level which is sufficient for soldering. The vacuum brazing process is suitable for joining steels, non-
ferrous and other metals, ceramic and other materials that are vacuum resistant and resistant to residual
gasses in the furnace atmosphere. These materials and the solder alloys used may not contain any
components with a high steam pressure, e.g. zinc, because the solder atmosphere would be significantly
disrupted by its metal vapour.
The solder joint itself is free of gas inclusions or flux residues and is of excellent quality.
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9.2.3 Braze welding (97)
Traditional braze welding involves braze welding with an oxyacetylene flame. It is frequently performed
on galvanised steel pipes, nominal diameter between 50 and 300 mm, and is often used in the drinking
water sector, in sprinkler systems, power stations or for large air-conditioning systems; using a brass
brazing solder (e.g. B-Cu60Zn(Si) ISO 3677) and a flux FH21 to EN 1045. Here the working technique is
similar to the “welding to the left” technique. Precise weld preparation and compliance with the specified
gap width are of huge importance here. In the event of leaks, imperfections can be re-soldered after
grinding with a silver solder at a low working temperature (“staged brazing”). Solder strength that is still
sufficient for the base metal (at least 210 N/mm² tensile strength) and, due to the relatively lower solder-
ing temperatures, maintaining a continuous zinc layer on the outside and inside of the pipe are often
advantageous.
9.2.4 Arc brazing/gas-shielded metal arc soldering (972, 973)
The arc brazing processes can be divided into soldering with metal shielding gas (MSG) and tungsten
shielding gas (TIG). The principle of arc brazing is, from the point of view of the technical installations,
largely identical to MSG welding or (tungsten) plasma welding with wire-form filler
material. Copper-based materials, whose melting ranges are lower than those of the base metal, are
used predominantly. Arc brazing is preferred on surface-finished or also uncoated sheet metals, as a
lower thermal load on the components is achieved through the lower melting temperature of the solder
when compared to welding and the coating is less damaged. Fusion of the base metal must be avoided
during arc brazing.
For arc brazing processes, no fluxes are generally required as the surface is cleaned and activated by
the arc.
The soldering process is supported by arc or wire modulation. These “controlled” process variants are
considered particularly low-splatter, low-energy, sheet metal-appropriate, gap-bridging and efficiency-
enhancing. Here the current and voltage are reduced by a defined amount at the moment of short-circuit
between the wire electrode and the molten pool; in addition, the wire feed direction can be reversed also,
to support the droplet transfer (“CMT” process). One special feature of this energy-reducing soldering
process is the option to also use ZnAl filler materials. Figures 20 and 21 below show examples of the
application of MIG-soldered joints.
Figure 20: MIG soldered joint, left: sheet steel with solder filler, CuSi3
below: aluminium with steel, with solder filler AlSi5
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Figure 21: MIG-soldered exhaust silencer X3CrTi17 (0.4-0.6-0.8 mm), solder filler CuAl5Ni2
Types of joint and requirements on the weld geometry for arc brazing:
The arc brazing processes essentially permit the joining of sheets or components by means of fillet weld,
beaded weld or square butt weld. In contrast to the conventional brazing processes, only a minor capil-
lary effect occurs; generally no solder joint preparation is required.
9.2.5 Laser soldering (976)
In contrast to arc brazing, laser soldering involves using the defocussed laser beam as a heat source
both to fuse the solder and to heat the soldered joint to the necessary process temperature. The particu-
lar advantage of laser soldering is the fast and locally restricted heating of the soldered joint.
Amongst laser systems, diode lasers have proved themselves in the (soft) soldering of electronics; for
brazing, the Nd:YAG laser is the preferred option.
The joint is created by heating with the laser beam and simultaneously feeding the filler material
(generally copper-based solders, such as e.g. CuSi3). As is normal for soldering, the structure of the
joint is created by forming an alloy between the solder and the base metal by means of diffusion. Like
arc brazing, the capillary effect into a braze gap plays a subordinate role here too. Figure 22 shows an
example of a laser-soldered weld on a passenger car body part.
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Figure 22: Laser-soldered seam on a passenger car body

part
10 Testing options on soldered joints

On soldered components many factors, which in totality are very difficult to calculate in advance, deter-
mine the actual mechanical properties of a soldered joint. Some aspects of this are outlined below:
10.1 General requirement for a soldered joint

In general, the strength properties of appropriately designed and high quality soldered joints should cor-
respond to those of the base metal. Thus frequently for brazed joints - provided they are properly de-
signed and constructed - the break occurs in the base metal itself, even under dynamic loads.
10.2 Test standards for soldered joints

Testing of soldered joints can either be non-destructive or destructive. Information on current and, for
brazed joints, proven methods are included in the specifications in DIN EN 12797 (destructive testing)
and DIN EN 12799 (non-destructive testing) on soldered joints.
Visual inspection according to DIN EN 12799

The visual inspection permits, e.g. conclusions to be drawn with respect to the solder flow or the con-
cave fillet formation etc. Solder designs, which, as a preference, call for leak-tightness against gaseous
and liquid media, are subjected to a leak test (vacuum, compressed gas test). Initial surface cracks in the
soldering zone or material leaks can be examined using the PT test (surface crack testing) or other non-
destructive methods. The RT test (radiographic testing) is a frequently used test method for determining
soldering defects. The ultrasound technique is also used in individual areas. Thermographic testing in-
volves testing by distribution of heat through or into a brazed joint.
Destructive testing according to DIN EN 12797

The destructive tests include the meaningful metallographic evaluation and, in particular, the strength
testing of the soldered joint. Here, in addition to the easy to perform tensile test (ultimate tensile strength,
location of fracture), many examinations include tests to determine the shear strength and the bending
and torsional resistance as well. Various test pieces and specimens exist, so that we can obtain the most
realistic strength data possible for use as a basis for designers (examples in Figure 24). Tensile and
shear specimens for determining static tensile strengths of soldered joints are likewise part of this test
standard.
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11 Imperfections and quality classes in brazed joints

(DIN EN ISO 18279:2004-04)
As with welding, brazed joints normally contain different types of imperfections.
In contrast to welded joints, brazed joints cannot be categorised sweepingly into quality classes, as there
are too many differences between geometries and stress types.
The application for soldering is therefore practical and important, if an assignment of quality criteria for a
specific industrial application is required or possible.
As for a welded joint, ISO 18279 contains suggestions in respect of quality limits for imperfections
from “D” = lowest through “C” = medium to “B” = strictest requirement, for brazed joints.
Examples of possible external and internal imperfections in a brazed joint are set out below:
External imperfections Internal imperfections

 Shrunken soldered joint  Cracks
 Cracks  Filling errors
 Open porosity  Solid matter inclusions
 Insufficient concave fillet  Gas inclusion
 Solder material overflow  Flux inclusion
 Local fusing  Fusion faults
 Rough soldered joint surface  Excessing etching of the solder and of
 Blistering the base metal (sometimes termed ero-
 Staining sion).
 Splatter
 Flux residues
 Erosion in the surface of the base metal.
Figure 23: Excerpt from DIN EN ISO 18279 with respect to typical external and internal imperfections in
a brazed joint
12 Occupational safety when soldering
Like all other production areas, the fundamental and also specific safety regulations also apply to solder-
ing manufacturing. In principle, one must assume that solders and fluxes, by virtue of their properties
and composition and through incorrect handling/use, can harm the soldering operator/brazer. For this
reason, eye, skin and mucous membrane contact should be avoided under all circumstances as a pre-
cautionary measure. During soldering, flux and metal vapours, and during handling of solder powders,
fine metallic dusts, are inevitably created which can also have a negative impact on human health.
To protect operators, therefore, it is essential that the basic rules of industrial hygiene as well as Trade
Association Rule 500 Chapter 2.26 “Welding, cutting and related processes” be complied with. In relation
to emissions of hazardous substances, TRGS 528 “Welding work” must be complied with. The use of
solders containing cadmium or lead is partially prohibited or should be avoided altogether. In the case of
brazing, in particular, metal fumes issue from the solder (e.g. cadmium and zinc oxides) and flux vapours
also occur (e.g. fluorine, potassium and boron compounds).
Detailed information on the individual products is available to the user in the form of technical datasheets
and safety datasheets.
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13 Test questions
(1) How does soldering differ from welding?
 There is no essential difference.

 In soldering, the base metal can only be wet, not fused.
 In soldering, the filler material has a lower melting point than the base metal.
 In soldering, the filler material has a higher melting point than the base metal.
(2) What must be noted with respect to a solder flux?
 Flux residues must be removed, if they can have a corrosive effect.

 Flux residues have no effect.
 Fluxes dissolve oxides during the soldering process.
 Fluxes have an oxidising effect during soldering.
(3) In brazing (gap brazing) the following gap distances are acceptable
 2.0 – 3.0 mm
 0.1 – 0.2 mm
 0.02 mm and smaller
 0.1 – 0.5 mm (only for manual flame soldering)
(4) What is special about copper-phosphorous solders?
 Very brittle solders, should no longer be used.

 Do not require any additional flux when used on unalloyed copper.
 With this solders, the surface cleaning of the base metal is omitted.
 This is a brazing solder, which is only used on copper materials.
(5) What does this designation denote: ISO 17672B – Ag56CuZnSn-620/655?
 This is a brazing solder with 56% copper and 44% silver.

 This is a silver brazing solder with a gross price of Euro 655/kg.
 This is a brazing solder with a silver content of approx. 56%.
 This is a brazing solder with a melting range between 620 and 655 °C.
(6) The solder has not wet the joint surface
 because the ambient temperature was too low.

 because the flux was too aggressive.
 because the effect of the flux was too weak.
 because the selected solder temperature was 30 °C below the working temperature of the
solder.
(7) The soldering temperature is correctly chosen, if
 it is higher than the ambient temperature.

 it is higher than the working temperature.
 the flux has achieved the evaporating temperature.
 it is very close to but under the liquidus temperature of the base metal.
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14 DVS guidelines/leaflets, referenced standards, bibliography
Leaflets of the German welding society (DVS)
Leaflet DVS 0938-1 (2001-09)

Lichtbogenlöten - Grundlagen, Verfahren, Anforderungen an die Anlagentechnik
(“Arc brazing - Principles, procedure, requirements of the system technology”)
Leaflet DVS 0938-2 (2005-05)
Lichtbogenlöten - Anwendungshinweise
(“Arc brazing - Instructions for use”)
Leaflet DVS 0938-3 (coming soon)
Lichtbogenlöten - Unregelmäßigkeiten und deren Vermeidung
(“Arc brazing - Imperfections and avoiding them”)
Leaflet DVS 0938-4 (coming soon)
Lichtbogenlöten - Bewertungsgruppen von Unregelmäßigkeiten
(“Arc brazing - Quality classes of imperfections”)
Leaflet DVS 2604(2008-02)
Öfen für das Hart- und Hochtemperaturlöten unter Vakuum
(“Furnace for brazing and high-temperature soldering under vacuum”)
Leaflet DVS 2606(2000-12)
Hinweise auf mögliche Oberflächenvorbereitungen für das flussmittelfreie Hart- und Hoch-
temperaturlöten
(“Information on possible surface preparations for flux-free brazing and high-temperature
soldering”)
Leaflet DVS 2614-1(2009-09)
Charakterisierung und Prüfung von Lötverbindungen -
Zugprüfung gelöteteter Blechverbindungen - Probenformen
(“Characterisation and testing of soldered joints - Tensile testing of soldered sheet metal
joints - Specimen forms”)
Standards
DIN 1707-100, Issue 2001-02

Soft solder alloys - Chemical composition and forms
DIN EN 1045, Issue 1997-08
Brazing - Fluxes for brazing - Classification and technical delivery conditions
DIN EN 13133 (2000-12):
Brazing/Brazer approval
DIN EN 13134 (2000-12):
Brazing - Procedure approval
DIN EN 14324, Issue 2004-12
Brazing - Guidance on the application of brazed joints
DIN EN 29454-1, Issue: 1994-02
Soft soldering fluxes; classification and requirements; Part 1: classification, labelling and
packaging
DIN EN ISO 9453, Issue: 2006-12
Soft solder alloys - Chemical compositions and forms (ISO 9453:2006)
DIN EN ISO 9454-2, Issue 2000-09
Soft soldering fluxes - Classification and requirements; Part 2: Performance requirements
DIN EN ISO 11745 (2011-01)
Brazing for aerospace applications - Qualification test for brazers and brazing operators -
Brazing of metallic components
DIN EN ISO 17672 (2010-11) for DIN EN 1044:1999-07
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Brazing - Filler metals

DIN EN ISO 18279, Issue 2004--04
Brazing - Imperfections in brazed joints
Bibliography - List of sources for citations and images
Hartlöten- Eine Einführung (“Brazing - An Introduction”)

DVS Media GmbH Düsseldorf 2010
Zaremba, P.:
Hart- und Hochtemperaturlöten
Die Schweißtechnische Praxis, (Brazing and high-temperature soldering. Welding technol-
ogy practice”) Volume 20, DVS-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1988
Wittke, K., et al.:
Die Lötverbindung- Buch 1 (“The Soldered Joint - Book 1”)
Verlag Dr. Markus A. Detert, Templin, 2007
Zaremba, P.:
Hart- und Hochtemperaturlöten
Die Schweißtechnische Praxis, (Brazing and high-temperature soldering. Welding technol-
ogy practice”) Volume 20
DVS-Verlag Düsseldorf 1988
Müller, W., Müller, U.:
Metallische Lotwerkstoffe (“Metallic solder materials”)
Fachbuchreihe Schweißtechnik Band 127 (“Series of Specialist Books on Welding Tech-
nology, Volume 127”)
DVS-Verlag Düsseldorf 1969
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Joining processes for plastics Page 1
Chapter 1.17: Joining processes for plastics
Contents
1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 2
2 Properties of plastics .......................................................................................................................... 2
3 Basics of plastics................................................................................................................................. 3
3.1 Thermoplastics ........................................................................................................................... 3
3.2 Elastomers ................................................................................................................................. 4
3.3 Thermosets ................................................................................................................................ 4
4 Plastics and weldability ...................................................................................................................... 4
5 Welding process .................................................................................................................................... 6
5.1 Heated element welding ............................................................................................................. 7
5.1.1 Heated tool butt welding ...................................................................................... 7
5.1.2 Heated element socket welding ........................................................................... 8
5.1.3 Socket welding with incorporated electric heating element .................................. 8
5.1.4 Additional process variants of heated element welding ....................................... 9
5.2 Hot gas welding ........................................................................................................................ 10
5.2.1 Fan, draw and overlap welding .......................................................................... 10
5.2.2 Extrusion welding ............................................................................................... 12
5.3 Friction welding ........................................................................................................................ 12
5.4 High-frequency welding ............................................................................................................ 12
5.5 Ultrasonic welding .................................................................................................................... 14
5.6 Laser beam welding of plastics................................................................................................. 15
6 Testing of the weld seams .................................................................................................................18
7 Welding defects ..................................................................................................................................18
8 Test questions.....................................................................................................................................19
9 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................21

equipment
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1 Introduction
In order to produce welded joints of plastics, knowing the basics of not only the welding processes but
also of plastics in general is an essential precondition. Therefore the first thing to do is discussing the
structure and behaviour of plastics. Just as in welding of metals there is a fundamental difference
between steel and aluminium, the often very differing material properties have to be considered in the
case of plastics as well.
Manufacturing of welded joints will always require certain manual skills despite all existing simplification and
automation. Therefore accurate and thorough training must be to the fore, so that imperfections are ruled out.
It is unimportant whether the joint is created by welding or bonding, whether it is screwed or pinned.
Supervision and inspection of the welders is important at certain time intervals, in order to assure a
constant and state-of-the-art quality in plastic joints.
2 Properties of plastics
Due to their properties and good processability, plastics have gained a solid place among all materials.
They have many and varied properties:
 low weight (density 0.8 - 2.2 g/cm ³),

 electric insulation ability,
 weather and corrosion resistance,
 low heat conductivity,
 good mechanical properties, adjustable: soft - stretchy, hard - stiff,
 smooth surface,
 sufficient wear resistance, depending on usage,
 good colourability, any desired,
 high chemical resistance,
 good workability,
 are permeable (permeation, diffusion),
 low heat resistance,
 lower modulus of elasticity,
 can be recycled.

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They are available for the manufacturer in various forms:
 liquid
 pasty
 powdery
 granular
 compact (foil, plate, tube, section)
 shaped piece
The good workability is also a fundamental reason for the fast penetration into the most versatile areas
of application.
Possible application in  Construction industry
 Mechanical Engineering
 Automotive industry
 Electrical engineering
 Chemical apparatus construction
 Pipework construction
 Packing materials
 Consumer goods
3 Basics of plastics
The source materials of the plastic products contain almost always chemical compounds of carbon C:
e.g. Oil, natural gas, wood, coal, ethane, i.e. plastics belong to the area of organic chemistry. The
unsaturated bonds contained in these substances, e.g. ethylene or vinyl chloride (single molecules,
monomers), are chained together to form macromolecules with the aid of chemistry, e.g. polyethylene
PE or polyvinyl chloride PVC (big molecules, polymers). They are so-called thread or chain molecules.
The transition from the (usually gaseous or liquid) monomeric source material to the polymeric plastics is
called polymerisation. Further processes for plastics production are polyaddition and polycondensation.
Imagine the structure of the chain molecules in case of PVC like the threads in felt or a cotton ball; this
material has a so-called amorphous structure (amorphous = confused, irregular). In PE, in contrast, there
are part-crystallines as well, i.e. partially structured areas.
The firmness (strength) of plastics is a result of two different forces:
1. Chemical, intra-molecular forces; these hold together the thread molecule.
2. Physical, intermolecular forces; these hold the threads together in the material composite.
3.1 Thermoplastics
Due to clotting of the chain molecules, i.e. obstruction of the agility of the molecules, plastics are not like
water when heated i.e. solid to liquid to gaseous, but they have phases that go into one another
continually: hard – thermoelastic – thermoplastic. It is typical of thermoplastics that they become hard
again during cooling, i.e. the intermolecular bonding force is annulled until they reach the thermoplastic
(= weldable) state during heating, and is re-activated during cooling.
Note: Only thermoplastic materials are weldable; different thermoplastics are not weldable with each
other (exceptions: hard PVC with soft PVC, hard PVC with PMMA).
The plastic state of the joint surfaces can also be achieved by using solvents. The inseparable,
homogeneous joining created in this cold way is called both welding (solvent welding, adhesive welding)
and bonding, in technical language.

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3.2 Elastomers
The cross connections between the filamentary (thread like) molecules (chemical bonding) result in a so-
called interstellar molecule. We call these plastics of wide-mashed cross-linking elastomers. They have
the phases hard and elastic, e.g. rubber seals and motor-car tires.
3.3 Thermosets
Through the strong linkage, a closely-knit interstellar molecule arises, where softening by heating is not
possible any more. These thermosets are hard till decomposition. Example: sockets, decorated plates,
fibreglass boats.
Elastomers and thermosets are not suitable for welding due to their chemical cross connections.
Basically the following applies to all plastics: they are destroyed by the split-up of the macromolecules at
inadmissibly high thermal heating, they decompose and burn.
Thermosets:
Figure 1: Classification of plastics
4 Plastics and weldability
Choosing the right plastic for the welded construction, for example a pipeline, depends on their operating
conditions and the material properties such as strength, chemical and heat resistance, required security
and economics. Here it must be considered that by targeted changing of certain characteristics, i.e. by
modification, the most varied plastic types can be produced. Therefore first a short review is given here
regarding the most important plastics.

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Table 1: Overview of usual plastic types
Material variations
Polyvinyl chloride PVC PVC-U non-plasticised PVC
PCP-P plasticised PVC
CPVC chlorinated PVC
Polyethylene PE PE-HD PE high density
PE-LD PE low density
PE-Xa crosslinked PE
Propylene PP PP-H Homopolymerisat
PP-B Block - Copolymer
PP-R Random - Copolymerisat
Polyvinylidene fluoride PVDF
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene ABS
Acrylonitrile styrene acrylic ester ASA
Polymethyl methacrylate (acrylic glass) PMMA
Fibreglass plastics GRP
Composite materials
Further details of DIN standards and quality guidelines for materials are deliberately not discussed here
because of the high number of standards. They are compiled in the relevant standard books, e.g in. DIN
Taschenbuch 52 (Paperback). The most important pipe materials are listed below along with some of
their typical properties.
Unplasticised PVC, which has been in use since the 1930s, is a thermoplastic material usable in a wide
variety of cases; PVC-C is appropriate for pipelines at increased working temperatures (up to 90 °C).
PVC is weldable and exhibits excellent adhesive properties given its polarity and solubility. Application
areas are pressure pipes in gas and water supply systems, drain pipes, sewer pipes, well pipes, air
conditioning system, laboratory, industry, pharmaceutics, food industry.
From the group of the polyolefins PE and PP represent the most important material group as of today.
Due to their unpolar nature, caused by the molecular structure, they are not, or very badly, suitable for
bonding. However the polyolefins can be welded very well.
Various polyethylene types are available on the market. To receive statements regarding the weldability
of PE- types, the flow behaviour of PE is determined in the thermoplastic state. The melt flow rate MFR,
according to DIN EN ISO 1133, serves as measure.
Application areas of the polyolefins are gas pipes, water and chemical pipes, protective cable conduits,
discharge pipes, silos and generally in apparatus construction in chemical process engineering.
PVDF is a very good heat and chemical-resistant thermoplastic, easy to weld, but displays restricted
adhesive properties (usable between + 150 °C and - 60 °C).
ABS/ASA is characterised by its good thermostability. Although the material is weldable, adhesive-
bonded joints, besides plug-and-socket connections, are predominant here, similarly to PVC.
PMMA/AMMA is used predominantly in chemical apparatus construction, where its transparency is

advantageous, for example in the testing and laboratory area. They are impossible or very hard to weld,
but exhibit excellent adhesive properties.

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GRP are cross linked and hardened plastics, reinforced with fibre glass, and are normally unsaturated
polyester resins (UP resins) or epoxy resins (EP- resins), which cannot be welded due to their
thermosetting molecular structure. The GRP components are manufactured in a liquid or pasty initial
state by laminating in positive or female forms. After hardening (cross-linking) and demoulding, they can
be processed only mechanically. Joints can be produced by bonding or over-laminating of seam areas;
GRP pipes are joined also by bolted pipe collars/sleeves and bolted flanges.
Composite materials are materials having properties which are combinations of properties of other
plastics, or with metallic materials. For their way of joining, the materials used and their combinations are
leading.
5 Welding process
All plastic welding processes belong according to DIN 1910-3 to the pressure welding processes. In the
welding process, the thermoplastic material is heated at the joint area, and gets connected under
pressure, with or without filler material. Polyolefins, such as PVC, PE and PP, the most frequently used
materials in pipeline and apparatus construction, can be welded particularly well due to their structure
and molecular mass. Generally, only the same type thermoplastics are weldable with each other. The
reason for this is the different melting- and fluidity parameters.
The most important welding processes are listed below. They are grouped together according to the type
of the heat input:
Hot gas string bead

(=high speed) welding
HE collar coupling
welding
Figure 2: Classification of welding processes in plastics welding
Important welding parameters are:

- Temperature: The joint surfaces are taken into the thermoplastic state by heat energy (hot-air,
heating elements, friction). Open flames are not permitted for heating since plastics,
due to their reduced heat conductivity, will burn on the surface before heat has
penetrated deep enough. Forced cooling by water or compressed air is eventually
dangerous, because it leads to the freezing of stresses (residual welding stresses),
which put excessive load on the component and the material.
- Pressure: The interweaving of the molecule threads must be activated by exerting pressure
force, because the plastic melts are semi-liquid.

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- Time: Due to the very low heat conductivity of plastics, the duration of the heat input and
cooling must be observed with much care. In case of holding too long the welding
temperature application, there is a risk of thermal damaging; one must also consider
the elongation or shrinking of plastics during heating or cooling, as they are much
larger in comparison with metals.
The state-of-the-art welding sets, as long as welding parameters are adjustable, are controlled
electronically and some can operate fully automatically.
The following sections describe the most important welding steps of the respective process cycles.
5.1 Heated element welding
Usually an electrically heated heating element serves as the heat carrier, which is furnished with an anti-
adhesive layer made of PTFE, in order to avoid the adhesion of the thermoplastic material.
With direct-contact hot tool welding, the heating element is between the joint surfaces, whereas with
indirect hot welding the heat is transferred through a joining part to the joint surface. Due to the poor
thermal conductivity of plastics, the indirect hot welding method is only suitable for welding thin foils.
Direct method Indirect method

Figure 3: Variations with heated element welding
5.1.1 Heated tool butt welding
Heated tool butt welding can be carried out manually and by machine, whereby pressure pipes can be
welded only by machine. The crucial points here are that the previously cleaned and planed weld contact
areas of both parts to be welded are pressed against an electrically heated hot tool for adjustment.
Thereby the eventually existing uneven parts and scratches are melted. Subsequently the joint surfaces
are, with reduced pressure, placed against the heating element and heated for an exactly defined time
interval.
Then the heating element is quickly removed from the weld surfaces and the pipe endings are quickly
joined under a pressure of 0.15 N/mm2 weld area. The welded parts should remain under pressure in
this joint restraint, up to complete cooling. The welding process steps are, similar to a checklist, defined
in chronological order in the “DVS leaflet 2207, Part 1 for PE-HD Pipes”.

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Figure 4: Principle of the heated element butt welding (pipe connection) and the equipment technology
Corresponding board or pipe welding machines are available in several sizes and implementations on
the market, on which the necessary welding parameters, temperature, pressure, and eventually times
are exactly adjustable.
5.1.2 Heated element socket welding
Heated element socket welding (e.g. for PE-HD and PP- tubes) can also be carried out manually (up to
63 mm diameter) and by machine. The joint is made always over injection-moulded fittings, like
bushings, angle- and T-pieces. The inner surface of the fitting and the external surface of the pipe are
plasticized (made softer) by the heating element which is provided with a heating bush and a heating
spigot. Subsequently, the heating element is quickly removed, the end of the tube and bushing are
telescoped without twisting and welded in an overlapping way (Figure 5).
Socket coupling Shifting inside (telescoping)
Socket
coupling
Figure 5: Principle of the heated element socket welding
As the sizes of the joining parts are well-adjusted to each other, a joining pressure is built up. Basically
the manufacturer's specifications have to be exactly followed. It is mandatory to clean the heating
element and the joint surfaces with lint-free paper and special cleaning agents, just as is the case with all
other welding processes as well.
5.1.3 Socket welding with incorporated electric heating element
Socket welding with incorporated electric heating element is very easy to work with, and is therefore
the preferred way to join PE tubes of up to 160 mm diameter on construction sites. Instead of a heating
element a heating spiral is placed firmly inside the socket (bushing), is electrically heated and remains in
the welding zone.

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Socket coupling
Telescoping
Figure 6: Principle of socket welding with incorporated electric heating element
A welding transformer delivers the welding current matched to the respective pipe diameter and wall
thickness. Welding time is regulated automatically, so that the welding zone is heated high and long
enough. The joining pressure is built up during the shrinking of the fittings. Socket welding with
incorporated electric heating element is carried out for drilling and pipe socket couplings of up to 225 mm
diameter. The process is only rarely used in chemical apparatus construction, because it is possible that
aggressive mediums destroy the heating spiral and thereby cause the joint to leak.
5.1.4 Additional process variants of heated element welding
In the following, additional process variants of heated element welding are listed in less common
application areas.
Figure 7: Principle of the heated tool groove welding Figure 8: Principle of heated tool welding by bending
Elastic heat
isolation
Heating wedge
Elastic heat
isolation
Figure 9: Principle of heated wedge welding Figure 10: Principle of the thermal pulse welding

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5.2 Hot gas welding
Whereas heating element welding is executed without filler material, hot gas welding uses a plasticised
welding rod (for hard thermoplastics) or a welding cord (for soft thermoplastics) made of the same base
material and is pressed into the welding seam. This is done, with a few exceptions, by hand.
5.2.1 Fan, draw and overlap welding
The targeted weld quality depends very strongly on the technical skills of the welder. As the welding
parameters can rarely be kept as exact as required, the weld strength is possibly not sufficient, therefore
plastic tubes for water and gas supply must not to be joined by hot gas welding. Nevertheless pressure-
free pipes, e.g. exhaust air pipes, may be warm-gas-welded very well. The hot gas fan welding enables
a welding speed up to 25 cm/min whilst for welding with drawing or high-speed welding nozzles (hot-gas
string bead welding) the welding speed may be between 40 to 100 cm/min which is the base of the
distinction.
Figure 11:
Principle of hot gas fan welding
Figure 11a:
Principle of hot gas string bead welding
The following table indicates reference values for welding temperatures for the supplied warm air as well
as for the respective material in hot gas welding.
Table 2: Reference values for welding temperature in hot gas welding
Material Material temperature Welding gas

min. °C temperature °C
PVC hard 160 300 to 350
PVC impact-resistant 160 300 to 350
PVC C 200 350 to 380
PVC soft 150 250 to 300
PP 175 240 to 280
PE hard 150 220 to 260
PE soft 120 190 to 240

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Figure 12 shows typical examples of some butt and welding methods in hot gas welding.
Figure 12: Butt and welding types in hot gas welding
Hot-gas string bead welding is used for long seams and pipes with large diameter, as for positional and
certain fillet welding types the hot gas fan welding shall be applicable. Table 3 shows the comparison of
welding speed during the two process variants.
Table 3: Speed comparison between hot gas fan welding and high-speed hot gas welding
Material Fan welding Draw welding
PVC hard
15 to 25 50 to 70
PVC impact-
15 to 25 50 to 70
resistant Filler wire diameter: 3 mm
5 to 10 15 to 35
PVC C Indication in cm/min
10 to 20 50 to 70
PE soft
10 to 20 40 to 60
PE hard
15 to 20 50 to 70
PP
Hot gas overlap welding is used for roof- and sealing sheets (landfill sealing sheets) without filler
material for lap joints and used primarily for PVC foils or sheets. The hot gas beam is conducted by a
wide slot nozzle between the joint faces of the overlapping component. A cylindrical pressure roller
serves for the transmission of the joining pressure.
Figure 13: Hot gas overlap welding

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5.2.2 Extrusion welding
Hot gas extrusion welding is used in several process variants. Welds of 25mm wall thickness and
more can be produced in a single welding run. The plastic material plasticizes in a manual or a standing
extruder and is pressed through a welding shoe into the weld seam preheated with hot gas. The process
is economical, if long welds of thick base materials are to be produced.
Heat cartridge
Figure 14: Hot gas extrusion welding
5.3 Friction welding
In friction welding the plasticization of joint surfaces is achieved through friction or vibration. It is
particularly suitable for connecting workpieces with rotationally symmetrical weld surfaces and it is
performed on lathes but also by special hand machines. Figure 15: The welding temperature is reached
when a welding seam is formed at a circumferential speed from 50 to 200 m/min. The process is
characterised by short joining times.
Figure 15: Angle welding (torsional vibrations) Linear welding (translational vibrations)
5.4 High-frequency welding
In high-frequency welding, electrical charge node points are exploited in the molecular structure of the
so-called polar plastics, in order to bring them into oscillation by a high frequency alternating current (27,
12 MHz) and to put it in plastic state which means that the heat is generated in the material itself.
Table 4 shows that the electrical high-quality plastics polystyrene HP, polyethylene PE and
polypropylene PP are not weldable with high frequency welding.

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Table 4: Dielectric loss factor tan 
Material
tan 
PVC hard 0.03 up to 0.02

PVC soft 0.1 up to 0.05
ABS 0.03 up to 0.01
PA 0.04 up to 0.02
HP 0.0008 up to 0.0003
PE 0.0003
PP 0.0005
Polar molecules in the electromagnetic alternating field
The principle of HF welding equipment is shown in figure 16. It needs to be taken into account that for
each welding seam a suitable welding electrode is required designed according to the weld shape. The
process is therefore suitable only for series production.
Figure 16: Construction of a HF welding equipment

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5.5 Ultrasonic welding
Ultrasound can generate mechanical oscillations in almost all plastics which plasticise the suitably
designed joint surfaces at certain frequencies (20 - 40 kHz). The transducer with the sonotrode is
vertically moved in the press, whereby the welding pressure is applied on the joint surfaces. Soft
thermoplastics can transmit the oscillations only over very short distances, so that they can be welded
only in the so-called near field (approx. 3 mm). Shaped parts made of hard thermoplastics with suitably
high elastic modulus can be welded in the so-called remote field, that means that the welding seams
may be also further away from the sonotrode tip (see: Table 5)
ultrasound and simultaneously to the

joining force
Joining upper part with energy direction
transmitter; in this point the acoustic waves are
concentrated into one point which will be
melted
Joining lower part is also melted locally due to
the energy direction transmitter of the upper
part. The simultaneously applied joining force
enables a homogeneous weld
Figure 17: Principle of US welding Figure 18: Function of the energy direction transmitter
Table 5: Suitability of thermoplastics for US-welding
Material Near field welding Remote field

welding
PVC hard good moderate

PVC soft good bad
PE hard good moderate
PE soft good bad
HP very good very good
ABS very good good
PA good moderate
PMMA very good good
PC very good very good
POM good moderate

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5.6 Laser beam welding of plastics
For some time now, laser-based processing has been considered to be part of the plastic processing
industry, especially in the joining technique. The welding processing by means of laser radiation is
applied in the butt- and beam-through technology, where beam-through welding is mainly used (see
figure 19).
Beam-through welding
Figure 19: Laser welding of plastics in the beam-through and butt welding technology /14/
The absorptive properties of the components to be joined are crucial for the choice of the joining
geometry, since in the beam-through welding technology the processing requires a transmissive as well
as an absorbing joining component which differs from the butt welding processing. The transmissive
joining component is hereby radiated through without considerable heating, in contrast to the underlying
joining component which is heated due to its absorptive properties. Finally, the heat transfer affects both
joining partners which enables a locally welded joint. The total weld seam is now generated by the
relative movement between the laser beam and the workpiece. /13/
In laser welding with beam-through welding technology the processes may be classified according to
their way of energy input as contour, simultaneous or quasi-simultaneous welding, according to figure
20.
unflexible
excess melting excess melting
no excess melting
Figure 20: Process variants of laser beam-through welding /14/

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In contour welding the focused laser beam is moved with a feed rate between 20 mm/s to 100 mm/s
across the workpiece geometry, and this allows the creation of three-dimensional joint contours. In
simultaneous and quasi-simultaneous welding however the total joining contour is created by radiation,
with no movement of the beam source. Simultaneous welding uses several laser sources, in order to
radiate the contour at the same time (simultaneously). The deflection of the laser beam by laser
scanners in quasi-simultaneous welding manages the radiation of the joint contour with very high
welding speed (500 mm/s – 1,000 mm/s), resulting in an approximately simultaneous (quasi-
simultaneous) heat input. In contour welding, the relative motion of the beam source is often controlled
by a robot, because of the three-dimensional contours (see figure 21). Figure 22 shows equipment for
quasi-simultaneous welding with rotating indexing table.
Because of the relatively high investment costs of laser and plastic welding equipment, they are the most
economical to use in mass production. Compared to other welding processes, the laser beam welding of
plastics is characterised by the following characteristics:
 Low energy input

 Lower mechanical load of the joining components
 Few or no excess melting
 Cleaning room suitability (no particles)
 Good monitoring ability
Due to these specific advantages there are several application possibilities in automotive production as
well as in medicine and in micro technology. /15/

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Finally Table 6 provides an overview of the most important areas of application of certain plastic welding
processes:
Table 6: Application areas of certain plastic welding processes
Process Areas of application Important materials
Butt welding of heating Apparatus construction, fittings, Polyolefins, PVC soft,

elements construction profile PVC impact-resistant
Polyolefins
Heating element groove Apparatus construction, fittings
welding Polyolefins
Fittings (pipe)
Heating element socket Polyolefins
welding Fittings (pipe)
PVC hard, PVC soft,
Electrofusion welding Apparatus construction, mechanical Polyolefine, PVC C,
engineering, PVC impact-resistant
Hot gas fan welding Apparatus Engineering
PVC hard, PVC soft,
Apparatus construction, mechanical polyolefins, PVC C,
High-speed hot gas welding engineering, Apparatus engineering, PVC impact-resistant
floor coverings
Polyolefins
Hot gas extrusion welding Apparatus construction, ventilation
Polyolefins, PVC hard
Friction welding Container construction, fittings, moulded
parts PVC hard, PVC soft
High-frequency welding
Foils, coated fabrics, mechanical PVC hard, PC, PA, POM,
Ultrasonic welding engineering PMMA, ABS among others.
PA, PP, PBT, PMMA, ABS
Moulded parts, foils
Laser beam welding
Automobile manufacturing, medical

technology, micro technology (container,
electronics housing, microfluidic)

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6 Testing of the weld seams
For the testing of plastic welds it is especially referred to the leaflets DVS 2203 “Testing of welded joints
of thermoplastic materials” and DVS 2206 “Testing of components and constructions from thermoplastic
materials”. These leaflets contain detailed summaries of the respective standards and regulations.
These non-destructive test methods enable, however, only quantitative comparison statements
(good/bad), but no quality statements for the long-term behaviour of a weld. Plastics can, however,
deteriorate over time. By defined long-term tests, it is possible for example to test the minimum service-
life of plastics under certain operation conditions for at least 50 years although the actual testing period
is much shorter. For foil welded joints, special test methods are applicable, e.g. cleavage test by weight,
cleavage test by spring, bending change test, manual test of peel strength etc.
The destructive test methods mentioned previously require a specimen from the component. This can be
realised in practice by extending the weld beyond the required dimension. The excessive piece serves
then as the test specimen. However, it is often the case that no test specimen can be taken from pipe
joints. For a rough estimate, there are several testing possibilities that provide information on the quality
of the weld by an appropriate experience of the tester. Suitable reference points result first from the
welding protocol that must be completed by the plastics welder who is subjected to regular monitoring.
Additional information regarding the quality of the welded joint results from the compression tests and
the visual checks.
Visual test
Assessment criteria are the weld seam appearance (shape, height, surface of the weld beads) and weld
thickness (completeness of the weld, root, misalignment of the joint parts). Further criteria are listed in
DVS 2206. The assessment of failures takes place according to DVS Guideline 2202 or, especially for
the field of house installations according to DVS leaflet 1905 T2.
7 Welding defects
Also in case of flawless semi-finished products (pipe, moulded part, plate etc), professional joint
preparation, welding training and the reliability of the welding process, it is possible that defects, primarily
under assembly and on-site conditions, may occur. Possible error causes are:
 Inhomogenities: Material, moulded components

(pores, cavities)
 Joint preparation: Aligning of the pipe axis
(joint surface misalignment)
Parallelism of joint surfaces
Oxide
Pipe plug-in unit
Clamping tools
Deformation
 Foreign material: Oil, grease
Moisture
Dust, sand
 Welding parameters: Temperature
Pressure
Time
 Joining conditions: Mechanical stress during the welding process

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8 Test questions
(1) The test of plastic welders takes place
 Without special guidelines

 According to DVS 7735-1
 According to DVGW base material 330 for underground pipeline construction
 According to DVS 2212 for equipment construction
 According to DIN EN 287-9
(2) Polyolefins are
 Among others PVC

 Among others PE
 Partially crystalline materials
 Among others PP
 Amorphous plastics
(3) The plastic welding processes always belong to the group of
 Fusion Welding
 Pressure welding
 Joint welding processes
 Surface welding processes
 Beam welding processes
(4) A disadvantage of the heating element socket welding is,
 that the process is only manually applicable.

 that for each diameter an adapted heating element has to be used.
 that the process is only mechanically applicable.
 that only one side (socket/pipe) can be produced in one go.
 that for each diameter a separate socket must be used.
(5) During socket welding with incorporated electric heating element, the pipes must be drawn,
 in order to remove the oxide layer

 in order to compensate diameter variations.
 to smooth out the surface.
 in order to remove the inscription.
 in order to avoid angle misalignments.
(6) In high-speed hot gas welding, the welding pressure is generated
 by the welding equipment.

 by the filler material
 not at all, since no pressure is required
 by the drawing nozzle
 by a special pressing roll.

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(7) In friction welding, the weld contact surfaces are plasticized
 by the high electrode pressure

 by torsional vibrations
 by the alternating pressing of the joining partner
 by translational vibrations
 by system-dependent resistance heating
(8) Application areas of ultrasonic welding are
 joining pipes
 welding up a construction
 prototype production
 connecting thermoplastics with duromers
 joining foils
(9) Non-destructive testing (radiographic testing) provides for welded plastic joints
 a qualitative statement
 almost no usable statement
 useful statements only for PE
 useful statements only for butt welding of heat elements
 useful statements only for PVC
(10) What could be the joint defects as consequences of an incorrect joint preparation?
 oxid Inclusions
 inclusion of the pipe inscription
 angular misalignment of load during the welding process
 cold welding by too large pipe removal
 incorrect welding time

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9 Bibliography
/1/ Carlowitz, B.: Tabular overview of the test of plastics, Kunststoff-Verlag, Isernhagen.
/2/ DIN-paperback 18: Plastics 1, test standards on mechanical, thermal and electrical properties.
/3/ DIN-paperback 48: Plastics 2, test standards by chemical, visual customs and manufacturing
properties.
/4/ DIN-paperback 51: Plastic standards; Semi-finished products and finished products
/5/ DIN-paperback 52: Plastic standards; Pipes, pipelines and pipe fittings.
/6/ DVS paperback 68/IV: DVS Leaflets and guidelines, Joining of plastics. DVS-Verlag, Düsseldorf.
/7/ Hadick, TH.: Welding of plastics for practitioners and technical designers. DVS-Verlag, Düsseldorf.
/8/ IKV: Preparing for the plastics welder test. Verlag Wirtschaft und Bildung, Simmerath.
/9/ Menges, G.: Materials technology of plastics. Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich.
/10/ Menges, G.: Introduction to plastics processing. Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich.
/11/ Saechtling, H.: Plastic handbook. Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich.
/12/ Stoeckhert, K.: Plastic encyclopaedia. Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich.
/13/ Hierl, S.; et al.: Laser beam plastics welding in automotive electronics. In: Geiger, M.; Otto,
A. (Ed.); Lasers in electronic production & precision engineering – LEF 2000. Bamberg:
Meisenbach, 2000, S. 53 - 68
/14/ Hierl, S.: Innovative system approaches for laser plastics welding. In: Geiger, M.; Fleckenstein,
M. (Ed.); Lasers in electronic production & precision engineering – LEF 2002. Bamberg:
Meisenbach, 2002, S. 167 - 178
/15/ Hofmann, A.; Hierl, S.: Tested laser beam welding. In: Plastics, Year 95, leaflet 6 (2005), pages 36 – 38
DIN standards:
DIN EN ISO 1043 Plastics; Code letters and Designations

Part 1 Base polymers and their special properties
DIN 1910 Welding;
Part 3 Welding of plastics, processes
DIN 8061 Pipes from softener-free polyvinyl chloride (PVC hard),
General quality requirements
DIN 8062 Pipes from softener-free polyvinyl chloride (PVC hard); Dimensions
DIN 8063 Fittings and mouldings for pressure pipes from softener
free polyvinyl chloride (PVC-U)
DIN 8074 Pipes from polyethylene (PE); PE 63, PE 80, PE 100, PE-HD, Dimensions
DIN 8075 Pipes from polyethylene (PE); PE 63, PE 80, PE 100, PE-HD
General quality requirements, test
DIN 8077 Pipes from polypropylene (PP); PP-H, PP-B, PP-R, PP-RCT; Dimensions
DIN 8078 Pipes from polypropylene (PP); PP-H, PP-B, PP-R, PP-RCT; General quality
requirements, testing
DIN EN ISO 14632 Extruded boards from polyethylene (PE-HD); Requirements and test methods
DIN EN ISO 15013 Extruded boards from polypropylene (PP); Requirements and test
DIN 16960 Welding of thermoplastic materials,
Part 1 Basics
DIN 16962 Fittings and pipeline components for pressure pipes from polypropylene
(PP), type 1 and 2

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SFI / IWE 1.17
DIN 16963 Fittings and pipeline components for pressure pipes from polyethylene
high density (HDPE), type 1 and 2
DIN EN 22553 Welding and soldered seams; Symbolic representation in drawings
DIN EN 13067 Plastic welding staff - approval test of welders
-Thermoplastic welded joints -
DIN EN 12814 Testing of welded joints from thermoplastic materials
DVS-leaflets:
DVS 2201 Testing welded semi-finished products from thermoplastic; Weldability,

DVS 2202 Imperfections in welded joints from thermoplastic materials
Characteristics, description, evaluation
DVS 2203 Testing of welded joints from thermoplastic materials
DVS 2205 Calculation of containers and instruments from thermoplastic
DVS 2206 Testing of components and constructions from thermoplastic materials
DVS 2207 Welding of thermoplastic materials
DVS 2208 Welding of thermoplastic materials
DVS 2210 Industrial pipelines from thermoplastic materials
DVS 2211 Filler materials for thermoplastic materials;
Scope, marking, requirements, testing
DVS 2212 Testing of plastics welders, test groups I – III
DVS 2243 Laser beam welding of thermoplastic materials

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Joining processes for SFI / IWE 1.18
ceramics and composites Page 1
Chapter 1.18: Joining processes for ceramics and composites

Contents
1 Classification of ceramic materials ................................................................................................. 2

2 Joining of ceramics.......................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Joining without filler material ...................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Joining with filler material ........................................................................................................... 7
3 Glue adhesive bonding .................................................................................................................. 11
3.1 Definitions ................................................................................................................................ 11
3.2 Adhesives and adhesive components ...................................................................................... 13
3.3 Metal bonding........................................................................................................................... 15
3.4 Bonding-friendly design ............................................................................................................ 17
3.5 Technology of bonding ............................................................................................................. 18
3.6 Workplace layout ...................................................................................................................... 19
3.7 Applications .............................................................................................................................. 20
4 Test questions ................................................................................................................................ 22
5 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................... 23

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1 Classification of ceramic materials

Ceramics are inorganic, non-metallic materials, which are mostly formed at room temperature from raw
mass and their characteristic material properties are obtained by a sintering process at high
temperatures.
Compared to metallic construction materials (e.g. aluminium or steel and titanium) which have, based on
their structural design, the ability to absorb local stress peaks due to plastic flowing, ceramics have
different material behaviour. Ceramics become brittle by mechanical overuse. However, they are
dimensionally stable and can be stressed at very high temperatures without flowing. Ceramics are
characterised by the fact that their properties are not temperature-dependent.
The classification of technical ceramic materials is based on the chemical composition in three main
groups:
 Silicate ceramics
 Non-oxide ceramics
 Oxide ceramics
Silicate ceramics
Silicate ceramics are ceramics containing silicon oxide or additives of quartz + alumina + feldspar
(K2O x Al2O3 x 6SiO2). In addition to the mentioned silicate carriers, further components such as alumina
and zirconia can be added to achieve a higher strength. During the sintering process, a high amount
(> 20 %) of glass phase arises apart from the crystalline phases, whose essential component is silicon
oxide (SiO2). Materials of silicate ceramic:
 Porcelain
 Steatite
 Cordierite
 Mullite
Because the procedure for the manufacturing of silicate ceramics is very robust, low sintering
temperatures are used and a high availability of raw materials is given, the ceramic group offers an
affordable alternative to the non-oxide and oxide ceramics. The latter require higher sintering
temperatures. Silicate ceramic materials can be found in the refractory area, in thermodynamics and in
high and low-voltage technology for typical applications such as insulators.
Example:
Cordierite has been manufactured according to the mineral of the same name with composition 2 MgO *
2 Al2O3 * 5 SiO2. It comes from the raw materials (e.g. kaolin, alumina), produced by common ceramic
technology and forms during sintering. The very low thermal expansion coefficient is an advantage (α =
1.5… 3 x 10-6 K-1) as is the high thermal shock resistance. Ceramics melt at temperatures above 1300
°C. Cordierite-containing ceramic materials are not only suitable for electrical engineering materials, but
are also the basis of flame-retardant and temperature change-resistant tableware. The microstructure
consists mainly of cordierite and magnesium aluminium silicate glass. Cordierite as a honeycomb
ceramic is used as a catalytic support in motor vehicles, Figure 1.

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(a) (b)
Figure 1: Cordierite compound (refractory clay quality); joined at 1000 °C by means of glass solder foil
(a), SEM micrograph of the joining zone, 100x magnification (b)
Non-oxide ceramics
If ceramics contain not only oxygen but also electronegative elements like carbon or nitrogen, they are
referred to as non-oxide ceramics. In contrast to oxide ceramics, the non-oxide ceramics are
characterised by higher covalent and lower ionic bonding. The strong bonding energy results in high
chemical and thermal stability, hardness and strength. Contrary to this are low ductility and high
brittleness. Silicon nitride, silicon carbide, Figure 2, aluminium nitride and boron carbide are important,
technically speaking. Non-oxide ceramics are joined under shielding gas or under vacuum if the joining
temperatures can rise to 1800 °C. Thermal decomposition occurs in air above approx. 1050 °C and
leads to property changes and also to destruction of the ceramic.
Example:
Figure 2: Silicon carbide, soldered at 1200 °C
Oxide ceramics
Among the oxide ceramics there are series of materials, which are mainly based on metallic oxides.
Alumina (Al2O3), zirconium oxide (ZrO2), Figure 3 and aluminium titanate (Al2TiO5) have the greatest
technical importance in the group. The properties of these ceramics are determined by the common
covalent or ionic bonds. Typical for the specified bonding type is the high stability, which has special
characteristics such as temperature and corrosion stability as well as electrical insulation properties. The
crystallographic structure is decisive for ceramic brittleness. Due to the low number of sliding systems at
room temperature, stress peaks can only be reduced to a limited extent and are associated with
unfavourable, spontaneous crack propagation. The bonding type specifies all the physical and chemical
properties of ceramic and the mechanical properties are influenced mainly by the microstructure.
Influence on the structure formation can therefore be exerted during the manufacturing process. Oxide
ceramics can be joined in air, under protective gas or under vacuum. However, the spalling resistance is
lower compared with non-oxide ceramics.

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Example:
(a) (b)
Figure 3: Zirconium oxide (ZrO2) soldered with glass solder at 1200 °C in air (a), joining zone (b)
Composite ceramics
In order to combine the properties of ceramics with those of other materials, composite materials, known
as composite ceramics, were developed. Three different procedures are chosen. On the one hand,
ceramics with fibre reinforcement can be produced (comparable to carbon fibre reinforced plastic). On
the other hand, porous ceramic basic bodies with metal are infiltrated. A further possibility is to provide a
metallic matrix with ceramic fillers in the form of particles or fibres. Depending on the ratio of metal to
ceramic, the composite material is assigned to the metal or ceramic materials. When joining appropriate
material, a compromise between the requirements of the individual material components is often
reached.
2 Joining of ceramics
In order to be able to integrate a ceramic component in a technical system, a joining technique must be
chosen. To guarantee the properties of the ceramics, the joining process should be designed to suit the
application. The ceramics can thus withstand the changing stresses in technical applications and incurs
no damage during joining. Considering this requirement, a variety of joining techniques are available,
whereby the connection can be non-positive, positive or bonded.
Bonded joining techniques are discussed below. Depending on the production method and the use in
engineering applications, the joining concepts shown in Figure 4 can be used.

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Figure 4: Joining concepts of ceramics
When choosing the process, an important criterion is the adaptation of thermal expansion. When joining
ceramic materials, the following criteria must be considered:
 Expansion behaviour of added ceramics or base and filler materials (including solders or
adhesives)
 The difference of the expansion coefficients should be < 2 x 10-6 K-1
 Oxidation behaviour and thermal load capacity of the ceramics
 Wetting and flow behaviour of the filler materials (including solders) on the ceramic surface
 Surface profile and metallisation of the ceramics (depending on the joining technique and
filler material)
 Joining parameters (joining temperature, joining time, heating and cooling rate, atmosphere)
 Requirements of the component application (temperature load, corrosion, vacuum-tightness and
mechanical stress).
2.1 Joining without filler material

Diffusion welding
Diffusion welding is a joining technique which is based on diffusion and sorption processes. It is
assigned to the group of pressure welding processes according to its active principle. The welding
process is characterised by a welding temperature, which is lower than the melting or softening
temperatures of the materials to be joined (and also filler material if used). Furthermore, the components
to be joined are subjected to a force, resulting in a surface pressure. To prevent material changes due to
reactions with the environment, the welding process must be performed in a suitable atmosphere
(vacuum, inert or active shielding gases). To meet these requirements, suitable technical equipment is
required, Figure 5.

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Figure 5: Diffusion welding unit
Diffusion welding is a thermal joining technique, with which similar and dissimilar materials in the solid
state are connected by an exchange of atoms. The essential processing parameters (pressure,
temperature and time) are closely linked. One is to minimise the expansion coefficient by the stress
problem. Against this background, it is important to optimise the welding parameters so that the
temperature and pressure act briefly on the component during joining. An advantage of diffusion welding
without intermediate layers or filler material is that no chemical contamination takes place. In order to
reach the range of atomic interactions for the surfaces to be joined, the surfaces to be joined or their
atoms must approach at 10-6 to 10-7 mm. In reality, this approach is prevented by micro roughness, dirt
and formal defects or adsorption layers. In numerous materials, shaping is achieved by the effort of
temperature and force, partly also due to plastic deformation. In the case of ceramics, however, this is
not the case. High surface quality (minimising the surface roughness) and parallelism of the joint
surfaces to each other (Figure 6) are therefore required for the diffusion welding of ceramics. Surface
dressing and the high energy effort during the joining process are decisive cost factors compared to the
low production costs of ceramics. Depending on ceramic material, temperatures of up to 1800 °C are
required for bonded joining with diffusion welding without intermediate layers. Diffusion welding of
ceramics without intermediate layers is therefore only used for particular applications.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 6: Material ceramic surface (a), processed ceramic surface (b),

ceramic bonding after diffusion welding (c)

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2.2 Joining with filler material

Diffusion joining
Diffusion joining with ceramic joining foils (Figure 7), which are adapted in the characteristics of ceramic
to be joined, offer solutions for high-temperature applications. Material identical or material dissimilar
ceramic joining foils on the basis of oxide and non-oxide ceramics with sintering additives provide new
opportunities for achieving highly resistant ceramic bonding composites. Composite formation is
achieved by the concentration of sintered additives between the ceramic joining foil and the ceramic
surface. The geometry of the flexible joining foils that are manufactured according to the 'doctor blade'
process, can be adapted via stamping machines or laser cutting to the joining geometry. Due to the
flexibility of the foils, adaption moulding to the surface topography of the components to be joined is
established. The complex and cost-intensive surface dressing required with traditional diffusion welding
is therefore not necessary. Furthermore, the joining temperature is lower in comparison to conventional
diffusion welding and the ceramic material suffers reduced thermal stress.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 7: Positioning of the foil (A), pressing on of the components (B), ceramic bonding (C)
Special LPS foils (liquid phase sintering) with different sintered additive content are the basis of the
process principle. The type and amount of sintered additives can be used to adapt the sintering or joining
temperatures. Ceramic joining foils on the basis of SiC, Si3N4 and AlN with different sintered additive
content Al2O3, Y2O3 and SiO2 are used. Using these ceramic foils, non-oxide ceramics like LPS SIC,
SSN and AlN have been joined with and to each other (Figure 8).
The application temperatures of ceramic bonds joined in this way are over 1200 °C. Furthermore, the
joints have high strength depending on the foil composition. Via this process, compressive shearing
strength of 140 MPa can be realised. With adapted LPS sintered foils, gas-tight and thermally or
mechanically stress-resistant ceramic bonds can be produced, which are used in high-temperature
applications (Figure. 9).
Figure 8: Composite mechanism of ceramic with intermediate layers

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Figure 9: Ceramics heat exchanger (20 x 20) mm2, (50 x 50) mm2
Soldering and brazing

Ceramic soldering is often used for technical applications. Soldering includes thermal processes for the
bonding of materials, wherein a liquid phase is formed by melting a solder or by diffusion at the
interfaces. The solidus temperature of the base material is not reached. It is this property in particular in
which soldering differs considerably from other welding joining and coating processes. Besides the
classification criteria such as type of soldered joint, type of the solder feed or type of manufacturing,
classification can also be based on the liquidus temperatures of the solder, Figure 10.
Figure 10: Classification of the solder according to the liquidus temperature
Metallic solders as well as glass solders are used for ceramics.
Soldering with glass solders
Glass solders are a special group of technical glasses. The chemical composition influences the thermal
and mechanical properties of the glass solders. The desired properties can often only be reached by a
certain combination of composition and application engineering. These solders are characterised by the
following advantages:
 Good electrical insulation properties
 Good chemical resistance
 Good temperature stability
 Easy adaptation of the expansion coefficient to the base material
A major advantage of glass solders are their excellent flowing and wetting ability on ceramic material
surfaces, without submitting them to prior surface treatment and therefore modification of the boundary
layer.
Because they are easy to braze, glass solders are preferred over metallic solders in engineering
applications in the ceramics industry. The glass solder materials are mainly used in soldering of complex
geometries where high flow behaviour of solder is required.
Each glass solder can be used for soldering if its (fusing) melting temperature is lower than that of the
ceramics to be joined. The fusing temperature describes an appropriate temperature, which is necessary
for satisfactory joining and therefore for optimum wetting of the joining partners. An upper limit for this
soldering temperature is absolutely essential, since any damage of the joining partners must be
excluded.

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Glass solders are separated into three different groups:

 Sturdy glass solders
 Crystallising glass solders
 Composite solders
Sturdy glass solders

Sturdy glass solders behave as normal glasses. Its viscosity curve (toughness) during the soldering
process is reversible which means that there is no property change.
Thermal loading and chemical composition exert a strong influence on the viscosity (internal friction) of
these glass solders. The corresponding viscosity temperature curves have a similar typical course. The
viscosity values of this solder type range from 101 dPas (melt) to 1019 dPas (room temperature). During
the soldering process, the glass solder goes through different viscosity ranges. Typical temperatures are
assigned to each range. For example, when the softening point (Ts) is reached, the viscosity of the
solder has a value of 107 dPas and a value of 1013 dPas at the transformation point (Tt).
It is possible that when reheating the soldered joint, the same temperature dependence can be
observed. Glass solders with such properties are usually in a group of high lead-containing leadborate
glasses with 60 to 90 wt-% PbO. To increase the chemical resistance, low additives of SiO2 and Al2O3
are often doped.
Crystallising glass solders

Contrary to sturdy glass solders, crystallising glass solders show an increased tendency to crystallise.
These solders crystallise out of the glass melt with suitable heat treatment and at least partially enter a
solid state. This crystallisation is achieved through the input of soluble materials with a high melting
point. These substances are dissolved in the glass melt and are deposited with appropriate heat
treatment (with TiO2 and ZrO2 100… 150 °C over Tt). These separations initially take place only in small
volume areas and play a decisive role as a nucleating agent with high crystallites densities of 1016 per
cm3. The size of these crystallites in this state is only around 50 nm. The growing of the crystallites is
achieved by a temperature increase of 100 °C.
With the help of crystallisation at soldering temperature, it should be ensured that sufficient flowing of
glass solder and wetting of the joining partners occurs. During the further course of crystallisation,
viscosity increases by several orders of magnitude and decreases the mobility of the particles.
The time curve of viscosity for a given time program illustrates the increase in toughness of the glass
solder during crystallisation. At first the increasing temperature is associated with reduced viscosity,
which is also typical for sturdy glass solders. A strong viscosity increase after a certain hold time at
soldering temperature indicates crystallisation. With crystallisation, the solder joint can be exposed to far
higher thermal loads than sturdy glass solders in the subsequent application. In general, these joints can
be loaded up to the temperature range of the soldering process itself without incurring thermal damage.
Compared with glass-like solders, crystallising solders differ primarily in additives of TiO2 or ZrO2 at a
value of 8… 25 wt- %.
Composite solders
Composite solders are mixtures made from a glass solder and inert filler material, with a low or negative
expansion coefficient. The objective is to implement glass solders at a soldering temperature as low as
possible. The increase in thermal expansion is opposed by decreasing soldering temperature.
Composite solders partially compensate for the negative effect of increasing expansion. Common
compositions include β eucryptite, cordierite as well as zirconium silicate or a combination. The filling
material does not undergo any chemical reaction with glass solder. The amount of the addable filler
materials (in the range up to 30 wt- %) is limited. With an increasing amount of filling material, a
degradation of the fluidity of glass solder occurs in the soldering process.
By synchronising the expansion coefficients of the solder and base material, no thermally induced stress
should occur in the composite material during the soldering process. This point of observation is
absolutely necessary since glass solders exhibit brittle behaviour during thermal or mechanically induced
stresses due to lack of ductility.

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An appropriate example is shown in Figure 11.
(a) (b)
- Al2O3
Joining zone
Figure 11: Sapphire/aluminium oxide composite material, soldered at 470 °C (a), joining zone of the
boundary surface glass solder to the sapphire (b)
Metal solders
Ceramics can also be joined using conventional metal solders. However, with metal solders (including
those based on silver, copper, gold or their alloys) a metallisation of the solder surface on the ceramic
component is required, since these solders exhibit poor flow and wetting ability on ceramics. With
metallisation, the surface is covered with a thin layer of a metal or a metal alloy. The solitary layer of
metal is an adhesion or an anchorage layer for the solder layer. Metallisation thus involves unfavourable
surface treatment in order to achieve the wettability of the ceramic surface with the aforementioned
compositions. Metal solders are used for joining ceramic-metal composites. The so-called RAB solders
feature a unique characteristic. During active brazing, solders containing a metallic active component,
which reacts with the ceramic surface, are used.

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3 Glue adhesive bonding

Glue adhesive bonding and metal bonding in particular are becoming increasingly common in industrial
applications in recent years. In addition, although metal bonding cannot replace welding and soldering, it
can in many cases be a useful addition to these thermal joining techniques, where other joining
techniques (e.g. non-positive or positive) are to be excluded due to material and manufacture-specific
reasons Glue adhesive bonding is a practical option if engineering and cost-specific requirements are
met.
To perform a general assessment of joint characteristics, it is easier for us to weigh up the major
advantages and disadvantages of joining technology over alternative joining methods.
Advantages of glue adhesive bonding
1. Uniform stress distribution perpendicular to the loading direction;

2. No thermal microstructure influence;
3. Joining options for different materials;
4. joining options for very thin joining parts (e.g. foils);
5. Weight saving, lightweight construction;
6. High oscillation/vibration damping;
7. No refinishing;
8. Excellent visual characteristics;
Disadvantages of glue adhesive bonding
1. Influence of time on the sequence;

2. Knowledge of the surface quality of the joining parts necessary;
3. Limited thermal resistance to deformation;
4. Ageing dependence of the adhesive layer;
5. Low peeling strength, tendency to creep;
6. Complex strength calculation;
7. Compensation of the low adhesive strength only by joint surface;
3.1 Definitions
The essential definitions required for the description of bonding are:
 Adhesive Bonding: Production of a solid joint of two (or several) parts with a synthetic material,
which solidifies through physical setting or chemical reaction and joins the
parts due to adhesion (surface adhesion) as well as cohesion (intermediate
and internal-molecular bonding forces).
 Adhesive: Non-metallic material that can join joining parts by adhesion and cohesion.
 Bonding surface: The surface of a joining part that is (to be) bonded.
 Adhesive joint: Gap between two bonding surfaces.
 Adhesive film: Adhesive layer applied to a bonding surface.

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 Adhesive layer: Set or yet unset adhesive layer between two joining parts.
 Set: Solidification of the adhesive layer.
 Joint: Connection produced from joining parts using an adhesive.
1 = Strength of the joining part material

4 2 = Good bonding of the metal surface
5 layer (e.g. oxide layer on the base material)
6 3 = Inherent strength of the metal surface layer
5
4 = Strength of the adhesive bonds between
4 the metal surface layer and adhesive layer
5 = Area close to the strength of the adhesive layer
6 = Strength of the adhesive layer (cohesion)
1
Figure 12: Expanded structure of adhesive joint with a metal joint
Adhesion fracture Cohesion Mixed mode fracture

(undesirable) fracture (partly adhesion partly cohesion fracture)
Figure 13: Fracture types of joints

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3.2 Adhesives and adhesive components
Classification of the adhesives according to the setting mechanism
Adhesive components:
 Solvent: Liquid, which dissolves the base materials and other soluble adhesive
components without chemical change.
 Dispersant: Aqueous phase, in which the base materials and other adhesive components
are dispersible.
 Coupling medium: Medium for reducing the concentration or the viscosity of an adhesive.
 Hardener: Adhesive component, which causes a crosslinking of the adhesive without being
part of the molecular structure of the adhesive polymer (mixture ratio)
 Accelerator: Adhesive component, which in some cases only permits starting a reaction
sequence or accelerates or positively influences it.
 Softener: Adhesive component for increasing the deformability of adhesive layers.
 Fillers: Adhesive component for achieving specific property changes in the adhesive
layer (e.g. electric conductivity, gap bridging abilities)

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Figure 14: Dependence of adhesive strength and hardening time on the hardener content in
methacrylate adhesives
Figure15: Processing of methacrylate adhesives acc. to the A-B method (no mix)
(polymerisation reactions)

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Adhesive strength B
Figure16: Dependence of adhesive strength on the component amounts of epoxy adhesives

(polyaddition reactions)
Figure17: Schematic representation of electrical conductivity in electrically conductive adhesive layers
3.3 Metal bonding
The properties of the joining part materials and their surface layers determine the strength of a metal
joint along with the choice of adhesive. The following factors are to be considered for an optimised
adhesive layer:
 Surface layers
 Contamination
 The adsorption layer
 The boundary layer
Geometric structure
 Geometric surface (A = b  lü)

 True surface (micro surface 10-15 times larger)
 Effective surface (should be ideally as large as the true surface)
 Surface roughness

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Figure18: Dependence of adhesive strength on surface roughness
Figure19:
Adhesive layer deformation with joining
parts of different strengths (shift plus
deformation of a joining part)
Figure20: Dependence of adhesive strength of single lap joints on different aluminium alloys (acc. to
Litz)
The higher the deformability of a joining part material, the lower the adhesive strength, as the joining part
deformation causes additional stresses in the joint.

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Figure21: Influencing factors on the strength of a metal joint
3.4 Bonding-friendly design
For the structural design of metal joints, two important requirements have to be fulfilled:
 Presence of sufficient bonding surfaces
 Avoiding stress peaks
(no bending moment  centric application of force)
 No linear stress on the joint (peeling stress or with stiff joining parts, splitting stress)
Figure22: Structural measures to avoid peeling stresses

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Figure23: Different stress types of adhesive joint geometry with loads from forces F and moments M
Figure24: Comparison of good and bad adhesive corner joints
3.5 Technology of bonding
The quality of a metal joint is determined by two important parameters, taking practical execution of the
manufacturing process into account:
 Influence of the process variant, which leads to optimised adhesion

 Influence of the process variant, which leads to optimised cohesion

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The manufacturing process can be subdivided therefore into two sections:
 Surface treatment of the joining parts (for ensuring of the adhesion strength) and adhesive
application
 Formation of a solid adhesive layer (polymerisation or hardening) by provision of adhesive-specific
production boundary conditions (e.g. temperature, pressure or radiation) in order to achieve
cohesive strength.
Figure25: Surface treatment of joints
3.6 Workplace layout
The quality of a joint is determined to a large extent by the boundary conditions that exist during bonding.
These include the cleanliness of the workplace in order to ensure that the joining part surfaces remain
suitable for bonding after cleaning or pretreatment.
In general, the entire bonding process joining part treatment – adhesive supply and adhesive application
– joining – component fixating – hardening should take place at a workplace without any interruptions in
order to minimise negative external influences as far as possible.
Some physically setting adhesives (e.g. solvent adhesives) and all chemically reacting adhesives are
hazardous substances before crosslinking in the unhardened state. Appropriate safety precautions such
as safety clothing (gloves, eyeglasses, protective mask, if required) and structural measures such as
extraction units should therefore be taken to minimise the risk for employees.

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3.7 Applications
Crash test
Combination of flanges and bonding

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4 Test questions
(1) Which ceramic isn't silicate ceramic?
 Porcelain
 Silicon nitride ceramic
 Mullite ceramic
 Zircon oxide ceramics
 Cordierite ceramic
(2) Which ceramic is a non-oxide ceramic?
 Alumina ceramic
 Refractory clay
 Magnesium silicate ceramic
 Silicon carbide ceramic
 Aluminium nitride ceramic
(3) Which technological criteria are observed when joining ceramics?
 Expansion behaviour
 Thermal load capacity
 Wetting behaviour
 Moisture content of ceramics
 Mechanical stress
(4) What is the difference between diffusion welding and soldering?
 Joining in the solid condition

 Formation of a molten phase of the solder material
 Approach of surface contact in atomic areas
 Compulsory diffusion through surface pressure
 Ceramic surface and solder material are fused
(5) Which technical requirements do glass solder joints fulfil?
 Vacuum-tight compounds
 Corrosion-resistant layers
 Electrically conducting compounds
 High chemical resistance
 Insulation properties
(6) When and why should one use glue adhesive bonding?
(7) What are adhesives and how are they categorised?
(8) What has to be considered during glue adhesive bonding in order to achieve a successful joint?
(9) What is meant by glue adhesive bonding -friendly design?
(10) How should a glue adhesive bonding workplace ideally look?

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5 Bibliography
[1] Adams, R.D.: Structural Adhesive Joints in Engineering Elsevier
Appl. Sc. Publishers London New York 1984
[2] Brockmann, W.: Grundlagen und Stand der Metallklebtechnik. [Principles and status of metal
bonding technology.]
VDI Verlag GmbH, Düsseldorf 1971
[3] De Bruyne, N.A.: Klebtechnik - Die Adhäsion in Theorie und Praxis. [Adhesive-bonding technique -
Adhesion in theory and practice.]
Berlin union Stuttgart 1957
[4] Endlich, W.: Kleb- und Dichtstoffe in der modernen Technik. [Adhesive and jointing compounds in
modern technology.]
Verlag W. Girardet, Essen 1980 (Girardet-Taschenbücher, Vol.40)
[5] Fauner, G.; Endlich, W.: Angewandte Klebtechnik. [Applied adhesive-bonding technique.] Carl Hauser
Verlag Munich Vienna 1979
[6] Flick, E.W.: Adhesive and Sealant Compound Formulations Noyes

Publications Park Ridge 1984 USA
[7] Habenicht, G.: Kleben - Grundlagen, Technologie, Anwendungen. [Adhesion - Principles,

technology, applications.]
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York 2006
[8] De Lollis, N.J.: Adhesives for metals - Theory and Technology

Industrial Press Inc. New York (1970)
[9] Ludeck, W.: Tabellenbuch der Klebtechnik. [Table book of bonding technology.]
VEB Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig 1982
[10] Matting, A.: Metallkleben. [Metal bonding].

Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg, New York 1969
[11] VDI-Directive 2229 (1979).

Metallkleben - Hinweise für Konstruktion und Fertigung. [Metal bonding - Notes on design and
production.]

equipment
Materials and their behaviour during

welding
The Document contains standards reproduced by permission of DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. The definitive version for the imple-
mentation of this standard is the edition bearing the most recent date of issue, obtainable from Beuth Verlag GmbH, Burggrafenstrasse 6,
D-10787 Berlin.

Topic overview
Module 2: Materials and their behaviour during welding
Chapter Topic
2.01 Structure and properties of pure metals
2.02 Phase Diagrams and Alloys
2.03 Iron - carbon alloys
2.04 Manufacturing and classification steels
2.05 Behaviour of structural steels in fusion welding
2.06 Crack appearances in welded joints
2.07 Fractures and different kind of fractures
2.08 Heat treatment of base materials and welded joints
2.09 Structural (unalloyed) steels
2.10 High strength steels
2.11 Application of structural and high strength steels
2.12 Creep and creep resistant steels
2.13 Steels for cryogenic applications
2.14 Introduction to Corrosion
2.15 Stainless and heat resistant steels

Topic overview
2.16 Introduction to wear and protective layers
2.17 Cast irons and steels
2.18 Copper and copper alloys
2.19-1 / -2 Nickel and nickel alloys I / II
2.20-1 / -2 / -3 Aluminium and aluminium alloys I / II / III
2.21 Titanium and other metals and alloys
2.22-1 / -2 Joining dissimilar materials I / II
2.23 Destructive testing of materials and welded joints

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Structure and properties of metals Page 1
Chapter 2.01: Structure and properties of metals
Contents
1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Atomic structure of elements .......................................................................................... 2
1.2 Chemical bonds .............................................................................................................. 3
1.3 Classification of metallic materials .................................................................................. 4
2 Crystallography ................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Preface ........................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Definitions ....................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Structure of the space lattice .......................................................................................... 6
2.3.1 Ideal structure ...................................................................................................... 6
2.3.2 Real structure ...................................................................................................... 9
2.4 Description of the space lattice ..................................................................................... 12
2.4.1 Packing density of elementary cells ................................................................... 12
2.4.2 Determination of coordination numbers ............................................................. 13
2.4.3 Description of the space lattice .......................................................................... 14
3 Real structure and material properties ............................................................................ 15
3.1 Preface ......................................................................................................................... 15
3.2 Diffusion ........................................................................................................................ 15
3.3 Strain hardening ........................................................................................................... 16
3.4 Deformation .................................................................................................................. 17
3.4.1 Plastic deformation ............................................................................................ 17
3.4.2 Elastic deformation ............................................................................................ 18
3.5 Ageing .......................................................................................................................... 18
3.6 Recovery and recrystallization ...................................................................................... 19
3.6.1 Recovery............................................................................................................ 19
3.6.2 Recrystallization ................................................................................................. 19
4 Test questions ................................................................................................................... 21
5 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 23

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1 Introduction
1.1 Atomic structure of elements
Metals, like all other chemical elements, have an atomic structure. An atom is currently understood to be
the smallest, electrically neutral unit of a chemical element which can exist on its own (in contrast to the
subatomic particles). Stable atoms cannot be split using purely chemical means. For a long time, they
were therefore considered to be the smallest basic units of matter (atom, from the Greek: the “indivisi-
ble”). However, over the course of the development of, at times, highly-complicated physical measuring
and research equipment (e.g. particle accelerators), scientists have succeeded in penetrating very far
into the microcosm of matter and therefore in discovering increasingly smaller (subatomic) particles. In
the meantime a considerable number of different elementary particles have been identified, which are
divided into four main groups:
– Bosons, Leptons, Mesons, Baryons.
The essential components of an atom are the protons and neutrons arranged in the nucleus as well as
the electrons found in the shell. Protons (positively charged) and neutrons (electrically neutral) count as
baryon elementary particles, whereas electrons are assigned to the lepton group. 1,836 electrons to-
gether yield the mass of a proton or neutron. Consequently, the mass of an atom is predominantly fo-
cused in the nucleus. In contrast, the physical and chemical properties of a chemical element mainly
depend on the structure of the electron shell.
The general structure of atoms can be described using different models. The first modern one was pub-
lished in 1911 by Ernest RUTHERFORD. This postulates that the electrons move like “planets in the
solar system” on trajectories around the atomic nucleus (Figure 1).
Figure 1: RUTHERFORD atomic model Figure 2: SCHRÖDINGER atomic model
The current, conventional model of the atom is based on the theory of Erwin SCHRÖDINGER (1926).
This assumes that the electrons can most likely be found not on fixed trajectories or shells (BOHR mod-
el), but within defined geometric areas (“orbitals”) instead (Figure 2). Using the equation that underlies
this model (“SCHRÖDINGER equation”), it is possible to create a connection between the wave proper-
ties, the energy and the spatial coordinates of an electron.
Arranging all elements by increasing relative atomic mass, so that chemically related elements are or-
ganised underneath one another yields the periodic table of elements. The sequence of elements is de-
termined by the atomic number Z which is identical to the number of protons or electrons in the element's
atom. In a suitably arranged periodic system the structure of the atomic shells belonging to the individual
elements can be seen directly.

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1.2 Chemical bonds
According to current knowledge, chemical bonds are electromagnetic in nature and created by different types
of joining forces, which also include intermolecular forces (e.g. VAN-DER-WAALS forces). The bonding forc-
es are forces of attraction between opposite electrical charges. At the heart of this process are the electrons
and electron shells of the atoms. As atoms approach one another interactions take place between the elec-
tron shells. Depending on the type of interaction involved, bonds are formed which can be described (simpli-
fied categorisation) as ionic, atomic or metallic (Figure 3), whereby mixed forms can also occur.
Ionic bonding Atomic bonding Metallic bonding

covalent bonding,
heteropolar bonding or
electron-pair bonding delocalised electron gas bonding
electrovalent bonding
or homopolar bonding
Atoms form ions, that are Atoms of a molecule are bonded Split-off electrons largely
bonded together by by common electrons belong to the entire
electrical charge. (molecular bonding). union of atoms.
In particular bonds between In particular between the In particular with bonds
metals and non-metals (salts). atoms of non-metals. between metals and alloys.
Figure 3: Important types of chemical bonds (ionic, atomic, metallic bonding)
Ionic bonds result when electropositive and electronegative elements “pair” with each other. The bond
occurs as a result of the transition of electrons from the shell of one atom to that of the other. A charge
transfer takes place. As opposed to atomic bonding, a common electron pair is not formed; instead positive
(cations) and negative (anions) ions result. An inert gas configuration is achieved either by absorption or
release an electron. This creates an - externally - electrically neutral molecule (Figure 3, left).
In an atomic bond the participating atoms share common electron pairs, thus achieving an - externally -
inert gas configuration. For this reason, the atomic bond is also referred to as an electron-pair bond. The
bond electrons are therefore part of the electron shells of both atoms. From the two atom orbitals, a com-
mon molecular orbital results which surrounds the atoms evenly (Figure 3, centre). Since there is no
charge transfer here, unlike ionic bonding, this type of bond is also called a homopolar or non-polar bond.
In a metallic bond, elements with a small number of valence electrons release /deliver these as a uni-
formly distributed, freely moving electron cloud. The valence electrons thus remain in the bond and hold
the positive metal ions (cations) together (Figure 3, right).

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1.3 Classification of metallic materials
Materials can be classified according to different criteria. The diagram in Figure 4 illustrates
a common classification.
Technical substances
Working materials Materials Auxiliary materials
Metallic materials Semi-metallic materials Non-metallic materials
Iron-based materials Natural substances

Non-iron-based materials Semiconductors Ceramic materials, glasses
Special materials Plastics
Figure 4: Schematic classification of metallic materials
By considering the nature of their crystalline character, solids, which also include metallic materials, may
be categorised as follows (Figure 5).
Solids
Crystalline Partly crystalline Amorphous
Polycrystals Single crystals
Structural materials Semiconductors High-polymeric Glasses

e.g. steels e.g. Si single crystals e.g. PE, PP, PTFE e.g. glass, enamel
Electrical conductors Diamond

natural
e.g. Al, Cu alloys
artificial
Spherical structural elements arranged in a space lat- Open structure, irregularly rolled, lowest
tice, greatest possible packing density packing density
Figure 5: Crystallographic classification of solids
Compared to non-metallic materials, all metals are characterized by a combination of properties that
always occur together at room temperature, with few exceptions. These common properties are:
– metallic gloss and reflectivity

– high strength
– solidification ability
– good electric and thermal conductivity
– crystalline character (in the solid state)
– solid aggregation state (exception Hg)
– metals (their oxides and hydroxides) are cation creators (they form salts with acids, ionic bonding)
Figure 6 shows a further possible classification of metallic materials, depending on their extraction and
important physical and chemical properties.

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Metallic materials
Chemical
Fabrication Density Melting point
resistance
Melting Light metals Noble metals Low-melting

Electro-chemical
e.g. steel Density < 4.5 kg/dm³
Positive potential
Tl < 700 °C
Sintering Heavy metals Ignoble metals High-melting

Electro-chemical
e.g. tungsten Density  4.5 kg/dm³ 700 °C .Tl.  2,000 °C
Negative potential
Electrometallurgy Maximum melting

e.g. aluminium Tl > 2,000 °C
Figure 6: Possible classification of metallic materials
2 Crystallography
2.1 Preface
In contrast to physics and chemistry, the internal structure of atoms (Section 1.1) and their capacity
to bond with other atoms is not a key interest in crystallography (Section 1.2); instead it considers the
atom exclusively as a MASS POINT. Points – and thus mass points – do not possess spatial expansion,
i.e. their radius is ZERO.
In crystallography, crystalline materials are structured on the basis of geometric aspects. Therefore, this
materials science requires a high level of visual thinking.
2.2 Definitions
For a better understanding of the following descriptions, it is important to first define a number of repeating,
basic technical terms. These include, in particular, the term CRYSTAL. In general terms, a crystal is a
body, whose atoms and molecules are organised regularly in a crystal lattice and not at random. According
to Auguste BRAVAIS (1811 to 1863), the father of crystallography, the term CRYSTAL is defined as fol-
lows.
A crystal is an homogeneous, three-dimensional and periodic discontinuity
– Homogenous: chemically and physically equivalent

– Three-dimensional: possesses a defined space lattice arrangement
– Periodic: possesses the same step sequence(s) in one lattice direction
– Discontinuity: finite steps between neighbouring centres of gravity of the structural ele-
ments
Crystallography is therefore understood to be the science of crystals, their structure, formation or man-
ufacture and their properties and potential applications.
Solid crystals, i.e also all metals, are solids. These include systems of atoms, ions, molecules, which
retain their macroscopic (external) shape without the influence of an external force and put up resistance
to any external forces impacting on it. Their structure is the totality of relationships that exist at a given

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point in time between the atoms, ions, molecules (system elements, mass points) of a solid.
It is therefore designated as a solid structure or structure of a system.
Solid systems consist therefore of components that are arranged according to law, i.e. crystallographic
relations.
Among the most important of these laws are the BRAVAIS laws. These describe the geometric princi-
ples for defining an elementary cell.
– Maximum symmetry
– Shortest basis vectors
– Smallest volume
– Orthogonality (perpendicularity)
An elementary cell is the smallest spatial unit of a space lattice, from which the space lattice can be
built up by translation (displacement) around the lattice parameters (a, b and c) in the direction of the
basic vectors (r). In this process, the space lattice is uniquely identified by the lattice constants a, b, c
and the angle between the lattice vectors , ,  (Figure ).
A phase is a material or a mixture of several materials (mixed phase) with homogenous properties. The
areas at which the properties change dramatically are designated phase boundaries (e.g. ferrite, ce-
mentite). On the other hand, microstructure components do not have to be homogenous in terms of
their crystal structure or chemical composition (e.g. pearlite, ledeburite).
2.3 Structure of the space lattice

2.3.1 Ideal structure
2.3.1.1 Basic structure of the space lattice
The ideal structure describes the perfectly regular geometric structure of the space lattice. This involves
the use of four dimensions. Their parameters are summarised in Table 1.
Table 1: Basic structure of the space lattice (ideal structure)

Zero-dimensional One-dimensional Two-dimensional Three-dimensional
MASS POINT LATTICE STRAIGHT LINE LATTICE PLANE ELEMENTARY CELL
in the space lattice in the space lattice in the space lattice in the space lattice
Displacement vector
   
r 0 r  ma r  ( m  a )  ( n  b) r  (m  a)  (n  b)  (o  c)
Lattice constants
0 (no expansion) a a, b a, b, c
Number of steps
0 (no displacement) m m, n m, n, o

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2.3.1.2 Basic types of elementary cells
As already mentioned in Section 2.2, the space lattice is composed of elementary cells. Selected basic
types of such cells are summarised in Table 2 and Table 3. These include types of elementary cells that
tend to be found in metals.
Table 2: Basic types of cubic elementary cells (EC)

Cubic elementary cells
Type: Primitive (p.) Basis-centred (b.c.) Body-centred (cbc) Face-centred (cfc)
Elementary cell:
(real model)
External atoms: 8 x 1/8 = 1 8 x 1/8 = 1 8 x 1/8 = 1 8 x 1/8 = 1

Interior atoms: 0 2 x 1/2 = 1 1x1=1 6 x 1/2 = 3
Atoms per EC: 1 2 2 4
Packing density: 0.52 (52%) 0.68 (68%) 0.68 (68%) 0.74 (74%)
Coordination number: 6 8 (only rhombic) 8 12
Example: no pure metals no pure metals -Fe, W, Mo, Cr, V -Fe, Al, Au, Cu, Ni
Type: “Caesium chloride type” “Sulphur type” “Tungsten type” “Copper type”
Table 3: Basic types of hexagonal elementary cells (EC)

Hexagonal elementary cells
Type: Primitive (p.) Hexagonal Close-packed (hcp).
Elementary cell:
(real model)
External atoms: (12 x 1/6) + (2 x 1/2) = 3 (12 x 1/6) + (2 x 1/2) = 3

Interior atoms: 0 3x1=3
Atoms per EC: 3 6
Packing density: 0.61 (61%) 0.74 (74%)
Coordination number: 8 12
Example: does not occur with pure metals Cd, Co, Mg, Ti, Zn, Zr
Type: “Graphite type” “Magnesium type”
2.3.1.3 BRAVAIS lattice
The application of the BRAVAIS rules (Section 2.2) yields max. 14 possibilities for structuring a space
using a three-dimensional periodic arrangement of points. Thus a total of seven crystal axis systems with
up to four sub-groups (altogether 14 Bravais lattices) can be represented (Table 4). Consequently, the
Bravais lattices or also space lattices represent all of the elementary cells of crystals possible in the

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space (exception: the hexagonal, most densely packed elementary cell is not covered by the BRAVAIS
lattices). These result when parallelepiped cells are positioned side by side in all directions. The edges of
the cells then form a three-dimensional point lattice, which represent the centres of gravity of the crystal
components (mass points) in the real crystal.
Table 4: Representation of the 7 crystal axis systems (Bravais lattices) with their respective elementary cells
Types of elementary cells
Crystal Lattice
Lattice angle base body face
system constants primitive centred centred centred
cubic Non-
a=b=c ===90°
(cube) existent
tetragonal Non- Non-

a=bc ===90°
(tetragonal prism) existent existent
rhombic, ortho-
rhombic abc ===90°
(cuboids)
rhombohedral,
Non- Non- Non-
trigonal a=b=c ==90°
existent existent existent
(rhombohedrons)
hexagonal  = = =90° Non- Non- Non-

a =a =a c 1 2 3
(hexagonal prism) 1 2 3 =120° existent existent existent
monoclinic ==90° Non- Non-

abc
(parallelepiped) 90° existent existent
triclinic Non- Non- Non-

abc 90°
(parallel epiped) existent existent existent
Metals belong almost exclusively to the cubic (cbc, cfc, Table 2) or the hexagonal crystal system
(hcp, Table 3).

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2.3.2 Real structure

2.3.2.1 Introduction
In terms of the materials, the crystalline and amorphous states of the solids are of particular importance.
However these represent only imaginary situations, because neither the ideal crystalline solid nor the
completely amorphous body (ideal statistical distribution of the components in the space) exist. Already
the thermal vibrations of the components and all surfaces, including the grain boundaries, disturb the
arrangement of the crystal. They and numerous other defects require the introduction of the term real
structure.
Real structure is understood to be the totality of deviations in the structural order of atomic arrange-
ments compared to the structure of the ideal crystal.
Depending on the geometric structure of the ideal crystal these deviations are classified, as listed in Ta-
ble 5. The benchmark for this classification is the translation period, i.e. the distance between the atomic
centres of gravity (mass points).
Table 5: Lattice structure imperfections and their formation

Dimension Type (examples) Formation
Vacancy (inherent disorder) Thermodynamic (temperature-dependent)
0-dimensional Interstitial atom
Impure or alloyed raw material
Substitutional atom
Edge dislocations
1-dimensional
Screw dislocations Production-determined
Grain boundary
2-dimensional Phase boundary Solidification, recrystallization, mechanical load
Stacking faults
Pores
3-dimensional Cracks Manufacture, production, use-determined
Precipitations
2.3.2.2 Classification of lattice structure imperfections according to geometric criteria

2.3.2.2.1 Zero-dimensional lattice structure imperfections
These lattice structure imperfections, also termed “point defects”, include vacancies, interlattice-, em-
bedded- and substitutional atoms (cf. Figure 7).
Vacancies or defects are those places in a crystal lattice that are not occupied by atoms. The concentra-
tion of vacancies in a crystal lattice is in a thermodynamic equilibrium and increases with the tempera-
ture. Fast cooling can produce a concentration of vacancies in excess of the equilibrium.
Interstitial atoms, as the name suggests, are integrated between the matrix atoms in the interstitial plac-
es. On the other hand, substitutional atoms are limited to regular positions. Substitutional and matrix
atoms thereby form a mixture (solution) with mostly irregular statistical distribution of the atoms, which is
called a solid solution.
Zero (point)-dimensional lattice structure imperfections can be made visible e.g. using scanning tunnel-
ling and atomic force microscopes as well as field ion microscopy.

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Figure 7: Zero (point)-dimensional lattice structure

imperfections (vacancies, interstitial atoms,
substitutional atoms)
2.3.2.2.2 One-dimensional lattice structure imperfections
Dislocations are line-like lattice structure imperfections. They occur as early as solidification and, in the
as-cast condition, are present with a density of approx. 107/cm2. Due to fast cooling the dislocation den-
sity may rise to 108/cm2. Plastic deformations lead to an increased formation of dislocations, meaning
that the dislocation density rises to about 1012/cm2. The dislocation energy is many times higher than the
energy required to form a vacancy.
Each dislocation has two important parameters: the BURGERS vector b and the dislocation line. The
BURGERS vector has one direction and one amount. It describes the direction, in which the movement of
dislocation takes place. The amount always corresponds to the distance between two neighbouring atoms
in this direction. Dislocations are differentiated as to whether they are edge dislocations (Figure 8) or
screw dislocations (Figure 9).
Figure 8: One-dimensional (line-like) Figure 9: One-dimensional (line-like)

lattice structure imperfections lattice structure imperfections
(edge dislocation) (screw dislocation)
Many materials-technological mechanisms depend on the movement of dislocations or their obstruction.

These include, e.g. deformation and solidification.
Transmission electron microscopes (TEM, cf. Chapter 2.23) are particularly suited to visualising one-
dimensional lattice structure imperfections.

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2.3.2.2.3 Two-dimensional lattice structure imperfections
Typical flat lattice structure imperfections are grain boundaries. Grain boundaries are differentiated
constructional according to how they are created. If the differences in the orientation of two crystallites
are only slight, we talk of smallest or small angle boundaries. They are comprised of regularly arranged
dislocations. If these are formed, e.g. after recovery annealing, thermal deformation or after a --
transformation, these are considered sub-grain boundaries or a sub structure (Figure 10).
If there are larger differences in orientation (approx. 2 to 5 interatomic distances) the crystallographic
structure is replaced with an extensively irregular arrangement of atoms. This is called large-angle grain
boundary and can be thought of as a thin film of disordered (amorphous) structure with local, different
deviations in the structural disorder (Figure 10).
The yield point, elongation at fracture and also the creep behaviour of polycrystalline materials for exam-
ple are dependent on the grain size. Therefore the influence of the average grain diameter d on the yield
point Re can be assessed numerically using the HALL-PETCH relation:
1
Re 
Re  R  k y  d1/ 2 d
or
With R being the friction stress that corresponds to the obstruction of the dislocation movement within a
crystal with unlimited expansion and ky being the index of the grain boundary resistance, it describes the
grain boundary influence on the dislocation movement. The respective yield stress is therefore com-
posed of a grain part/portion (quantity) and a grain boundary part, where the grain part is primarily de-
pendant on the foreign atom content, on the dislocation density as well as on the grade of dispersion of
the particles present within the grains.
Figure 10: Two-dimensional (laminar) lattice structure imperfections (selection)
Twin grain boundaries are another type of lattice defect. These differences in orientation be-
tween neighbouring lattice parts are characterised by the fact that the atoms on both sides of a defined
lattice plane are completely symmetric. Since the neighbouring crystal parts are identical, the mirror

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plane is called the twinning boundary or twin grain boundary. Two-dimensional lattice structure imperfec-
tions can e.g. be examined with the aid of metallographic incident light microscopes (cf. Chapter
2.23).
2.3.2.2.4 Three-dimensional lattice structure imperfections
Three-dimensional lattice structure imperfections can also be termed volume defects and are complete
foreign phases within a crystal. These include, essentially, pores, inclusions, precipitates and also,
cracks (Figure 11).
Pores are cavities within the metal (open or closed), which are filled with gas or liquid (e.g. by degasifi-
cation when welding). Inclusions are solid foreign phases within a crystal. Typical inclusions with TIG
welding can include molten tungsten particles. On the other hand, precipitates develop out of the crystal
as foreign phases.
These occur, if the solubility of one or more components in a solid solution is reduced as a function of
the temperature. For example, with a binary system A-B the solubility of A and/or B atoms in the relevant
solid solution can reduce as the temperature falls so that new precipitates arise in the microstructure
(application: e.g. artificial aging of aluminium). If the binary system displays a bond formation between
the initial components A and B, corresponding intermetallic or intermediary precipitates of this bond can
occur in the microstructure under appropriate thermodynamic conditions (cf. Chapter 2.02).
To examine three-dimensional lattice structure imperfections, scanning electron microscopes are suita-
ble, as well as metallographic microscopes, since these ensure a very high depth of focus.
Figure 11: Three-dimensional (spatial) lattice structure imperfections (selection)
2.4 Description of the space lattice

2.4.1 Packing density of elementary cells
The packing density PD (compare Table 2 and Table 3) is the quotient between the volume of atoms
allocated to the elementary cell and the volume of the elementary cell itself. It thus corresponds to space
filling. They are calculated on the basis of purely geometric aspects. Here the atoms are regarded as
spheres with the radius r. The geometry of the elementary cell corresponds to that of the respective crys-
tal axis system (Table 4).

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In the following the determination of the packing density PD in the cubic system is described. Firstly,
dependencies such as face and body diagonals of a cube as well as the number of atomic radii along
these diagonals are incorporated into the equation of the respective lattice constants  (Table 6). The
packing density PD arises as a result of inserting the relations for the lattice constants  and the sphere
volumes into the equations for the respective cube volume.
Table 6: Determination of the packing density in the cubic crystal axis system
cubic-body-centred (cbc) cubic-face-centred (cfc)
elementary cell elementary cell
4r 4r
αcbc  Lattice constant: αcbc 
3 2
4 atomic radii along the body diagonal Remark: 4 atomic radii along the face diagonal
2  4r 3
4  4πr 3
PDcbc  Packing density PDcbc 
33 3α3
2 atoms per elementary cell (Table 2) Remark 4 atoms per elementary cell (Table 2)
0.68 Packing density: 0.74
2.4.2 Determination of coordination numbers
The crystal structure is described by establishing the position of its components, namely, by their
co-ordination in the elementary cell. In this process, the coordination number CN determines the num-
ber of nearest neighbours of a structural unit (atom, ion, molecule) in a crystal (e.g. metal lattice) and/or
the number of atoms bonded directly to a central atom in a space lattice (Figure 12). The coordination
number in crystal lattices is given in square brackets.
– cubic-body-centred elementary cell: e.g. -Fe[8]

– cubic-face-centred elementary cell: e.g. Al[12]
– hexagonal elementary cell: e.g. Mg[12]
Figure 12: Coordination numbers in the cubic-body- (left) and in the cubic-face-centred lattice (right)
The coordination numbers for cubic and hexagonal elementary cells are listed in Table 2 and Table 3.

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2.4.3 Description of the space lattice

2.4.3.1 Parameters of the space lattice
There is a defined nomenclature in crystallography to uniquely describe the space lattice and it can be
found in all the specialist literature. Using this, the position of e.g.:
– mass points,
– lattice straight lines,
– lattice angles,
– lattice constants,
– lattice planes,
– directions in space etc.
in the space lattice can be accurately described (see figure 13).
Diagram Parameter
[001] a Lattice constants: a, b, c
Lattice angle: , , 
(100)
c
Directions in space: [100], [010], [001]


 [010]
 Lattice point: [[110]]
b Lattice plane acc. to

[[110]] ( 100 )
[100] MILLER:
Figure 13: Parameters of the space lattice
2.4.3.2 Lattice interstices
As shown in Section 2.4.1, the space of an elementary cell is not completely filled by its components. Thus
a crystal lattice can be densely packed; in the gaps between the atoms there is always more room for smaller
atoms. Here, however, the geometric shape of these lattice interstices (e.g. whether they are tetrahedrons
or octahedrons) is of crucial significance (Table 7). Not every elementary cell - due to its arrangement of
mass points - permits the formation of such geometric gaps or interstices. Thus the presence of lattice inter-
stices is of great importance for the formation of alloys (interstitial solid solutions).
The size of the lattice interstices contributes decisively to the dissolution power of alloying elements
with small atomic radii in metals. Thus, at 1,147 °C -iron (austenite) can, due to its cfc modification, dis-
solve a maximum of 2.06 % carbon, despite its being densely packed. The cause of this lies in the fact
that there are tetrahedral interstices in a cubic-face-centred elementary cell (Table 7, left). Such inter-
stices, on the other hand, are not found within a single cubic-body-centred elementary cell. This is why
-iron (ferrite) at 723 °C can only dissolve maximum 0.02 % C, i.e. one hundredth of the dissolution
power of austenite.

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Table 7: Tetrahedral and octahedral interstices in a cubic-face-centred elementary cell

Tetrahedral interstice Octahedral interstice
A tetrahedron is a body, which consists An octahedron is a body, which consists
of four equilateral triangles. of eight equilateral triangles.
3 Real structure and material properties

3.1 Preface
As already mentioned, important material properties (e.g. mechanical-technological or processing and

use properties) are caused, controlled and/or influenced by the phenomena of real structure as de-
scribed in Section 2.3.2, i.e. the lattice imperfections.
In general it should be noted that every imperfection in the lattice leads to more or less pronounced lattice
distortions, which in turn lead to a hardening of the material. Vacancies furthermore favour atomic trans-
position of matrix-, substitutional- and interstitial atoms and thus diffusion processes or processes associ-
ated with diffusion, such as, for example, conversion, precipitation, recovery or recrystallization processes.
Dislocations are hugely important to the plastic deformation of crystalline materials.
3.2 Diffusion
Diffusion (from the Latin diffundere = “effuse”, “scatter”, “spread”) is a physical process, that leads to an
even distribution of particles and thus to the complete blending of two or more substances.
In a perfect crystal lattice, each lattice particle oscillates around its solid lattice location, but cannot leave
this. A necessary prerequisite for diffusion in a crystalline solid is the presence of imperfections in the
lattice (real structure).
Note: Only through lattice structure imperfections can the transposition of atoms or ions take place as a
condition of material transfer.
A differentiation is made between self and foreign diffusion. The first describes the transposition pro-
cesses of atoms, molecules and charged particles that take place in pure metals, whereas the second
describes a process, in solid solutions (alloys), that leads to a change in the composition towards ther-
modynamic equilibrium (generally from areas with high concentration to areas of low concentration.)

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The amount of material that is transported per unit time through a surface perpendicular to the direction
of diffusion depends on the concentration gradient, the atomic type and the temperature (FICK's first
law). The transposition processes can run according to the vacancies (Figure 13, left), interstitial
(Figure 13, centre) or substitutional mechanism (Figure 13, right) although it has not yet been possible
to evaluate the latter experimentally, it would be possible theoretically. In the case of vacancy diffusion
(Figure 13, left), matrix and substitutional atoms preferably swap places through neighbouring vacancies
whose concentration, as previously mentioned, increases with the temperature. Consequently, the diffus-
ibility of these atoms is very much temperature-dependent.
Figure 13: Transposition opportunities in the lattice
Interstitial atoms like carbon, nitrogen or hydrogen in the steel do not require vacancies for diffusion, in-
stead they move from one interstitial site to another with only minor distortion of the lattice (Figure 13,
centre). Therefore, the interlattice diffusion progresses faster at the same temperature, than the vacancy
diffusion. Furthermore, the rate of diffusion is also influenced by the crystal structure; consequently the
diffusion coefficients of carbon in -Fe are about hundred times higher than in -Fe (but not the solubility).
Furthermore, it is possible to differentiate between volume and grain boundary diffusion, depending
on whether the atoms migrate into the interior of the grain or along the grain boundaries. At middle and
low temperatures the grain boundary diffusion can run many times faster than the volume diffusion. At
higher temperatures the volume diffusion is greater due to the small proportion of grain boundaries com-
pared to the total volume.
3.3 Strain hardening
The capability of crystalline materials to undergo plastic deformation is based predominantly on disloca-
tions. The dislocation density can be increased by accelerated cooling or predominantly by cold de-
forming. As the number rises, the dislocations hinder each other; non-sliding obstacles are partly built up
due to intersecting dislocations. The result is a strong lattice distortion and thus a strengthening of the
material. At the same time the hardness, the yield strength as well as the tensile strength are increased
and fracture elongation, reduction of area and impact energy are decreased.
Dislocations can influence the precipitation behaviour of foreign atoms dissolved in the basic matrix, since the
stress field of dislocations represents a preferential segregation area (cf. Chapter 2.02). In order to remove
dislocations from this “cloud of foreign atoms” again, first a slightly higher stress must be exerted than would
be required for the further dislocation movement (pronounced yield point during tensile test).
The cold deformation of a metal results in an increase in internal energy and thus to free enthalpy, due
to the lattice imperfections introduced. With a corresponding supply of heat, this thermodynamically un-
stable state works to decrease the free enthalpy by rearranging and reducing lattice defects. Technically,
this can be obtained by means of recovery annealing or recrystallization annealing.

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3.4 Deformation
3.4.1 Plastic deformation
The plastic deformation of a crystal mainly takes place through the gliding of atom layers along certain
crystallographic planes and directions under the influence of shear stresses. This process leads to a
permanent, irreversible, i.e. plastic deformation (Figure 14, right).
G.E.
Figure 14: Schematic illustration of elastic and plastic deformation under the influence of shear stresses
The crystallographic planes and directions, where sliding occurs, are called sliding planes (G.E.) and
sliding directions respectively; together they are called sliding systems. Generally, the planes with the
most dense occupation of atoms serve as sliding planes or directions because here the critical shear
stress is the lowest. The prerequisite for sliding under tensile load is that sufficiently high shear stresses
are present in the sliding planes.
Figure 15: Sliding planes in different elementary cells (left: cbc; centre: cfc; right: hex)
The cubic-face-centred system has a total of twelve sliding systems, with the octahedral areas
shown in Figure 15, centre, as sliding planes, such that metals with this structure are characterised by
their good ductility. In contrast to this, there are only three sliding systems in the hexagonal system,
and the basic planes are the sliding planes (Figure 15, right). Although a cubic-body-centred system
does theoretically has 48 sliding planes. they cannot be treated as being equally effective, with the result
that metals with this structure must be classified in between the other two systems when it comes to duc-
tility. In this system the body diagonal is to be regarded as the most densely occupied direction; it is in-
cluded in many different lattice planes (Figure 15, left).

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Table 8 contains a selection of technically more common metals, their crystal structure
(type of elementary cell) and a general evaluation of their ductility.
Table 8: Plastic deformation depending on the type of elementary cell

Type of elementary cell Toughness Chemical element
Cadmium, cobalt, magnesium, titani-
Hexagonal Moderate
um, zinc, zirconium
Chromium, -iron, molybdenum,
Cubic-body-centred Average
niobium, tantalum, vanadium
Aluminium, lead, -iron; gold, copper,
Cubic-face-centred Good
nickel, platinum, silver
Sliding can be completely impeded, when the most densely occupied sliding planes are blocked. The
most different types and formations of alloying elements or also dislocations, for example, can serve as
obstructions in this case. If the lattice planes are completely blocked, the required shear stress is not
achieved, as the tensile stress sufficient for a fracture is already achieved beforehand, meaning that a
deformation-free cleavage fracture (brittle fracture) occurs. For this reason, alloys of the cubic-face-
centred metal aluminium can, for example, also be damaged by brittle fracturing.
3.4.2 Elastic deformation
If, on the other hand, the critical stress (yield point Re) is not reached, the distance between the atoms
does become larger, but there will be neither separation nor gliding. The atoms return to their position of
equilibrium when the stress is removed. This process is called elastic deformation (Figure 14, centre).
In the static tensile test on metals, HOOKE's straight line in the stress elongation diagram describes
the elastic behaviour of the material involved (cf. Chapter 2.23).
3.5 Ageing
Aging is understood to be time-, temperature- and deformation-dependent property changes in

materials. Aging is differentiated as to whether it is natural, thermal or strain aging. Quench aging oc-
curs as a result of a combination of natural and thermal variables. It is particularly important for heat-
treatment processes during which it leads to fast cooling processes. Therefore, this type of ageing can
also occur during welding of correspondingly sensitive steels (especially old steels with higher levels of
nitrogen content). It also occurs during fast cooling of steels with a low carbon content from the austenitic
zone, such that the carbon does not precipitate as tertiary cementite at the grain boundaries, but be-
comes enriched at lattice defect positions, thus leading to a hardening effect. Annealing at temperatures
of more than about 200°C can reverse the strength increase that occurs.
If steels contain a defined amount of nitrogen and phosphorous, these elements can under certain condi-
tions precipitate as metastable phases and reduce the deformation ability and toughness properties consid-
erably with only a minimal increase in strength. If the material has additionally already been cold deformed
with a consequently higher dislocation density, the dissolved N, P and C atoms will tend to accumulate at
these dislocations. This leads to the dislocation movement being hindered such that as early as during a
deformation at temperatures of 200° to 300 C strain aging can occur (“blue brittleness”).

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3.6 Recovery and recrystallization

3.6.1 Recovery
Recovery, more precisely, crystal recovery, is characterised by the healing of zero-dimensional lattice
structure imperfections completely and rearranging dislocations. It occurs at temperatures lower
than those of recrystallization (cf. Section 3.6.2). Under the metallographic incident light microscope
therefore no structural changes are detectable. In the crystal lattice, reactions occur between point-
shape lattice imperfections and with other lattice imperfections. Consequently, interstitial atoms move
into vacancies, vacancies condense into multiple vacancies or are healed completely, in that they mi-
grate to grain boundaries or to the surface. At somewhat higher temperatures, a unification occurs and
with it the destruction of dislocations with different signs. In this process, energetically more favourable
dislocation arrangements are formed, such as e.g., small angle grain boundaries (also sub-grain bound-
aries). As the in this way generated grain boundaries frequently form polygons, this process is also
termed polygonisation (Figure 16).
Figure 16: Schematic illustration of polygonisaton
The mechanical properties of a material change during recovery only moderately. The strength decreas-
es somewhat with slightly improved formability. Furthermore, residual stresses can partly decrease.
Technically, crystal recovery is applied during stress-free annealing.
3.6.2 Recrystallization
At further elevated temperatures new grains are formed. This process of forming new crystal nuclei and
their growth is called recrystallization (primary and secondary recrystallization.) Dislocations work in
particular as nucleus formers. Therefore, a critical deformation grade of the material is necessary for
recrystallization, below which no recrystallization takes place.
Crystallographically, recrystallization is understood to be the formation and movement of large-

angle grain boundaries.
The grain size of the recrystallized structure is dependent on the number of nuclei and the speed of
growth which themselves are determined by the deformation grade, the annealing temperature and the
annealing time (Figure 17). Solid inclusions (e.g. phase precipitates) can slow down the process of re-
crystallization considerably (they prevent the movement of dislocations) or prevent it completely or partly
up to a defined temperature. At higher degrees of deformation an oriented growth of individual grains
can occur instead of grain growth that is uniform on all sides (secondary recrystallization). Thus the
strength and fracture elongation of a cold deformed material can, depending on the degree of recrystalli-
zation, assume again the initial values that existed prior to strain hardening.

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Recrystallization temperatures of selected, technically common, pure metals have been collated in Table
9. In this context, it should be borne in mind that the temperature necessary for recrystallization is not a
precisely defined material parameter, as it depends on the degree of deformation, structural condition
and, generally, on the thermo-mechanical history of the material concerned.
Table 9: Recrystallization temperatures of selected metals

Metal Pb Cd Al Ag Au Cu Fe Ni Mo W
TR (°C) 0 10 150 200 200 200 400 550 900 1200
TS (°C) 327.5 321 660 960 1063 1084 1536 1453 2620 3400
TS (K) 600.5 594 933 1233 1336 1357 1809 1726 2893 3673
The lowest recrystallization temperature TRmin can be estimated using TAMMANN's rule (cf. Chapter 2.12).
Here the absolute melting temperature TS of the relevant element or alloy (in Kelvin) is taken as the start-
ing point:
TRmin ~ 0.4  TS.
Figure 17: Variables that influence recrystallization

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4 Test questions
(1) What important properties characterise metals?
 All metals are amorphous.

 All metals are crystalline.
 All metals are high-polymeric.
 Metals are characterised by their solidification behaviour.
 Metals are electrical conductors.
(2) By which features are crystals distinguished from other solids?
 Crystals are disordered solids.

 Crystals are chemically and physically equivalent.
 Crystals are good insulators and electrically non-conductive.
 Crystals have a defined space lattice arrangement.
 Crystals have the same step sequence(s) in one lattice direction.
(3) What is an elementary cell?
 It is an indiscriminate accumulation of chemical elements.

 It is a cell-like orientation of geometric objects.
 It is a superordinate cellular structure.
 It is the largest laminar unit in a lattice plane.
 It is the smallest spatial unit in a space lattice.
(4) How large is the displacement vector of a mass point?
 0.
 1.
 10.
 100.
 1000.
(5) Which basic types of elementary cells do the majority of technically common metals have?
 Cubic-basis-centred.
 Cubic-body-centred.
 Cubic-face-centred.
 Orthorhombic-face-centred.
 Hexagonal most densely packed.

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(6) What one-dimensional lattice structure imperfections do you know?
 Interstitial atoms.
 Vacancies.
 Edge dislocations.
 Screw dislocations.
 Grain boundaries.
(7) Precipitations can be assigned to which type of lattice structure imperfections?
 Zero-dimensional lattice structure imperfections.

 One-dimensional lattice structure imperfections.
 Two-dimensional lattice structure imperfections.
 Three-dimensional lattice structure imperfections.
 Four-dimensional lattice structure imperfections.
(8) How do you understand the term, packing density?
 Product of the volume of the atoms assigned to the elementary cell and the volume of the
elementary cell itself.
 The deformation of an elementary cell following external load.
 The density of the atomic packing of a space lattice.
 Quotient between the volume of the atoms assigned to the elementary cell and the vol-
ume of the elementary cell itself.
 The difference between the volumes of matrix atoms and the interstitial or substitutional
atoms within a solid solution.
(9) The strain hardening of metals is associated with which materials-science mechanism?
 Release and free movement of dislocations.

 Impediment of dislocation movement.
 The diffusion of interstitial dissolved elements in the basic matrix.
 The diffusion of substitutional atoms in the basic matrix.
 The free sliding of vacancies in the crystal lattice.
(10) Which parameters determine bindingly the grain size of a real crystal after recrystallization?
 Number of nuclei and rate of growth.

 Number of cowdions in the {111} planes.
 Annealing temperature and annealing time.
 Degree of deformation.
 Number of sliding planes in the elementary cell.

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5 Bibliography
Further information can be found in the following publications.
Bautsch, H. J.; Bohm, J.; Kleber, W.:

Einführung in die Kristallographie. [Introduction to crystallography.]
München: Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag GmbH; 1998
Schatt, W.; Worch, H.:

Werkstoffwissenschaft. [Materials science.]
Weinheim: Wiley VCH Verlag GmbH, 2002
Borchardt-Ott, W.:
Kristallographie. [Crystallography.] Springer text book.
Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag GmbH, 2008
Oettel, H.; Schumann, H.:

Metallografie. [Metallography.]
Gräfen, H.:
VDI Lexikon Werkstofftechnik. [VDI Lexicon, Materials engineering.]
Düsseldorf: VDI-Verlag GmbH, 1993
Zimmermann, R.; Günther, K.:

Metallurgie und Werkstofftechnik – Ein Wissensspeicher. [Metallurgy and engineering materials –
a knowledge store.] Volume 1.
Leipzig: Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie, 1975

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Phase Diagrams and Alloys Page 1
Chapter 2.02: Phase Diagrams and Alloys
Contents
1 Pure metals and alloys ........................................................................................................ 3

1.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Interstitial solid solutions .......................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Substitutional solid solutions .................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Hardening by solid solution formation ...................................................................................... 5
1.5 Alloying elements ..................................................................................................................... 6
2 Crystallisation ...................................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Generally valid processes during solidification ......................................................................... 7
2.2 Nucleation ................................................................................................................................ 8
2.3 Nucleus growth ...................................................................................................................... 10
2.4 Microstructure of solid solutions ............................................................................................. 11
3 Phase diagrams ................................................................................................................. 12
3.1 Basic types of binary systems ................................................................................................ 12
3.1.1 Establishment of binary systems................................................................................. 12
3.1.2 States during the blending of two substances ............................................................. 13
3.1.3 Terminology of binary systems ................................................................................... 13
3.1.4 Complete solubility in the solid state ........................................................................... 14
3.1.5 Complete insolubility in the solid state ........................................................................ 14
3.1.6 Partial solubility in the solid state ................................................................................ 15
3.1.7 Working with binary systems ...................................................................................... 17
3.2 Ternary and multi-substance systems .................................................................................... 19
4 Transformations and precipitations ................................................................................. 21
4.1 Solid phase transformations ................................................................................................... 21
4.2 Allotropic transformations ....................................................................................................... 22
4.3 Segregation phenomena ........................................................................................................ 23
4.3.1 Overview .................................................................................................................... 23
4.3.2 Micro-segregations ..................................................................................................... 23
4.3.3 Macro-segregations .................................................................................................... 24
4.4 Precipitations ......................................................................................................................... 26
4.4.1 Types of precipitations ................................................................................................ 26
4.4.2 Solidification of precipitations (precipitation hardening) ............................................... 26

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4.4.3 Ageing ........................................................................................................................ 27

4.4.4 Intermetallic and intermediary compounds .................................................................. 28
5 Test questions.................................................................................................................... 30
6 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................... 32

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1 Pure metals and alloys

1.1 Introduction
Every pure metal is characterised by properties that are specific to, i.e. characteristic of this metal. For
example, it has, inter alia, a precisely defined melting point as well as corresponding mechanical-
technological (e.g. strength, elongation and toughness properties, hardness), physical (e.g. electrical
and thermal conductivity, thermal expansion) and also chemical properties (e.g. reactivity, corrosion
resistance). In pure metals, these properties can be varied only within narrow limits and are therefore
frequently insufficient for technical applications. Often, however, the demand is for the ability to change
or combine key properties. For this reason, it is usual in practice to mix different metals together and also
to mix metals with non-metals.
Such a blend is known in metallurgy as an alloy. An alloy therefore consists of at least two chemical el-
ements, one of which must be a metal. These elements are thus designated components of a two-,
three- or multi-component alloy.
Simply put, alloys are solid solutions (SS).
Completely crystallised alloys are comprised of three different types of basic constituents. These are the
pure elements, the solid solutions and the intermetallic compounds. These basic constituents are also
called phases or microstructure constituents.
A phase is a material or a mixture of several materials (mixed phase) with homogenous properties, i.e it
has, e.g., the same chemical composition, hardness, density or electrical conductivity. The areas at
which the properties change dramatically are designated as phase boundaries (e.g. ferrite, cementite).
On the other hand, microstructure constituents do not have to be homogenous in terms of their crystal
structure or chemical composition. They can consist therefore of several phases (e.g. pearlite, lede-
burite). Depending on the number of phases and microstructure constituents, alloys are categorised as
homogeneous (single-phase) and heterogeneous (polyphase) alloys.
The concentration range, within which an alloy can exist as a uniform phase, is called the existence
range of this phase. Phase or phase diagrams therefore describe graphically in the concentration tem-
perature plane, the existence range of the different phases (areas of homogeneous structure, but varia-
ble composition, cf. Sections 3 and 3.2).
An ideal homogeneous solid solution consists of different statistically irregularly distributed atoms. This is
why the term solid solution is used in English. Depending on the type of distribution of the atoms form-
ing the solid solution, a differentiation is made between
– interstitial solid solutions and

– substitutional solid solutions
(cf. Chapter 2.01: Zero-dimensional lattice structure imperfections: substitutional atoms, i.e. they display,
for example, an equivalent chemical composition, hardness, density or electrical conductivity as intersti-
tial atoms).

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1.2 Interstitial solid solutions
In an interstitial solid solution, the second atom type dissolved in the space lattice is embedded in the
gaps between the atoms of the basic crystal (lattice interstices) (Figure 1, Figure 2, left). Two essential
conditions apply here:
– interstitial atom types must have a significantly smaller atomic diameter, Figure 2
– interstitial atom types must fit in the lattice interstices present (the size of the lattice interstices is
temperature-dependant).
The options for the formation of interstitial solid solutions are therefore limited. Only chemical elements
that are far from one another in the periodic table can form interstitial solid solutions. Consequently, such
solid solutions always consist of a base metal (e.g. iron, aluminium, copper, nickel) and at least one in-
terstitial non-metal (e.g. carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, Table 1).
B A
Figure 1: Schematic representation of distortion of the Figure 2: Schematic representation of

basic lattice with interstitial SS interstitial solid solutions (rE /rB < 0.59)
Table 1: Special features of interstitial solid solutions

Arrangement of the alloying elements: Interstitial solid solution
Atom types: Metal – Non-metal (Figure 2)
Atoms of the alloying element occupy interstitial sites, they are
Atoms are not orderly: distributed irregularly
Consequences: Lattice distortion, low toughness, hardening
Atoms of the alloying element are regularly distributed, orderly
Atoms are orderly: interstitial solid solution
Consequence: Interstitial structure
Intermediary phase,
Atoms form other elementary cell:
bond comprising portions of metal and atomic bonding
1.3 Substitutional solid solutions
With a substitutional solid solution the second atom type dissolved in the space lattice is embedded
through substitution of atoms of the basic crystal (Figure 3, Figure 4). In this process, the following im-
portant condition applies:
– The basic and substitutional atoms must have approximately the same atomic radius.

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Thus the options for forming substitutional solid solutions are likewise limited. Only those chemical ele-
ments that are close together in the periodic table can form substitutional solid solutions (e.g. iron and
manganese; iron and nickel; nickel and copper), see Table 2. For complete mixture series, i.e. complete
solubility of the atoms involved in one another, the following applies:
– Both elements must have the same lattice type (i.e. elementary cell).
– The difference between the atomic radii of the basic and substitutional atoms may not exceed 15%.
– The elements may only have a low affinity to each other.
B A
Figure 3: Schematic representation of distortion of the basic Figure 4: Schematic representation of substi-
lattice with substitutional - SS tutional solid solutions (rB ~  15 % rA)
Table 2: Special features of substitutional solid solutions

Arrangement of the alloying elements: Substitutional solid solution
Atom types: Metal – Metal (Figure 4)
Atoms of the alloying element occupy regular lattice sites, they
Atoms are not orderly:
are distributed irregularly
Consequences: Solid solution hardening
It can happen, in the event of particular atomic relationships, that
Atoms are orderly:
a regular arrangement of atoms leads to a lattice in the lattice
Consequence: Superstructure
Intermetallic phases,
Atoms form other elementary cell:
bond comprising portions of metal, atomic and ionic bonding
1.4 Hardening by solid solution formation
During embedding and/or substitution of foreign atoms into the basic lattice of an alloy, the different vol-
umes of basic and alloy atoms generate areas of tension (Figure 1, Figure 3), which lead to the obstruc-
tion of the dislocation movement. The result is a hardening of the material.
Depending on the amount and size of the embedded atoms, this leads to a simultaneous increase of
tensile strength and yield point (strength properties). It is to be considered however, that this is usually
associated with a more or less severe drop in elongation and toughness properties.

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1.5 Alloying elements
Characteristic alloying elements for ferrous alloys were entered in Figure 5 (interstitial elements) and in
Figure 6 (substitutional elements) in the periodic table of elements. As is clear, they meet the conditions
stated in Sections 1.2 and 1.3.
I. VIII.
M ain gro up Subgro up M ain gro up Subgro up
1 1 H II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. 2 He

2,1 1.01 M ain gro up Subgro up M ain gro up Subgro up M ain gro up Subgro up M ain gro up Subgro up M ain gro up Subgro up M ain gro up Subgro up 4.003
H ydro ge n H e lium
2 3 Li 4 Be 5 B 6 C 7 N 8 O 9 F 10 Ne
1.0 6.94 1.5 9.01 2.0 10.81 2.5 12.01 3.0 14.01 3.5 16.00 4.0 19.00 20.180
Lit hium B e ryllium B o ro n C a rbo n N it ro ge n O xyge n F luo rine N eo n
3 11 Na 12 Mg 13 Al 14 Si 15 P 16 S 17 Cl 18 Ar
0.9 22.99 1.2 24.31 1.5 26.98 1.8 28.09 2.1 30.97 2.5 32.45 3.0 35.45 39.950
S o dium M a gne s . A lum in. s ilic o n P ho s pho ro us S ulphur C hlo rine A rgo n
4 19 K 20 Ca 21 Sc 22 Ti 23 V 24 Cr 25 Mn 26 Fe 27 Co 28 Ni
0.8 39.10 1.0 40.08 1.3 44.96 1.5 47.90 1.6 50.94 1.6 52.00 1.5 54.94 1.8 55.85 1.8 58.93 1.8 58.71
P o t a s s ium C a lc ium S c a ndium t it a nium V a na dium C hro m ium m a nga ne s e Iro n C o ba lt N ic k e l
29 Cu 30 Zn 31 Ga 32 Ge 33 As 34 Se 35 Br 36 Kr
1.9 63.54 1.6 65.37 1.6 69.72 1.8 72.59 2.0 74.92 2.4 78.96 2.8 79.91 83.800
C o ppe r Z inc G a llium G e rm a n. A rs e nic S e le nium B ro m ine Krypt o n
5 37 Rb 38 Sr 39 Y 40 Zr 41 Nb 42 Mo 43 Tc 44 Ru 45 Rh 46 Pd
0.8 85.47 1.0 87.62 1.3 88.91 1.4 91.22 1.6 92.91 1.8 95.94 1.9 [99] 2.2 101.07 2.2 102.91 2.2 106.40
R ubidium S t ro nt ium Y t t rium Z irk o n N io bium M o lybde num T e c hne t . R ut he n. R ho dium P a lla dium
47 Ag 48 Cd 49 In 50 Sn 51 Sb 52 Te 53 J 54 Xe
1.9 107.87 1.7 112.40 1.7 114.82 1.8 118.69 1.9 121.75 21 127.60 2.5 126.90 131.3
S ilv e r C a dm ium Indium T in A nt im o ny T e llurium Io dine X e no n
6 55 Cs 56 Ba 57 La 72 Hf 73 Ta 74 W 75 Re 76 Os 77 Ir 78 Pt
0.7 132.91 0.9 137.34 1.1 138.91 1.3 178.49 1.5 180.95 1.7 183.85 1.9 186.20 2.2 190.20 2.2 192.20 2.2 195.09
C a e s ium B a rium La nt ha num H a f nium T a nt a lum T ungs t e n R he nium O s m ium Iridium pla t inum
79 Au 80 Hg 81 Tl 82 Pb 83 Bi 84 Po 85 At 86 Rn
2.4 196.97 1.9 200.59 1.8 204.37 1.8 207.19 1.9 208.98 2.0 209.00 2.2 [210] [222]
G o ld M e rc ury T ha llium Le a d B is m ut P o lo nium A s t a t ine R a do n
7 87 Fr 88 Ra 89 Ac
0.7 [223] 0.9 [226] 1.1 [227]
F ra nc ium R a dium A c t inium
Figure 5: Characteristic interstitial elements in the ferritic lattice and their position in the periodic table
I. VIII.
M ain gro up Subgro up M ain gro up Subgro up
1 1 H II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. 2 He

2,1 1.01 M ain gro up Subgro up M ain gro up Subgro up M ain gro up Subgro up M ain gro up Subgro up M ain gro up Subgro up M ain gro up Subgro up 4.003
H ydro ge n H e lium
2 3 Li 4 Be 5 B 6 C 7 N 8 O 9 F 10 Ne
1.0 6.94 1.5 9.01 2.0 10.81 2.5 12.01 3.0 14.01 3.5 16.00 4.0 19.00 20.180
Lit hium B e ryllium B o ro n C a rbo n N it ro ge n O xyge n F luo rine N eo n
3 11 Na 12 Mg 13 Al 14 Si 15 P 16 S 17 Cl 18 Ar
0.9 22.99 1.2 24.31 1.5 26.98 1.8 28.09 2.1 30.97 2.5 32.45 3.0 35.45 39.950
S o dium M a gne s . A lum in. s ilic o n P ho s pho ro us S ulphur C hlo rine A rgo n
4 19 K 20 Ca 21 Sc 22 Ti 23 V 24 Cr 25 Mn 26 Fe 27 Co 28 Ni
0.8 39.10 1.0 40.08 1.3 44.96 1.5 47.90 1.6 50.94 1.6 52.00 1.5 54.94 1.8 55.85 1.8 58.93 1.8 58.71
P o t a s s ium C a lc ium S c a ndium t it a nium V a na dium C hro m ium m a nga ne s e Iro n C o ba lt N ic k e l
29 Cu 30 Zn 31 Ga 32 Ge 33 As 34 Se 35 Br 36 Kr
1.9 63.54 1.6 65.37 1.6 69.72 1.8 72.59 2.0 74.92 2.4 78.96 2.8 79.91 83.800
C o ppe r Z inc G a llium G e rm a n. A rs e nic S e le nium B ro m ine Krypt o n
5 37 Rb 38 Sr 39 Y 40 Zr 41 Nb 42 Mo 43 Tc 44 Ru 45 Rh 46 Pd
0.8 85.47 1.0 87.62 1.3 88.91 1.4 91.22 1.6 92.91 1.8 95.94 1.9 [99] 2.2 101.07 2.2 102.91 2.2 106.40
R ubidium S t ro nt ium Y t t rium Z irk o n N io bium M o lybde num T e c hne t . R ut he n. R ho dium P a lla dium
47 Ag 48 Cd 49 In 50 Sn 51 Sb 52 Te 53 J 54 Xe
1.9 107.87 1.7 112.40 1.7 114.82 1.8 118.69 1.9 121.75 21 127.60 2.5 126.90 131.3
S ilv e r C a dm ium Indium T in A nt im o ny T e llurium Io dine X e no n
6 55 Cs 56 Ba 57 La 72 Hf 73 Ta 74 W 75 Re 76 Os 77 Ir 78 Pt
0.7 132.91 0.9 137.34 1.1 138.91 1.3 178.49 1.5 180.95 1.7 183.85 1.9 186.20 2.2 190.20 2.2 192.20 2.2 195.09
C a e s ium B a rium La nt ha num H a f nium T a nt a lum T ungs t e n R he nium O s m ium Iridium pla t inum
79 Au 80 Hg 81 Tl 82 Pb 83 Bi 84 Po 85 At 86 Rn
2.4 196.97 1.9 200.59 1.8 204.37 1.8 207.19 1.9 208.98 2.0 209.00 2.2 [210] [222]
G o ld M e rc ury T ha llium Le a d B is m ut P o lo nium A s t a t ine R a do n
7 87 Fr 88 Ra 89 Ac
0.7 [223] 0.9 [226] 1.1 [227]
F ra nc ium R a dium A c t inium
Figure 6: Characteristic substitutional elements in the ferritic lattice and their position in the periodic table

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2 Crystallisation
2.1 Generally valid processes during solidification
Solidification of crystals, also termed crystallisation, starts with nuclei on which atoms, ions or molecules
accumulate. The crystallisation process takes place in two sub-processes, which are spatially and tem-
porally separated from one another. These processes are:
– nucleation and
– growth.
During crystallisation, an amorphous (disorderly) liquid is transformed into a crystalline (orderly) solid
phase, whereby, the atoms arrange themselves in the most dense packing arrangement possible. Initial
crystallisation nuclei grow with corresponding heat dissipation, until a microstructure of differently orient-
ed grains or crystallites is generated (Figure 7).
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Figure 7: Schematic illustration of the solidification process
As pictures a, b and c in Figure 7 clearly show, the nuclei initially grow freely in the weld metal and form
dendrite-like crystal skeletons. As it solidifies further, the skeletons fill out, grow into crystals until they
finally meet each other and join together (pictures d, e and f in Figure 7).
A nucleus is a small body of the material, which is the same or similar to the stable phase and which
forms through the random meeting of lattice components as a result of thermal movement. Nucleation
and growth are, like all other processes, thermodynamically controlled.
Nucleation can take place either homogeneously or heterogeneously. In homogeneous nucleation, nu-
clei capable of growth occur, if the temperature required for thermodynamic equilibrium is falling below a
supercooling amount T (cf. Section 2.2). This amount is not required for heterogeneous nucleation
since imperfections (e.g. foreign nuclei, weld edges, mould walls) reduce the required energy content.
Under defined conditions, solidification can be directed in such a way that a monocrystal results. Gener-
ally however polycrystals result, for example, in all weld pools.

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2.2 Nucleation
The question as to the possibility of starting the transformation of a weld metal in to a solid phase is usu-
ally answered nowadays from an energy viewpoint. In this context, the terms enthalpy, entropy and free
enthalpy come up.
Enthalpy (H): is the amount of energy that a thermodynamic system has and which can be
transferred between it and its environment.
Entropy (S): is the ratio between the heat quantity and temperature; can be seen as a meas-
ure for the ordered state of a thermodynamic system.
Free enthalpy (G): or GIBBS energy generally indicates the maximum gainable energy from a reac-
tion. It can be seen as a measure of the driving force of a process.
Here, the difference between the free enthalpy (G), of the liquid and that of the solid phase is of decisive im-
portance. Only the state whose free enthalpy (G) is less than that of the other one is stable, i.e. G  min.
where: G = Gweld metal - GCrystal and G = H - T S
H Enthalpy
S Entropy
T Absolute temperature
Three thermodynamic states can occur:
1. G < 0
2. G > 0
3. G = 0
In the first case the molten metal is the stable phase, in the second the crystal and in the third both
phases are in equilibrium with each other. These circumstances are also explained by the fact that the
phase transformation from liquid to solid does not start when the liquidus temperature (T l) is reached butt
only until after a certain supercooling (T) beneath this temperature begins, as it is only here that the
energetic conditions required for nucleation are present or, in other words, the required energy barrier
can be “jumped over”.
5 3
6
4
1
Figure 8: Free formation enthalpy G as a function Figure 9: Accretion possibilities of lattice com-
of the nucleus radius r ponents
The dimension for this energy barrier is the radius of a solid nucleus, which gives it thermodynamic sta-
bility and therefore the capability for further growth. This radius is designated as the “critical nucleus
radius” (r*) (cf. Figure 8). To simplify the considerations it is assumed that the model nucleus is spheri-
cal in shape.

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The energy necessary to stabilise the nucleus stems from the energy released as a result of undershoot-
ing the liquidus temperature (Tl) of the alloy or material. If this is not available or if the “critical nucleus
radius” (r*) is not yet exceeded, nuclei capable of growth cannot be formed.
With that the question as to the importance of the “critical nucleus radius” (r*) arises. The latter de-
termines the surface/volume ratio of the model nucleus spheres, which in turn influences the amount of
energy required to stabilise the nucleus.
The smaller the radius of a nucleus, the greater its surface is in comparison to its volume, i.e. the larger
the surface which differentiates the nucleus from the molten metal surrounding it. To maintain this
boundary, the nucleus must be supplied with energy from the outside with the result that its energy con-
tent does not fall, it rises instead. The nucleus therefore has a larger internal energy than the molten
metal and is therefore thermodynamically unstable.
Only when a certain radius, the previously mentioned “critical nucleus radius” (r*), is exceeded, the
energy amount that is proportional to the surface can be completely compensated by the transformation
energy, which in turn is a function of the volume. The total energy G of the nucleus takes up only a min-
imum of the total energy of the molten metal, whereby the solid nucleus achieves thermodynamic stabil-
ity and the capability to grow further.
G = -BVolume + BInterface
The supercooling must therefore “provide” the energy required for nucleation. A molten metal is then
supercooled if the temperature of the liquid material is less than the solidification temperature of the pure
metal or alloy, without being crystallised (Figure 10 and Figure 11). Quantitatively, the aforementioned
process for homogenous nucleation is shown in Figure 8.
Estimates have shown that a nucleus that contains less than approx. 300 atoms is no longer stable and
therefore dissolves. The diameter of a nucleus capable of growth should be approximately 10 atomic
diameters.
Figure 10: Solidification without supercooling Figure 11: Solidification with supercooling

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2.3 Nucleus growth
If a nucleus has achieved stability, it can grow further. Similarly to nucleation, nucleus growth also pro-
gresses, according to currently common theories, from an energy viewpoint.
Nucleus growth can take place then, if a more or less diffuse phase boundary is able to overcome the
resistance with which it is vertically opposing its own progression. The aim is always to achieve a state of
minimal free enthalpy. This only occurs when the surface of a growing nucleus is completely occupied
with atoms. All other intermediate states are associated with increased energy content and the nucleus
which is capable of growth, strives to overcome this.
The accretion of particles takes place at those points on the surface of the nucleus, where the incorpora-
tion into the crystal lattice is associated with the greatest possible energy gain. Those are usually the
“kink sites”. That means, of the six sides of a model particle in cuboid form, three are directly on the nu-
cleus surface and the other three remain free (Figure 9). This process is also called the “repeatable step”
in nucleus growth, because each kink site creates the precondition for the next one.
Special attention must be paid to the quality of the surface condition of the growing interface during grain
growth, because this has a decisive influence on the process and therefore the speed of crystal growth.
One important parameter here is the supercooling T that determines the morphology of the interface,
on which the particles coming from the molten metal are to accumulate.
Small supercooling values can be assigned to singular (atomic level) phase boundaries and large super-
coolings to diffuse (rough) phase boundaries.
It is shown therefore that lattice structure imperfections in the real crystal, for example, screw disloca-
tions (cf. Chapter 2.01) have an extraordinary promotional effect on nucleus growth, because the accu-
mulation at the kink obviously never leads to a stepless finished plane, thus also avoiding the associated
difficulties of nucleation for a new crystal layer. In practical terms, this means that crystals containing
lattice imperfections grow faster than those which do not.
Since a stable nucleus comprises a three-dimensional structure with several interfaces, the morphology
of every individual phase boundary also influences the external shape of the crystals. The final form of a
crystal is determined anyhow by the surfaces that display the slowest growth rate. In contrast, the planes
with the highest growth rate grow out of the crystal and thus “disappear”.
If the crystal growth takes place preferentially in certain crystallographic directions or planes, special
crystalline forms, e.g. dendrites, can develop. These tend to develop when new nuclei are occurring
constantly in the molten metal being cooled quickly, whereby the crystallisation progresses at higher
speed in the low indicated growth directions.
Grain boundaries then result when several growing crystals collide. The microstructure that develops as
a result is largely determined by the ratio of nucleation probability and the nucleus growth rate, which
for its part is in turn a function of supercooling.

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2.4 Microstructure of solid solutions
As a result of crystallisation, the metal or alloy presents a defined internal structure. In metallurgy, this is
termed the microstructure.
A microstructure consists of phases and microstructure constituents, which are separated from one an-
other by incoherent interfaces (e.g., large-angle grain boundaries, cf. Chapter 2.01). The constituents of
the microstructure are so different in their makeup that no crystallographic adaptation can take place.
Microstructures are characterised by:
– Type (defined by crystal structure and chemical composition)

– Quantity
– Size
– Shape and
– Distribution of the phases and microstructure constituents
Microstructure types can be classified on the one hand according to the time of formation during the
course of the manufacturing and processing process or on the other hand, in accordance with the size of
the phases and microstructure constituents (micro and macrostructures).
In the first case, it is possible to differentiate again according to primary and secondary microstructures.
Primary microstructures occur e.g during the solidification of cast parts and also during the crystallisation
of weld metals. Their formation depends on the cooling and nucleation conditions. The formation of the
columnar (dendritic) morphologies characteristic of a cast microstructure can be explained using the the-
ory of constitutional supercooling (Figure 12).
On the other hand, secondary microstructures are understood to be those structures produced e.g. after
phase transformations, deformation processes and/or thermal treatments. Typical secondary structures
can e.g. have a granular or lined morphology (Figure 13).
Figure 12: Dendritic casting microstructure of nick- Figure 13: Granular base material microstructure
el alloy NiCr20TiAl of a stainless steel of the type X5CrNi18-10
The formation of the phases and components of a microstructure as a function of temperature and
chemical composition can be read from phase diagrams, assuming equilibrium conditions.

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3 Phase diagrams
3.1 Basic types of binary systems
3.1.1 Establishment of binary systems
As has already been stated in Section 1.1, the existence range of the various phase and microstructure
constituents on the concentration/temperature plane, can be described using phase diagrams. The ques-
tion arises how the transformations can be determined in technical metals and alloys. Materials science
essentially uses two different methods that utilise characteristic, physical, metal properties during the
crystallization of metals and subsequent possible transformations in the solid state. These are the vol-
ume modification behaviour (Figure 14) and the recalescence (heat cycle) during transformations (Figure
15). The processes based on these are:
– the thermal analysis (determination of the heat cycle, Figure 16) and
– the thermo-mechanical analysis (dilatometry, Figure 17).
Figure 14: Variations in volume of pure iron during Figure 15: Recalescence during cooling and
its cooling/heating heating of pure iron
Figure 16: Principle of thermal analysis Figure 17: Principle of thermomechanical analy-
(recalescence) sis (dilatometry)
The points of recalescence being set particularly during thermal analysis, are given defined designations,
originating from the French (Figure 15).
Recalescence points: A (from arrêter)

Curve for cooling: Index r (from refroidir)
Curve for heating: Index c (from chauffer)

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3.1.2 States during the blending of two substances
If two pure substances and thus also two pure metals or a metal and a non-metal are blended together,
the following listed states can occur:
They can dissolve completely in each other,

they can dissolve partly (incompletely) in one another. or
they cannot dissolve into one another.
In the event that they can only partly dissolve in each other, further states are possible. As a result:
precipitates,
new types of microstructure components or
new types of phases can form.
For the most important of these states, characteristic basic types of binary systems are shown in the
following, which can all be found in real binary systems, on their own or in combination. To simplify, it is
assumed that in the liquid state complete solubility always applies, which in reality is not always the case
however (e.g. oil and water).
3.1.3 Terminology of binary systems
When working with binary systems, a defined terminology has proven to be successful. This is collated in
Table 3 and is used in the following sections.
Table 3: Terminology in binary systems

Term Example Description
Latin capital letters A, B, C, … Pure substances, pure metals
Latin capital letters S, L Molten metal, molten phase

Eutectic
Latin capital letter E
(cf. Sections 3.1.5 and 3.1.6.1)
characteristic points
Latin lower case letters e, p, …
(e.g. eutectic or peritectic point)
Greek lower case letters α, , , … Solid solutions
Bracketed expressions (Si), (Al), (Ni), ... Solid solutions

Chemical compounds
Chemical formulae Fe3C, Ni2Al3
(intermediary, intermetallic)
Limit curve between homogeneous molten metal
Liquidus Continuous line and a heterogeneous two-phase region (solid -
liquid)
Limit curve between the heterogeneous two-
Solidus Continuous line
phase region (solid - liquid) and the solid phase
S  A + B,
Eutectic reaction Molten metal  solid phase 1 + solid phase 2
Lα+
Peritectic reaction L + α  Molten metal + solid phase 1  solid phase 2

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3.1.4 Complete solubility in the solid state
Figure 18 shows the result of thermal analysis of an alloy with complete solubility in the solid state
(e.g. nickel copper). If a molten metal of any defined composition achieves the liquidus line during cool-
ing the first solid solutions α precipitate out. The cooling curve displays a kink here, since heat is re-
leased with the crystallisation. As the heat dissipation progresses, the temperature drops further and
more molten metal is transformed into the solid solution. The respective compositions of the phases that
are in equilibrium with each other can be read directly from the x-axis, following the liquidus and/or soli-
dus line (cf. Section 3.1.7.2). Solidification is complete when all the molten metal has transformed and
formed a homogenous solid solution in accordance with the initial composition. The cooling curve shows
another kink, which results from the cooling behaviour of the solid phase.
It should be pointed out now that all constitutional diagrams apply to the state of equilibrium.
It is assumed here that the precipitated solid solution is present at any given time as a homogeneous
phase of the same composition.
       
L
Temperatur
Temperature
Temperature
Temperatur
L+µ Liquidus
Solidus
µ
A Konzentration
Concentration B
Figure 18: Thermal analysis of an alloy with complete solubility in the solid state
3.1.5 Complete insolubility in the solid state
Figure 19 depicts the result of the thermal analysis of an alloy with complete insolubility in the solid state
(e.g. lead-antimony). Neither component A () nor component B () can dissolve the material in itself. This
fact can be read from the continuous solidus line that runs from temperature axis to temperature axis.
In the solid state, the pure substances A and B are present next to each other, without mixing. As some of
the relevant other substance is also present however in alloys of A and B (,  and ), this leads to the
formation of a particular microstructure constituent E, with a characteristic arrangement of pure substances
A and B (phases). This always features the same amounts at A and B across the entire composition area,
however its amount in the microstructure depends on the chemical composition. Thus for alloys with the
composition , this is 100%. In the thermal analysis, the formation of this microstructure constituent effects
a point of recalescence. This means, energy is required for the crystallographic arrangement of its compo-
nents. With that, the microstructure constituent E simulates a pure material.
As shown in Figure 19, with composition  the binary system displays the lowest solidus temperature on
the one hand and, on the other, the solidus and liquidus temperatures collapse together (point e). The
microstructure constituent E therefore has a solidification point, like the pure substances A and B and
not a solidification interval as is customary with alloys.

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Alloys of the composition  immediately melt “easily” when their solidus/liquidus temperature is exceed-
ed. They therefore “melt well”, i.e. they are eutectic (from the Greek).
Eutectic reaction in Figure 19: SA+B where: E=A+B
A typical example of an eutectic system with complete insolubility in the solid state is the system
copper - copper oxide (Cu-Cu2O, cf. Chapter 2.18).
It is stated that the eutectic temperature is in principle below the solidification temperatures of the initial
components, i.e. the formation of the alloy lowers the melting points of its pure components.
Figure 19: Thermal analysis of an alloy with complete insolubility in the solid state (eutectic system)
3.1.6 Partial solubility in the solid state

3.1.6.1 Eutectic system
The example shown in Figure 20 involves a system with partial solubility in the solid state. The two com-
ponents A and B form α or -solid solutions, since they can each dissolve amounts of the other sub-
stance in themselves (points c1 and c2). In contrast to the system with complete insolubility (Figure 19)
partial solubility can be detected from the non-continuous solidus line.
If the dissolving power of the solid solutions exceeds α and , this leads, as in the system with complete in-
solubility, to the formation of a specific microstructure constituent E, in which α and -solid solutions can be
found in a special crystallographic arrangement. This microstructure constituent likewise involves a eutectic.
In the eutectic system shown in Figure 20, the three phases are in equilibrium with each other at a defined
temperature and composition (point e), i.e. the two solid solutions α and  as well as a molten metal of the
eutectic composition (). This solidifies in accordance with the following dependencies:
Eutectic reaction in Figure 20: Sα+ where: E = α + 

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A characteristic example of an eutectic system with partial solubility in the solid state is the system cop-
per-silver. It resembles Figure 20.
Figure 20: Thermal analysis of an alloy with partial solubility in the solid state (eutectic system)
3.1.6.2 Peritectic system
Figure 21 also depicts a system with partial solubility in the solid state (maximum solubility of A in B at
point c2). However, as a three-phase equilibrium there is no eutectic, but instead a peritectic
(from the Greek: “around”).
A molten metal with the composition  solidifies at the peritectic temperature according to the dependence:
Peritectic reaction in Figure 21: S+α
The peritectic reaction differs from the eutectic in that α-SS forms around the first precipitated -SS and
the further reaction with the molten metal can only take place by diffusion of the atoms through the solid
crystals. As a result, compared to the eutectic solidification, a different microstructure morphology is
formed.
A peritectic reaction can occur in such binary systems in particular, in which the solidification tempera-
tures of the pure substances A and B are far apart.
Similar to the eutectic reaction, the cooling curves show a point of recalescence with the peritectic trans-
formation of the molten metal as well due to the solidification heat.
A characteristic example of a system with partial solubility and a prominent peritectic is the iron-carbon
system.

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Figure 21: Thermal analysis of an alloy with partial solubility in the solid state (peritectic system)
3.1.7 Working with binary systems

3.1.7.1 Determination of the quantitative proportions (lever rule)
Using the lever rule, it is possible to determine the quantitative proportions of phases and microstructure
portions at a specific temperature and a given chemical composition. The procedure is exceptionally
simple and is discussed in Figure 22.
In addition, the phases and/or microstructure proportions that exist in the equilibrium at the temperature
under consideration are connected by a horizontal line, the “tie-line”.
The term tie-line is understood, in binary phase diagrams, to be the connecting line between two phases
co-existing in equilibrium at a given temperature.
lS lµ
T2 c‘ c
mS mµ
A c0 B
Figure 22: Example for using the lever rule (determination of the phase proportions)
As is evident from the picture on the left in Figure 22, the “lever arm”, i.e. the tie-line section, in the
composition c0 indicates that the alloy consists entirely of a molten phase at the temperature T1. If the

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temperature falls to T2, the alloy only consists of a certain amount of molten metal with a further share of
crystallised solid phase (solid solution µ). With the tie-line rule, the initial composition of the alloy de-
termines the contact point of the lever (point c0). For the example in Figure 22 the amounts of molten
metal S (point c) or solid solution µ (point c') result as follows:
lS lµ
mS (%)  100 mµ (%)  100
l   lS l   lS
or
When temperature T3 is achieved, the molten metal solidifies completely, i.e. the alloy now consists
100% of solid solution µ. The lever arm of the molten metal has completely disappeared.
3.1.7.2 Determining the chemical composition of the phases
During the cooling and solidification of a molten metal, “minor segregations” can occur
(cf. Section 4.3.2). Using binary phase diagrams, it is possible to deduce the change in the chemical
composition of the solidifying solid solution. The procedure for this is shown in Figure 23.
T T
P0
T0
P1
T1
P2
T2
A cS c0 cµ B A cS c0 cµ B
Figure 23: Schematic procedure for the description of minor segregations
As you can see, the solid solution changes its composition along the solidus line and the molten metal
changes its composition along the liquidus line (picture on right). If, immediately after crossing the liqui-
dus line (temperature T0) the composition of the molten metal corresponds to the nominal composition
c0, the initially precipitated solid solution displays a completely different composition at temperature T 0
(picture on left: cµ at T0). It is richer of B and poorer of A. Only when the solidus line is reached does it
take on the nominal composition of the alloy (picture on left: cS at T2). However, with that, the rest of the
molten metal has a different composition. This is now richer of A and poorer of B.

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3.2 Ternary and multi-substance systems
If an alloy no longer consists of two, but of three components, its state is defined by three variables.
Those are temperature and two items of content information (with that the content of the third component
is also specified). With the ternary or three-substance systems, however, a two-dimensional representa-
tion of the phase diagrams is no longer possible and it becomes necessary to deviate into three-
dimensional illustrations (Figure 24, Table 4). The base area of such an illustration describes the alloying
components content; in contrast the temperature is shown upwards in the space. Single and multi-phase
areas produce three-dimensional bodies in the diagram.
Figure 24: Schematic ternary system with eutectic Figure 25: Schematic ternary system with plane of
edge systems a content section at 50% B
As the direct working in the three-dimensional space is very difficult, some simplifications have proven
useful when working with ternary systems. First and foremost, these include the content triangle.
This can be used to describe the base area of the depiction of a ternary phase diagram. A, B and C cor-
respond to the components of an alloy with the contents xA, xB and xC. Since only two contents are inde-
pendent of one another (xA + xB + xC = 100%), the three can be represented as one point in an area, the
“content triangle” (Figure 28).
In Figure 26 and Figure 27, the point P corresponds to a ternary alloy. To determine their chemical com-
position, the distances between the sides of the triangle to point P are equated to the contents of A, B
and C. This procedure is based on VIVIANI's theorem.
For any point P within an equilateral triangle ΔABC, the length of the perpendiculars a, b and c from this
point to the three sides of the triangle equals the height h of the triangle, h = a + b + c (Figure 26).
In accordance with Figure 26, the perpendicular heights a, b and c correspond to the concentrations of
substances A, B and C. Thus the following applies:
a = xA, b = xB and c = xC.
By drawing in parallels to the respective sides of the triangle, the concentration value can be read direct-
ly (Figure 27).

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Figure 26: Depiction of a point P in the content

Figure 27: Determination of the composition of the
triangle using VIVIANI's theorem
alloy at point P
Figure 28: Content triangle of a ternary alloy with Figure 29: Content section by a ternary system
content section at XA = constant A-B-C with XC = constant
As a further simplification for determining the structure of the microstructure, as a function of temperature
and chemical composition, content sections through the three-phase space have proven successful
(Figure 25 and Figure 29). These are then read exactly like the “real” binary systems. Often such content
sections are also called quasi-binary sections.
As a third simplification when working with ternary systems isothermal sections, i.e. sections running
parallel to the content triangle, can be incorporated. These enable the determination of phases that are
in equilibrium at constant temperature. If enough of these sections exist, the crystallisation process, for
example, can be followed. In the plane of each section, it is possible, e.g. to derive using the lever rule
(cf. Section 3.1.7.1) the percentage share of the phases and microstructure constituents to be expected
at defined temperatures.

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Systems with four and more components however can no longer be illustrated graphically. A common
way of illustrating these nevertheless is to group several components together such that we are back to
a ternary system with which we can work in the manner described.
Numerous three- and multi-substance systems are grouped together in special publications (cf. Section 6).
Table 4: Comparison between binary and ternary systems

Binary system Ternary system
Phase field or area Phase space
(Molten metal, solid solution) (Molten metal, solid solution)
Phase field or area Phase space
(S + A; A + B; S1 + S2; …) (S + A; A + B; S1 + S2; S + A + B; A + B + C; ...)
Eutectic line Eutectic plane
Eutectic curve
Eutectic point (S  A + B; …)
(S  A + B; …) Eutectic point
(S  A + B + C; …)
Liquidus or solidus line Liquidus or solidus line
Phase boundary line Phase interface
4 Transformations and precipitations

4.1 Solid phase transformations
Phase transformations in the solid state are of particular technical importance, since it is possible to in-
fluence the processing- and application properties of metals by changing the microstructure. A phase is,
as defined in Section 1.1, a substance or a mixture of several substances with homogenous properties.
Such transformations are, simply viewed, characterised by location- or allocation changes of atoms in
the space lattice. Therefore diffusion processes are influencing, in a typical way, the nature and form of
the relevant phase transformations (Figure 30). They can be distinguished as follows:
– Transformations with change of crystal structure (allotropic transformations, Section 4.2)

– Transformations with change of concentration (segregations, Section 4.3)
– Transformation with change of concentration and structure (precipitations, Section 4.4)
Solid phase transformations
Diffusion-dependent No diffusion
thermally activated athermal
homogenous transformations martensitic transformations

Superstructure formation without nucleation and growth
continuous transformations
Diffusion normal to the phase boundary quenching or deformation-induced
crystal. random, incoherent and

general:
partly coherent
e.g. phase separation, zone for-
coherent:
mation
bainitic: partly coherent, martensitic magnetic transformations

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discontinuous transformations
Diffusion transverse to the phase boundary
slippage caused by coupling effects
cellular: Precipitate: metastable  (+)stable
Transformation: metastable 
pearlitic:
(+Z)stable
Figure 30: Technically important transformations in alloys
Generally the transformation process comprises (analogue to crystallisation, cf. Section 2) the subpro-
cesses of nucleation and growth. If nucleation can take place at any point in the lattice, it is called ho-
mogeneous or intrinsic nucleation. With heterogeneous nucleation, which occurs almost exclusively
e.g. when welding, the nuclei tend to form at defect locations in the lattice such as grain and phase
boundaries, dislocations, precipitations etc.
The growth mechanism of the nuclei is dependent on the type of transformation. With a simultaneous
change in the atomic concentration or composition, diffusion is necessary. With reference to e.g. precipi-
tations or single-phase separations, diffusion is transported over larger areas. Allotropic transformations,
recrystallization or grain growths however, take place without noticeable change in composition.
If only the arrangement of the atoms with respect to one another changes during a phase transition, no
further thermal activation is required after nucleation. The movement of the interface between the nucle-
us and the matrix proceeds at a very high speed and is independent of temperature. This athermal
growth takes place e.g. during martensitic transformation (Figure 30).
4.2 Allotropic transformations
Numerous metals (but also non-metals) are capable of changing the nature of their elementary cells,
depending on temperature and pressure. This property is defined in crystallography as “allotropism or
allotrophy”. Thus Table 5 contains allotropic transformations of selected, technically more common
elements that are not gaseous at atmospheric pressure.
As can be seen from this table, the allotropic modifications of the affected elements are designated for
simplicity's sake using Greek letters (e.g. , ,  etc.). The underlying reason for this is that these are the
types of elementary cells which are characteristic for the respective element (e.g. cubic-body-centred,
cubic-face-centred, hexagonal close packed).
If alloys, i.e. solid solutions, display allotropic properties, this phenomenon is called “polymorphism”.
Thus like pure iron, steels can feature both cubic-body-centred as well as cubic-face-centred microstruc-
tures, depending on the temperature and/or their chemical composition at atmospheric pressure (e.g.
ferritic chromium steels, austenitic chromium-nickel-steels, cf. Chapter 2.15).

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Table 5: Allotropic transformations of selected, technically more common elements that are not gaseous at
atmospheric pressure (according to MASSALSKI)
Symbol Element Atomic number Transformations Temperature in °C
L 842
Ca Calcium 20
 443
L 798
 726
Ce Cer 58
 61
 -177
L 1495
Co Cobalt 27
 422
L 1538
Fe Iron 26  1394
 912
L 180.6
Li Lithium 3
 -193
L 1246
 1138
Mn Manganese 25
 1100
 727
L 231.97
Sn Tin 50
 13
L 1670
Ti Titanium 22
 882
4.3 Segregation phenomena

4.3.1 Overview
Segregations are phase separation phenomena or composition fluctuations, which occur during the so-
lidification process (cf. Section 2) in the micro- or macro area and lead to inhomogeneity in the micro-
structure (Figure 31).
Segregations
Micro, grain or
crystal segrega- Macro, block or major segregation
tion
Heat flow segregation Force segregation
Normal reverse Gravity Centrifugal force

block segregation block segregation segregation segregation
Figure 31: Important types of segregations
4.3.2 Micro-segregations
Micro-segregations, also called crystal or grain segregations, are the result of only a partial equilibrium
during solidification.

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Micro-segregations are quantified using the micro-segregation coefficient KMicro. The values CMax and
Cmin in the following equation designate the maximum or the minimum concentration of a chemical ele-
ment in a volume, whose dimension is in the order of a dendrite distance.
CMax
K Micro 
Cmin
As shown in Figure 32, all crystals would have to retain a composition, as the temperature falls, which
corresponds to the line A-B (cf. also Section 3.1.7.2). Due to the lack of a concentration balance, howev-
er, the composition of the first part to be precipitated changes, as described by line A-C. The crystal lay-
ers deposited last, do not therefore have the composition B, but that of E. The average concentration
corresponds to the line A-D. The solidification is not completed until the mean value curve (A-D) reaches
the straight line of the initial composition of the molten metal. When the temperature is less than the
equilibrium temperature, the solidified specimen does not have the composition B, but C to E. Therefore,
the crystal areas that solidify first are poor in element B and the areas that solidify last are richer in B
(point E).
Micro-segregations can result in e.g. pitting corrosion attack (cf. Chapter 2.14). Consequently, this type
of corrosion also occurs in stainless weld metals, which are especially alloyed with molybdenum. Points
of attack are therefore the dendrite centres that are low in molybdenum due to the micro-segregations
(Figure 33).
Micro-segregations can e.g. be eliminated through homogenisation or diffusion annealing (cf. Chapter 2.08).
Figure 32: Schematic illustration of micro- Figure 33: Micro-segregations in the weld metal of
segregation (minor segregation) a stainless steel
4.3.3 Macro-segregations
Macro-segregations, also termed block or major segregations, are deemed to exist when the mean
chemical composition in the macroscopic cast structure area (expansion of a few millimetres) deviates
from the average composition of the initial molten metal.
Macro-segregations are quantified using the macro-segregation coefficient KMacro. The value CS corre-
sponds to the mean concentration of the respective elements in the segregation area after solidification.
C0 describes the concentration of the chemical element in the initial molten metal. If CS > C0 this is a
normal (positive) block segregation. If, on the other hand, CS < C0, this is a reverse (negative) block seg-
regation.
CS  C0
K Macro 
C0

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The formation of macro-segregations (block segregations) in a traditional ingot casting is shown in Table
6. The extraordinarily great differences between elements C, P and S are clearly evident in the unkilled,
cast blocks. This is one of the reasons, why the technical processing by welding of unkilled old steels is
considered problematic (Figure 34).
Table 6: Macro-segregations, percentage deviation from the ladle analysis

Killed cast steel block Unkilled cast steel block
Zone C P S Zone C P S
1 8
1 7 -14 -14 -27 1 -40 -25 -45

7
6
2 5
-11 -6 +9 7 2 -17 -20 +50
6
3 4 -6 +7 +23 6 3 +8 +40 +70

5
4 4 +3 +11 +32 5 4 +33 +90 +130

4
3 5 +7 +16 +46 5 +72 +120 +205
3 3
2
6 2 +13 +28 +55 2 6 +125 +150 +315
1 1
7 +20 +36 +68 7 +150 +200 +375
Figure 34: Macro-segregations in various rolled products from old steels
Macro-segregations can be avoided or eliminated through “controlled solidification” (e.g. fast casting,
agitation, shaking) as well as through the addition of special alloying elements.

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4.4 Precipitations
4.4.1 Types of precipitations
Precipitations are transformations with a change in concentration and structure. It involves the formation
of a phase  out of a solid solution or out of the eutectoid decomposition of a solid solution into two new
phases (e.g.  + ). Both processes are diffusion-controlled. Precipitations in metals and thus also in
steels are secondary phases. These occur when the solubility of one or more components in a solid so-
lution change(s) as a function of the temperature. A differentiation is made between coherent, partly co-
herent (semi-coherent) and incoherent precipitations (Figure 35).
Coherent Partly coherent Incoherent

Solid solution
precipitation precipitation precipitation
Figure 35: Important types of precipitations
With a coherent precipitation the crystal lattices of matrix and phase correspond. The differences in the
atomic distances lead to so called coherence tensions. Consequently only a partial compliance between
the lattices in partially coherent precipitations exists which leads to larger coherence tensions due to the
larger crystallographic differences. Incoherent precipitations always have a lattice structure that is dis-
tinctively different from the alloying matrix and thus lead to the largest coherence stresses.
Both the atoms released and the various precipitation types represent obstacles for the dislocation
movement, leading to an increase in strength. The extent to which the mechanical material properties
are influenced depends on the relevant alloying system.
4.4.2 Solidification of precipitations (precipitation hardening)
Those alloys, that have at least one phase of temperature-dependent solubility, are hardenable. These
materials are predominantly determined in their properties by the heat treatments “solution annealing -
quenching – ageing (= tempering)”.
Solution annealing serves to enrich the solid solution with the alloying components effective for harden-
ing. Through fast cooling the solid solution, enriched with the alloying additions, is transferred in the su-
persaturated state. During the subsequent ageing, which can be performed at room temperature (natural
ageing) or at elevated temperature (artificial ageing), the tiniest particles are precipitated out of the su-
persaturated solid solution, thus leading to varying degrees of high coherence tensions. These in turn
lead to an effective obstruction of the dislocation movement. So, depending on the size and number of
precipitations, a significant increase in strength properties is possible. There is however the risk of a
strong decrease in elongation- and toughness properties.

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Ageing (tempering)
Α-microstructure with β-precipitations
Figure 36: Schematic illustration of the heat treatment, hardening on the Al-Si system (artificial ageing)
Figure 36 shows, using the example of the binary system Al-Si, the strength-increasing effect of harden-
ing through artificial ageing which occurs through precipitation of -phase in the aluminium matrix of
these alloys.
For non-ferrous metals, like certain aluminium materials or alloys based on nickel, copper, titanium or
cobalt, hardening is an important method of increasing strength. This strength-increasing mechanism is
however also used for steels, in particular for austenitic Cr-Ni or martensitic Ni-Co-Mo steels. Fine grain
structural steels can also increase in strength via this mechanism. The weldability of precipitation-
strengthened materials must, however, be considered as problematic in many cases.
4.4.3 Ageing
Ageing is understood to be time-, temperature- and deformation-dependent property changes in materi-

als. Ageing is differentiated as to whether it is natural, thermal or strain ageing. Quench ageing occurs
as a result of a combination of natural and thermal variables and is particular important for heat-
treatment processes, during which it leads to fast cooling processes. Therefore, this type of ageing can
also occur during welding of correspondingly sensitive steels (especially old steels with higher levels of
nitrogen content.)
It also occurs during fast cooling of steels with a low carbon content from the austenitic zone, in such a
way that the carbon does not precipitates as tertiary cementite at the grain boundaries, but becomes
enriched at lattice defect locations, thus leading to a hardening effect. This mechanism is termed quench
ageing. Annealing at temperatures of more than about 200°C, can reverse the strength increase that
occurs.
If steels contain a defined amount of nitrogen and phosphorous, these elements can under certain condi-
tions precipitate as metastable phases and reduce the deformation ability and toughness properties con-
siderably with only a minimal increase in strength. If the material has additionally already been cold de-
formed and consequently consisting a higher dislocation density, the dissolved N, P and C atoms will
tend to accumulate at these dislocations. This leads to hindering dislocation movement which could lead
to strain ageing even as early as during a deformation at temperatures of 200° to 300 °C (“blue brittle-
ness”).

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With the hardening process described in Section 4.4.2, the number of precipitations can be reduced
whereas their size can increase due to excessively high ageing temperatures or overly long ageing peri-
ods, with the result that this process, termed over-ageing, can reduce the strength again.
4.4.4 Intermetallic and intermediary compounds
Intermetallic compounds are formed between metals only, and intermediary compounds are formed be-
tween metals and non-metals in such a way that with e.g. a binary system the atoms of both of the com-
ponents A and B are integrated in the ratio corresponding to the bond.
Examples of intermediary (Fe3C, TiN, WC) and intermetallic (Mg2Si, Fe3SiAl12, Al4Mn) precipitations are
shown in Figure 37. They crystallize in different lattice structures compared to those of the components
from which they are formed. They are generally brittle and differ also in terms of their chemical and phys-
ical properties. The compounds need not to be purely stoichiometric but can also have a range of solubil-
ity for one or all of the components from which they are formed.
Intermetallic compounds can be both congruent melting and incongruent melting. The former can be
identified in binary systems by the fact that they are in contact with the molten metal at high tempera-
tures (Figure 38). In terms of the solidification and melting behaviour, they display the same properties
as those of a pure component, i.e. the cooling curve has a point of recalescence. It is also called for-
mation of a bond with an open maximum.
Intermetallic compounds that decompose into other crystal types or a molten metal and one crystal type
before reaching the melting temperature, are deemed to be incongruent melting (Figure 39). This is also
called a concealed maximum.
Figure 37: Examples of precipitations in metals (left: pearlite from ferrite- and Fe3C lamellae in non-alloyed
structural steel; right: different intermetallic phases in aluminium alloy)

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Intermetallic compounds are special forms of intermetallic phases, since they feature a fixed numerical
ratio of the metal atoms involved toward one another. The composition can be indicated as a chemical
formula, e.g. Au2Cu3, Pd3Cu.
Figure 38: Binary system Fe-Zr with congruent Figure 39: Binary system Zr-Mo with incongruent
melting phase ZrFe2 melting phase ZrMo2

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5 Test questions
(1) Which types of solid solutions do you know?
 Grain boundary solid solutions.

 Dislocation solid solutions.
 Interstitial solid solutions.
 Precipitation solid solutions.
 Substitutional solid solutions.
(2) What conditions are required for an interstitial solid solution?
 The interstitial atom type must have a significantly smaller atomic diameter.
 The interstitial atom type must have a significantly larger atomic diameter.
 The interstitial atom type must have a similar atomic diameter.
 The interstitial atom type must fit in the defined lattice gaps.
 The interstitial atom type must have a hexagonal lattice.
(3) What conditions are required for a substitutional solid solution?
 The interstitial atom type must have a significantly smaller atomic diameter.
 The interstitial atom type must have a significantly larger atomic diameter.
 The interstitial atom type must have a similar atomic diameter.
 The interstitial atom type must fit in the defined lattice gaps.
 The interstitial atom type must have a hexagonal lattice.
(4) What sub-processes are involved in the crystallisation process?
 Crystal recovery.
 Crystal dissolution.
 Nucleation.
 Nucleus growth.
 Recrystallization.
(5) What does the term “critical nucleus radius” mean?
 It is the radius of a nucleus, as of which the latter becomes critically allotropic.

 It is half the diameter of a nucleus, as of which metal properties are present.
 It is the radius of a nucleus, as of which the latter behaves amorphously.
 It is the radius of a nucleus, as of which the latter is electrically conductive.
 It is the radius of a nucleus, as of which the latter can grow further in a stable way.

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(6) What is the defined internal structure of metals and alloys called?
 Mixture
 Framework
 Microstructure
 Structure
 Arrangement
(7) How can phase diagrams be established?
 Using thermal analysis.

 Using electro-chemical potential measurement.
 Using thermo-mechanical analysis.
 Using emission spectroscopy.
 Using energy-dispersive spectroscopy.
(8) How is a eutectic reaction described?
 S  A + B.
 L  α + .
 Molten metal  solid phase 1 + solid phase 2.
 L + α .
 Molten metal + solid phase 1 solid phase 2.
(9) What is polymorphism?
 The property of a pure chemical element to be able to change the nature of its elementary
cell, as a function of temperature and pressure.
 The property of a pure chemical element to be able to change its aggregate state, as a func-
tion of temperature and pressure.
 The property of an alloy to be able to change the nature of its elementary cell, as a function
of temperature and pressure.
 The property of an alloy to be able to change its aggregate state, as a function of tempera-
ture and pressure.
 The property of an alloy to be able to change the nature of its elementary cell, as a function
of the chemical composition at atmospheric pressure.
(10) What are intermetallic compounds?
 Compounds (created e.g. by fusion welding) between metallic materials.

 Chemical compounds between different metals.
 Physical compounds between different metals.
 Mixtures of different metals in the microstructure of alloys.
 Chemical compounds between metals and non-metals.

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6 Bibliography
Ilschner, B.:
Werkstoffwissenschaften. [Materials science.]
Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer Verlag, 1990


Metallografie. [Metallography.]
Gräfen, H.:
VDI Lexikon Werkstofftechnik. [VDI Lexicon, Materials engineering.]

Metallurgie und Werkstofftechnik – Ein Wissensspeicher. Band 1. [Metallurgy and engineering materials
– a knowledge store.]
Masing, G.:
Ternäre Systeme. Elementare Einführung in die Theorie der Dreistofflegierungen. [Ternary systems.
An elementary introduction to the theory of three-substance or ternary alloys.]
Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Geest & Portig K.-G., 1949
Villars, P., Prince, A., Okamoto, H.:

Handbook of ternary alloy phase diagrams.
Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International, 1995

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Iron - carbon alloys Page 1
Chapter 2.03: Iron - carbon alloys
Contents
1 The elements iron and carbon............................................................................................. 2

1.1 Iron and solid state transformations ...................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Carbon and its allotropy .......................................................................................................................... 3
2 Binary system, iron-carbon ................................................................................................. 4
2.1 Preliminary considerations ..................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Graphic representation of the Fe-C and Fe-Fe3C systems ............................................................... 4
2.3 Important lines and points in the system, Fe-Fe3C............................................................................. 6
2.4 Characteristic temperatures in the system, Fe-Fe3C ......................................................................... 6
2.5 Phases and microstructure constituents in the system, Fe-Fe3C .................................................... 6
2.6 The sub-systems of the iron carbon diagram ...................................................................................... 7
2.6.1 Overview of the sub-systems .................................................................................................... 7
2.6.2 The peritectic system.................................................................................................................. 8
2.6.3 The eutectoid system ................................................................................................................. 8
2.6.4 The eutectic system .................................................................................................................... 8
2.7 Classification of the steel and cast iron types on the basis of their position in the Fe-Fe3C
system ....................................................................................................................................................... 9
3 Influences on the binary system iron-carbon .................................................................. 10
3.1 Influences on the formation of the gamma loop ................................................................................ 10
3.2 Influences on carbide formation .......................................................................................................... 12
4 Cooling from the austenite area ........................................................................................ 13
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 13
4.2 Pearlite formation ................................................................................................................................... 15
4.3 Martensite formation .............................................................................................................................. 16
4.4 Intermediate stage formation ............................................................................................................... 18
5 TTT diagrams ...................................................................................................................... 20
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 20
5.2 Isothermal TTT diagrams ..................................................................................................................... 20
5.3 Continuous TTT diagrams .................................................................................................................... 21
5.3.1 Continuous TTT diagrams for conventional heat treatments ............................................. 21
5.3.2 Welding TTT diagrams ............................................................................................................. 22
5.4 Working with TTT diagrams ................................................................................................................. 24
5.4.1 Determining critical cooling speeds........................................................................................ 24
5.4.2 Determination of t8/5 times........................................................................................................ 24
5.4.3 Influence of the t8/5 times on the formation of the coarse grain zone during welding ..... 25
5.4.4 Classification of heat-treatment processes in accordance with their T-t course in the
TTT diagram .............................................................................................................................. 26
5.5 Parameters influencing the formation of TTT diagrams .................................................................. 26
6 Question .............................................................................................................................. 28
7 Bibliography........................................................................................................................ 30

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1 The elements iron and carbon

1.1 Iron and solid state transformations
Depending on the temperature, iron exhibits different crystal structures, the allotropic modifications
(Figure 1, cf. also Chapter 2.02). At normal pressure and room temperature the given -iron (ferrite)
crystallises into the cubic-body-centred structure, the -iron (austenite) is present in the cubic-face-
centred structure and the -iron (-ferrite) is again cubic-body-centred. With the former -modification, it
was initially assumed that this was a further crystal structure; however there was only a change in mag-
netic behaviour, i.e. the -iron moves at temperatures above 768 °C (the Curie temperature TC) from the
ferromagnetic into the paramagnetic state.
A further allotropic modification of iron is - iron. This only occurs however at high temperatures and high
pressures (p > 10 GPa) and has a hexagonal densely-packed crystal structure. The modification of  iron
is not relevant for engineering applications.
During thermal analysis, the transformation points of pure iron appear as points of recalescence on the
time-temperature-curve (Figure 2, cf. also Chapter 2.02). They are consecutively numbered depending
on temperature (A4 = 1392 °C, A3 = 911 °C, A2 = 768 °C, A1 does not occur with pure iron, but with Fe-C
alloys, cf. Section 2.4).
Temperature Elementary cell type

-iron
-7
a = 2.93 * 10 mm
-iron
-7
a = 3.63 * 10 mm
-iron
-7
a = 2.86 * 10 mm
Figure 1: Allotropic modifications of pure iron at atmospheric pressure

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1.2 Carbon and its allotropy
In contrast to iron, carbon is a typical non-metal. Currently three allotropic modifications of this important
alloying element are known. Those are graphite, diamond and “fullerene”. In their properties, all three
modifications differ fundamentally from one another. Figure 3 provides information on the allotropy of
carbon and its dependence on pressure and temperature.
Figure 2: Thermal analysis of pure iron Figure 3: Phase diagram of carbon
Graphite is the most frequent shape of pure carbon. In contrast to diamond, graphite is very soft and
feels slightly greasy due to its hexagonal layer structure. In parallel direction with the hexagonal layers,
graphite is a very good heat and electrical conductor. On the other hand, in the perpendicular direction to
the hexagonal layers it works as an insulator. The MOHS hardness of graphite is 0.5.
Diamond forms a three-dimensional space structure (cubic-face-centred in diamond-close-packing).

Diamond crystals are extremely hard, very stable and clear as glass. In accordance with the MOHS
hardness scale, diamond has the highest ranking of 10.
In 1985, the existence of a further allotropic modification of carbon, “fullerene” (according to R.B.
FULLER) was proven. It has macromolecule-like carbon structures with mostly 60 C-atoms. Fullerene
molecules generally have the shape of a football (BUCKMINSTER fullerene C60). In addition, there are
also fullerene forms that are composed of 28, 32, 50 and 70 carbon atoms.
In 2004, graphéne was discovered. This has two-dimensional carbon layers in a honeycombed (hexag-
onal) arrangement. These are very similar to graphite, only without the three-dimensional form. These
are therefore termed two-dimensional crystals.
Carbon has the highest temperature resistance of all known materials. At normal pressure, it sublimates
at 3,915 K (3,642 °C), without losing strength beforehand. The triple-point is at 10.8 ± 0.2 MPa and 4,600
± 300 K. Depending on its allotropic modification, the melting point lies between 3,547 °C (diamond) and
3,675 °C (graphite). Its boiling point is between 4,027 °C (graphite) and 4,827 °C (diamond). In nature,
carbon rarely occurs in its pure form, but predominantly in chemical compounds (e.g. carbon dioxide,
hydrocarbons etc.). The element is the basis for organic life. The human body consists of approximately
20% carbon.
As an alloying element, carbon is generally introduced into the steel via the blast furnace process, where
it is used in the form of cokes as a reducing agent and dissolves in the pig iron.

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2 Binary system, iron-carbon

2.1 Preliminary considerations
Pure iron (also called ARMCO iron) is too soft as a material (H ~ 120 to 250 HV, R e ~ 200 N/mm ²,
Rm ~ 320 N/mm ², A ~ 40%, Z ~ 70%); therefore an alloy with different elements is required for technical
applications. The most important element here is carbon (interstitial solid solution). With this, the status-
es between both elements can be shown in a binary phase diagram, the iron-carbon (Fe-C) system.
It must be considered however, that the microstructure of iron-carbon alloys does not set until a state of
equilibrium is achieved (stable system). Therefore, technical iron-carbon alloys are described by the
system, Fe-Fe3C (iron-cementite system). This is also termed a metastable system.
It has become standard practice to designate this and not the equilibrium system Fe-C as the iron car-
bon diagram (ICD). If in the following therefore we refer to the iron carbon system, in principle it is the
metastable Fe-Fe3C diagram that is meant.
In figurative illustrations, the stable system (Fe-C) is drawn as a dashed line and the metastable
(Fe-Fe3C) system is drawn as a solid line, as can be seen in Figure 4, Figure 5 and Figure 6.
2.2 Graphic representation of the Fe-C and Fe-Fe3C systems
Figure 4: Phase diagrams Fe-C and Fe-Fe3C, schematic (according to HORSTMANN, VdEH)

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Figure 5: Phase diagrams Fe-C and Fe-Fe3C; with characteristic points
Figure 6: Phase diagrams Fe-C and Fe-Fe3C; with designation of the phase spaces

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2.3 Important lines and points in the system, Fe-Fe3C
In Figure 5 the important points and resultant continuous lines are plotted in accordance with the interna-
tionally valid nomenclature. These are collated in Table 1 and Table 2.
Table 1: Important lines in the Fe-Fe3C system

Line course in the ICD Designation
A-B-C-D Liquidus line
A-H-I-E-C-F Solidus line
E-C-F Eutectic
P-S-K Eutectoid
E-S Saturation line
G-O-S Saturation line
G-P-Q Saturation line
M-O-S-K Curie temperature line
Table 2: Important points in the Fe-Fe3C system

Point Reaction Designation
C Molten metal  -MK + Fe3C Eutectic point (ledeburite point)
S -SS  α-SS + Fe3C Eutectoid point (pearlite point)
I Molten metal + -SS  -SS Peritectic point
2.4 Characteristic temperatures in the system, Fe-Fe3C
Due to the allotropy of pure iron (cf. Section 1.1), the iron-carbon alloys also display such (now designat-
ed polymorphous) transformations and the associated precipitations. Furthermore, additional transfor-
mations and precipitations can be found in the temperature-concentration area (A1- and Am-
temperatures). They are compiled in Table 3.
Table 3: Characteristic temperatures in the Fe-Fe3C system according to HORSTMANN (VdEH)

Cooling Heating Reaction Temperature Line
Ar1 Ac1 α + Fe3C   723 °C P-S-K
Ar2 Ac2 ferro-  paramagnetic 768 °C M-O
Ar3 Ac3 α+ 723 - 911 C° G-O-S
Arm Acm  + Fe3C   723 - 1147 C° S-E
Ar4 Ac4  +    1392 - 1493 C° N-H
2.5 Phases and microstructure constituents in the system, Fe-Fe3C
A list of the solid phases and microstructure constituents that occur in the system Fe-Fe3C (Figure 6) is
provided in Table 4.
The chemical compound Fe3C (cementite) contains 6.67% C in a rhombic lattice structure and is the
hardest structure in the alloy series of Fe-C. Cementite occurs in iron-carbon alloys in five different forms
(Table 5). In this context, however it must be pointed out that the relevant cementite forms are not differ-

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entiated on the basis of their chemical composition (this is always the same), but rather by the time of
their formation or precipitation or their position in the Fe-Fe3C system.
Often the question is raised as to why a maximum of only 6.67% carbon occurs in the metastable sys-
tem, Fe-Fe3C? The answer is very simple. With this carbon content, the microstructure consists of 100%
Fe3C.
Table 4: Phases and microstructure constituents in the system Fe-Fe3C

Designation Phase designation Remarks
α-solid solution
FERRITE Phase
-solid solution
AUSTENITE -solid solution Phase
Iron carbide,
CEMENTITE Fe3C
chemical composition, phase
Eutectoid,
PEARLITE α-solid solution + Fe3C
microstructure constituent
Eutectic, microstructure constituent
LEDEBURITE I -solid solution + Fe3C
(> 723 °C)
Eutectic, microstructure constituent
LEDEBURITE II PEARLITE + Fe3C
(< 723 °C)
Table 5: Forms of cementite in Fe-C alloys

Cementite form Description
Primary cementite occurs in the area of the eutectic reaction
Secondary cementite occurs in the area of the eutectoid reaction
precipitates onto the grain boundaries of the alpha solid solutions,
Tertiary cementite because its solubility for carbon of 0.02% at 723 °C is reduced to
10-5 at room temperature
Eutectic cementite Component of the ledeburite
Eutectoid cementite Component of the pearlite
2.6 The sub-systems of the iron carbon diagram

2.6.1 Overview of the sub-systems
The system Fe-Fe3C comprises three sub-systems. These are collated in Figure 7.
Complete insolubility in the

Partial solubility in the solid state
solid state
Eutectoid system Peritectic system Eutectic system
  αSS + Fe3C S + SS  SS S  SS + Fe3C

Gamma solid solution in Melt and Weld metal in gamma solid solution
alpha solid solution and delta solid solution in and
cementite gamma solid solution cementite
Figure 7: Subsystems in the phase diagram Fe-Fe3C

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2.6.2 The peritectic system
Alloys having less than 0.51% C (point B in Figure 5 and Figure 6) precipitate -SS from the liquid phase
first. If molten metal is still present when the peritectic temperature is reached (C > 0.10%, point H in Fig-
ure 5 and Figure 6), this transforms in accordance with the peritectic reaction. However at temperatures
below 1392 °C at the latest, only austenitic microstructure still exists under conditions of equilibrium. The
peritectic reaction in the system Fe-Fe3C has a lower priority for heat treatment processes. It is:
SS + Melt  SS (1493 °C)
Point H Point B Point I

(Figure 5, Figure 8)
C = 0.10% C = 0.51% C = 0.16%
2.6.3 The eutectoid system
In Fe-C alloys with C contents < 0.8% (called hypoeutectoid alloys), the -solid solution transforms into
the α-solid solution when the G-S line is reached. Alloys having less than 0.02% C (point P) are com-
pletely transformed into ferrite. With further cooling only cementite is produced.
In alloys with higher carbon contents, retained austenite remains, which becomes enriched up to 0.8% C
and then transforms eutectoidly. The resultant microstructure is called pearlite and comprises alternat-
ing layers of ferrite and cementite (Figure 11). The eutectoid reaction is:
MK  αSS + Fe3C (723 °C)
Point S Point P Point K

C = 0.80% C = 0.02% C = 6.67%
As the solubility of carbon in ferrite falls by up to approx. 10-5 at room temperature, slight cementite pre-
cipitation occurs if cooled to below 723 °C, which is called tertiary cementite, because this is the third
form of cementite precipitate. The eutectoid system applies to all non-alloyed carbon steels.
2.6.4 The eutectic system
With Fe-C alloys having C contents > 2.06% (point E) the molten metal reaches the eutectic composition
and transforms in accordance with the eutectic reaction. The resulting microstructure constituent
is called ledeburite I (Figure 12). The eutectic system is of particular interest for cast iron materials.
Melt  MK + Fe3C (1147 °C)
Point C Point E Point F

C = 4.3% C = 2.06% C = 6.67 %
Alloys having more than 4.3% C first precipitate Fe3C (primary cementite) during solidification, whereby
the residual molten metal becomes low in carbon until it once again achieves the eutectic composition.
The microstructure that forms thus comprises primary cementite and ledeburite I.
In contrast to the eutectic reaction, where a molten metal transforms into two solid phases, which exist in a
special crystallographic arrangement (eutectic), in a eutectoid reaction a solid phase transforms into two
other solid phases, which are likewise found in a special crystallographic arrangement (eutectoid).

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Figure 8: Peritectic sub-system in the Fe-Fe3C system
Figure 9: Eutectoid sub-system in the Figure 10: Eutectic sub-system in the Fe-Fe3C system
Fe-Fe3C system
2.7 Classification of the steel and cast iron types on the basis of their position in the Fe-Fe3C
system
In accordance with their position in the phase diagram Fe-Fe3C, steels and cast iron materials are classi-
fied as shown in Table 6. It should be noted that steels are in the range of the eutectoid system and
cast iron is in the range of the eutectic system.

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Table 6: Classification of the steel and cast iron types on the basis of their position in the Fe-Fe3C system
Material Other designation Carbon content
Hypoeutectoid steel Hypopearlitic steel 0.02  C < 0.8%
Eutectoid steel Pearlitic steel = 0.8%
Hypereutectoid steel Hyperpearlitic steel 0.8 < C  2.06%
Hypoeutectic cast iron Hypoledeburitic cast iron 2.06 < C < 4.3%
Eutectic cast iron Ledeburitic cast iron = 4.3 %
Hypereutectic cast iron Hyperledeburitic cast iron 4.3 < C < 6.67%
Figure 11: Pearlite grain in ferritic-pearlitic micro- Figure 12: Ledeburite with graphite precipitations
structure of steel C45 (N) in a cast iron of type EN-GJS 400
3 Influences on the binary system iron-carbon

3.1 Influences on the formation of the gamma loop
When other accompanying and alloying elements are added to pure iron carbon alloys, the following
variables are generally influenced:
– Moving of fusion and transformation temperatures in the Fe-C system and/or Fe-Fe3C,
– Change in the solubility of carbon or the alloying elements in the solid solutions,
– Change in the diffusion rate and
– Formation of new compounds.
The alloying and accompanying elements usually found in steels can be subdivided into two groups in
terms of their microstructure formation. Thus there are elements, that extend the -area in the Fe-C or
Fe-Fe3C system. In this process, the A4 temperature is raised and the A3 temperature is lowered. These
elements are also adequately well known as austenite formers.
– Figure 13, sub-image a: Influence of Ni, Mn, Co, Rn, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt
– Figure 13, sub-image b: Influence of C, N, Cu, Zn, Au, Re
In contrast to this there are numerous elements that restrict the  area. These bring about a reduction in
the A4 and a raise of the A3 temperature. These elements thus favour the -solid solution and are con-
sequently termed ferrite formers (Figure 14).
– Figure 13, sub-image c: Influence of Be, Al, Si, P, Ti, V, Cr, Mo, Sn, ...
– Figure 13, sub-image d: Influence of Nb, Ta, Zr, Ce, Hf

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M M
 
A4  A4 
 

A3
 A3
(a) Unrestricted, open -area (b) Restriction of the -area by heterogeneous state
field
M M

A4

A4 
 

 A3


A3 
(c) Closed -area with falling line of equilibrium (d) Restriction of the -area by heterogeneous state
fields
Figure 13: Influence of alloying elements on the -loop in the Fe-Fe3C system
Figure 14 clearly describes the effect of the element

silicon on the formation of the  loop in the iron-
carbon system. Therefore higher silicon content re-
stricts the austenite area.
In this context it must be noted that the mentioned

effect of silicon is partially neutralised again, by car-
bon. Thus, at 4% silicon, ferritic steel only occurs in
the range of small carbon contents, according to
ECKSTEIN.
Furthermore it should be considered that steels con-

tain, in addition to carbon, manganese and silicon,
Figure 14: Influence of the Si content on the numerous further alloying and accompanying ele-
size of the -area of an unalloyed steel (according to ments, which have a complicated influence on the
BAIN and PAXTON) formation of phase areas.

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3.2 Influences on carbide formation
Carbon is a highly reactive element and forms carbides with numerous metals, including iron (cement-
ite). At times, these display very complicated bonding states whereby, while the character of the metallic
bond is predominant, chemical bond shares already exist.
Since important material properties are influenced definitively by the number and distribution of carbides,
the steels ingredients can be categorised as carbide formers (Cr, V, Nb, Ta, Zr, Ti, Mo, W, Ni, Mn, Co)
and non-carbide formers (N, Al).
The carbide formation of important alloying- and accompanying elements of iron displays a certain de-
pendence on the position of the respective element in the periodic table of the elements. Figure 15
shows a GOLDSCHMIDT system. The carbides highest in carbon (carbide group 1) of the elements in
groups IV and V have a simple cubic lattice, whereby the carbon atoms sit on interstitial sites. They are
very stable and therefore do not dissolve into austenite easily. The lattice structure of the cubic carbides
is therefore interesting as the lattice sites of the carbon need not all be occupied or can be occupied by
other interstitial elements with small atomic diameters, e.g. nitrogen.
For this reason, their composition is often not stoichiometric (e.g. vanadium carbide). Beside nitrogen,
oxygen can also replace carbon. Instead of the metal atoms of the basic lattice, foreign metal atoms with
similar structure can also be substituted. Therefore titanium in the titanium carbide can be replaced with
tantalum or tungsten.
Some of the hexagonal carbides (carbide group 2) in groups V and VI are likewise very stable, cf. Fig-
ure 15. These include those with the composition MeC and Me2C. They have simple hexagonal lattices,
whereby the metal atoms form close packs and carbon occupies the octahedral interstitial areas be-
tween the metal layers, in alternating layers. With regard to their stability and solubility in austenite, the
carbides Cr7C3 and Mn7C3 belong to the last group. They have more complicated hexagonal lattices.
The last orthorhombic crystallising carbide group 3 includes the carbides, which are similar to the ce-
mentite in steels. With these carbides, extensive substitution with similar foreign atoms is possible. They
have a lower stability and are easily soluble in austenite. Similarly, the type Me23C6, which belongs to the
first carbide group, must be taken into consideration. It has a unit cell containing 92 metal atoms. With
this carbide too, substitution with similar metals is possible to a very large extent.
As can be seen from Figure 15, chromium displays particularly diverse behaviour during carbide formation.
All chromium carbides can also replace chromium atoms with iron atoms to a great extent. Only in the com-
plex lattice of Cr3C2 is the solubility for iron severely restricted. This carbide has not yet been considered for
ferrous alloys. In the cementite (Fe3C) itself, the iron can likewise be replaced with chromium.
– Cr23C6: can contain maximum 34.4% Fe

– Cr7C3: can contain maximum 53.8% Fe
– Fe3C: can contain maximum 20.0% Cr
Furthermore, we have still to mention the double carbides. They only occur in ternary, not in binary sys-
tems. Examples of these include the carbides Fe3W 3C and Fe3Mo3C. Substitution of other alloying met-
als is also possible with these carbides. A stoichiometric composition is not absolutely required.

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IV V VI VII VIII VIII

Cr23C6 Mn23C6
VC Fe3C
4 TiC Cr7C3 Mn7C3 Co3C Ni3C
V4C3 Fe2C
Cr3C2 Mn3C
NbC Mo2C
5 ZrC
Nb4C3 MoC
TaC cubic (group 1)
W 2C
6 HfC hexa- or trigonal (group 2)
Ta2C WC
orthorhombic (group 3)
Figure 15: Classification of carbides according to their crystal structure (according to GOLDSCHMIDT)
4 Cooling from the austenite area

4.1 Introduction
Depending on the cooling speed, transformation phenomena occur in iron-carbon alloys, which can pro-
gress outside the equilibrium and thus lead to structure formations, which are no longer covered by the
systems Fe-C or Fe-Fe3C.
Figure 16 illustrates schematically that with increasing cooling speed the width of the strip of pearlite reduces.
This takes place up to a point in time, where due to lack of time the pearlite does not form (cf. Section 4.2).
Figure 16: Austenitic transfor-

mation
(1...5: different cooling times, 1 to 5

increasing)
With increasing cooling speed, the A3 and the A1 temperatures are lowered until they combine. With that,
the temperatures of the -α-transformation and the pearlite formation coincide (Figure 17). Information on
the supercooling stages and the microstructure resulting from accelerated cooling is provided in Table 7.
The reason for this lies in the fact that the diffusion processes no longer run completely, as the time re-
quired for them (due to increasing cooling speed) is no longer available. Therefore, along with the diffu-
sion-controlled formation of pearlite, the creation of phases and microstructure constituents also take
place having a formation mechanism which is only partly or not at all connected anymore to the diffusion
process. The occurrence of these phases is no longer described via the Fe-C or Fe-Fe3C systems.

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Figure 17: Influence of cooling speed

on the course of the A3 and the A1 tem-
perature
Table 7: Supercooling stages and microstructure with accelerated cooling
Transfor-
Hardness
recales-
Point of
Super Existence range

cence
Cooling mation
cooling Microstructure of carbon con- Remarks
speed tempera-
stage tent
ture
K/s °C HV %
Ar1 Pearlite 0.8
Ar3 (+ Ferrite) (< 0.8)
0 <1 723 200 State of equilibrium
(+ Secondary cement-
Acm (0.8 - 2.06)
ite)
Fine-grained pearl-
I 1 - 200 Ar‘ 690 - 600 390 0.24 - 2.06 Pearlite formation
ite (sorbite)
200 - 250 600 - 500 Very fine-grained
II Ar‘ 440 0.24 - 2.06 Pearlite formation
(500) (460) pearlite (troostite)
710
III 250 - 600 Ms 430 - 98 Martensite to > 0.24 (0.5) Lattice inversion
840
170
IV > 600 Mf (300) - < 0 Retained austenite to > 0.24 (0.5) Lattice inversion
222

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4.2 Pearlite formation
The formation of pearlite is a eutectoid transformation mechanism. It is diffusion-controlled and is de-

scribed by the iron-carbon diagram (cf. Section 2.6.3). Pearlite formation proceeds, schematically con-
sidered, in three phases (Figure 18).
Phase  In the field of the A1 temperature, the -solid solution segregates locally. That means that
carbon diffuses in parts from the austenite into its immediate vicinity.
Phase  In a locally restricted area the microstructure is very much carbon-impoverished in places
and then directly next to it supersaturated with carbon. Thus, on one hand, the C-poor mi-
crostructure areas can transform into the -solid solution, and on the other hand, Fe3C
(cementite) forms in its immediate environment as a result of carbon saturation.
Phase  The separation of austenite progresses, which is associated with an increase in the share
of pearlite formed in the microstructure. The pearlite thereby follows existing austenite
grain boundaries as it is formed.
Phase  Phase  Phase 
Figure 18: Schematic illustration of pearlite formation
The formation of a typical ferritic-pearlitic microstructure is shown in Figure 19. Figure 20 clearly shows
the striped morphology of pearlite at a higher level of magnification.
Figure 19: Ferritic-pearlitic structures of an unal- Figure 20: Striped pearlite with embedded graphite
loyed structural steel of the grade S235JR+N vermicules of a cast iron of grade GJV 400

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4.3 Martensite formation
Martensitic transformations are diffusionless transformations, during which the initial phase is transferred
to the martensitic phase by a shear movement of the atoms, similar to twinning. These microstructures
were named for after the German metallurgist Adolf MARTENS (1850-1914).
Figure 21: Dependence of the martensitic start- and Figure 22: Formation of martensite (cbc) from aus-
end-temperature on the carbon content tenite (cfc) through forcibly dissolved carbon (schemati-
cally)
Martensite formation takes place independently of time, i.e. the amount that is transformed is not de-
pendent on time but instead on the supercooling (thermoelastic martensite formation). Only when the
driving force has become so large that it is sufficient to deform the matrix plastically, the martensite nu-
cleus can grow at high speed (close to vSound) until it is stopped by a phase boundary. The temperature,
at which martensite is formed for the first time during cooling, is designated as the martensite start
temperature (Ms temperature) and that, at which the entire microstructure has been converted into mar-
tensite, as the martensite finish temperature (Mf temperature) (Figure 21). Due to the hardening asso-
ciated with the matrix deformation, it is difficult however to reach - even at very high levels of supercool-
ing - a complete martensitic transformation. Tempering processes that partially relax the remaining ma-
trix can cause the transformation to continue.
In iron-carbon alloys martensite occurs as a result of a diffusionless, displacive, shear mechanism of the
cubic-face centred-lattice of austenite into a cubic-body-centred lattice during rapid cooling at a tempera-
ture below the Ms temperature (Figure 22). The carbon formerly dissolved in the austenite can no longer
diffuse out of the lattice due to the lack of time and is then forcibly dissolved in the cubic-body-centred
lattice. With that the carbon dissolved in the martensite is the same as it was formerly in the austenite,
from which this phase originated. The result of this forcible dissolution is a tetragonal distortion, which
creates a significant internal microstructural tension, to which the high hardness of martensite can be
attributed.
Martensite formation in steels can be broken down into three phases (Figure 23).
Phase  The carbon cannot diffuse due to the fast rate of cooling.
Phase  The cubic-face-centred austenite transforms without diffusion into a tetragonal distorted
cubic-body-centred phase. This is more or less characterised by its fine acicular appear-
ance.
Phase  Acicular martensite plates cross the former austenite grain from one side to the other
(Figure 24).

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Figure 23: Schematic illustration of martensite formation
Martensite is tetragonally distorted ferrite.
Table 8: Important properties of important martensite types

Lath martensite Plate martensite
Property
(“orderly” martensite) (“disorderly” martensite)
Example: Figure 24 Figure 25
Other designations: Lancet, block or solid martensite Acicular, needle or twinned martensite
English designation: Lath martensite Plate or twinned martensite
Carbon area [%]: > 0.2 to 0.6 (hypoeutectoid) > 0.6 to 1.0 (eutectoid to hypereutectoid)
Comprises flattened laths that are
Consists of plates, which become ever shorter
packed close together into layers
as the formation time progresses and fill the
Structure: and then in layers into massive
space ever more densely. Plates are arranged
blocks. Laths are arranged in paral-
at various angles to one another.
lel next to each other.
More ductile than plate martensite, as Less ductile than lath martensite, as it was formed
Ductility:
it was formed at higher temperatures. at lower temperatures and has higher C-distortion.
Figure 24: Lath martensite (“orderly” martensite) in Figure 25: Plate martensite (“disorderly” martensite)
the HAZ of an unalloyed structural steel (C ~ 0.24%) in the HAZ of a quenched and tempered steel (C ~ 0.9%)
Depending on the amount of interstitial carbon however, part of the austenite always remains. This re-
tained austenite can be explained to the high distortion stresses, which the last created martensite plates
exert on those formed beforehand, and which thereby prevent them from growing further.

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In steels, martensite is used to achieve a considerable increase in hardness. The higher the carbon con-
tent of martensite, the harder it is. As of approx. 0.6% carbon, no further increase in hardness is to be
expected, if deep-freezing is not performed to transform the retained austenite still present. At the same
time, as the carbon content increases, the Ms and Mf temperatures are shifted to lower values (Figure
21). For hypereutectoid steels, the Mf temperature is achieved at below 0 °C.
New steel developments utilise the fact that martensitic transformations can be initiated not only thermo-
elastically, but also deformation-induced (e.g. TRIP® steels; TRansformation Induced Plasticity). If such
materials are exposed to high rates of deformation, existing metastable and C-supersaturated austenite
converts into martensite. Forming energy is thereby absorbed from the steel.
Depending on the temperature and the alloy content of steels, in particular the carbon content, different
morphologies of martensite can be found in the material. These include, inter alia, the low-carbon lath
and the carbon-rich plate martensite. Table 8 provides information on important characteristics of both
martensite morphologies.
4.4 Intermediate stage formation
If iron-carbon alloys in the temperature range between A1 and 600 to 400 °C are cooled at speeds that
are in between of those that lead either to pearlite or to martensite formation, diffusion-controlled trans-
formation processes can only proceed with great difficulty. This result in the formation of an intermediate
stage or bainite (named after the U.S. metallurgist Edgar C. BAIN, 1891-1971). The formation of this
phase can be described in principle using the following process (Figure 26):
Phase  The austenite segregates only in very small areas due to the high cooling speed. There-
fore the carbon can only diffuse over short distances.
Phase  Due to the locally lowered carbon content, the Ms-temperature in these areas is increased.
Phase  The small, C-segregated (poor) areas can be converted martensitically, as the locally in-
creased martensite start temperature has been undershot locally. Due to the nonetheless
high temperatures, these martensitically transformed microstructure areas are immediate-
ly tempered again. In the C-enriched areas however, finest Fe3C precipitations are
formed. The resulting microstructure is called the intermediate stage or bainite.
Figure 26: Schematic illustration of intermediate stage formation
Thus the intermediate stage transformation includes two adjacently running processes, diffusion-controlled
transposition of the carbon over very short distances and the diffusionless (region/zone) martensite for-
mation.

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The German name which corresponds to “intermediate stage microstructure” originates from the fact
that the temperatures for these processes lie between the levels of those for the pearlite and martensite
formation.
The intermediate stage (bainite) microstructure is, metallographically, extremely difficult to distinguish
from the martensitic microstructure (cf. Figure 24 and Figure 25 as well as Figure 26 and Figure 27).
Statements, which give precise, metallographically determined, percentage specifications about such
mixed microstructures, are therefore to be distrusted. Furthermore, depending on the cooling rate and
carbon content, intermediate stage microstructures occur in different forms, which can only be distin-
guished under the electron microscope (TEM). These are, e.g. the lower, upper, granular or inverse in-
termediate (bainite) stages (Table 9).
Table 9: Upper and lower bainite

Upper bainite ... Lower bainite ...
… consists of acicular ferrite, which is arranged in pack- … is constructed of ferrite plates, within the iron car-
ages. Between the individual ferrite needles lie more or bides are formed at an angle of 60° to the needle
less continuous films of carbides running parallel to the axis. It already very closely resembles martensite
needle axis (Figure 27). (Figure 28).
Figure 27: Microstructure of upper bainite Figure 28: Microstructure of lower bainite (marten-
(pearlite-like) in a quenched and tempered steel site-like) in a quenched and tempered steel

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5 TTT diagrams
5.1 Introduction
Strictly-speaking, the usual phase diagrams of two and multi-constituent systems (e.g. the Fe-C dia-
gram) apply only to the state of equilibrium, i.e. for very, very long cooling times.
Such cooling times do not occur in (welding) practice however. Thus it comes to pass that with increas-
ing cooling speed, transformations are shifted to lower temperatures, are supressed to a greater or less-
er degree or are replaced with other processes (e.g. martensite formation). Consequently, sequences as
they occur in practice cannot be recorded with the state of equilibrium diagrams.
For this reason, another type of diagram was developed, which records the occurring transformation
process, depending on the actual cooling speeds, across a specific temperature range. These diagrams
are called Time-Temperature-Transformation diagrams (TTT).
With TTT diagrams, the cooling times required for heat treatment processes, for example, can be as-
sessed, in order to give a defined material certain mechanical-technological properties at room tempera-
ture by controlling the cooling process (e.g. hardening). Depending on the temperature gradient when
setting up TTT diagrams, two basic types are distinguished. These are:
– isothermal TTT diagrams and

– continuous TTT diagram.
In general, TTT diagrams can be used to answer the following questions:
– After what time does the transformation of the austenite into other phases start?
– At what temperature does this happen?
– What microstructure results here, and in which proportions?
– When and at what temperature is the transformation ended?
– What hardness level does the resultant microstructure display?
It is important to note: Strictly speaking all types of TTT diagrams apply only to the material batch, for
which it was created and only for the conditions, under which it was created.
5.2 Isothermal TTT diagrams
To prepare isothermal TTT diagrams, small material specimens are quenched from austenitising tempera-
ture to various temperatures in the range between A3 and Ms (conversion free) (staggering approx. 30 to
50 K). The specimens are held at these and the transformation processes are determined (e.g. metallo-
graphically, dilatometrically). The beginning and the end of the transformation processes are entered into a
Time (log)-Temperature diagram. By connecting the individual points, curves are yield which provide infor-
mation on the transformation behaviour of a material at different temperatures.
Isothermal TTT diagrams thereby permit statements about the transformation process, if quenching
takes place from the austenite area at a lower temperature. They are read along a temperature horizon-
tal (isotherm). A steel is first heated to a temperature, at which it is completely austenite. Subsequently,
it is quenched to a temperature, at which the austenite is no longer stable. Thus, for example, for inter-
mediate stage quenching and tempering, the temperature and duration required to convert the steel
completely into the intermediate stage (bainite) can be read from an isothermal TTT diagram from the
start to the end of transformation.

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Typical applications of such TTT diagrams are e.g. the heat treatment of steels (hardening, quenching
and tempering, etc.), but also, the isothermal welding of steels sensitive to increased hardening.
Bainite
Time (log) in s
Figure 29: Example of an isothermal TTT diagram (steel 20CrMoV5-11) with hardness values
5.3 Continuous TTT diagrams

5.3.1 Continuous TTT diagrams for conventional heat treatments
In contrast to the isothermal TTT diagrams, the steel specimens used to plot the continuous TTT dia-
grams are not quenched to a certain temperature, but are instead cooled evenly (continuously) at dif-
ferent speeds from the austenite temperature. The start and end of a transformation is entered on each
cooling curve. Here too, the respective points are interconnected, so that fields emerge which provide
information on the occurrence of microstructure constituents, depending on the cooling speed.
Typical applications of continuous TTT diagrams include, e.g. the evaluation of transformation processes
or assessment of weldability. The latter cannot however be done using diagrams for conventional heat-
treatment processes, but requires special continuous TTT diagrams (cf. Section 5.3.2).

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Bain
ite
Time (log) in s
Figure 30: Example of a continuous TTT diagram (steel with 0.13% carbon and 0.5% manganese)
5.3.2 Welding TTT diagrams
For the welding practice, it is recommended that special continuous TTT diagrams be used. TTT dia-
grams for conventional heat-treatment processes cannot be applied to welding applications.
Welding TTT diagrams generally apply only for the material and the batch, for which they were drafted,
i.e they can only be used to estimate the transformation behaviour, phase structure and mechanical
characteristics of other batches (even if it involves the same material).
In contrast to the traditional TTT diagrams for conventional heat-treatments, welding TTT diagrams are
distinguished by the following characteristic features:
– They show austenitising temperatures significantly over 1,000 °C.

– They were prepared using appreciably higher heating and cooling speeds.
– Their time axis is more upset.
– They apply (strictly speaking) only to the heat-affected zone and not to the weld metal.
Welding TTT diagrams make it possible to estimate the upper and lower critical cooling speeds that are
of interest for the assessment of weldability (cf. Section 5.4.2). Furthermore, many welding TTT dia-
grams have supplementary diagrams, from which the mechanical properties hardness, yield point, ten-
sile strength, reduction- and elongation-area as well as the impact energy can be taken as a function of
the cooling speed (Figure 31).

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When using welding TTT diagrams it must always be considered that these are created using welding
simulators (heat-treatment simulators) on small specimens. Therefore, with real welded joints there can
be deviations in the transformation behaviour and the mechanical properties.
Bainite
Figure 31: Example of a welding TTT diagram for the steel S460N with specification of the mechanical proper-
ties to be expected as a function of the cooling time, according to SEYFFARTH among others.

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5.4 Working with TTT diagrams

5.4.1 Determining critical cooling speeds
TTT diagrams can be used to determine the so called “critical cooling speeds” (Figure 17). Consequent-
ly, the cooling speed, at which the first martensite content occurs in the microstructure, is termed the
lower critical cooling speed. The temperature at which only martensite is formed for the first time dur-
ing quenching is the upper critical cooling speed. The procedure for reading these speeds from a con-
tinuous TTT diagram is shown in Figure 32.
Bainite
Bainite
Time (log) in s
Figure 32: Schematic continuous TTT diagram Figure 33: Continuous TTT diagram with reading
with critical cooling speeds examples for t8/5-time-determination
5.4.2 Determination of t8/5 times
The specification of cooling speeds in Kelvin per second (K/s) has not proven to be successful in welding
technology. Given the fact that in non-alloyed steels most transformations occur in the temperature
range between 800 and 500 °C, the t8-5 time is generally used as a measure for the cooling speed for
these alloys. This is understood to be the time required for a point in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) to
cool down from 800 to 500 °C. Long t8-5 times thus indicate low cooling rates and short t8-5 times point to
fast cooling rates.
The t8-5 time is therefore inversely proportional to the cooling speed!
When working with TTT diagrams, attention must always be paid as to whether other cooling times are
also used. For example, in the collection of welding TTT diagrams published by (Bibliography cf. Section
7, SEYFFART and employees, they did not use the cooling time between 800 and 500 °C, but that be-
tween 850 and 500 °C.
If cooling times for alloyed steels (e.g. stainless steels, cf. Chapter 2.15) are to be determined, the
t12-8 time, i.e. the cooling time between 1,200 and 800 °C has proven to be useful, as most transfor-
mations for those materials occur in this temperature range.
The procedure for determining t8-5 times from continuous TTT diagrams is shown in Figure 33.

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5.4.3 Influence of the t8/5 times on the formation of the coarse grain zone during welding
clearly shows how the introduction of heat during welding impacts on the cooling time t 8-5. The greater
the heat input, the longer a point in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) can remain in the temperature range
above 1,300 °C. In this temperature range, the classic coarse grain annealing is performed on steels,
e.g. to improve the machinability (cf. Chapter 2.08). This also leads to grain growth in the HAZ. This in
turn leads to the formation of the extremely brittle coarse grain zone (Figure 36 and Figure 37).
Welding processes with energy-reduced heat input limit the width of the coarse grain zone, since they
limit the duration of stopover in the critical temperature range and thus the diffusion processes required
for grain growth cannot run at all or can only run, to a reduced extent.
Zw=bainite
Figure 34: Influence of the heat input during weld- Figure 35: Classification of heat-treatment pro-
ing on t8/5 time cesses in accordance with their T-t course in the TTT
diagram
Figure 36: Ferritic-pearlitic microstructures in lined Figure 37: Coarse grain zone in the HAZ of the
arrangement of a structural steel of grade S355 same non-alloyed structural steels from Figure 36

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5.4.4 Classification of heat-treatment processes in accordance with their T-t course in the TTT
diagram
In the temperature-time curves of important heat-treatment processes for steel materials have been
entered into a schematic TTT diagram. As is clearly evident, TTT diagrams are eminently suited to de-
veloping steel grade and steel-batch-specific heat treatment technologies. The desired microstructures
can already be read from these before the outset and thus the properties to be expected can be evaluat-
ed.
Chapter 2.08 provides detailed information on the heat treatment of steels as well as on the individual
heat-treatment processes annealing, hardening and tempering.
5.5 Parameters influencing the formation of TTT diagrams
As already mentioned, TTT diagrams are in principle prepared specifically under precisely defined aus-
tenitising conditions. Therefore parameters like the heating speed, the austenitising temperature and the
holding time influence the transformation process definitively and thus impact on the appearance of the
respective TTT diagram.
Often the conventional TTT diagrams are prepared for austenitising temperatures of 850 °C. Holding
times are very short, with the result that a fine-grained austenite is created. However, in many cases, the
heat treatment of technical components involves larger workpiece thicknesses so that a longer aus-
tenitising duration (in order to achieve an even heat distribution) is to be expected. This results in a
coarser austenite grain. Austenite grain size and austenite homogeneity, for their part, influence the
transformation process in turn. This can result in deviations between the TTT diagram prepared in the
materials laboratory and the material behaviour of the component in practice.
Ferrite precipitation
Precipitation in bainite-area
Zw= bainite
Figure 38: Schematic influence of alloying elements on the transformation behaviour of austenite in TTT diagrams

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During cooling, it is required for diffusion-controlled phase transformations that nuclei of the new phase
form and that they grow. Nucleation and growth are passing a maximum as supercooling increases. The
interaction of both effects gives the characteristic “noses” in the TTT diagram for the start of the phase
transformations during cooling, the position of which can be moved by alloying elements.
Thus it is clear from Figure 38, that, for example, the elements manganese, nickel, molybdenum, chromi-
um and vanadium delay the transformation into pearlite. The Ms temperature is also reduced.
In contrast, the beginning of bainite formation is delayed by carbon, chromium and manganese and ac-
celerated by nickel and vanadium. The thus modified transformation behaviour brings about e.g. an im-
proved hardenability.
Important note: The phase and transformation diagrams depicted in this document are for training pur-
poses. They have been simplified or changed and should not under any circumstances be applied to real
applications. Extensive collections of such diagrams are included e.g. in the publications listed in Section
7 or may, under certain circumstances, have to be prepared anew in individual cases.

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6 Question
(1) What allotropic modifications of iron at atmospheric pressure do you know?
 Cubic-basis-centred.
 Cubic-primitive.
 Cubic-face-centred.
 Cubic-body-centred.
 Hexagonal densely packed.
(2) Which of the following continuous lines characterises the liquidus line?
 E-C-F
 P-S-K
 A-H-I-E-C-F
 A-B-C-D
 M-O-S-K
(3) Which of the following continuous lines characterises the eutectoid?
 P-S-K
 A-B-C-D
 M-O-S-K
 A-H-I-E-C-F
 E-C-F
(4) The A1 temperature is the characteristic temperature for what?
 Cementite formation temperature

 Ferrite formation temperature
 Ledeburite formation temperature
 Temperature of the eutectoid transformation
 Pearlite formation temperature
(5) A hypoeutectoid steel has what carbon content?
 Exactly 0.8% C
 Between 2.06 and 4.3% C
 Less than 0.8% C

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(6) Why can there be no alloys having more than 6.67% carbon in the iron-cementite system?
 Because the maximum solubility of cementite for iron would then be exhausted.
 Because this corresponds to 100% cementite.
 Because otherwise the transformation speed would be exceeded.
 Because then martensite formation starts.
 Because this would change the polymorphism of iron solid solutions.
(7) Pearlite comprises which components?
 Austenite and cementite

 Ferrite and cementite
 Ledeburite and molten metal
 Delta ferrite and austenite
 Martensite and ferrite
(8) What is martensite?
 A microstructure with great plasticity.

 A structure with very high ductility.
 A microstructure with a very high level of hardness.
 Tetragonally deformed ferrite.
 Hexagonally distorted ferrite.
(9) What general information can be taken from TTT diagrams?
 Temperature and time of the starting austenite transformation.

 Temperature and time of the completed austenite transformation.
 Yield point, tensile strength and elongation characteristic values of the transformed micro-
structure.
 Hardness of the transformed microstructure.
 Impact work of the transformed microstructure.
(10) How are welding TTT diagrams read?
 Along the “noses” in the diagram.

 Along the isotherms (at constant temperature).
 Along the cooling curves.
 Parallel to logarithmically subdivided temperature axis.
 Parallel to the temperature axis.

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7 Bibliography

Werkstoffwissenschaft [Materials science.]

Metallografie [Metallography.]
Gräfen, H.:
VDI Lexikon Werkstofftechnik [VDI Lexicon, Materials engineering.]
Eckstein, H.-J.:
Wärmebehandlung von Stahl. Metallkundliche Grundlagen.
[Heat treatment of steel. Metallurgical principles.]

Metallurgie und Werkstofftechnik – Ein Wissensspeicher. Band 1[Metallurgy and engineering
materials – A knowledge store. Volume 1.]
Seyffarth, P.; Meyer, B.; Scharff, A.:

Großer Atlas Schweiß-ZTU-Schaubilder. [Large atlas of welding TTT diagrams.]
Düsseldorf: Deutscher Verlag für Schweißtechnik DVS-Verlag GmbH, 1992
Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung (MPIE)

Atlas zur Wärmebehandlung der Stähle. [Atlas of the heat treatment of steels.]
Düsseldorf: Verlag Stahleisen GmbH
Liedtke, D.:
Merkblatt 450 – Wärmebehandlung von Stahl. Härten, Anlassen, Vergüten, Bainitisieren.
[Leaflet 450 - Heat treatment of steel. Hardening, quenching and tempering, bainitisation.]
Düsseldorf: Stahl-Informations-Zentrum, 2005 [Steel Information Centre]

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Manufacturing and classification steels Page 1
Chapter 2.04: Manufacturing and classification steels
Contents
1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Regarding the term steel .......................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Steel production overview ......................................................................................................... 2
2 The metallisation of iron ores ............................................................................................ 3
2.1 Iron ores ................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 The production of pig iron ......................................................................................................... 4
2.2.1 Blast furnace process ..................................................................................................... 4
2.2.2 Pig iron ........................................................................................................................... 5
3 Iron refining ......................................................................................................................... 6
3.1 The production of steels ........................................................................................................... 6
3.1.1 Refining .......................................................................................................................... 6
3.1.2 Secondary metallurgy ................................................................................................... 10
4 Hot and cold forming of steels ......................................................................................... 14
5 European standardization of steels ................................................................................. 16
5.1 Preface ................................................................................................................................... 16
5.2 The classification of grades of steel ........................................................................................ 16
5.3 The European designation system for steel materials ............................................................. 18
5.3.1 Abbreviations according to EN 10 027-1....................................................................... 18
5.3.2 Main symbols ............................................................................................................... 18
5.3.3 Supplementary symbols ............................................................................................... 19
5.3.4 Sample designations for steels according to the European standardisation .................. 20
5.3.5 Material numbers according to EN 10 027-2 ................................................................. 23
6 The group classification of steels for welding ................................................................ 25
7 Test questions ................................................................................................................... 26
8 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 28

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1 Introduction
1.1 Regarding the term steel
The word STEEL comes from old or Middle High German (stāl, stahel or stahal) and means “solid” or
“hard”.
The importance of the words iron and steel has changed over the course of the last two centuries. As
recently as the 19th century, “iron” was understood to be all non-hardenable iron-carbon alloys or not
yet hardened cast iron materials, whose carbon content was maximum 0.22% (e.g. wrought iron, pud-
dled iron, flow iron).
Steels, on the other hand, were malleable ferrous alloys, which were hardenable or had above-average
strength values. Their carbon content was above 0.22% (wrought steel, mild steels, tool steel).
Since the start of the 20th century, in the parlance of ironworks, steel came to mean:
an iron-carbon alloy, which can contain maximum 2.06% carbon.
With the introduction of the European regulations, a detailed definition of steels was presented in
accordance with EN 10: 020:2000
“Material, whose mass fraction of iron is greater than any other element, whose carbon content is gener-
ally less than 2% and which contains other elements. A limited number of chromium steels may contain
more than 2% carbon, but 2% is the usual limit between steel and cast iron.”
1.2 Steel production overview
IRON ORE, combustibles, reducing agent, additions
Process for ore reduction (metallisation)
Direct reduction process Blast-furnace process Smelting reduction process
SPONGE IRON (solid) PIG IRON (liquid)
Steel manufacturing process (refining)
Refining (converter) process Hearth (refining) process
(Air-refining converter*) Oxygen converter (Siemens-Martin

Electric furnace
(Bessemer*, Thomas*) (LD, LDAC) furnace*)
Secondary metallurgy method (e.g. deoxidation, vacuum treatment)
STEEL
*) no longer in use, but frequently encountered with old steels

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The above table and Figure 1 show important process steps in steelmaking. Both illustrations also in-
clude those process steps (e.g. the air-refining and Siemens-Martin processes) which are no longer in
use today, but which are nonetheless frequently utilised for what are called old steels.
Ore dressing (sintering plant)
Direct reduction furnace Blast furnace Smelting reduction furnace
LDAC converter LD converter Electro arc furnace
STEEL
Continuous casting Ingot casting
Figure 1: Overview of important process steps in steelmaking
2 The metallisation of iron ores

2.1 Iron ores
Due to its chemical and electro-chemical ignoble nature, iron does not occur in its pure form in nature
(elemental), but instead only in a chemically bound form, as iron-oxygen compounds, which are inter-
spersed with mineral components (gangue).

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The mixture of iron-oxygen compound and gangue is called iron ore. The main task of metallurgical
engineering is to separate the iron-oxygen compound from the gangue, on the one hand, and the iron
from the oxygen on the other. Important iron ores include:
– Magnetite (Fe3O4)
– Haematite (Fe2O3)
– Brown haematite (limonite, - FeO (OH) + others)
– Spathic iron ore (siderite, FeCO3)
2.2 The production of pig iron

2.2.1 Blast furnace process
Figure 2: Cross-section through a blast furnace and an air heater as well as temperatures in the blast fur-
nace and important chemical reactions
Coke and burden (a mixture of iron ore and additional substances, e.g. limestone) are continuously filled
into the blast furnace (Figure 2) in layers. During its slow descent to the actual reaction zone the mixture is
heated up gradually. At the same time, air that has been preheated to 600 - 1300 °C, called the hot blast,
is blown into the lower part of the blast furnace, so that this air (+ fuel oil or carbon gas) flows into the blast
furnace from the bottom to the top. The carbon in the glowing coke is burned by the hot air first to CO2,
which is then immediately converted back to CO however with the coke. The ascending CO gases remove
oxygen from the iron oxides and are thereby converted to CO2 in a combustion process. However, upon
contact with the glowing coke the conversion into CO starts immediately again.

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The process described takes place, alternating constantly, until approximately the halfway point of the
furnace shaft, where it stops as the temperature there is too low. As not all the CO is used up during
reduction, the furnace gas still contains enough of it to be combustible.
Approximately every two hours the furnace is tapped. Liquid iron first and then liquid slag flow out of the
taphole. Since the slag is less dense than iron, it floats on top of the iron. The pig iron is generally trans-
ported via “torpedo cars” for further processing or it is drained into pig iron pots and brought to the
mixer. The three main purposes of the mixer are:
– storage container for steel-manufacturing plant

– mixing of the hot tapped material which is never quite the same
– sulphur reduction (continuous slow conversion of MnS+FeS into MnS+Fe)
2.2.2 Pig iron
The resultant pig iron displays temperatures at the tap of around 1,320 °C and contains, among others:
~ 4.0 to ~ 5.0% C,
~ 0.2 to ~ 3.0% Si,
~ 0.2 to ~ 6.0% Mn,
~ 0.1 to ~ 2.0% P,
~ 0.02 to ~ 0.06% S
It serves, on the one hand, as a basic material for steel production (white pig iron), while, on the other,
it is the basis for the production of cast iron (grey pig iron). In the form of pigs, the pig iron together with
scrap, cast iron scrap and any other additives, is recast into cast iron in the foundries.
White pig iron develops where there are higher levels of manganese (> 4% Mn; < 0.5% Si) and faster
cooling. It is distinguished by the following properties, among others:
– silvery-white, radial fracture surface, carbon set as Fe3C, is very hard and brittle
In contrast, grey pig iron forms where there are higher levels of silicon (> 2% Si; < 0.2% Mn) and slow
cooling. Its most important properties are:
– matt and grey fracture surface, carbon deposited as graphite (C), is relatively soft and tough com-
pared to white pig iron
In order to manufacture steel from the pig iron, the carbon content and content of other accompanying
elements must be lowered significantly. This task is accomplished via the various steelmaking processes
(cf. Section 3).

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3 Iron refining
3.1 The production of steels
3.1.1 Refining
3.1.1.1 General overview
The further processing from pig iron to steel is called refining. With this process, the carbon and com-
panion elements to iron are to be reduced to a level that is characteristic, i.e. desired for steel. All of the
customary processes are more or less based on the fact that the pig iron is boiled and the oxygen then
oxidises the undesired/surplus elements. The elements mentioned are mainly removed via a slag cov-
er, that fulfils several functions:
– Formation of FeO on the pig iron, which then oxidises C and the other elements in the pig iron
– The accompanying elements can be deposited in the slag, in the form of liquid oxidation products, by
the addition of lime. Essential effects of these companion elements to iron can be:
– Phosphorous leads to cold embrittlement

– Sulphur leads to hot cracking
– Oxygen leads to pore formation
– Hydrogen leads to flocculent cracking
– Nitrogen leads to embrittlement due to ageing
Due to the greater affinity with oxygen, Si and Mn are burned first, which initially proves disadvantageous
for steel production, as a certain percentage of these elements is required and therefore must be alloyed in
again later. Subsequently, C burns to CO, which keeps the pool in motion due to bubble formation, and
finally phosphorous. If the carbon or phosphorous content drops too much (below 0.08%), the process
must be aborted as there is a risk of “over-refining” (iron burns and oxygen remains in the pool). The
process of refining becomes uneconomic and the quality of the steel deteriorates.
3.1.1.2 Hearth furnace process (open-hearth process)

3.1.1.2.1 Overview
Table 1: Historical and current hearth furnace processes

HEARTH FURNACE PROCESS (open-hearth process)
“Wrought steel” “Mild steel”
Steel is present in the
doughy state, cannot Steel is present in the molten state, can be cast.
be cast.
Electric arc furnace
Regenerative process Special treatments
process
Direct Alternating
current current
Induction process
Puddled iron process Siemens-Martin process Electric arc furnace process Electron beam process
Plasma primary process
no longer no longer permitted approx. 35 to 40% of only a few per cent of the
in use in the EU world steel production world's steel production

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Table 1 provides a general overview of the historical and currently common hearth furnace processes.
The term “wrought steel” has nothing to do with today's understanding of welding, despite the German
terms “ Wrought steel ” and “Welding” respectively being so similar. The terminology in German is histor-
ically determined. With the introduction of EN 10 025-2:2005, the Siemens-Martin process is no longer
permitted in the CEN member states. It is unproductive and very polluting.
3.1.1.2.2 Electric arc furnace process
The required heat is generated in this process by an arc. Charging materials are, in addition to pig iron,
which is usually added in solid form, scrap and sponge iron (from direct reduction). As hardly any heat-
dissipating combustion gasses occur here, very high temperatures can be achieved (up to 3,500 °C).
Also due to the absence of hot blast no contaminants can be blown into the pool. The oxygen required
for refining is supplied mainly by the addition of ore. Oxygen lances, however, are also possible.
For large-scale refining works, the electric furnace is no longer used, as the maintenance costs are too
high. Therefore its primary work area is the fabrication of alloyed steels. The most common type of elec-
tric furnace is the HEROULD arc furnace (inventor: Paul HEROULD, 1899) with 3 electrodes (three-phase
current) and up to 400 t load weight (Figure 3). DC furnaces (with only one electrode) are also used.
Figure 3: Schematic illustration of an electric arc furnace (three-phase current)
Figure 4 shows schematically the manufacture of alloyed steels from scrap in the electric arc furnace.
The manufacture of steels in the electric arc furnace is associated with an extraordinary noise devel-
opment, particularly when smelting scrap. For this reason, the plasma primary smelting process, inter
alia, was developed as an alternative, which is entirely noise-free. It has not yet succeeded in becoming
mainstream and today, with the induction and electron beam processes, counts among the special
smelting processes (Table 1). Very little of the world's steel production stems from these.

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Scrap yard Charging Scrap smelting and refin- Slag formation

ing
Slag process Alloying and reducing Tapping Continuous or ingot cast-

agent addition ing
Figure 4: Schematic sequence of electric steel production
3.1.1.3 Converter process

3.1.1.3.1 Overview
Table 2 provides a general overview of the historical and currently common converter processes. At the
moment, only oxygen converter processes are used, as these do not introduce nitrogen into the steel
as would be the case with an air refining process that uses air. Thus modern converter steels generally
do not tend to age.
Table 2: Historical and current converter processes

CONVERTER PROCESSES
Air refining process Oxygen converter process
Bottom-blowing Top-blowing
Bottom-blowing process Combination process
process process
Good reaction
P- and S-poor P- and S-rich pig Good reaction P-poor pig P-rich pig
Pool slag,
pig iron iron Pool slag iron iron
very flexible
Q-BOP LDAC
LBE process
process process
Bessemer Thomas LWS LD pro- OLP pro-
TBM process
process process process cess cess
OBM LDK pro-
K-BOB process
process cess
no longer no longer approx. 60% of the world's steel production
manufacturer-specific
in use in use (process variants are manufacturer-specific)

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3.1.1.3.2 Oxygen blowing converter
By enriching the combustion air with oxygen or through direct blowing up of oxygen, the thermal balance
can be improved over the Siemens-Martin process. Utilising this physical effect, the first LD steelworks
went into operation in 1952 in Linz an der Donau (from Linz-Donawitz; Linz Düsen (nozzle) or Linz-
Durrer method); this plant worked with very pure oxygen (Figure 5, Figure 6).
Using an oxygen lance that is surrounded by a water-cooled casing, pure oxygen is blown onto the
liquid pig iron at approx. twice the speed of sound. The relationship between the nozzle distance from
the pool and the oxygen pressure is used to regulate the foaminess of the slag and thus the size of the
reaction surface between the pool and the slag.
Due to the high temperatures of 2,500 to 3,000 °C at the focal spot (impact surface of the O2 jet), the
dephosphorisation outpaces the decarburisation slightly in the LD process. Therefore there is still always
sufficient carbon in the pool to lower the P content to values less than 0.05% without running the risk of
over-refining. In converters up to 400 t, a blowing process (converter cycle) takes between 15 and 30 min.
For the P-rich ores (approx. 2% P), the LD process in the form described is not suitable. The slag would
quickly become enriched with phosphorous, such that its reactivity would already be exhausted with
0.2% P still present in the pig iron. Therefore, the LD process was modified such that further dephospho-
risation can be achieved with a second slag. The most well-known of these modifications is the LDAC
process (ARBED/Luxembourg, Centre National, Belgium).
Here, as with the LD process, refining is first performed with gradually reduced oxygen lance distance,
until the P content is down to approx. 0.2%. At this time, the C content is still at around 1%. In this stage,
as much of the P-rich slag as possible is tipped off. Refining is then continued by simultaneously blowing
lime powder in with the oxygen. This makes it possible to achieve phosphorous content in the steel of
below 0.03%. The duration of this process is comparable with that of the LD process.
Figure 5: Schematic illustration of an oxygen blowing converter

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Pig iron mixer Converter filling Blowing process Dust removal
Tapping Continuous casting Straightening and oxygen Desurfacing machine and

cutting machine finishing
Figure 6: Schematic sequence for steel manufacturing in the LD oxygen steelworks
3.1.2 Secondary metallurgy

3.1.2.1 General
In the process of steelmaking, secondary metallurgy is understood to be the post treatment of the
crude steel, by which the quality of the respective material can be increased. The following metallurgical
measures can be used here:
– Deoxidation
– Setting of the alloy
– Homogenisation of temperature and alloy composition
– Removal of carbon, sulphur, phosphorus and trace elements
– Degassing
– Improving the degree of purity
– Adjusting the solidification microstructure
To perform these measures, the most varied forms of vacuum degassing are a gas purging treatment
via purging plugs or lances or an injection of solids via lances are used, or general alloying elements,
deoxidizers or slag-forming constituents, are added to the molten metal.
Note: The secondary metallurgy processes are numerous and can be combined with one another in a
myriad of ways allowing the process-technical sequences required to produce certain steel qualities to
be tailored precisely.

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3.1.2.2 The deoxidation of steels
One of the most important process steps of the secondary metallurgical process is deoxidation. This is
understood to mean the removal of the oxygen dissolved in the molten metal up to certain minimum
values. To this end, substances are added to the molten metal – called deoxidizers such as manga-
nese, silicon, or aluminium – which, due to their great affinity with oxygen, bind with it. Oxidic reaction
products result, which for the most part are absorbed by the slag.
Molten metal can also be deoxidised via a vacuum treatment or a gas purging treatment, whereby in
this case hardly any oxidic reaction products result, which impacts favourably on the quality of the
steel to be produced (no lined oxide inclusions after the rolling process, Figure 7).
Figure 7: Ruptured oxide inclusions in a structural steel Figure 8: MnS and slag in an unkilled structural steel
The importance of deoxidation for the steel quality, and also with respect to weldability, is evident from
the following consideration:
During cooling or solidification of a molten metal, the solubility of oxygen in the molten metal reduces
such that it reacts with the already present carbon to form carbon monoxide. As a result of this gas es-
caping, the molten metal “boils”, and the steel solidifies unkilled (FU).
Through deoxidation, the formation of carbon monoxide and thus the “boiling” of the molten metal is
largely or entirely suppressed, such that the corresponding segregation is also reduced or avoided. The
steel solidifies killed (FN) or “special-killed” (FF).
Modern steels may no longer be manufactured in the unkilled (rimmed) state (FU), according to EN 10
025-2:2005, meaning that the peculiarities of unkilled solidified steel blocks can be excluded here. Fur-
thermore, continuous casting plants do not enable a boiling reaction of the molten steel, due to their
moulds being open on both sides.
In the past, however, most steel production was cast in ingots, with the result that, particularly with old steels,
the question as to the type of deoxidation, i.e. unkilled or killed, must be answered (cf. Section 3.1.2.6).
With unkilled cast, i.e. not deoxidised, steels, a microstructure forms across the cross-section of the so-
lidified steel block such that the block surface displays a relatively clean, dense edge layer, referred to as
the “skin”. Next to this lies a zone interspersed with gas bubbles. Extending to the centre of the block,
the remaining molten metal becomes enriched with undesired elements such as sulphur or phosphorus
and segregations result (Figure 8). This segregation effect leads to locally increased levels of sulphur or

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phosphorous content in the steel, which makes fault-free welding of the steel difficult or even impossible
(Figure 9, Figure 10). In contrast to the unkilled, cast steel, solidified blocks of killed, i.e. deoxidised steel
displayed a largely homogenous microstructure across the entire cross-section. They did not, however,
have the largely segregation-free skin.
The type of deoxidation can, e.g. be made visible via a macrosection across the material cross-section
(Figure 9). It is also possible however to deduce this from the chemical analysis of the steel. Here, the
following dependencies apply:
– Specially killed cast (FF): Deoxidation with  0.20% Si and  0.02% Al

– Killed cast (FN): Deoxidation with  0.20% Si or  0.02% Al
– Unkilled cast (FU): without the deoxidizers Si and/or Al
Figure 9: Macrostructure of an unkilled (rimmed) cast Figure 10: Wormholes created by molten segregation
steel zone
3.1.2.3 Desulphurisation
The lion's share of the sulphur is already removed during the blast furnace process and the subsequent
pig iron desulphurisation. In order to achieve the lowest sulphur content of below 0.001% however, a
post-desulphurisation of the liquid steel is required; this is done by adding substances that bind with
sulphur such as soda, magnesium, lime or calcium compounds.
It should be noted that manganese can be used to bind sulphur into manganese sulphides, which coun-
teracts the formation of hot cracks in certain steel qualities. On the other hand, manganese sulphides
can take on a linear arrangement when the steel is rolled, which can lead to lamellar tearing, particular-
ly when the workpiece is stressed in the thickness direction (cf. Chapter 2.06).

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3.1.2.4 Dephosphorisation
The dephosphorisation should be performed, to the greatest possible extent, upon completion of the
smelting process (see also LDAC process). Further reduced contents can be achieved using synthetic
slags with simultaneous intensive mixing of the molten metal with agitating gases.
3.1.2.5 Removal of nitrogen and hydrogen
The gasses dissolved in the molten pool can be removed using a vacuum treatment with additional
purging with argon.
Nitrogen can be bound with aluminium in the form of aluminium nitrides, so that the negative influence of
this element on the mechanical properties of certain steels – known as ageing embrittlement
(cf. Chapter 2.02) - can be suppressed. Steels treated with aluminium, i.e. special killed steels (FF), are
deemed non-ageing. The aluminium nitride formed simultaneously acts as a crystallisation nucleus and
promotes the formation of a fine-grained structure.
3.1.2.6 Steel casting
In principle, a differentiation is made between ingot casting and continuous casting. With ingot cast-
ing, the steel is cast in moulds that taper upwards with square, rectangular, round, oval or polygonal
cross-sections. The liquid metal flows directly from above, from the casting ladle into the mould located
underneath. In group casting, several moulds are filled simultaneously via fire-proof lined launders. The
moulds, in this process, are filled from the bottom to the top in what is known as uphill casting, to achieve
a better surface than with downhill casting (Figure 11). Since 1970, ingot casting as a percentage of
steel production has fallen from nearly 100% worldwide to just around 5%.
Figure 11: Schematic illustration of ingot casting Figure 12: Schematic illustration of continuous casting
Continuous casting is characterised by a high yield (output), high economic efficiency and high mate-
rial grades. The continuous casting share of steel production in Germany is currently over 97% (globally
93%).
In this process, liquid metal flows from the casting ladle via a distributor into a water-cooled copper
mould, that determines the format of the strand. Here too, the most different cross-section shapes are
possible. With the assistance of slewing mechanisms and the rotating turrets, which can take two casting
ladles, casting takes place via a tundish in the form of either sequential casting or composite casting.
After the complete solidification of the strand, which does not take place until after a few metres, the

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strand is divided by in-line cutting torches. The intensive cooling during continuous casting creates a
uniform solidification microstructure with favourable technological properties (Figure 12). This is support-
ed by using electromagnetic agitators. The further development of the continuous casting technology is
leading to a further optimised automation of the process sequence and to ever smaller construction
heights of the continuous casting plants. The construction types include vertical, bending-straightening,
round arc or oval arc plant up to and including horizontal plant for certain steel qualities. Nowadays the
overall heights are within the range of 6 m. The future development of casting technology is leading to a
combination of casting and rolling (direct strand reduction), in order to shorten the process chain from
liquid steel to end product and thus make it more efficient.
4 Hot and cold forming of steels
After casting (cf. Section 3.1.2), the steel is generally in the form of ingots or slabs, apart from dead-
mould casting. The task of the rolling process consists of forming this raw material into the desired semi-
finished product. The most important semi-finished product types include:
– Thick plates, hot-rolled strip, profile steel, pipes, wires and steel sheets.
The rolling process is differentiated, depending on the temperature at which deformation takes place,
into hot and cold-rolling.
Figure 13: Further processing of steels using non-cutting shaping (hot and cold)
With cold-rolling, the transformation temperatures are arranged between room temperature and below
the recrystallisation temperature. In contrast to this, the temperature for hot rolling is usually above
the recrystallisation temperature TR (~ 0.4 TS). In this context, however it is important to note that with
fast running forming processes, as is particularly the case with rolling processes, special importance is
ascribed to the temperature-dependent recrystallisation speed. In the event that this is higher than the

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forming speed, we talk of hot forming. The opposite case is cold forming, even if forming runs at temper-
atures above the recrystallisation temperature.
Figure 13 provides an overview of the further processing of steels using non-cutting shaping. It is clear
that the desired semi-finished products can be produced using a combination of a hot and cold forming.
Note: Forming processes, regardless of whether they are hot or cold forming ones, can lead to direction-
dependent properties in the steel, i.e. each of the three spatial directions can exhibit different properties
(e.g. strength, elongation, toughness). Such a case is described as anisotropy. Figure 14 provides ex-
amples of this.
Among the most important rolling imperfections are what are known as laminations (Figure 15).
These are fragmentations of the material, that have different technical process-related causes (e.g.
blowholes in the raw material, incorrect rolling parameters). Sheet metals containing laminations are not
appropriate for welding-related further processing. Laminations can be detected using non-destructive
testing with the UT process.
Figure 14: Difference between a normalised and a strongly cold-formed microstructure
Figure 15: Lamination in a hot-rolled structural steel (macro on left, photomicrograph on right)

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5 European standardization of steels

5.1 Preface
Uniform rules apply in Europe for the designation of steels (for all CEN member countries).
These specifications are defined in a series of standards:
EN 10 020: Definition and classification of grades of steel.

EN 10 027-1: Designation systems for steel. Part 1: Steel names.
EN 10 027-2: Designation systems for steel. Part 2: Numerical system.
EN 10 079: Definition of steel products.
The standardised designation system for steels means that in all CEN member countries, as its introduc-
tion progresses, the same steel designations apply or will apply. There is therefore no need to convert
from one national standard to another, thus avoiding the associated problems.
5.2 The classification of grades of steel
Steels are classified into grades in accordance with EN 10 020:2000. They are not classified, as was
previously the case, into non-alloy, low-alloy and high-alloy steels, but instead into “non-alloy”, “stain-
less” and “other alloy steels” (). “Non-alloy steels" are steel grades in which none of the limits accord-
ing to Table 3 was reached. “Stainless steels" are steels with a weight per cent of chromium of at least
10.5% (more correctly as of approx. 12% chromium) and maximum 1.2% carbon. “Other alloy steels"
are steel grades not complying with the definition of stainless steels and in which at least one of the limit
values according to Table 3 has been reached.
Table 3: Limit values between non-alloy and alloy steels (cast analysis)
Element Al B Bi Co Cr
Limit value (weight-%) 0.30 0.0008 0.10 0.30 0.30
1) 2)
Element Cu La Mn Mo Nb
Grenzwert (Masse-%) 0.40 0.10 1.65 0.08 0.06
Element Ni Pb Se Si Te
3)
Element Ti V W Zr Other
1) Lanthanides (evaluated individually)
2) If only one maximum value is stipulated for manganese, the limit value is 1.80%
3) With the exception of carbon, phosphorus, sulphur, nitrogen
A further classification takes place with the “non alloy” and the “other alloy” steels into quality and high-
grade steels, (), termed the main quality classes. The previous main quality class of “basic steels” is
omitted; it was merged with the non-alloy quality steels.
Non-alloy steels Stainless steels Other alloy steels
Non-alloy qual- Non-alloy high- (Other) alloy alloy high-

(Other)
ity steels grade steels quality steels grade steels
Classification according to
Figure 16
Figure 16: Grades and their main quality classes according to EN 10 020:2000

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Stainless steels
Nickel content Main properties
Corrosion- Heat- (Highly)

Nickel < 2.5 % Nickel  2.5% resistant resistant heat-resistant
steel steel steel
(Material number system) (preferred areas of application of the steels)
Figure 16: Classification of grades of stainless steels according to EN 10 020:2000
Note: The term “Edelstahl” or “high-grade steel” was separated from the grade of “stainless steels”.
These materials were previously considered a synonym for “Edelstahl” but are no longer assigned to
this group in the current version of EN 10 020. Figure 16 contains a classification of “stainless steels”.
The main quality classes (cf. ) are described in EN 10 020:2000, as shown in Figure 17.
Quality steels High-grade steels
non-alloy alloyed non-alloy alloyed

Non-alloy quality steels Alloy quality steels are Non-alloy high-grade This class includes steel
are steel grades which, in steel grades for which e.g. steels have a higher de- grades, excluding stain-
general, have specific requirements exist with gree of purity than quality less steels, which afford
requirements, for exam- regard to toughness, grain steel, particularly in rela- improved properties
ple, in relation to tough- size and/or formability. tion to non-metallic inclu- thanks to a precise ad-
ness, grain size and/or Alloy quality steels are not sions. Precise adjustment justment of their chemical
formability. generally intended for of the chemical composi- composition and special
quenching and tempering tion and special care in manufacturing and test
or surface hardening. the manufacturing and conditions, which are fre-
monitoring process ensure quently specified in com-
improved properties to bination with and within
fulfil higher requirements. tightly restricted limits.
These properties include
high or tightly restricted
yield point or hardenability
values, sometimes asso-
ciated with suitability for
cold forming, welding or
toughness.
Figure 17: Description of main quality classes according to EN 10 020 (selection)

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5.3 The European designation system for steel materials

5.3.1 Abbreviations according to EN 10 027-1
The structure of the standard designation system for steels and steel products to EN 10 027-1 is shown
in Figure 18.
Material number according to EN 10 027-2

Steel designation
Main symbols according to EN 10 027-1 Additional symbols according to EN 10 027-1
for steels For steel products
Steel grade of the respective quality standard
Figure 18: Schematic structure of the European abbreviation system for steels according to EN 10 027-1
5.3.2 Main symbols
Combinations of letters and digits (described in EN 10 027-1) are used for the material abbreviations
for steels. In this process, a differentiation is made into code letters and main symbols for steels or cast
steel, which are used because of their mechanical and physical properties (Table 4) and code letters
and numbers for steels which are used because of their chemical composition (Table 5). In the case of
a steel casting of the respective material type, a “G” is put in front of the abbreviation.
Table 4: Code letter for steels or cast steel (due to use for their mechanical and physical properties)
Additional symbols
Main symbols Numbers and symbols for the main property
for steel
Steels for general steel Minimum yield point for the smallest thick-
S ReH
construction ness range
Steels for the construction Minimum yield point for the smallest thick-
P ReH
of pressurised vessels ness range
Steels for pipe construc- Minimum yield point for the smallest thick-
L ReH
tion ness range
Minimum yield point for the smallest thick-
E Mech.engineering steels ReH
ness range
Concrete reinforcing Value of the yield point for the smallest di-
B ReH
steels mension range
Y Prestressing steels Rm Nominal value for tensile strength
R rail steels HBW Minimum hardness according to Brinell Other additional
C Re Cold-rolled symbols, material-
D Re Hot-rolled, for direct cold forming dependent
Flat products made from X Re Rolling type not defined (cf. Figure 19 and
H higher-strength steels for Figure 20)
CT Rm Cold-rolled
cold forming
DT Rm Hot-rolled, for direct cold forming
XT Rm Rolling type not defined
C Cold-rolled
Flat products of soft steels
D D Hot-rolled, for direct cold forming
for cold forming
X Rolling type not defined
Steel for packaging, plate H Re Continuously annealed grades
T
and strip S Re Grades annealed in batches
Remagnetisa-
100 x nominal
M Electric sheet and strip nnn (n) tion loss in - nn
thickness in mm
W/kg x 100

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Table 5: Code letters and figures for steels on the basis of their chemical composition
Main symbol Number Chemical symbols Numbers
Non-alloy steels with an
average manganese con-
tent less than 1% (except
To describe the average content of
machining steel) One hundred Describe the charac-
the alloying elements
Non-alloy steels with an times the teristic alloying ele-
The alloy content can be calculated
C average manganese con- average ments, arranged in
in these steels by multiplying with the
tent above 1%, non-alloy carbon con- descending order of
alloying factors listed in Table 6.
machining steels, with content alloy content
They are be separated by a dash.
tent of the individual alloy-
ing elements below 5%
(except high-speed steels)
Table 6: Alloying factors for steels on the basis of their chemical composition
Element Factor
Chromium, cobalt, manganese, nickel, silicon, tungsten 4
Aluminium, beryllium, copper, molybdenum, niobium, lead, tantalum, titanium, vanadi-
10
um, zirconium
Cerium, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur 100
Boron 1000
Table 7: Code letters and figures for the designation of (high) alloy steels
Main symbol Number Chemical symbols Numbers
One hundred
Alloy steels, if the alloying Describe the characteristic To describe the average
times the
content is ≥ 5% for at least alloying elements, arranged content of the alloying ele-
X average
ne element (exception: in descending order of alloy ments (are separated from
carbon con-
high-speed steels) content each other by a dash)
tent
Table 8: Code letters and figures to designate high-speed steels

Main symbol Numbers
High speed steel
HS Indicates, in order, the content of the alloying elements Mo, V and CO
(High speed steel)
Examples of steel abbreviations according to EN 10 027-1 are listed in Section 5.3.4.
5.3.3 Supplementary symbols
In addition to the main symbols, two types of additional symbols are also distinguished:
– Additional symbols for steel

– Additional symbols for steel products
The additional symbols for steel are in turn divided into a further two groups. It should be noted that the
symbols of the second group shall only be used in combination with the first group i.e. they are to be
appended to the latter.
Figure 19 contains a selection of additional symbols for special requirements, for the type of treat-
ment state as well as for the type of coating used to designate steels and steel products.

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For special requirements For the type of treatment state For the type of coating
The additional symbols are appended to the steel abbreviation with a “+” sign.
+CH With core hardenability +A Soft annealed +A Hot dip aluminised
Steel with special Annealed to achieve sphe-
+H +AC +AS With an Al-Si alloy coating
hardenability roidal carbides
Minimum reduction of
With an AL-Zn alloy coating
+Z15 area in plate thickness +AR as rolled +AZ
(> 50% Al)
direction 15%
Minimum reduction of
Electrolytically chromium
+Z25 area in plate thickness +AT Solution annealed +CE
coated
direction 25%
Minimum reduction of Strain hardened
+Z35 area in plate thickness +C (e.g. rolling, drawing) or +CU Copper coating
direction 35% cold-rolled narrow strip
Strain hardened to a min-
+Cnnn imum tensile strength of +IC Inorganic coating
nnn N/mm²
+CR Cold-rolled +S Hot dip tin coating
Delivery condition at man-
+DC +SE Electrolytic tin coating
ufacturer's discretion
Treated on ferritic-pearlite
Hot-dip coated with lead-tin
+FP microstructure and hard- +T
alloy (terne)
ness range
Electrolytically coated with a
+HC Hot/cold formed +TE
lead-tin alloy
Hot-dip zinc (galvanised)
+I Isothermically treated +Z
coating
Slightly cold redrawn or With a Zn-Al alloy coating (>
+LC +ZA
slightly re-rolled 50% Zn)
Thermomechanically
+M +ZE Electrolytic tin coating
formed
Normalised or normalised Diffusion-annealed zinc
+N +ZF
formed coating
Different states can have the same additional symbols. Risk of confusion.
S355J2+N+Z35 S355MC+C S355J2+AR+Z
Figure 19: Additional symbols for steels and steel products to EN 10 027-1 (selection)
5.3.4 Sample designations for steels according to the European standardisation

5.3.4.1 Designation in accordance with the mechanical properties
The steels whose standard designation is in line with their mechanical properties include e.g. the non-
alloy structural steels according to EN 10 025-2 (cf. Chapter 2.09). These are chosen on the basis of
their strength behaviour and are mainly used at temperatures in the range of room temperature. Ac-
cording to the above mentioned stipulations, the code letter S (steels for general steel construction) is
put in front of the steel name, followed by a number, that corresponds to the minimum yield point in
N/mm for the smallest product thickness. Further code letters and figures serve the specific descrip-
tion of additional material properties (Figure 20).

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5.3.4.2 Sample designation for a non-alloy structural steel
The structure of the designation system for non-alloy structural steels (steels for steel construction) is
relatively easy to grasp and is explained in Figure 20. It corresponds to that used for steels, which are
named in line with their mechanical or physical properties.
Figure 20: Designation system for non-alloy structural steels (steels for steel construction)
according to EN 10 027-1
Figure 21 contains the breakdown for the abbreviation for non-alloy structural steel S235J2+N according
to EN 10 025-2.
S235J2+N
S 235 J2 +N
ReH  235 N/mm² for the J = Impact energy  27 J
Steels for steel Normalised or
smallest product
constructions 2 = Test temperature = -20 °C normalised rolled
thickness
Figure 21: Sample designation for the non-alloy structural steel S235J2+N
5.3.4.3 Designation on the basis of chemical composition
With steels, whose designation is based on their chemical composition, the abbreviation comprises a
number corresponding to 100 times the carbon content, the chemical symbols of the characteristic alloy-
ing elements and numbers, which, in the sequence of the previously listed alloying elements, provide an
indication of their average content (Figure 22, Figure 23). The chemical symbols are arranged in de-
scending order of alloying content. The numbers result from the percentage content, divided by the fac-
tors likewise mentioned in Table 6 and Figure 22. If a standard denomination includes several such
numbers, these are separated by hyphens.

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Steels, in which at least one alloying element exceeds 5%, have an X at the start (Figure 23). A conver-
sion of information to the alloy content is not necessary for these.
Figure 22: Designation system for other alloy steels according to EN 10 027-1
Figure 23: Designation system for steels, in which at least one alloying element exceeds 5% according to
EN 10 027-1

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Most noteworthy feature of the abbreviation for the other alloy steels and also stainless steels are the
hyphens, which in accordance with the European regulations, separate the code digits assigned to the
main alloying elements from one another. In contrast to the previously common steel designation which
used spaces, this procedure guarantees a better assignment of each digit to the respective alloying
element. A steel is considered alloyed, if at least one of the limit values according to Table 3 is achieved.
5.3.4.4 Sample designation for another alloyed steel
The heat-resistant steel for pressure vessel construction 13 CrMo 4 4 to DIN 17 155 is designated ac-
cording to EN 10 028-2 as 13CrMo4-5 (cf. Chapter 2.12). It is clear that the structure of this abbreviation
corresponds in essence to the previously valid regulation and is easy to grasp. Figure 24 explains the
aforementioned sample designation in more detail.
13CrMo4-5
13 Cr Mo 4 - 5
Carbon alloyed with alloyed with 1st element (Cr) 2nd element (Mo)
Hyphen
13 / 100 = 0.13% chromium molybdenum 4 / 4 = 1% 5 / 10 = 0.5%
Figure 24: Sample designation for heat-resistant pressure vessel steel 13CrMo4-5
5.3.4.5 Sample designation for a stainless steel
The stainless steel X 5 CrNi 18 10 to DIN 17 440 with the material number 1.4301 is defined according
to EN 10 088-1 as X5CrNi18-10 (cf. Chapter 2.15). Here too, the structure of the abbreviation mainly
corresponds to the previous regulation. Figure 25 explains the aforementioned sample designation in
more detail.
X5CrNi18-10
X 5 Cr Ni 18 - 10
Alloyed steel Carbon alloyed with legiert mit 1st element (Cr) 2nd element (Ni)
(min. one ele-
5 / 100 = Hypen
ment above 5 Chromium Nickel 18% 10%
0.05 %
%)
Figure 25: Sample designation for stainless steel X5CrNi18-10
5.3.5 Material numbers according to EN 10 027-2
The structure of the material numbers for steels is defined in EN 10 027-2. Figure 26 shows the designa-
tion system for a material number. The code letters for the material main groups are summarised in Ta-
ble 9. In this table, the system of the material numbers to EN 10 027-2 was adapted to grades and main
quality classes according to EN 10 020:2000.
X.YYZZ
X . YY ZZ
Code letter for the main Steel group according to Continuous counter
Point
material group EN 10 027-2 number
Figure 26: Designation system for a material number

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Table 9: Code digits for the material main groups of the material number system
Code letter Material main group
0 Pig iron, ferro alloy
1 Steel
2 Non-ferrous heavy metals
3 Non-ferrous light metals
4 Metal powder, sintered materials
5 to 8 Non-metallic materials
Table 10: System of material numbers to EN 10 027-2 for the main material group 1, adapted to grades and
main quality classes according to 10 020:2000
Group Description of the steel grade Main quality class
formerly
00, 90 Steel
base steels
01, 91 Non-alloy structural steel with Rm < 500 N/mm ²
02, 92 Other structural steel; not suitable for heat treatment; with Rm < 500 N/mm²
03, 93 Steel with C content ≤ 0.12% or Rm < 400 N/mm ²
Non-alloy
04, 94 Steel with C content from 0.12 to 0.25% or Rm=400 to 500 N/mm ²
quality steels
05, 95 Steel with C content from 0.25 to 0.55% or Rm = 500 to 700 N/mm ²
06, 96 Steel with C content ≥ 0.55% or Rm ≥ 700 N/mm²
07, 97 Steel with higher P or S content
10 Steel with special physical properties
11 Structural, engineering, container steel with C content < 0.5%
Non-alloy
12 Engineering steel with C content ≥ 0.5%
High-grade steels
13 Structural, engineering, container steel with special requirements
15 – 18 Container steel
08, 98 Steel with special physical properties alloyed
09, 99 Steel for various applications quality steels
20 – 28 Tool steel
32, 33 High speed steel
35 Roller bearing steel
36 Steel with special magnetic properties
37 Steel with special magnetic properties; alloyed with Co alloyed
38 Steel with special physical properties high-grade steels
39 Steel with special physical properties; alloyed with Ni
85 Nitriding steel
87 – 89 Structural, engineering, container steel; high-strength and suitable for welding
50 – 84 Structural, engineering, container steel
40 Corrosion-resistant steel with < 2.5% Ni
41 Corrosion-resistant steel with < 2.5% Ni; with Mo
43 Corrosion-resistant steel with ≥ 2.5% Ni
44 Corrosion-resistant steel with ≥ 2.5% Ni; with Mo
Stainless
45 Corrosion-resistant steel with special additions
steels
46 Chemically resistant and highly heat-resistant Ni alloys
47 Heat-resistant steels
48 Heat-resistant steels with ≥ 2.5% Ni
49 Highly heat-resistant material
In Figure 27 and Figure 28 two typical examples of the designation of steels according to the material
number system are given. It is clear that the use of material numbers is particularly suitable for the sys-
tematisation of steels. Also the use of the material numbers in daily practice appears advantageous, if
very long material abbreviations (e.g. X2CrNiMnMoNbN25-18-5-4) can be replaced with shorter se-
quences of numbers (1.4565).

welding
SFI / IWE 2.04
1.0117
1 . 01 17
Steel group number 01 Sequence number 17
Material main group 1
Point  non-alloy structural steels specified for S235J2 to
Steel
with Rm < 500 N/mm² EN 10 025-2
Figure 27: Systematics of the material number for steel is 1.0116
1.4571
1 . 45 71
Steel group number 45 Sequence number 71
Material main group 1
Steel
Point  corrosion-resistant steels specified for X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2
with special additions acc. to EN 10 088-1
Figure 28: Systematics of the material number for steel is 1.4571
6 The group classification of steels for welding
As seen in Section 5, the system for classifying steels is regulated uniformly throughout Europe. A fur-
ther classification is therefore unnecessary. Nonetheless, steels for welding are classified into other
groups (CEN ISO/TR 15 608). The classification is completely different to the steel classification accord-
ing to the European system (Table 10) and frequently poses problems in practice, since numerous mate-
rials cannot be assigned to these ISO groups. The reason for this is that the groups were originally de-
veloped for pressure vessel steels (cf. Chapter 2.12). Nonetheless, the DIN technical report CEN
ISO/TR 15 608 must be observed in welding practice. Table 11 contains an overview of the most im-
portant “material groups” defined in this technical regulation and the related material types.
Table 11: Overview of the material groups acc. to CEN ISO/TR 15 608 (selection)
Material group Sub-group(s) Type of material Chapter
Structural steels
1 1.1 to 1.4 2.09, 2.10
Non-alloy, weatherproof, fine-grain (N)
Structural steels
2 2.1 and 2.2 2.10
Fine grain (M)
Structural steels
3 3.1 to 3.3 2.10
Fine grain (Q)
Pressure vessel steels – alloyed
4 4.1 and 4.2 2.12
with low vanadium content
5 5.1 to 5.4 2.12
without vanadium
6 6.1 to 6.4 2.12
with high vanadium alloy content
Stainless steels
7 7.1 to 7.3 2.15
ferritic, martensitic, precipitation hardened
Austenitic steels
8 8.1 to 8.3 2.15 (2.16)
e.g. stainless steel, partly wear-resistant
Low-temperature resistant pressure vessel
9 9.1 to 9.3 2.13
steels nickel-alloyed
Stainless steels
10 10.1 and 10.2 2.15
austenitic-ferritic (duplex)

welding
SFI / IWE 2.04
7 Test questions
(1) What percentage of carbon can steel contain as a maximum?
 Steel cannot dissolve carbon.

 Steel can dissolve carbon to an unlimited extent.
 Steel can contain maximum 3.24% carbon.
(2) Which main processes for metallisation of iron ores do you know?
 Converter process.
 Direct reduction process.
 Blast-furnace process.
 Open-hearth process.
 Smelting reduction process.
(3) What do you understand by the term “MÖLLER”?
 A mixture of coke and lime.

 A mixture of lime and soda.
 A mixture of iron ore and additives.
 A mixture of oxidic and hydroxidic iron ores.
 Finely ground and agglomerated iron ore.
(4) What happens to pig iron during refining?
 It is converted to steel.
 It is transformed into sponge iron.
 Carbon and other elements with an affinity for oxygen are burned.
 Only the carbon is oxidised out of the pig iron.
 It remains molten even at temperatures lower than in the blast furnace.
(5) With the LD process what pig iron can be converted to steel?
 P-poor and P-rich.

 P-rich.
 P-poor.
 Grey pig iron.
 White pig iron.

welding
SFI / IWE 2.04
(6) How can you recognise the state SPECIAL KILLED?
 By the absence of P (< 0.002%) in the steel analysis.

 By the presence of Si ( 0.20%) and Al ( 0.020%) in the steel analysis.
 By the absence of Al (< 0.002%) in the steel analysis.
 By the surface structure of the continuously cast slab.
 By the marking FF.
(7) Into what grades are steels classified?
 Non-alloy steels, low-alloy steels, high-alloy steels.

 Structural steels, tool steels, stainless steels.
 Base steels, quality steels, high-grade steels.
 Normalised steels, tempered steels, hardened steels.
 Non-alloy steels, stainless steels, other alloy steels.
(8) Stainless steels are?
 High-grade steels.
 High-alloy steels.
 An independent grade of steels.
 A main quality class of steels.
 Non-alloy steels.
(9) The steel P355GH is?
 A non-alloy structural steel.

 A non-alloy steel.
 A non-alloy pressure vessel steel.
 A non-alloy pressure vessel steel with a minimum yield point of 355 MPa.
 An alloy pressure vessel steel.
(10) The steel 10CrMo9-10 contains on average?
 Approx. 10% carbon.

 Approx. 0.1% carbon.
 Approx. 2.25% chromium and 1.0% molybdenum.
(11) The steel X6CrNiMo17-12-2 contains on average?
 Approx. 6% carbon.
 Approx. 0.06% carbon.
 Approx. 4.25% chromium, 3.0% nickel and 0.2% molybdenum.
 Approx. 17% chromium, 12% nickel and 2% molybdenum.
 Approx. 1.7% chromium, 1.2% nickel and 0.5% molybdenum.

welding
SFI / IWE 2.04
8 Bibliography
Stahlinstitut, VDEH:
Stahlfibel. [Steel bible]
Düsseldorf: Verlag Stahleisen GmbH, 2007
Boese, U.:
Das Verhalten der Stähle beim Schweißen, Teil I: Grundlagen. [The Behaviour of Steels during Welding,
Part I: Principles].
Fachbuchreihe Schweißtechnik Band 44/I [Series of reference books on welding technology Volume
44/I]
Düsseldorf: DVS Verlag GmbH, 1995
Schuster, J.:
Schweißen von Eisen-, Stahl- und Nickelwerkstoffen. [Welding of iron, steel and nickel materials.]
Fachbuchreihe Schweißtechnik, Band 130 [Series of reference books on welding technology, Volume
130]
Düsseldorf: DVS Media GmbH, 2009
DIN EN 10 020:
Definition and classification of grades of steel. Issue 07-2000
DIN EN 10 025-2:
Hot rolled products of structural steels - Part 2: Technical delivery conditions for non-alloy structural
steels. Issue 04-2005
DIN EN 10 027-1:
Designation systems for steels - Steel names. Issue 10-2005
DIN EN 10 027-2:
Designation systems for steels - Numerical system. Issue 09-1992
CEN ISO/TR 15 608:

Welding - Guidelines for a metallic materials grouping system. Issue 01-2006
Note: The information contained in this document is to be treated as such and does not replace any
technical regulations and specifications. The most recent editions apply in each case.

welding
Behaviour of structural steels SFI / IWE 2.05
in fusion welding Page 1
Chapter 2.05: Behaviour of structural steels in fusion welding
Contents
1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 2
2 Heat input during fusion welding ........................................................................................ 3
2.1 Heat input and efficiency of heat input ................................................................................................. 3
2.2 Thermal field ............................................................................................................................................. 5
2.3 Heat flow ................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.4 Equations of heat transfer ...................................................................................................................... 6
2.5 Thermal cycle during fusion welding ..................................................................................................... 9
2.5.1 Special features compared to conventional heat treatments ............................................... 9
2.5.2 Cooling rate and cooling time.................................................................................................. 10
3 Structure of a fusion welded joint ..................................................................................... 13
3.1 Filler metal ─ arc ─ weld pool interface .............................................................................................. 13
3.2 Thermal cycle and structure of a welded joint ................................................................................... 15
3.3 Weld metal .............................................................................................................................................. 16
3.3.1 Solidification of the weld pool .................................................................................................. 16
3.3.2 Weld pool and weld pool shape .............................................................................................. 18
3.3.3 Alloying of weld metal............................................................................................................... 19
3.3.4 Weld metal microstructure ....................................................................................................... 20
3.4 Heat-affected zone ................................................................................................................................ 21
3.4.1 Structure of the heat-affected zone ........................................................................................ 21
3.4.2 Properties of the heat-affected zone ...................................................................................... 22
4 Properties of welded joints ................................................................................................ 22
4.1 Hardening during welding ..................................................................................................................... 22
4.2 Single and multi-pass welding ............................................................................................................. 24
4.2.1 Weld metal ................................................................................................................................. 24
4.2.2 Heat-affected zone ................................................................................................................... 26
4.3 Shape of weld and properties .............................................................................................................. 27
5 Weldability........................................................................................................................... 28
5.1 What is weldability? ............................................................................................................................... 28
5.2 Suitability for welding............................................................................................................................. 28
5.3 Possibility ................................................................................................................................................ 29
5.4 Weld reliability ........................................................................................................................................ 29
6 Question .............................................................................................................................. 30
7 Bibliography........................................................................................................................ 32
Materials and their behaviour when

welding
1 Introduction
The characteristics of a welded joint are shaped significantly by the thermal effects on its weld faces and
the crystallisation of weld metal. In this context, the technical term fusion welding is understood to
mean the simultaneous execution of the partial processes, remelting of filler metal into weld metal, de-
positing of the base metal, mixing of base metal and weld metal, bonding of weld metal and base metal
and the associated complex heat treatments, in a very short space of time. This leads:
– to the metallurgical and chemical influencing of the weld metal droplet, preferably in the arc but
also in the laser or electron beam, as well as the weld nugget with resistance welding
(e.g. alloy burn-off/pick-up, hydrogen absorption),
– to physical changes in the state of the weld metal (molten-solid) and the fusion zone
(solid-molten-solid),
– to the most varied microstructure transformations as well as precipitations in the weld metal as
well as in the fusion and heat-affected zone of the base metal (low/high cooling speed.)
The basic structure of the fusion-welded joints with their characteristic areas:  - Weld metal
(single/multi-layer),  - Fusion zone (joint plane between weld metal and base metal) and  Heat-affected
zone (base metal area next to the weld metal, changed by the welding heat), is shown in (schematic) and
Figure 2 (real).
1
1
2
3 3
Figure 1: Schematic basic structure of a welded joint (left: butt weld; right: fillet weld)
Figure 2: Macrosections of single-run welded joints (left: butt weld; right: fillet weld)

welding
2 Heat input during fusion welding

2.1 Heat input and efficiency of heat input
Heat can be input in technical systems in three generally different ways, which mainly depend on the
aggregate state of the material. These are:
– Heat transfer,
– Convection and
– Heat radiation.
In welded joints, most of the heat is transferred by heat transfer. The mechanism of heat transport dur-
ing heat transfer is based on direct energy transmission between the oscillating molecules of a body
through contact (momentum exchange).
In the still molten weld metal, on the other hand, thermal energy is largely transported through convec-
tion, i.e. by macroscopic particle movements, whereby the intensity of the heat transport is determined
by the kind of the flow in the weld pool.
During heat radiation, the transfer of thermal energy occurs in the form of electromagnetic waves, which
do not require a carrier medium in the space. The greater the surface temperature of the radiator is, in
this case the still hot welded joint, the more the radiation increases. The emission maximum moves to
shorter wavelengths.
(a) (b)
 15 %  15 %  24 %
 15 %
100 % 100 %
55 % 52 %  24 %
 45 %
 10 %  8%  44 %
Figure 3: Heat balances of arc welding with covered stick electrodes (a) and submerged arc welding (b)

welding
Figure 3 shows systematically the heat balances of arc welding with covered stick electrodes (a) and
submerged arc welding (b). The numbers correspond as follows:  - Melting of the core wire,  - Melt-
ing of the covering or the welding flux,  - Radiation losses,  - Heat dissipation in the base metal and
 - Melting of the base metal.
It is plain to see that the submerged arc welding is distinguished by its significantly better heat balance. 44%
of the energy input is used here to fuse the base metal, while that figure is only 10% for the manual arc weld-
ing. Consequently, the submerged arc welding utilises the energy input better than manual arc welding.
The heat balance of modern beam welding processes is shown in Figure 4. It is noteworthy that when
welding with the CO2 laser, only 3% of the energy input is available to fuse the base metal ( in Figure
4c); the remaining 97%, on the other hand, is lost to a varying degree or is required to operate periph-
erals or an auxiliary power unit ( to  in Figure 4c). For comparison, 65% is available for electron beam
welding ( in Figure 4d).
The energy losses listed in Figure 4c during CO2 laser beam welding are determined by the roots pumps
and small power units (), the cooling unit (), the peripherals (), the HF tubes (), the laser process
() and through radiation ().
In electron beam welding (Figure 4d), on the other hand, part of the connected load goes to the pump
stand (), the vacuum pumps (), the cooling unit (), the controller (), the high-voltage generation
() and to the beam source and guidance (). Other energy losses () are put at 5%.
Therefore electron beam welding is to be classed as much more economic in terms of its heat balance
than welding with the CO2 laser.
Connected load 100% Connected load 100%
equipment 20%
Additional equipment 70% Beam 80%
 3%
Additional
(c) (d)
Laser beam 30%
 30 %
 12 %
 2%
 35 %  2%
 4%
 7%
 16 % 7%
8%
 5%
Beam power output  65 %
1 % Beam power output

3%
Figure 4: Heat balances of laser beam welding (c) and electron beam welding (d), according BIAS and pro-beam

welding
2.2 Thermal field
The temperature and its development in the workpiece is by far the most important process parameter in
fusion welding and has consequences for all the important quality properties of the welded joint (Figure 5).
Consequently, the attempts to describe and calculate welding processes are also initially preoccupied with
the possibilities of determining the resultant heat fields. The first analytic solutions of the underlying physi-
cal equations came from the 1940s and 1950s and were the work of ROSENTHAL and RYKALIN. Here,
the movement of concentrated spot-shaped or linear heat sources in infinitely expanding geometric bodies
(rods, plates or half bodies) was used essentially as the model.
Dimensions and energy input: Figure 5 shows schematically the underlying corre-
Depositing filler metal lations between the most important parameters in
Welding Power Supply the welding process. Via the melting wire and the
arc, energy is introduced to the weld area. The wire
Energy dimension impacts primarily on the shape of the
weld, whereby it also causes retroactive effects via
the geometric conditions on the heat flow and thus
Thermal field / temperature gradient on the temperature field. The energy supplied leads
to the formation of a quasi-stable temperature field
Mass
-T(x,y,z,t
with the torch as reference point. Each individual
point experiences a specific temperature history.
Depending on this temperature history, a new mi-
Microstructure Stress
crostructure is formed, which primarily depends on
the peak temperature, the dwell time in the aus-
tenitic range and the cooling rate. Via tempera-
ture-specific material characteristic values, such as
strength and elongation as well as thermal expan-
Mechanical Seam sion, stresses are created in the workpiece, which
properties: geometrie: results either in an independent plastic deformation
Hardness Shrinkage
Strength Distortion of the workpiece, distortion, and/or for clamped
Elongation Weld forms workpieces residual stresses.
Ductility and Penetration
others and others
Figure 5: Relationships between the process

parameters when welding according to MEHMERT
The solution proposals put forward by RYKALIN form the basis for the most important approaches cur-
rently used for calculating heat fields in fusion welded joints (cf. Section 2.4) and more importantly, the
associated parameters, for example, cooling times t8/5 (cf. Section 2.5.2), which for their part determine
the properties for the heat-affected zone (cf. Section 3.4.2).
2.3 Heat flow
The heat Q (quantitative: heat quantity) is not a state variable but rather a type of energy, which is trans-
ported within a thermodynamic system or beyond its limits. Thus heat is a thermodynamic process pa-
rameter. It differs from the process parameter work (energy) in that it involves a subordinated (thermal)
energy.

welding

In this context, the heat flow or heat flux Q is a physical variable for the quantitative description of heat
transfer processes. It is defined as the amount of heat Q in Joule that is transferred in time t.
Thermodynamically, heat flow is a heat output and is therefore given in watts.
 Q λA T
Q 
t s
In the above equation A is the surface area, s is the thickness of the object in which the heat flow occurs
(e.g. the thickness of the sheet to be joined), T is the temperature and λ gives the thermal conductivity of
the material in watts (per metre Kelvin).
In a first approximation, the heat flow can be considered as proportional to the temperature difference ΔT
prevailing at two points.
In accordance with the second law of thermodynamics, an automatic heat flow can only occur from a
region of high temperature to a region of low temperature.
In welded joints, the heat flows from hot, molten weld metal into the (still) cold base metal and thus ef-
fects the generation of heat fields (cf. Sections 2.2 and 2.4) and therefore the heat-affected zone (HAZ)
with all its specific microstructural changes (cf. 3.4).
2.4 Equations of heat transfer
FOURIER's law of heat conduction, which states that the heat flow density in a direction in space is
proportional to the thermal conductivity of the material and the temperature gradient in this direction,
served as the basis for the development of the modern equations of heat conduction.
Mathematically, the propagation of the heat in a homogenous medium, i.e. the heat conduction can be
described using the following linear, parabolic partial differential equation of the second order:
 T 
   a ΔT  Q( x, t)
2

 t
In this equation,  stands for the LAPLACE operator (differential operator within the multidimensional
analysis limited to max. three directions of propagation x1, x2 and x3). If the heat flow has neither sources
nor sinks, the right side of the above equation disappears, as the following applies:
Q(x, t)  0 .
This produces the fundamental differential equations of stationary heat transfer listed in Table 1. It is
problematic that in many cases these can no longer be solved analytically. With stationary heat transfer,
the assumption is made that the thermodynamic system is in a state of stability and that at any fixed
point in the system, the temperature will no longer change over the time.

welding
Table 1: Differential equations of stationary heat transfer

Stationary one-dimensional heat transfer
 2T  q λ
a 2   i  0 with a 
 x  c  ρ ρc
Stationary two-dimensional heat transfer
 2T 2T  q λ
a 2  2   i  0 with a 
 x y  c  ρ ρc
Stationary three-dimensional heat transfer
 2T 2T 2T  q λ

a 2  2  2   i  0 with a 
 x y z  c  ρ ρc
The symbols in Table 1 have the following meanings:
a Coefficient of thermal conductivity (m²/s)  Mass density (kg/m³)

 Heat transfer coefficient ((W/(m K) qi Heat source (W/m³)
c Thermal capacity (J/(kg  K)) c ρ Heat retention capacity
Currently two approaches are taken to solve these equations. On the one hand, there are processes
which replace the differential equations with difference equations, while on the other the finite element
method is used for technically relevant heat transfer tasks. The result of both is that they allow the tem-
perature distribution to be represented both in time and space. It is therefore possible to calculate the
heat field around a welding power source (e.g. arc, laser beam) numerically and to represent it graph-
ically (Figure 6, Figure 7). For simplicity's sake, these illustrations assume a GAUSSIAN normal distribu-
tion of the heat flow density and it is further assumed that the thermal properties of the material are inde-
pendent of temperature and that the heat given off by the sheet into its surroundings is negligibly low.
The reaction heat of phase transformations is not taken into account either.
af qvol
ar y b
x
Figure 6: Normally distributed double elliptical heat source Figure 7: FEM model of a heat field in
(acc. to RADAJ, taking the RYKALIN model into consideration) comparison to the micrograph (laser)

welding
Building on this, Figure 8 shows the temperature distribution across the welded joint for gas (a) and arc
welding (b). As you can see, the heat-affected zone has a much larger propagation with gas welding due
to the significantly broader heat field, than is the case with arc welding.
Figure 8: Temperature distribution across the welded joint with gas (a) and arc (b) welding
Figure 9 contains an example of a heat field that was calculated using FEM modelling. The different col-
ours correspond to different temperatures (pink: 1,500 °C, deep blue: 20 °C).
Figure 9: Heat field of MAG welding calculated using FEM modelling (left: view from above for a moving heat
source; right: view across the cross-section in the area of the heat source

welding
2.5 Thermal cycle during fusion welding

2.5.1 Special features compared to conventional heat treatments
The timetemperature cycles (thermal cycles) occurring during fusion welding differ fundamentally from
the conventional heat-treatment processes for base metals (Figure 10 and Figure 11). A very fast heat-
ing-up time (few seconds) to the peak temperature TP, a significantly higher peak temperature
TP (> 1,100 °C), almost no hold time at this and a significantly faster cooling of the weld metal and the
heat-affected zone (~ 1/100 of the cooling time when normalising, cf. Chapter 2.08) is characteristic.
Figure 10: Thermal cycle during fusion welding Figure 11: Thermal cycle during classic heat
(schematic) with t8/5 time specification treatments (schematic)
The consequences of the thermal cycle during fusion welding are therefore:
– a large temperature gradient between weld pool and solidified weld metal as well as between weld
metal and base metal
– a short time for the physical and chemical processes in the weld metal drop and the weld pool to run
– a relatively small weld pool and therefore the short time for its existence
– the different microstructure formation in the weld metal and in the heat flow zone during single
and multiple layer welding
– the reduction of weld pool volume (shrinkage) as a consequence of weld metal cooling (transfor-
mation from molten to solid)
Due to the very high peak temperatures in the immediate vicinity of the welding energy source, precipita-
tions present in the base metal (e.g. AlN, Nb(C, N), Ti(N)) can, depending on the dwell time at this tem-
perature, dissolve well to varying degrees, so that these no longer promote nucleation and/or work to
inhibit grain nucleus growth. The result is a strong austenite grain growth and the development of the
characteristic coarse grain zone in the HAZ in the direct transition to the weld metal (comparable with a
coarse grain annealing with an insufficient dwell time at peak temperature Figure 12, left).
With increasing distance from the fusion line, further heat treatments run in the heat affected zone of the
base metal, comparable with normal and soft annealing, which distinguish themselves however from
the corresponding conventional heat-treatment processes in principle by their overly short dwell times
at the relevant heat-treatment temperature (Figure 12).

welding
Fusion welding thus (always) effects an “incorrect” heat treatment of the base metal.
Figure 12: Comparison of temperature-time curves during welding and conventional heat treating
2.5.2 Cooling rate and cooling time
In welding temperature cycles, particular importance is assigned to the cooling rate in the temperature
range between 800 and 500 °C (Figure 10), because this directly impacts the risk of inadmissible hard-
ening of the HAZ. For the direct determination of the permissible cooling rate, therefore, welding TTT
diagrams (cf. Chapter 2.03) are required, from which the hardness values to be expected can be read
directly (Figure 13).
Since these are not available however for the majority of welding tasks, a concept was developed in the
1970s by UWER and DEGENKOLBE, which makes it possible to calculate, on the basis of the RYKALIN
approaches to the analytic solution of the heat transfer equation (cf. Section 2.4), the cooling times for
the temperature range between 800 and 500 °C, which are reciprocal to the cooling rate (t8/5 times).
With this, the base metal manufacturer can give recommendations with respect to these t8/5 times, which
if complied with through a suitable heat guidance during welding would mean that the relevant steel
would only cool so quickly that no untenable hardening would occur in the heat-affected zone.
As can be seen from Figure 13, the specific t8/5 times for a steel are always in direct correlation with the
valid welding TTT diagram for this material (even if this is not available). Compliance with the specified t8/5
time therefore prevents the formation of excessively high martensite content in the HAZ and ensures that
the practically achievable cooling rate is always less than the material-specific upper critical cooling rate.

welding
Chemische
ChemicalZusammensetzung
Composition
%C %Si %Mn %S %P %Cr %Cu %Al %Ni %V
0,12 0,35 1,58 0,010 0,022 0,15 0,17 0,018 0,62 0,13
900
austenitisiert: 1350
Austenitised: 1350°C°C
Schweißwärmezyklus
Welding heat cycle
800
A
A1 = 703 °C
700
F 30 P
18 25 3
13
5
2 Zw
Temperatur
Temperature
500 75 67
80
inin°C°C
15 30 41 64
218
300
Härte HV30
Hardness HV30 355 304 269 263 229 219
265
M
100
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500
Time
Zeit inin
s s Zw=bainite
t8/5-Zeit
t8/5 time
Figure 13: Example of a welding TTT diagram for the steel S460N according to SEYFFARTH and others.
With representation for determining the t8/5 time
Based on the general differential equation of heat transfer in solid bodies for moving, point-shaped heat
sources (cf. 2.4), the characteristic cooling time t8/5 can, following corresponding transformation,
be calculated from the welding conditions during surface welding according to ROSENTHAL and RYKA-
LIN, as was proposed by UWER and DEGENKOLBE.
Generally, a differentiation is made here between three and two-dimensional heat dissipation. When
welding thick sheets, heat dissipation occurs in three dimensions. The heat introduced via the arc can
flow off in the sheet plane and additionally in the direction of the plate thickness. The plate thickness
does not influence the cooling time in this case. With two-dimensional heat dissipation, however, the
heat flow occurs only in the sheet plane. In this case, the plate thickness is critical for the cross-section
area available for heat dissipation and has a very distinct influence on the cooling time t8/5.
As the original equations for heat dissipation were only prepared for surface welding with the sub-
merged arc welding (SAW) process, the introduction of additional factors proved to be usefull. These
include the weld factors F3 and F2 (Table 2) and the relative (i.e. with respect to the SAW process eval-
uated at 1.0) thermal efficiency k of other welding processes (Table 3). If, furthermore, the energy per
unit length E is extended by the factor k for the relative thermal efficiency, the following dependency re-
sults for the heat input Q:
 UI
Q Ek k  
 v 
With that, the equations for the cooling time t8/5 (as reciprocal measure for the speed of heat dissipation in the
HAZ) can be represented for welded joints made from (high-strength) fine-grain structural steels as follows.

welding
Two-dimensional heat dissipation (simplified)
Q2   
2 2
1   1
t 8/5  (4300  4.3  T0 )  10  2  
5
     F2
d  500  T0   800  T0  
 
Three-dimensional heat dissipation (simplified)
 1 1 
t 8/5  (6700  5  T0 )  Q      F3
 500  T0 800  T0 
The type of heat dissipation is determined by equating the above equations and solving the system of
equations for the plate thickness d. If the thickness of one of the sheets to be welded is larger than the
transition plate thickness dü determined in this way, the heat dissipation occurs in three dimensions.
If the opposite is the case, two-dimensional heat dissipation occurs.
From the conditions for calculating the cooling time t8/5, the following important statements can be de-
rived, in summary:
For three-dimensional heat dissipation the cooling time is proportional to the energy per unit
length and increases with the working temperature.
For two-dimensional heat dissipation the cooling time increases with the square of the energy
per unit length and the working temperature and is inversely proportional to the square of the
plate thickness.
Table 2: Influence of the weld type on the cooling time t8/5 (acc. to SEW 088 Supplement 2)
Seam factor Seam factor
Weld type
F2 F3
Weld bead on sheet 1.0 1.0
Filler pass of a butt joint 0.9 0.9
Single layer fillet weld at the corner

0.9 to 0.67* 0.67
joint
Single layer fillet weld at the T-joint 0.45 to 0.67* 0.67
* The seam factor F2 is dependent on the ratio of the heat input to the component thickness. With increasing proximity to the
transition plate thickness dü, F2 decreases for a single-layer fillet weld at the corner joint, and increases for a single-layer fillet
weld at the T-joint.

welding
Table 3: Reference values for the relative thermal efficiency to SEW 088 Supplement sheet 2 and EN 1011-2
Welding process Relative thermal efficiency k
Submerged arc welding 1.00
Manual arc welding with rutile coated stick electrode 0.90
Manual arc welding with basic coated stick electrode 0.85
Metal active gas welding with carbon dioxide 0.85
Metal-arc inert gas welding with argon or helium 0.75
TIG welding with argon or helium 0.65
It often proves to be disadvantageous that it is not possible with a known t 8/5 time to determine explicitly
the preheating temperature T0 from the equations for the two and three-dimensional heat dissipation.
With the aid of adjustment functions, FRANK developed an algorithm, which enables this directly.

 198,6  t 8/5  v s 
T03  113,64  ln  5,3126
 F3  U  I  k 
 187,1 t 8/5  d2  v 2s 
T02  81,3  ln  6,8943
 F2  U  I  k
2 2 2

Numerous computer programs (some of which are free) are available in the economy to calculate the
t8/5 times and the preheating temperatures.
3 Structure of a fusion welded joint

3.1 Filler metal ─ arc ─ weld pool interface
The conditions at the filler metal-arc-weld pool interface are shown schematically in Figure 14.
The material transfer of the melting droplet is promoted, depending on the position, by gravity,
the electromagnetically induced constriction (pinch effect), the plasma flow and possible expanding
gases in the droplet.
Weakening parameters include the surface tension and the viscosity of the liquid drop as well as the arc
and metal vapour pressure. The weld pool on its turn is influenced by the frequency and size of the
falling droplet, the arc pressure and the internal flow processes. The latter comprises the droplet effect,
the thermally induced convection, the electromagnetically driven convection and the MARANGONI
effect. This is caused by the temperature dependency on the surface tension and leads to flows from
lower to higher surface tension.
Since the surface tension can both increase and decrease with rising temperature, depending
on the chemical composition, the MARANGONI effect leads either to broader or to deeper weld pools.

welding
Arc-bow and metal

vapour pressure
Figure 14: Conditions at the wire-arc-weld pool interface (acc. to RADAJ)
The described relationships lead to the fact that beside the other process parameters, like welding effi-
ciency, welding speed and materials used, the applied shielding gas is attributed special importance.
Its chemical composition impacts the surface tension and viscosity of the melting droplet,
the composition of the arc plasma and the surface tension of the weld pool, whereby numerous interac-
tions are in turn indirectly influenced. Thus the seam formation and the properties of the welded joint also
depend heavily on the shielding gas used (Figure 15).
Figure 15: Influence of the shielding gas composition on the penetration profile for surface welding
(left: 100% CO2 (224 A, 29.7 V), right: 92% Ar, 8% CO 2 (228 A, 28 V))

welding
3.2 Thermal cycle and structure of a welded joint
Fusion welding leads in principle, independently of the energy source that was used, to very high tem-
peratures in the welded joint. As can be seen from Figure 16, the temperatures in the arc are, for exam-
ple, approx. 5,600 °C () for manual arc welding with covered stick electrode. Here, the electrode heats
up to 1,600 ºC (). The weld metal droplet melting in the arc () displays temperatures of up to
2,200 °C. In the weld pool () temperatures of up to approx. 1,700 °C can be found, whereby the solidi-
fied weld metal () displays temperatures from room or preheating temperature to maximum 1,536°C.
The liquid slag covering the weld pool has temperatures between 1,200 and 1,600 °C ().
The unaffected parent metal () on the other hand assumes the temperature of its surroundings.
6 5
3 7
Figure 16: Temperatures during arc welding with Figure 17: Heat field and temper-
coated stick electrodes atures with laser beam welding
With FEM modelling of heat fields (cf. Section 2), therefore, point-type heat sources are often assumed
so that the temperature curves in the HAZ can be simulated (more) realistically (Figure 17).
The thermal cycle during fusion welding (cf. Section 2.5) impacts significantly on the microstructure and
the properties of the welded joint due to the obligatorily associated heat treatments of weld metal and
base metal (cf. Section 4).
In Figure 18 the temperatures occurring during fusion welding in the various areas of a welded joint are
transferred into a schematic binary system Fe-Fe3C and compared to characteristic microstructure
graphs from the various areas of the base metal, heat-affected zone and weld metal of a welded joint of
an unalloyed structural steel. Explanation of equivalents:
– A: Tempering zone
– B: Zone of the pearlite decomposition
– C: Normalisation zone (fine grain zone)
– D: Overheating and coarse grain zone
– E: Weld metal

welding
Figure 18: Thermal cycle during fusion welding and structure of a welded joint
3.3 Weld metal

3.3.1 Solidification of the weld pool
At high temperatures the weld pool, comprising the base and filler metal, cools down predominantly
through heat transfer (cf. Section 2.4) at very high cooling rates (some 100 K/s). The solidification se-
quence then unfolds in a thermodynamically controlled manner through the sub-processes nucleation
and grain growth, as described in more detail in Chapter 2.02. Here the following listed features apply:
– very high temperature gradient between the weld pool and base metal,
– high overheating in the weld pool centre, in the immediate effective range of the energy source,
– migration of the crystallisation front with the energy source,
– small weld pool volume,
– relatively high growth rate of crystals,
– a large number of crystallisation nuclei at the fusion line to the base metal and
– inhomogeneities in the alloy composition in the different areas of the weld metal.
In particular, nuclei capable of growth are formed heterogeneously starting from the uneven weld flank.
The deposited grains of the phase boundary liquid-solid (fusion zone) represent highly effective hetero-
geneous grains in this process. This leads to what is known as epitactic crystallisation (from the Greek
meaning “to grow on top”, Figure 19). A homogeneous nucleation can, on the other hand, be almost en-
tirely excluded in technical weld pools.

welding
The smaller image on the left in Figure 19 shows how in alloys, that cannot be transformed (e.g. nickel,
copper and aluminium), the grain or dendrite variables of the weld metal are determined by the grain size
of the heat-affected zone (epitaxy). On the other hand, with polymorphous alloys, which also include,
inter alia, the non-alloy structural steels, the grain size in the microstructure of the HAZ changes due to
microstructure transformations (e.g. the - transformation) and/or recrystallisation. The primary epitaxial
crystallisation structure of the molten metal is no longer identifiable therefore.
The solidification processes in the molten weld pool, the type of primary structure created, i.e. whether it
is equiaxial, dendritic, cellular, columnar or flat, are dependent on the level of the “constitutional”
(and also thermal) supercooling of the molten metal (Figure 20).
Starting at the fusion line, the temperature falls most quickly towards the maximum temperature gradient.
In the direction of the maximum heat dissipation therefore the crystallites grow in the form of distinctive
stem crystals (dendrites).
The speed of crystallisation is thereby significantly determined by the travel speed of the heat source
(welding speed). This also significantly influences the weld pool shape (cf. Section 3.3.2).
Figure 19: Epitactic crystal growth in the area of the fusion line according to SCHULZE
(left: conversion-free alloys; right: polymorphous alloys)
As steels are substance systems with at least two components (substance “A” and substance “B”), phe-
nomena occur at the phase boundary between the molten metal and the solid crystal, which additionally
influence the process of solidification.
Depending on the solubility of an alloy metal in one of the two phases (molten metal or crystal) the liqui-
dus temperature (Tl) is increased or reduced.
As evident from Figure 20 (bottom right), the solid solution separated first from the molten metal
is poorer in the respective alloying metal than it would be the case in the nominal composition.
As a consequence, the alloying elements and impurities, due to the separation in the molten metal, ac-
cumulate directly in front of the solidification front (Figure 20, top). As the concentration of these ele-
ments increases in the molten metal, the latter's liquidus temperature reduces, as can be seen from Fig-
ure 20 (bottom left). The current (true) temperature curve (TW) before the solidification front in the liquid
phase can be characterised approximately by a straight line (red), the rise of which describes the tem-
perature gradients  caused by the heat transfer.

welding
It can be taken from the smaller image

(bottom left) of Figure 20 that a specific
volume (within the points 0 - x) of the
molten metal assumes a lower (actual)
temperature (TW), than the theoretical
liquidus temperature (TL) would indicate.
In contrast to thermal supercooling, this
state in the affected part of the liquid
phase is designated “constitutional”
supercooling (from the English constitu-
tion diagram – phase diagram).
Theoretical Liquidus temperature TL
Its main characteristic is that it increas-

es initially with increasing distance from
Actual temperature TW
the interface and then returns to zero

after passing through a maximum val-
ue. This also explains the ability of
dendrites to grow in the direction of
rising temperature in the liquid. The
amount of molten metal involved is
greater the further removed the inter-
Interface distance liquid - solid
section between TW and TL (x) is from
the phase boundary solid-liquid, or in
other words, the lower the temperature
gradient  is.
Figure 20: Schematic illustration of constitutional super-

cooling
As the rate of crystallisation increases, this intersection (x) moves closer to the interface, thus also re-
ducing the area of constitutional supercooling. The reason for this lies in the shorter period of time for
diffusion and the resultant steeper concentration gradients in the molten metal.
3.3.2 Weld pool and weld pool shape
In addition to the influence of the welding speed on the solidification microstructure, Figure 21 also shows
its effect on the shape of the weld cross-section. At relatively low welding speeds and low heat input, the
weld pool crystallises in a broad and flat weld bead. This generates the “normal” elliptical weld pool shape
(Figure 21, sub-image a). If, on the other hand, high welding speeds are used with high heat input
(e.g. in the case of laser beam welding), a deep, but yet narrow bead results (Figure 21, sub-image b).
Here, the last of the liquid metal solidifies at the weld centre, where hot cracks can also be initiated.
Figure 21: Influence of welding speed on the solidification microstructure and weld shape

welding
In addition to the welding speed, other parameters also influence, to a lesser or greater degree, the geo-
metric shape of the weld pool (cf. 3.1). Particular importance is attached here to the flow conditions.
The flow in the molten weld pool is impacted by different forces. Their efficacy is strongly dependent on
the type of welding process. Such forces can be:
– Convection flow, which is controlled by forces created by the surface tension and temperature gradi-
ents in the welding surface (MARANGONI effect).
– Electromagnetic forces (LORENTZ forces), which are quadratically dependent on the welding cur-
rent.
– Aerodynamic forces, which occur during the movement of the arc’s plasma jet over the weld pool
surface.
– Buoyancy forces, which are initiated by the differences in temperature ( density variations) be-
tween the weld pool edge and the weld pool centre. Their effect on pool movement is however rela-
tively small.
3.3.3 Alloying of weld metal
In the creation of alloyed weld metals for joint welding and surface welding, covered stick electrode welding
(with alloyed core stick or alloying elements in the form of oxides or ferro alloys in the coating), submerged
arc welding and electroslag welding, welding with fluxcored wire and strip electrodes, the use of welding
pastes, e.g. with the TIG arc, or the processing of higher-alloyed wire electrodes in gas-shielded metal arc
welding (especially MIG and MAG processes) has proven to be efficient and cost-effective.
In order to produce a weld metal with certain mechanical and chemical properties, most of the tech-
niques mentioned utilise the interaction between the molten metal and the slag (in the droplet stage or
in the base metal-side weld pool) or with the shielding gas. The desired alloying elements are inserted
into the weld pool as a result of interface reactions at the phase boundary, molten metal-slag. Intensive
mixing occurs in the weld pool between the molten filler materials and the molten base metal, which
guarantees a largely uniform distribution of the elements in the weld metal (Figure 14). The alloying pro-
cesses are accompanied by:
– Losses through the oxidation of elements (transition of oxides into the slag; contamination of the
weld metal by non-metallic inclusions) and
– Losses through spatters and evaporation.
The more strongly an alloying element in the welding zone is being oxidised (especially dependent on
the type of shielding gas, oxidising or inert) or the more strongly it is lost through evaporation in the gas-
eous phase, the greater the losses are and the poorer the progressing of the alloying process is.
The tendency to oxidation, i.e. the affinity of an alloying element to bind with oxygen, increases in the
following illustration from left to right, whereby the elements to the left of iron are almost completely
transferred into the molten metal:
Cu – Ni – Co – Fe – W – Mo – Cr – Mn – V – Si – Ti – Zr – Al
The efficiency of the transition of an alloying element from the filler material, the coating or the flux into
the weld metal is expressed by the transition coefficient S.
[E]SG
ηS 
λ[E]GW  (1 γ)[E]SZ  c [E]P

welding
The following applies: [E]SG Concentration of the alloying element E in the weld metal
[E]GW Concentration of the alloying element E in the base metal
[E]SZ Concentration of the alloying element E in the filler material or core wire
[E]P Concentration of the alloying element E in the welding flux or coating
3.3.4 Weld metal microstructure
All non-alloy structural steels are defined by a characteristic morphology of their weld metal microstruc-
ture (area E in Figure 18). Due to the rapid pace of crystallisation, this does not correspond to the re-
quirements of the system Fe-Fe3C. Also, welding TTT diagrams cannot be used to describe their micro-
structure, as these generally apply only to the heat-affected zone of the respective base metal (cf. Chap-
ter 2.02).
A typical weld metal microstructure of a non-alloy structural steel (S235JR) is shown in Figure 22 on the
left. It consists of:
– Ferrite in acicular and/or WIDMANSTÄTTEN formation,

– Quantities of intermediate stage microstructure (bainite)
– and some pearlite.
For comparison Figure 22 also contains the weld metal of carbon steel C45 (centre) and austenitic steel
X5CrNi18-10 with a clearly identifiable dendritic structure (right).
Figure 22: Typical weld metal microstructures of differently alloyed steels (left: non-alloy structural steel –
acicular ferrite, quantities of intermediate stage and pearlite; centre: carbon steel – tempered mar-
tensite; right: austenitic steel – austenite with at worm-shaped inter-dendritic ferrite)
In particular, weld metals made from non-alloy structural steels are characterised by the acicular ferrite
morphology (αA), because this tends to develop in large austenite grains (Figure 24). The size of the fer-
rite needles depends on the crystallisation and nucleation conditions (heterogeneously at inclusions,
such as oxides and nitrides of the welding gases). In small grains, on the other hand, an intermediate
stage or bainite forms due to the wealth of nucleation sites. A small quantity of the austenite can likewise
be converted into fine pearlite. Such a microstructure gives the weld metal of such steels sufficient
strength and toughness even without regenerative annealing.
WIDMANNSTÄTTEN ferrite structures (αW) however can also be found in non- and low-alloy steels. These
start to form with just a little amount of supercooling. Their growth depends on the austenite grain boundaries
or the already existing ferrite. It is characterised by simultaneous and adjacent growth of two plates each (re-
duced shear energy) (Figure 23). Depending on the degree of thermal and constitutional supercooling, this
structure is either equiaxial, dendritic, cellular, columnar or flat (cf. Section 3.3.1 and Figure 22).

welding
acicular Ferrite
w1
w2
Austenite-
grain boundaries
primary  w
grain boundaries
-
secondary  w
ferrite large austenite grain
Figure 23: Schematic diagram of the for-

Figure 24: Schematic illustration of the formation
mation of WIDMANNSTÄTTEN ferrite (accord-
of acicular ferrite in the austenite grain (according to
ing to BHADESHIA)
BHADESHIA)
3.4 Heat-affected zone

3.4.1 Structure of the heat-affected zone
The general structure of the heat-affected zone (HAZ) is shown in Figure 18. Depending on the tempera-
tures prevailing as a result of the thermal cycle, the HAZ of non-alloy structural steels can be divided into
the characteristic areas described below.
A - Tempering zone
In this area only temperatures to A1 are achieved. The cementite lamellae can coagulate. Furthermore,
tempering effects, pearlite spheroidisation and artificial ageing can occur.
B - Pearlite decomposition zone
In this area of the heat-affected zone the temperatures lie between A1 and A3. Pearlite decomposition
thus occurs here.
C – Normalisation zone
In this area of the HAZ, temperatures of just over A3 are in effect. The microstructure becomes fine-
grained and is uniformly distributed. A microstructure state arises that corresponds to the normalised
structure (Figure 25).
D - Overheating and coarse grain zone
This area of the HAZ was heated to well above A3. This results in a very coarse-grained microstructure
(Figure 26). This zone represents the critical area within the HAZ.

welding
Figure 25: Base metal S355J2 – ferritic-pearlitic Figure 26: Base metal S355J2 – ferritic-pearlitic
microstructure in the irregular arrangement, zone of microstructure in WIDMANNSTÄTTEN arrangement,
grain refinement coarse grain zone
3.4.2 Properties of the heat-affected zone
Out of the areas as described in Section 3.4.1, in particular the normalisation or fine-grained zone (area
C) and the coarse grain zone (area D) are responsible for the mechanical-technological properties of
welded joints. Figure 25 to Figure 26 contain a comparison of the microstructures of these areas. The
extreme grain size differences between the fine and the coarse grain zone are remarkable.
The fine grains formed in the normalisation zone with their quasi-isotropic properties generally lead to bet-
ter toughness properties. In contrast, the coarse grain zone, in particular, frequently displays a significant
increase in hardening which is associated with a decline in toughness. Therefore this zone is to be regard-
ed as dominant for the mechanical-technological properties of the HAZ (cf. Section 4.1). The aim of heat
controlling during welding of non-alloy steels and also all other steel materials is therefore to hinder or pre-
vent the formation of the coarse grain zone in the HAZ to the greatest extent possible.
4 Properties of welded joints

4.1 Hardening during welding
Due to high cooling rates associated with welding (cf. Section 2.5), the hardening of the heat-affected
zone is a particular problem for non-alloy and low-alloy steels. Thus, in particular, the geometric shape of
the respective welded joint impacts significantly on the cooling rate and therefore the hardness in the
heat-affected zone (Figure 27). In this context, strike arcs (Figure 37, right) have proven to be particular
critical, since the fastest cooling rates are found with these, as a result of the low fusion volume com-
pared to the base metal volume. They tend therefore to develop age hardening cracks.

welding
Figure 27: Influence of the weld shape on the cooling rate (rising vcr from left to right)
The influence of the steel grade (chemical composition) on the hardening of the HAZ is shown in Table
4. If hardening does not yet occur at a fictitious point A (Figure 27, left) of the heat-affected zone in a
non-alloy steel, because the critical cooling speed has not yet been achieved (water hardeners), small
quantities of alloying elements, like chromium and molybdenum effect a significant lowering of the critical
cooling speed (oil hardeners). The HAZ hardens in the isotherms passing through point A.
As shown in Table 5, there is a direct relation in non- and low-alloy steels between the underbead crack-
ing (hardening cracks) and the quantity of martensite determining the relevant maximum hardness. Thus
for these materials martensite content of up to 30% can still be permitted, without this leading to cracking
(K30 concept). On the other hand, martensite content of maximum 50% may require an additional heat
treatment (pre-heating), in order to generate welds that are free of hardening cracks (K50 concept). The
cooling rates, at which 30 and/or 50% martensite can occur, respectively, are to be taken e.g. from the
welding TTT diagrams (Figure 13).
Table 4: Influence of the steel grade on hardening of the HAZ

Cooling speed Hardness in point
Steel type [K/s] A
in point A Required for hardening [HV]
Non-alloy steel with:
40 500 (water hardener) 170
0,25 % C
Low-alloy steel with:
40 35 (oil hardener) 480
0.25% C, 1.0% Cr, 0.25% Mo
Table 5: Relationship between underbead cracking, maximum hardness and martensite content in non- and
low-alloy steels
Strength calcu-
Max. martensite
Max. hardness Max. hardness lated from
Property share
[HV] [HRC] hardness
[%]
[N/mm²]
Underbead cracking
400 41 1.290 70
likely
Underbead cracking
400 to 350 41 to 36 1.290 to 1.125 65 to 50
possible
Without underbead
350 36 1.125 45 to 30
cracking
Reliable without post-
280 28 900 30
weld annealing
Without preheating, welded joints with martensite amounts of over 50% tend with high probabil-
ity to the formation of age hardening cracks in the heat-affected zone.

welding
Figure 28 contains, by way of example, hardness distribution curves across a welded joint of non-alloy
structural steel as a function of the heat input. The hardness peaks in the HAZ are clearly identifiable.
HVnHAZ
Low
Heat-input
HV hHAZ (e.g. E)
HV 1 
Higher
Heat-input
HVBM (e.g. gas
shielded
welding)
S = BM + FM
G hHAZ G nHAZ
BM HAZ HAZ BM
Ac1,hHAZ Ac 1,nHAZ Ac 1,nHAZ Ac 1,hHAZ
Figure 28: Hardness distribution curves of a welded joint of a non-alloy structural steel
The tendency for hardening during welding of non-alloy structural and fine grain structural steels can
also be measured via the carbon equivalent CEV (cf. Chapter 2.09).
4.2 Single and multi-pass welding

4.2.1 Weld metal
Each weld metal solidifies primarily as cast structure. The size of the individual crystallites depends on
the number of nuclei in the molten metal, on the welding parameters, on the size of the weld pool and on
the cooling conditions. Single-pass welding produces a coarse-grained cast structure (Figure 29, Figure
30) with unfavourable mechanical-technological values, such as e.g. low toughness.
During multi-pass welding, on the other hand, every root and fill layer comprises transformation, temper-
ing and cast structure. The size of the individual areas depends on the layer thickness, the layer struc-
ture and the amount of heat supplied by the subsequent layer (Figure 31, Figure 32). The transformation
microstructure is caused by the fact that the amount of heat introduced by the subsequent layer
austenitises the preceding layer (T > A3).
The formation of a fine-grained microstructure generally results from the subsequent cooling (Figure 34).
On the other hand, the final pass can be viewed as single-pass welding; it displays the typical solidifica-
tion microstructure, as shown in Figure 33 (cf. 3.3.4). The same applies to the back run.

welding
1 2 4
5
3 3
4 - Cast microstructure,
1 - Base metal most coarse
2 - Weld metal 5 - Segregation zone
3 - Heat-affected zone 6 - Fusion zone
Figure 30: Single-pass welded joint in a non-alloy

Figure 29: Schematic structure of a single-pass steel (butt weld)
welded joint
2
1
3 5
1 - Base metal 4 - Root pass(es)
2 - Weld metal 5 - Filler bead(s)
3 - Heat-affected zone 6 - Final pass(es)
Figure 32: Multi-pass welded joint in a non-alloy

Figure 31: Schematic structure of a multi-pass steel (butt weld)
welded joint

welding
Figure 33: Multi-pass welded joint Figure 34: Multi-pass welded joint
(non-alloy steel), final pass (non-alloyed steel), root of weld
If the multi-pass weld is performed using weaving technology, mostly very thick passes or layers result.
These are only partly austenitised and thus converted by the subsequent layer. With very thick layers
these then display fine-grained, tempered and cast structures depending on the distance from the layer
surface. If, however, the stringer bead technique is used and the individual layers are laid as thinly as
possible, this results overall in a microstructure that is transformed to fine grains with good toughness
properties. During the welding of fine-grained structural steels, therefore the stringer bead technique is
generally used. The cast structure of the final pass can also be removed by a normalising pass. A further
layer must then be welded on the final pass, whereby under no circumstances may the “normalising
pass” fuse onto the base metal.
4.2.2 Heat-affected zone
In the HAZ of multi-pass joints, the microstructure corresponds partly to that of single-pass welds. How-
ever, areas also occur where the microstructure is influenced by the subsequent weld beads. In the latter
case, a wide variety of different microstructures result. Figure 35 shows a cut-out of the HAZ of a multi-
pass joint.
In areas 1, 5, 8, 9, 13 and 17 the influence of the high peak temperatures occurring during welding is
dominant. Their microstructure is therefore coarse-grained and has a relatively low toughness. On the
other hand a fine-grained microstructure is typical for the areas 2, 10, 12, 14 and 18 which are heated to
peak temperatures of around 1,000 °C; their toughness corresponds generally to that of the base metal.
In the areas 3, 7, 11, 15 and 19 there is the risk of embrittlement. Area 7 is subject to a particular unfa-
vourable temperature cycle. It is first heated to the high peak temperatures and subsequently partially
austenitised.

welding
Figure 35: Areas of the heat-affected zone of mul- Figure 36: Toughness of S355N in the delivery
ti-pass joints with different microstructures state (GW) and after a welding-simulating heat treat-
(acc. to UWER and DEGENKOLBE) ment (acc. to UWER and DEGENKOLBE)
Figure 36 provides information on the impact energy of a structural steel of grade S355N in the delivery
state and after a welding-simulating heat treatment with different peak temperatures. A comparison of
the individual curves reveals that the material exhibits a similar, high level of toughness in the delivery
state (base metal) and after heating to 600 °C. A welding-simulating heat treatment with a peak tempera-
ture of 1350 or 750 °C, on the other hand, results in a significant impairment of toughness. The transition
temperature for an impact energy of 50 J is approximately 70 C less favourable compared to the base
metal.
4.3 Shape of weld and properties
The shape of the weld can under certain circumstances influence the performance characteristics of
welds. For example, tensile stresses occur with concave fillet welds in the surface area of the weld met-
al, which increase the susceptibility to form hot cracks (Figure 37-). The weld metal of convex welds,
on the other hand, is largely subjected to low stress levels (Figure 37-). Concave, high and also broad
layers are likewise not to be recommended, as they hinder the slag release on the one hand and en-
courage hot cracks on the other (Figure 37-, Figure 37-). The aim, with joint welding, therefore is to
achieve slightly convex layers which furthermore have a positive influence on the removability of slag
(Figure 37-).
    

welding
Figure 37: Influence of the weld shape on the susceptibility to hot cracking; according to the Lincoln Electric
Company
5 Weldability
5.1 What is weldability?
The problem of the weldability of metallic materials is

extraordinarily complex. For example, with non-alloy
structural steels, material properties such as brittle Suitability
Material
fracture and ageing behaviour, inter alia, play as
much of a role as the manufacturing conditions and
design of the component. For these reasons, the
term, weldability was defined in the German regula-
tions in DIN 8528 (Figure 38). This was also trans-
Weld reliability /
ferred (with errors) into an international technical re- Weldability
Possibility
port (ISO TR 581). The statements included in EN
Manufacturing
safety
of a component
Construction
1011-2 reflect the term weldability only incompletely
and are to be rejected from a technical perspective. In
accordance with the above standard weldability de-
pends on three variables. These include the material,
which determines the suitability for welding, the
construction, which impacts on the weld reliability
and the manufacturing, which influences the possi- Figure 38: Weldability based on DIN 8528 and
bility of welding. ISO TR 581
A component made from a metallic material can be welded, if the fusion can be achieved by welding with
a defined welding process, taking into consideration a suitable manufacturing process. In this process,
the welds must fulfil the requirements set with respect to their local properties and their influence on the
construction, of which they are a part.
A general guarantee of weldability cannot be given as, in addition to the material properties, the manu-
facturing conditions (and also the weather influences during on-site operations) and the design of the
construction must be taken into consideration.
5.2 Suitability for welding
The suitability for welding is primarily a property of the material and is influenced mainly by three main
variables. These include:
– the chemical composition (e.g. the tendency to develop brittle fractures, susceptibility to ageing),
– the metallurgical properties (e.g. the content of inclusions, segregations) and
– the physical characteristics (e.g. thermal conductivity, expansion behaviour).
For the qualitative assessment of the suitability for fusion welding, the following methods have proven to
be useful in practice:
– assessment of the suitability for welding of non-alloy carbon steels using the carbon content.
– assessment of the suitability for welding of non- and (low)-alloy structural steels using the carbon
equivalent CEV (cf. Chapter 2.09).
– assessment of the suitability for welding using welding TTT diagrams (if available).

welding
5.3 Possibility
The possibility for welding (weld reliability determined by production) in a weld fabrication shop is given
when the intended welds of a construction can be properly and professionally executed under the se-
lected manufacturing conditions. These include:
– preparation (e.g. the welding process, the filler metal and auxiliary materials),
– execution (e.g. the welding technology, the heat controlling) and
– post-treatment (e.g. postweld annealing).
5.4 Weld reliability
The weld reliability (constructional weld reliability) of a construction is given if, with the material used, the
component remains functional due to its structural design under the intended operating conditions.
These include:
– the structural design (e.g. the arrangement of the welds) and

– the stress state (e.g. rate of stressing).

welding
6 Question
(1) What characteristic areas distinguish a fusion welded joint?
 Crystallisation zone.
 Heat-affected zone.
 Nucleation zone.
 Weld metal.
 Fusion zone.
(2) By which physical process is most of the heat transferred into welded joints?
 Convection.
 Heat transfer.
 Wärmestrahlung.
 Diffusion.
 Effusion.
(3) What is meant by the term heat flow?
 The heat flow is proportional to the temperature difference prevailing at two points.
 The heat flow leads to the flow of matter in solid bodies.
 The heat flow takes place exclusively by convection.
 The heat flow takes place by convection and thermal radiation.
 The heat flow is defined as the amount of heat Q transferred in the time t.
(4) How can heat transfer in a homogenous medium be described mathematically?
 Through linear regression equations.

 Through linear differential equations.
 Through multiple regression equations.
 Through exponential equations.
 Through binomial equations.
(5) How many times faster are the cooling times in welding compared to those in normalising?
 10 times faster.
 100 times faster.
 1,000 times faster.

welding
(6) What does two-dimensional heat dissipation mean?
 The heat flow takes place exclusively over the plate thickness.
 The heat flow takes place over the sheet plane in the ratio 8/5.
 The heat flow takes place exclusively in the sheet plane.
 The heat flow takes place over the sheet thickness in the ratio 8/5.
 The heat flow takes place exclusively in the x and y-direction.
(7) What statements are covered in general by the term t8/5 time?
 The t8/5 time is proportional to the cooling rate.

 The t8/5 time is reciprocal (inversely proportional) to the cooling speed.
 The t8/5 time corresponds to the cooling time between 800 and 500 s.
 The t8/5 time corresponds to the cooling time between 800 and 500 °C.
 The t8/5 time corresponds to the factor 8/5 (in s) for three-dimensional heat dissipation.
(8) What microstructure constituents make up the weld metal of non-alloy structural steels?
 Dendritic austenite.
 Acicular ferrite.
 Columnar ledeburite.
 Quantities of intermediate stage (bainite).
 Quantities of pearlite.
(9) In which special area of the heat-affected zone is an increase in hardening to be expected?
 In the tempering zone.

 In the austenite resolution zone.
 In the fine grain zone.
 In the coarse grain zone.
 In the fusion zone.
(10) What are the disadvantages of single-pass welding compared to multi-pass welding?
 It leads to martensitic weld metal microstructures.

 It creates an acicular weld metal microstructure.
 It produces a coarse-grain cast structure.
 The mechanical-technological weld metal properties are not favourable.
 The weld metal toughness is not as good.

welding
7 Bibliography
More detailed information can be found in the following publications.
Rykalin, N. N.:
Calculation of the thermal processes during welding.
Berlin: VEB Verlag Technik; 1957
Radaj, D.:
Welding process simulation - Principles and applications.
Fachbuchreihe Schweißtechnik, Volume 141
Düsseldorf: Deutscher Verlag für Schweißtechnik DVS-Verlag GmbH; 1999
Mehmert, .P.:
Numerical simulation of the gas-shielded metal arc welding of thick plates of non- and low-alloy fine grain
structural steel.
Dissertation: TU Clausthal, 2003
Jahre, H.:
Technical specification for welders – Volume 5: Repair welding – Iron and steel.
Berlin: Verlag Technik; 1988
Marfels, W.:
Small materials science for welding practitioners.
Düsseldorf: Deutscher Verlag für Schweißtechnik DVS-Verlag GmbH; 1991
Böse, U.:
The behaviour of materials during welding - Part 1.
Düsseldorf. Deutscher Verlag für Schweißtechnik DVS-Verlag GmbH; 1995

Großer Atlas Schweiß-ZTU-Schaubilder.
Uwer, D.; Degenkolbe, J.:

Identification of welding temperature cycles with respect to their influence on the mechanical properties
of welded joints.
Steel and iron, Düsseldorf, 97 (1977) 24, pg. 1201-1207
Frank, G.:
Calculation of preheating temperatures during welding.
Welding and cutting, Düsseldorf, 40 (1988) 4, pg. 169-171
Schulze. G.:
The metallurgy of welding.
Heidelberg-Dordrecht-London-New York: Springer Verlag; 2009
Schuster, J.:
Hot cracking in welded joints - Formation, verification and avoidance.
DVS reports, Volume 233
Düsseldorf; Verlag für Schweißen und verwandte Verfahren DVS-Verlag GmbH; 2004

welding
Crack appearances in SFI / IWE 2.06
welded joints Page 1
Chapter 2.06: Crack appearances in fusion welded joints
Contents
1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 2
2 Overview of metallurgically caused crack appearances ................................................... 3
2.1 Systematics of the metallurgically caused crack appearances ...................................................... 3
2.2 Cold cracks............................................................................................................................................. 4
2.3 Hot cracking ........................................................................................................................................... 4
2.4 Cavities ................................................................................................................................................... 4
2.5 Classification of the metallurgical caused damages in the welding temperature-time cycle ..... 5
3 Cold Cracks........................................................................................................................... 5
3.1 General influence parameters on the cold cracking ........................................................................ 5
3.2 Age hardening crack ............................................................................................................................. 6
3.2.1 Effects of carbon and the alloying elements ........................................................................ 6
3.2.2 Mechanism of crack formation ............................................................................................... 7
3.2.3 Prevention of age hardening cracks during welding ........................................................... 8
3.3 Hydrogen-induced cracks .................................................................................................................... 9
3.3.1 Hydrogen supply and hydrogen absorption ......................................................................... 9
3.3.2 Shapes of appearance of hydrogen-supported damages in welded joints ................... 11
3.3.3 Options for examining hydrogen-induced cracking ........................................................... 12
3.3.4 Prevention of hydrogen-induced damage when welding ................................................. 13
3.4 Lamellar cracking (lamellar tearing) ................................................................................................. 13
3.4.1 Influence of the base material on lamellar cracking sensitivity ....................................... 13
3.4.2 Options for examining lamellar tearing sensitivity ............................................................. 15
3.4.3 Prevention of lamellar tearing when welding ..................................................................... 16
4 Hot cracking ........................................................................................................................ 18
4.1 General parameters influencing hot cracking ................................................................................. 18
4.2 Overview of the basic types of hot cracking .................................................................................... 18
4.2.1 Solidification cracks................................................................................................................ 18
4.2.2 Liquation cracks ...................................................................................................................... 19
4.2.3 Cracks caused by ductility dips ............................................................................................ 21
4.3 Influencing the hot cracking sensitivity............................................................................................. 22
4.3.1 General metallurgical factors ................................................................................................ 22
4.3.2 Metallurgical features for welding austenitic stainless steels .......................................... 22
4.3.3 Metallurgical welding features of unalloyed structural steels .......................................... 24
4.3.4 Technological factors ............................................................................................................. 25
4.3.5 Examination of hot cracking formations .............................................................................. 25
5 Question .............................................................................................................................. 27
6 Bibliography........................................................................................................................ 29

welding
1 Introduction
Numerous imperfections can occur in welded joints. The different types of crack appearances are criti-
cal because they are fields for predominantly more static but in particular for cyclic loading where failures
can occur. Figure 1 is an attempt for a classification in this context of different crack appearances, as
they may occur in technical systems and therefore also in welded joints.
Crack appearances
Metallurgically caused crack- Technologically caused crack-

Load caused cracking
ing ing
Crack appearances, that are Crack appearances which are Crack appearances, that are
mainly caused by inner (metal- primarily caused by manufac- primarily caused by external
lurgical, material) factors of influ- ture-dependent (technological) (operational and environment-
ence factors of influence. dependent) factors of influence.
Cold Cracks Lack of Fusion faults Static loads

Hot cracks Gap Cyclic loads
Shrinkage cracks
Processing surface notches Corrosive attacks
(Shrinkage cavities)
Transformation-dependent cracks Heat treatment mistakes Mechanical damages
Others Others Others
Figure 1: Classification of crack appearances depending of their cause of formation
The first step is to determine what the difference is between cracks and fractures and why this chapter
introduces exclusively crack appearances in general and metallurgically caused crack appearances in
particular.
In general, a crack is a material split that does not encompass the entire cross-section of a material, compo-
nent or complex technical system, not yet causing it to fall apart. This can have metallurgical, technological
and load-dependent causes (Figure 1). Cracks are in many cases starting points of a fracture.
A fracture, however is a material split that encompasses the entire cross-section of a material, component
or complex technical system, causing it to fall apart with irregular surfaces. Fractures can proceed in many
cases from cracks, however, they often show different material technological creation mechanisms.
Of the crack appearances mentioned in Figure 1, it is the metallurgically caused cracks that are of par-
ticular interest, since they can occur partially independent of the technology influenced during the weld-
ing process.
A lack of fusion can be related in most of the cases to the capabilities and readiness of the welder to per-
form a defect-free weld. Regardless of how well a welder masters his capabilities, a metallurgical-
physical volume transfer always occurs in the weld pool during the transition of the liquid to solid state,
with a consequence of a blowhole, i.e a shrinkage cavity, resulting in the weld metal solidifying at the
end. Therefore, the welder must take into consideration, in addition to his handcraft capabilities, also the
metallurgical behaviour of the material.

welding
2 Overview of metallurgically caused crack appearances

2.1 Systematics of the metallurgically caused crack appearances
The crack-type metallurgical (material-dependent) welding defects can be distinguished according to the
systematics in Figure 2. Essentially we can distinguish between cold and hot cracking (see Figure 1 for
other crack appearances). It is easy to recognise, that these are only abstract terms which refer to the
basic characteristics associated with the formation of these imperfections (compare sections 2.2 and
2.3). Therefore there are neither “cold cracks”, nor “hot cracks”, but numerous subcategories that can be
subordinated. This situation is frequently not considered or is ignored in the technical literature of welding
but also in the regulations. Therefore by “cold cracks” only the hydrogen-induced cracks specified in
Figure 2 are understood and the other types of cracking are completely ignored.
Material-dependent welding defects
Non alloyed steel (High) alloyed steel

Ferritic microstructure (cbc) Austenitic microstructure (cfc)
Crack size Crack cause Crack propagation
Macro crack Micro Crack Cold Cracks Hot cracks Intercrystalline Transcrystalline
Age hardening
crack
Solidification
Hydrogen crack
induced
crack
Lamellar Crack prop-
Crack propa-
Recognisable Recognisable tearing agation
Liquation gation
with the naked with metallo- crack along
by
eye or graphic for example
Ageing crack complete
magnifying microscopes grain or
microstructure
glass  6:1 > 6:1 dendrite
ranges
Relaxation crack borders
Crack due to a
Underclad cracks reduction of
deformability
Miscellaneous
Figure 2: Overview of crack-like, material dependent welding defects and their classification
It is more correct to speak of e.g. cold cracks of the type age hardening crack or hot cracks of the type
liquation crack etc. This on one hand describes the basic features and on the other hand the exact for-
mation mechanism of the respective crack appearance.
As it can be seen in Figure 2, the knowledge of the basic type of the elementary cell of a steel, i.e.
whether cubic-body or cubic-face-centred (unalloyed ferritic-pearlitic or (high) alloyed austenitic steel),
the crack size and the course of a crack often allows a first estimate of whether it is a cold or hot crack. If
this is the case, measures can be initiated for the effective prevention of cracking.

welding
For this reason, first the basic differences between cold and hot cracking should be defined.
2.2 Cold cracks
Cold cracking is an umbrella term for a series of crack appearances that occur in the cooled state or
during cooling, without molten phases participating in the formation of the cracks.
This means that in terms of this definition, it is not the formation temperature, but the nonexistence of
molten phases that are of interest for evaluating these crack appearances. In accordance with Figure 2,
numerous crack appearances can be categorised as cold cracks.
2.3 Hot cracking
Hot crack is the umbrella term for crack appearances that can result in the presence of molten or brit-
tle phases on the grain boundaries at high temperatures.
Similar to cold cracks, it is not the temperature that is decisive here for a classification of hot cracks, but
the presence of molten or brittle phases. In this context, the formerly common term heat crack is now
regarded as outdated and is no longer used.
Contrary to the cold cracks, all manifestations of hot cracks can be subdivided into the three subcatego-
ries detailed in Figure 2. There are no further subcategories.
A hot crack is a metallurgical phenomenon and has nothing to do with the appearances of corrosion.
2.4 Cavities
As opposed to crack appearances, further imperfections can occur in welded joints, which belong to the
different types of cavities. They are however, not subjects of this chapter.
Cavities are imperfections, which occur independently from the conditions that lead to cracking. These
can have both technological and metallurgical causes.
The cavities may be classified according to the following appearances:
Blowholes (shrinkage cavities) ...........................................metallurgically influenced

Pores .................................................................................metallurgic ally/technologically influenced
Inclusions ...........................................................................technologically influenced
Lack of fusion.....................................................................technologically influenced

welding
2.5 Classification of the metallurgical caused damages in the welding temperature-time cycle
Figure 3 illustrates schematically the classification of selected metallurgical dependent crack appearanc-
es in the temperature-time cycle during arc welding. It can be recognised that different damages result at
different temperatures and require characteristics times depending of their formation mechanism. But
also incorrectly performed heat treatments after welding hold hazards.
Figure 3: Classification of se-

lected crack appearances in the tem-
perature-time cycle during arc weld-
ing
3 Cold Cracks
3.1 General influence parameters on the cold cracking
The fundamental formation possibility of cold cracks is

determined by three essential variables:
– the martensite content,

– the content of diffusible hydrogen and
– the load (stress) state.
Depending on the relationship of these three parame-

ters, the essential types of cold cracks named in Figure
2 can occur (Figure 4). If this figure is interpreted under
consideration of DIN 8528 and ISO TR 581, a direct
relation results between the general affinity to the for-
mation of cold cracks and the term of weldability (see
section 2.05). Therefore, material-specific (weldability),
constructive (welding safety) and the manufacture-
specific (welding possibility) parameters influence the
cold cracking susceptibility.
Figure 4: The influence on the cold cracking
susceptibility according to DIN 8528 and ISO TR
581

welding
3.2 Age hardening crack

3.2.1 Effects of carbon and the alloying elements
For many steels, (e.g. non-alloyed structural steels according to EN 10 025-2), the increase in strength is
solely achieved by increasing carbon content. In this context the following applies:
0.1% C increases tensile strength Rm by approx. 90 N/mm² (MPa)

and yield point Re by 40 to 50 N/mm² (MPa)
This is, however, related to essential problems, too. Therefore, carbon has a very negative effect on
weldability together with a decrease in ductility and toughness properties (compare Chapter 2.05). As
the hardness of steel depends also largely upon carbon, its affinity to hardening increases with larger C-
content. That means the tendency to form martensite grows (cf. Chapter 2.08).
Beside carbon, other alloying elements influence martensite formation (hardenability) and therefore the
weldability of such steels. To find out their respective effect, they are summarised in the so-called car-
bon equivalent (CEV). This was originally developed as a comparison parameter for the description of
hardenability by the International Institute of Welding (IIW) and is defined, among others, in EN 10 025-1
as follows:
Mn (Cr  Mo  V) (Ni  Cu)

CEV  C   
6 5 15
Note In the technical literature, numerous additional equations were published for carbon equivalents
that were set up under different test conditions. These however, became generally unaccepted in prac-
tice and therefore should not be used in relation to estimating the formation of age hardening cracks.
Using the carbon equivalent CEV, and with the special tables included in e.g. all standards for structural
steels (EN 10 025-2 to 6), the tendency to hardening of the heat affected zone and therefore the tenden-
cy to the formation of ageing hardening cracks can be estimated (Table 1). If the CEV value determined
from the product analysis as a function of steel grade and sheet thickness, exceeds those stated in the
standard, in certain cases additional measures (pre-heating, stress relieving) are useful in preventing
ageing hardness cracks.
Table 1: Maximum carbon equivalent (CEV) based on the melt analysis, selection (EN 10 025-2)
Designation Max. CEV in % for nominal product thickness t in mm
EN 10027-1 EN 10027-2 t  30 30 > t  40 40 > t  150 150 > t  250 250 > t  400
1.0038 S235JR 0.35 0.35 0.38 0.40 —
1.0114 S235J0 0.35 0.35 0.38 0.40 —
1.0117 S235J2 0.35 0.35 0.38 0.40 0.40
1.0044 S275JR 0.40 0.40 0.42 0.44 —
1.0143 S275J0 0.40 0.40 0.42 0.44 —
1.0145 S275J2 0.40 0.40 0.42 0.44 0.44
1.0045 S355JR 0.45 0.47 0.47 0.49* —
1.0553 S355J0 0.45 0.47 0.47 0.49* —
1.0577 S355J2 0.45 0.47 0.47 0.49* 0.49
1.0596 S355K2 0.45 0.47 0.47 0.49* 0.49
For long products a max. CEV of 0.54 % applies.

welding
3.2.2 Mechanism of crack formation
Due to the high internal stresses of martensitic microstructures, which are caused by the tetragonal dis-
tortion of the elementary cells due to force-released C-atoms, the strength properties are locally exceed-
ed, causing the microstructure to shear.
Figure 5: Formation
of martensite (cbc) from
austenite (cfc) through
forcibly dissolved carbon
(schematic)
The formation of martensite in an iron-carbon alloy could be the result if diffusion processes are not able to
be continued due to lack of time. Since austenite is no longer thermodynamically resistant as the tempera-
ture drops (compare system Fe-Fe3C, chapter 2.03), a diffusion less transition (switching) of the cubic-face-
centred austenite lattice takes place into a lattice with a cubic-body centred elementary cell. Carbon dis-
solved formerly in austenite could no longer diffuse from the lattice and is force-released now into the cu-
bic-body centred lattice and causes a tetragonal slippage, which has a high structural stress (Figure 5).
This can be so high, that brittle shearing of the microstructure takes place, i.e. a cold cracking type age
hardening crack (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Heat-affected zone with microstructure of martensite and intermediate stage and transgranular
hardening crack (material: C45)

welding
Cold cracks of type age hardening cracks in welded joints are normally characterised by the
following features:
– occur in the heat-affected zone,

– pass transgranular,
– have macroscopic dimensions,
– form immediately.
3.2.3 Prevention of age hardening cracks during welding
Cold cracks of type age hardening cracks can be avoided effectively when welding with measures for
targeted heat input under consideration of the carbon equivalent CEV. So it is recommended to use
fewer materials susceptible to hardening. The choice of materials is, however, limited, since due to the
construction and subsequent working loads, the material is usually specified and not variable. For larger
cross-sections, steels with less micro-segregation susceptibility are to be used.
Figure 7: Example
of a weld TTT-diagram
for steel S460N accord-
ing to SEYFFARTH et
al.
In connection with the welding TTT-diagram (see Chapter 2.03) and the t8/5 concept (see Chapter 2.05)
the so-called K30 and K50 values have been developed. These provide the time in which a welded joint
goes through the temperature range between 800 and 500°C, so that in the microstructure maximum 30
to 50% martensite occurs (Figure 7). Martensite contents up to 30% cause also without stress relieving
(600 to 650 °C) no adverse effect of weldability, since still sufficiently plastic deformable microstructures
areas are present. With 50% martensite in the weld metal microstructure, stress relief must be per-
formed to maintain weldability. Martensite contents higher than 50% should be avoided for the prevention
of age hardening cracks and therefore to guarantee the weldability. Figure 7 shows the correlation be-
tween the martensite content and the maximum hardening to be expected in the HAZ. Hardness values
above 350 HV should not be permitted any longer in arc welded joints.

welding
3.3 Hydrogen-induced cracks

3.3.1 Hydrogen supply and hydrogen absorption
The application of hydrogen to the welded joint by the welding process can lead to cold cracks of type
hydrogen-induced cracks and thus to damage depending on the microstructure formation and the me-
chanical stress state.
typical hydrogen sources

Moisture in
Moisture in the shielding Environmental Moisture in Moisture in
the filler gas moisture the flux sheet
(hose assem- (free wire length, (powder feed- (corrosion prod-
material
bly: length, air humidity) er) ucts, deposits)
state)
Construction/
High-
strength Thick sheets,
Material
steels and rigid construc-
Part
Hydrogen in weld metal tions
welding of
materials (tensile state)
(Fine grain)
Pre-heating temperature Working temperature
Heat input
Figure 8: Influence on the hydrogen content in the weld metal
Figure 8 gives a general overview of important parameters on the hydrogen content in the weld metal.
These include in particular:
– Moisture (from atmosphere, shielding gas, electrode coating, wire surface, welding flux, corrosion prod-
ucts),
– Crystal water (bound in the minerals in the filler materials, for example, with basic coating or flux),
– organic compounds (cellulose coatings, paints, coating).
The hydrogen dissociates in the arc and transforms in atomic or ionised state into the molten material
(Figure 9).
Dissociation of the hydrogen: H2O  H2  O H2  2H H  H  e 
The hydrogen absorption of weld metal is mainly dependent on the hydrogen partial pressure and the
temperature. Therefore hydrogen solubility in weld metal is 35 ml H2/100 g weld metal at 1,800°C.
With decreasing temperature, the highest portion is again diffused. For iron, equilibrium solubility de-
pends apart from the temperature also on the lattice structure, on the type of the elementary cell (cbc,
cfc) (Figure 10).
After fast cooling the hydrogen is nevertheless present in the weld metal in higher concentrations, than
its solubility diagram (Figure 10) would indicate. So it can be force-released molecular embedded in
the lattice in cavities but also in spaces. Especially the element is concentrated in the range of dislo-
cations and grain boundaries.

welding
H2O H2 + O
H2 2H
H H + e
+ - +
-
e
+
H
Figure 9: General representation of the dissocia- Figure 10: Hydrogen solubility in relation to the
tion or ionisation of the hydrogen temperature for iron (basic representation)
Because of its very low atomic radius (25 pm) the element is already be able to diffuse noticeably at room
temperature. In microstructure and lattice areas with increased energy (e.g. lattice structure defects, marten-
site plates, see chapter 2.01), the atomic hydrogen recombines into the gas molecule (Figure 11, Figure 12),
because it is able to receive the required amount of energy for recombination (molecule formation). Due to
recombination as well as the large number of hydrogen molecules in such microstructure areas, the hydrogen
gas pressure rises strongly locally, thus the microstructure bonds can break apart locally. The consequences
are pores and cracks with a morphology typical of the presence of hydrogen (see chapter 3.3.2).
The diffusion process, including recombination or dissociation mechanisms, can extend over periods
lasting from minutes to several weeks.
E.g. the chemical composition, the microstructure state, the degree of porosity, the type of pore filler and
the workpiece geometry have essential influence on the formation of hydrogen-supported damages in
steels.
H2
H2 H2
H2
H2 H2
Figure 11: Schematic diagram showing the formation of Figure 12: Direct and delayed hydrogen dif-
hydrogen-induced damage in metal fusion in a welded joint
The hydrogen recombined in the area of the surface of the welded joint can also disappear again of its
own accord (effusion).

welding
In practice a degasification treatment from welding heat is recommended (150 to 200 °C over 2 hours)
for the acceleration of the hydrogen effusion. As a function of the welding conditions, pre-heating may
also be useful (SEW 088, EN 1011-2).
3.3.2 Shapes of appearance of hydrogen-supported damages in welded joints
Hydrogen may cause different damages to welded joints. First of all, increased hydrogen content always
causes an embrittlement of the metal lattice. This is however temporarily and disappears in sufficient
time with the hydrogen effusion.
Cold cracks of type hydrogen-induced damages in welded joints are normally characterised by the
following features:
– occur in weld metal and in the heat-affected zone,

– pass transgranular or intergranular,
– have microscopic or macroscopic dimensions,
– form with a delay.
Typical hydrogen-induced damages are the so-called “fish eyes”. These are local micro and macroscop-
ic material separations (Figure 13, Figure 14). They show up as bright, round (almost) brittle fracture ar-
eas with a centre (discontinuity, inclusion, pore) in a ductile environment. These appearances result
when hydrogen-filled weld metal is slowly plastically deformed after welding.
Micro cracks are mostly formed at lattice defects. Particularly endangered spots are affected areas with
brittle microstructures, in whose environment hydrogen has also accumulated. (e.g. transformation of
residual austenite with higher hydrogen solubility into martensite or into ferrite and cementite with rela-
tively high hydrogen concentration).
Figure 13: Macro “fish eyes” in the area of a frac- Figure 14: Micro “fish eye” in the area of damaged
tured welded joint weld metal
It has been established that hydrogen-induced (macro) cracks (underbead cracks, root cracks, toe
cracks and especially transverse cracks) appear only several days after the welding process in the
welded joint. These material separations, occurring under temporal delay, are affected by numberous
parameters. These include among others the hydrogen supply, the heat treatment, diffusion and effusion
movements and the microstructure state. In particular the mechanical stress of the welded joint (also
residual stress state) has its own importance. Like, below a certain stress level, cracking is avoided.

welding
The phenomenon of time delayed cracking must be specially observed during weld processing of
high-strength fine grain microstructural steels, because these are prone to be damaged from hydro-
gen because of their microstructure (see Chapter 2.10).
3.3.3 Options for examining hydrogen-induced cracking

3.3.3.1 Normative specifications
General specifications Self-restraint tests Externally-loaded tests

Testing proce- EN ISO 17 642-2, EN ISO 17 642-3,
EN ISO 17 642-1
dures DVS 1006 DVS 1006
EN ISO 17 642-3, EN ISO 17 642-3,
Specimen types —
DVS 1006 DVS 1006
3.3.3.2 Self-restraint test method
Self-restraint processes of the cold cracking test use the internal stresses of a welded joint (residual
welding stresses) as test parameters. These stresses are obtained by special joint preparations respec-
tively by external attached restraints on the specimens. The testing methods deliver qualitative and also
quantitative results under certain conditions for the evaluation of the sensitivity to hydrogen induced
cracking. The processes of the self-restraint tests include among others:
– the CTS-test,
– the TEKKEN-test (cf. Figure 15).
– CRUCIFORM-test,
– WIC-test,
– IRC-test.
3.3.3.3 Externally-loaded test method
During the externally-loaded test on hydrogen-induced cold cracks, the testing force is applied to the
specimen from the outside determined with the help of a specific test equipment. This type of cold crack-
ing test allows quantitative statements about cold cracking sensitivity, but is more cost-intensive than
the self-restraint tests due to the necessary complex test equipment.
The most common externally-loaded cold cracking test method is the implant test. During this, a notched
stud-like test specimen (“the implant”) is over-welded and exposed to a constant tensile load. After a de-
fined period, the heat-affected zone of not broken specimens is examined and assessed for cracks (deter-
mination of a “critical implant stress”). Figure 16 shows a schematic representation of the test.

welding
Figure 15: Test set-up with the TEKKEN-test Figure 16: Specimen arrangement with the im-
(l = sheet thickness, g = root gap) plant test (schematic)
3.3.4 Prevention of hydrogen-induced damage when welding
Hydrogen-induced damage when welding can be prevented by measures to reduce hydrogen supply
effectively. For this, basic stick electrodes or welding flux shall be re-baked prior to welding. Tempera-
ture and time of the drying process are usually between 250 and 350 °C and 2 to 4 hours or are individu-
ally recommended by the manufacturer.
The so-called “hydrogen-controlled” filler materials may generate (after re-drying) only a content of max
15 ml diffusible hydrogen in 100 weld metal. In case of particularly high requirements, hydrogen con-
trolled stick electrodes or flux are specified and offered for the input of max 5 ml hydrogen in 100 weld
metal (H5 according to EN ISO 2560).
Vacuum or hermetically sealed hydrogen controlled stick electrodes show an increased resistance
against moisture absorption. After opening the packing they can be used for welding within a defined
time (e.g. 8 hours) without re-drying, where the hydrogen content in the weld metal is guaranteed to be
approx 5 ml.
The determination of diffusible hydrogen introduced into the weld metal and HAZ is described in detail in
chapter 2.23.
3.4 Lamellar cracking (lamellar tearing)

3.4.1 Influence of the base material on lamellar cracking sensitivity
Depending on the manufacturing process, considerable differences in strength and deformation capacity
properties in sheet thickness direction (z direction) can occur in relation to the rolling direction
(x and y- direction) for rolled and forged products (anisotropy, cf. Chapter 2.04). This is usually caused
by flat- or threadlike inclusions, that influence the mechanical properties negatively in plate thick-
ness direction during loading. These inclusions are plastically deformable at rolling temperature and are
therefore not destroyed. Regarding to strength, these inclusions represent however a material separa-
tion, interconnecting with each other by crack propagation or shear under appropriate shrinkage stress
and lead to a typical fracture appearance (Figure 17).
Decisive for the material weakening are thus the number, shape, size and orientation of inclusions. In
particular the orientation is significantly responsible for the anisotropy of the strength and deformation
behaviour of the respective base material.

welding
On the basis of their typical appearance, these damages are referred to as lamellar or lamella cracks or
lamellar tearing Crack appearances can run both covered parallel to the surface, and also outgoing
from the surface, typically forming terraces or lamellas running into the base material (Figure 17).
Figure 17: Lined ferritic-pearlitic microstructure with lamella-like cracks in the rolling direction
(non-alloyed structural steels S235JR+AR, import material)
An examination of the technical literature showed the sulphur content in the base material as the main
influence parameter for this type of damage. Hence, rolled manganese sulphurous inclusions (in
addition, slags or perlite lines) have particularly critical effects if they are loaded perpendicular to the
sheet thickness direction due to the shrinkage stresses resulting from the welding process, and if
they are thermally influenced .
Figure 18: Reduction of (fracture) area (trans- Figure 19: Reduction of (fracture) area values for
verse) as a function of the sulphur content according to estimating the lamellar tearing risk according to EN
EN 1011-2 1011-2
For steels with low oxygen content (aluminium-treated or vacuum-degasified types) the sulphur content
is calculated as useful information for the impurity content and therefore the behaviour in the cross ten-
sile test. Figure 18: gives the lowest and highest values for reduction of area in sheet thickness direction,
probably to be expected, with an aluminium-treated steel with a known sulphur content (paragraph
3.4.2). The data apply to sheet metals from 12.5 mm to 50 mm. It should be considered that the relation
between reduction of area in the sheet thickness direction (in %) and the sulphur content (in %) is to
some extent thickness-dependent.

welding
Note The abbreviation “STRA” used in EN 1011-2 (according to ISO TR 17671-2: short transverse re-
duction of area) is not referred to in this document as “short transverse reduction”, but in accordance with
DIN EN 10 164 as the reduction of area in sheet thickness direction.
Lamellar tearing results from the mutual effects between the welding process, structural design and
susceptible base material.
Welded connections perpendicular to the sheet metal plane (T- and cross butts) are considered to be
particular susceptible to cracking.
Figure 20: Lamellar tearing in

welded joints (schematic)
Cold cracks of type lamellar tearing within the range of welded joints are normally characterised by the
following features:
– occur exclusively in the heat-affected zone of the base material,

– are “running” in different planes parallel to the rolling direction,
– have macroscopic dimensions,
– are being formed directly during the manufacturing process and not later.
3.4.2 Options for examining lamellar tearing sensitivity

Original materials Welding joints

Testing proce-
EN ISO 6892-1 EN ISO 6892-1
dures
Specimen types EN 10 164 (EN ISO 9018)
3.4.2.2 Tensile test in sheet thickness direction (cross tensile test)
The sensitivity in relation to the formation of lamellar tearing of the base material can be retrieved by a
tensile test at room temperature (cf. Chapter 2.23) using special test specimen (EN 10 164). It is the re-
duction of area (in sheet thickness direction) that needs to be determined (at least each 15, 25 or 35%).

welding
The necessity to perform a tensile test depends on the sulphur content of the respective base material
(Table 2). The mean value of a set, consisting of three test pieces, must meet the specified require-
ments. A single value may be under the defined minimum mean value, but not below the specified mini-
mum single value.
The tensile test on cruciform and lapped joints according to EN ISO 9018 is suitable for welded joints for
the analysis of a possible lamellar tearing sensitivity.
Table 2: Test units for the verification of Z-quality with flat products according to EN 10 164
Test unit
Quality class S > 0.005 %a S  0.005 %a
Rolling board/Rollsb max. 40 tc Meltingd
Z15 on agreement xe x
Z25 x — xe
Z35 x — xe
a Charge/melt analysis
b With wide band, strip steel and axial-divided strip
c Remaining or residues of products from the same charge/melt with the same heat treatment
d Products with the same heat treatment
e If, when ordering, not agreed otherwise
The lamellar tearing sensitivity cannot be determined with radiation test methods or ultrasonic testing
widely used in practice.
Steels, which have reductions of area above 20% in the cross tensile test, can be considered in accord-
ance with DIN EN 1011-2 as resistant against lamellar tearing. These are usually aluminium-treated
and show low sulphur content (S < 0.005%). Instead of the aluminium treatment, rare earth or calcium
compounds can also be added, however, in order to lower both the amount of inclusions and their shape
advantageously.
Figure 19 enables the estimation of lamellar tearing sensitivity of joints under different types of load, by
the results of the tensile test in sheet thickness direction. The following applies:
1: Probably free of fractures in each type.

2: Risk with highly stressed joints, e.g. node connections.
3: Risk with medium stressed joints, e.g. columns at the foot coating.
4: Risk for low stressed T-junctions, e.g. butt joints.
3.4.3 Prevention of lamellar tearing when welding
Lamellar tearing can be prevented by a combination of material-technical, constructional-design and

welding-technological measures

welding
Table 3 summarises important countermeasures. This section does not deal with the constructional-
design and welding-technological possibilities for the prevention in any more detail, since these are the
subject of a separate view in the main area 3 (EN 1993-1-10).

welding
Table 3: Prevention of lamellar tearing

Influence Measures
Using so-called “z qualities”
e.g.: steel EN 10 025-3 - S355N + EN 10164 – Z35
Material-technical Use of steels with very low S-content (< 0.005%)
By using thermo-mechanically rolled, fine grained structural steels
z. B.: Steel EN 10 025-4 - S355M
Generally, structural solutions are to be used, where:
The tensile-load application is minimised perpendicular to the sheet sur-
face,
By a corresponding weld thickness influence is exerted on the residual
welding stress state,
Constructional-design To minimise the shrinkage stresses by designing the structures as ‘elastic’
as possible (low stiffness),
By selecting a weld joint as large as possible, transmitting of the loading
stresses are performed perpendicular to the surface,
The endangered joints to be arranged in such a way that tensile stresses
are being avoided and instead compressive stresses occur.
Welding-technologically the following should be considered:
Selecting optimised preheat and interpass temperatures,
Welding with low heat input,
Welding sequences creating minimum residual welding stresses,
Using a soft, ductile weld metal,
Welding-technological Using a sequence of buffer layers
Hammering of the weld,
Intermediate annealing (stress relieving),
Reduction of the volume of the weld metal,
Magnification of the weld junction (Figure 21),
Optimised assembly sequence.
a1
a3
a2
a1 = a2 + a3
Figure 21: Example for constructional reduction of the lamellar tearing sensitivity by enlargement of the weld
junction

welding
4 Hot cracking
4.1 General parameters influencing hot cracking
The initiation of hot cracking is determined by three

essential variables:
– the chemical composition,

– stresses in the tensile area and the
– microstructure condition.
Depending on the relationship between these three pa-

rameters, the types of hot cracks mentioned in Figure 2
can occur (Figure 22). If this figure is interpreted under
consideration of DIN 8528 and ISO 581, a direct relation
results between the general affinity to the formation of
hot cracks and the term weldability (compare Chapter
2.05). Therefore, material-specific (weldability), con-
structive (welding safety) and the manufacture-
specific (welding possibility) parameters influence the
hot cracking sensitivity.
Figure 22: The influence on the hot cracking
sensitivity according to DIN 8528 and ISO TR 581
Normally hot cracks are small and extend only rarely by several millimetres or centimetres.
They are usually difficult to find. This applies especially for liquation cracks (section 4.2.2) and ductility
dip cracking (section 4.2.3), which mainly occur as micro-cracks and often not reach to the surface, but
are located inside the weld. Their detection with non-destructive testing is therefore limited.
A hot crack does not have anything to do with crack appearances at low temperatures.
4.2 Overview of the basic types of hot cracking

4.2.1 Solidification cracks
The formation of all kinds of hot cracking depends on the available liquid, sticky or low melting (brittle)
phases on the grain boundaries, which can be initiated by solidification and transformation processes in
the temperature range of the solidus temperature or if they already exist. They are, if present in the mol-
ten state, not able to withstand shrinkage stresses. The consequence is that a microscopic microstruc-
ture expansion occurs at these respective points, the hot cracking.
The hot cracks formed in the weld metal are called solidification cracks (S.C.). They are generated
during crystallisation of the material from the liquid phase and frequently reach up to the surface of
weld metal (centre cracking, end-crater cracking). In the solidification area between the liquidus and soli-
dus line the residual liquid melt can be trapped and isolated (Figure 23). The tensile stresses induced by
shrinkage cannot be withstood by these phases, so that micro separations will be developed between
the crystallites or dendrites (Figure 24). If the crack appearances break through the surface, surface
crack test methods (PT) can be used for the identification.

welding
Figure 23: Schematic of solidi-

fication crack formation according
to BAKER and NEWMAN
Figure 24: Dendrites in the area of a solidification crack in different magnifications (SEM image)
Hot cracking of type solidification cracks in the range of welded joints are normally characterised by
following features:
– arises exclusively in the weld metal,

– are intergranular and interdendritic (Figure 24),
– have microscopic and macroscopic dimensions,
– develop immediately during crystallisation of weld metal.
4.2.2 Liquation cracks
Hot cracking located in the base material next to the weld metal or in adjacent weld metal during multi-
layer welding are known as liquation cracks (L.C.).
This type of hot cracks is developed in the HAZ of the base material to be welded or in the HAZ of the
multi-run weld during the cooling phase. They are almost always directly attached to the fusion line and

welding
have also branches beyond the fusion line into the weld metal (Figure 26, Figure 27). Due to the thermal
load of the welding process the area of the HAZ, directly adjacent to the weld metal, is heated to temper-
atures that are near the solidus temperature of the base material. Here, phases at the grain boundaries
having a melting point lower than that of the base metal can already melt and distribute like a film on the
grain surfaces (Figure 25). During multilayer welding the weld metal beads and their adjacent HAZ below
are thermally influenced by the last weld run. Due to this, liquation cracks may occur in the weld metal,
too.
Figure 25: Schematic of liqua-

tion cracking according to AP-
BLETT and PELLINI
Figure 26: Combination of solidification- and liqua- Figure 27: Liquation cracking in a micro weld joint
tion cracking in an austenitic steel of austenitic steel

welding
Hot cracking of the type liquation cracking in the range of welded joints are normally characterised by
following features:
– arises in the heat-affected zone or in re-heated weld metal,

– intergranular position,
– have microscopic dimensions,
– develop immediately during the welding process.
4.2.3 Cracks caused by ductility dips
In case of very high temperatures, another type of crack may occur. Due to their small distance to the
areas of the formation of the classical hot cracks (paragraphs 4.2.1 and 4.2.2), they are also categorised
to hot cracking, although their formation is not causally bound to the presence of molten grain boundary
phases. The exact formation mechanism of these cracks has not completely been explained yet, howev-
er, it is connected to the reduction of the deformation capacity of the material due to brittle carbide pre-
cipitations (type M23C6) in the temperature range concerned. From this reason these cracks are also
known as Ductility Dip Cracks (D.D.C.). They occur in some distance from the melting line and repre-
sent intercrystalline separations arising in the solid state at very high temperatures.
Figure 28: Influencing parame-

ter on “hot toughness” and strength
(with ductility dip)
Hot cracking of type ductility dip cracking in the field of welded joints are normally characterised by the
following features:
– arises in the heat-affected zone or in re-heated weld metal,

– intergranular position,
– have microscopic dimensions,
– develop immediately during the welding process.

welding
4.3 Influencing the hot cracking sensitivity

4.3.1 General metallurgical factors
From a metallurgical point of view, the extent of the solidification interval to be passed during cooling as
well as the quantitative ratio between the solid and liquid phases in the range of the solidus temperature
are of great importance for the hot cracking sensitivity. Therefore, it is generally aimed at limiting the exist-
ing range of the liquid grain boundary films (Figure 29). In this context the elements sulphur and phos-
phorus play an important role among the alloying and additional elements that form low melting phases.
Figure 29: Sche-

matic figure of the dwell
time of grain boundary
films (according to AP-
BLETT and PELLINI)
The effects of important alloying and additional elements on hot cracking sensitivity can be obtained from
Table 4.
Table 4: Effects of important alloying and trace elements on hot cracking sensitivity
Effect Element
Formation of low-melting eutectics S, P, Zn, Sn, As, Cu, ...
“Ferrite formers”: e.g. Cr, Mo, Al
Influence of the type of primary crystallisation
“Austenite formers”: e.g. C, Ni, Cu, Mn
Changing of the grain boundary film properties C, Si, Al, Ti, Ce, Y, O
Influence of the grain size Ti, Nb, Ce and Y
4.3.2 Metallurgical features for welding austenitic stainless steels
In contrast to unalloyed and (low) alloyed steels, stainless steels distinguish themselves due to their
chemical composition by the possibility of having a primarily ferritic or also a primary austenitic solidi-
fication. Since ferrite compared to austenite has a higher solubility for sulphur and numerous other alloy-
ing- and additional elements (Table 5), and simultaneously has a substantially lower thermal expansion
coefficient at temperatures around the liquidus (αFerrite  16*10-6 /K; αAustenite  23*10-6 /K), a primarily
ferritic solidification (delta ferrite) occurs considerably less susceptible to the formation of hot cracking
than for austenitic solidification. Steels with a primarily austenitic solidification are therefore more suscep-
tible to hot cracking than ferritic solidifying steels.

welding
In particular austenitic stainless steels have a higher metallurgical-based sensitivity for hot cracking
than e.g. unalloyed structural steels.
Table 5: Behaviour and properties of hot crack-conveying elements in austenite and ferrite according to
ZIMMERMANN and GÜNTHER
Element Solubility in pure iron Low melting phase
in austenite in ferrite
% Temperature % Temperature microstructure Melting Point
[°C] [°C] [°C]
Eutectic Fe-FeS 988
Sulphur 0.05 1365 0.14 1365
Eutectic Ni-NiS 630
Eutectic Fe-Fe3P 1048
Phosphorus 0.20 1250 1.6 1250
Eutectic Ni-Ni3P 875
Eutectic Fe-Fe2B 1177
Boron 0.005 1381 0.5 1381 Eutectic Fe-Ni2B 1140
Eutectic (Fe, Cr)2B-austenite 1180
Eutectic Fe-Fe2Nb 1370
Niobium 1.0 1300 4.1 1300 Eutectic NbC austenite 1315
Nb-Ni-rich phases 1160
Eutectic Fe-Fe2Ti 1290
Titanium 0.36 1300 8.1 1300
Eutectic TiC austenite 1320
Eutectic Fe-Fe2Si 1212
Silicon 1.15 1300 10.5 1300 Eutectic NiSi-Ni3Si2 964
NiSi 996
Liquid
Liquid
Liquid
Figure 30: Schematic diagram
of solidification in the alloy range of
the ternary reaction according to
SUUTALA
The solidification of a Cr-Ni steel is shown by a section in the system iron-chromium-nickel at approx. 72
% iron (Figure 30). For a weld metal composition (alloy 1) of significantly more chromium than nickel
(Creq/Nieq = 1.6) the alloy solidifies primarily ferritic and austenite forms only later. This primary ferrite
can significantly solve more of additional and residual impure elements (Table 5), so that these are no
more available for any eutectic formation. The risk of hot cracking is accordingly low. The example alloy
with index 2 however, solidifies primarily austenitic (higher nickel content, Creq/Nieq = 1.3) and there is
a higher risk of hot cracking. In this case, the secondary forming delta ferrite almost no longer has an
influence on the hot crack behaviour.

welding
Important metallurgical factors for the limitation of hot cracking sensitivity for stainless steels:
– Reduction of the content in hot crack-conveying elements (sulphur, phosphorus, etc.)

– Increase of the manganese content (e.g for full-austenitic steels)
– Enabling a primarily ferritic solidification (e.g. for metastable austenitic steels)
4.3.3 Metallurgical welding features of unalloyed structural steels
If in non-alloyed structural steels hot crack appearances are found (usually cracks in the middle of
the weld in root runs of multi-layer welds which can reach up to the surface) usually additional factors,
along with the metallurgical influencing parameters, positively affecting the mechanisms of hot cracking.
These are, among others:
The dilution ratio:

The more (impure) base material is melted, the higher the risk of the formation of these cracks.
The weld bead geometry:

In particular the height-/width-ratio is determined by the bevel angle, the root face and the root gap as
well as the welding parameters (welding current,-voltage or focus position).
For submerged arc welding, equations were developed for carbon and carbon-manganese steels that
enable the determination of the solidification cracking sensitivity, in arbitrarily selected sizes and in rela-
tion to the composition of the weld metal (in % (m/m)), as units for cracking sensitivity. Although these
were originally developed for submerged arc welding, their application may be helpful for estimating the
solidification cracking risk for other welding processes and for other ferritic steels, too. One of these
equations is, according to EN 1011-2:
UCS = 230 %C + 190 %S + 75 %P + 45 %Nb - 12.3 %Si - 5.4 %Mn - 1
This equation for the hot cracking sensitivity factor UCS ( Unalloyed Hot Cracking Sensitivity) applies for
the composition of weld metal, as in Table 6 can be seen. Alloying elements and impurities up to the
specified limits, being contained in the weld metal, do not exert pronounced influence on the UCS values.
Values below 10 UCS indicate high cracking resistance, values above 30 indicate low cracking re-
sistance. Within these approximate limits, the risk of cracking is higher for those weld beads having a
high height-/width-ratio being produced with high welding speed or if their chemical composition values
are close to the permissible maximum values.
Table 6: Validity of the UCS equation

Element Alloy content in % Element Alloy content in %
C 0.030a to 0.230 Ni max. 1
S 0.010 to 0.050 Cr max. 0.5
P 0.010 to 0.045 Mo max. 0.4
Si 0.150 to 0.650 Cu max. 0.3
Mn 0.450 to 1.600 Ti max. 0.02
Nb 0.000 to 0.070 Al max. 0.03
a Percentages lower than 0.08% are to be treated as if they were 0.08%.
Although nickel up to 1% does not influence on the UCS values, sensitivity for solidification cracks can
increase with higher nickel contents.
While for fillet welds with a thickness/width ratio of approx. 1.0, UCS values of 20 and above indicate a
risk of cracking, for butt welds the critical UCS values just start around 25 and above. By a reduction of

welding
the thickness/width ratio of 1.0 to 0.8, the permissible UCS value can be increased by approximately 9 in
case of fillet welds. Nevertheless even when very small thickness/width ratios are achieved, if the pene-
tration does not cover the root, crack formation is given.
4.3.4 Technological factors
In general it can be stated that a principally low heat input must be aimed for during welding in order to
avoiding hot cracking. In single cases however, even with increased energy input a positive effect to the
hot cracking sensitivity can be achieved on weld metal solidification and the related avoidance of an in-
creased segregation concentration in the weld core. Finally it has to be verified for each case of applica-
tion which method should be used to obtain the desired success.
By means of reduced heat input (e.g. by reducing the weld amperage) a more disarranged cellular
shape of smaller crystal diameters can be generated in the weld metal, instead of the relatively coarse,
directed dendrite formation.
The segregation concentration due to the collision of the accruing crystallization fronts can eventually be
avoided by a reduced welding speed. This welding speed reduction causes a more elliptical formation of
the crystallization front and thereby a more favourable orientation of the crystals in the weld direction.
Flat and broad weld shapes, in contrast to narrow and deep shapes, also prevent the immediate merging
of crystal parts and the consequent high segregation concentration (see chapter 2.05).
The application of thin electrodes with lower current intensities, string beads without oscillation and
the avoidance of larger welding pools reduce the risk of hot cracking also. Often these measures are
the last possibilities for the avoidance of hot cracking.
Important technological factors for the limitation of hot cracking sensitivity of stainless steels:
– Reducing the heat input into the welded joint

– Avoiding or reducing shrinkage stresses
– Low-stress microstructure
4.3.5 Examination of hot cracking formations

General specifications Self-restraint tests Externally-loaded tests

Testing proce- EN ISO 17 641-1 EN ISO 17 641-2, EN ISO 17 641-3,
dures DVS 1004-1 DVS 1004-3 DVS 1004-2
EN ISO 17 641-2, EN ISO 17 642-3,
Specimen types —
DVS 1004-3 DVS 1004-2
4.3.5.2 Self-restraint hot cracking tests methods
In the self-restraint hot crack testing methods the load will be created by obstructed shrinking of the
specimens themselves due to a highly if possible, fixed restraint during welding. All test piece shapes
supply a
Yes/No statement (hot cracks present or not).

welding
A quantitative evaluation of the cracks however is not, or only in a restricted way, possible. The big ad-
vantage of this test method is however that no complex hot cracking test equipment is required. We have
to differentiate between testing methods in which the test piece is the entire weld (double fillet weld test
piece), and those where the test pieces are carved out from pure weld metal or a weld (hook crack ten-
sile test piece, longitudinal bending specimen). In the latter case, latently present hot cracking in the weld
are torn open by tension or bending. The self-restraint hot cracking test methods currently used in Ger-
many are mainly the following:
– double fillet weld test,

– hook crack test,
– the Longitudinal bending test (Figure 31).
Figure 31: Curved longitudinal bending specimen with Figure 32: MVT-test, experimental setup for
measurement range for analysis the Varestraint type
4.3.5.3 externally-loaded hot cracking test method
Hot cracking testing methods with externally-loaded test piece shapes have been developed, in order to
achieve quantitative, reproducible and comparable test results. The test conditions for these processes
are chosen in such a way that they conform to the hot cracking theories and enable a broad spectrum of
parameters for examination. All processes require relatively complex test equipment. The test specimen
are however simple. The time required for the execution of the tests is also very low, at least in case of
the three methods mentioned below
– Hot tensile-test (Geeble-test)

– Hot-Deformationrate-test (HDR-test)
– Modified Varestraint-Transvarestraint-test (MVT-test, Figure 32)
– Programmed-deformation crack-test (PVR-test)

welding
5 Question
(1) Which general types of crack appearances can occur in welded joints?
 Cracks which are caused metallurgically.

 Cracks in the parent material (HAZ).
 Cracks caused technologically.
 Cracks in the weld metal.
 Cracks caused by operational demands (load).
(2) Which superordinate types of material-conditioned cracks do you know?
 Cracks due to stress corrosion cracking.

 Cracks due to overstrainings during use.
 Cold cracks.
 Hydrogen-induced cracks.
 Hot cracks.
(3) A hardening crack is a ...
 Cold crack?
 Hot crack?
 Material-dependent welding defect?
 Solidification crack?
 Lamellar tearing?
(4) Which of the following statements are correct?
 Cold crack is the umbrella term for a number of crack appearances.

 A cold crack requires for its formation low melting grain boundary phases.
 A cold crack does not require low melting grain boundary phases for its formation.
 A cold crack is formed in the cooled down state or during cooling.
 A cold crack is formed at temperatures below -20 °C.
(5) Which of the following statements are correct?
 Hot crack is the umbrella term for a number of crack appearances.

 Hot crack requires for its formation low melting grain boundary phases.
 Hot crack does not require low melting grain boundary phases for its formation.
 Hot cracking takes place at high temperatures.
 Hot cracks are formed only above temperatures of 1.200 °C.

welding
(6) By which measures can hardening cracks be prevented effectively?
 By the limitation of the hydrogen supply.

 Through measures for the re-drying of basic-covered and welding flux.
 By measures for targeted heat input.
 By taking into account the carbon equivalent CEV.
 By using fewer materials prone to hardening.
(7) Which important factors influence considerably the hydrogen content in the weld metal?
 Moisture (e.g. from the atmosphere, electrode coating, welding flux, etc.)
 The critical carbon equivalent CEV (> 0.45%).
 Crystal water (e.g. bound to minerals in the filler materials),
 Temperatures below room temperature.
 Organic compounds (e.g. cellulose casings).
(8) By which measures can lamellar tearing be prevented most effectively?
 By using abnormal steels.

 By using so-called “z qualities.”
 By using steels of very low sulphur content (< 0.005%).
 By using unkilled steels.
 By using thermomechanically rolled, fine grained structural steels.
(9) Which chemical elements have disadvantageous effects on hot crack resistance?
 Chromium.
 Molybdenum.
 Phosphorous.
 Sulphur.
 Boron.
(10) Which type of primary solidification of stainless steels has beneficial effects on hot cracking pre-
vention?
 Bainite primary solidification.

 Martensitic primary solidification.
 Diffusion-controlled primary solidification.
 Ferritic primary solidification.
 Austenitic primary solidification.

welding
6 Bibliography
Schuster, J.:
Heißrisse in Schweißverbindungen - Entstehung, Nachweis und Vermeidung.
DVS-Berichte, Band 233
Düsseldorf; Verlag für Schweißen und verwandte Verfahren DVS-Verlag GmbH; 2004
Schuster, J.:
Schweißen von Eisen-, Stahl- und Nickelwerkstoffen – Leitfaden für die schweißmetallurgische Praxis.
Fachbuchreihe Schweißtechnik, Band 130 [Series of reference books on welding technology, Volume 130]
Böse, U.:
Das Verhalten der Werkstoffe beim Schweißen – Teil 1.
Dilthey, U.:
Welding process and 2 – behaviours of the materials during welding.
Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer-Verlag, 2005

Großer Atlas Schweiß-ZTU-Schaubilder.

Metallurgie und Werkstofftechnik – Ein Wissensspeicher. Band 1.
Schulze. G.:
Die Metallurgie des Schweißens.
Fiedler, M.; Schafzahl, D.; Fischer, J. et al.:

Einfluss der Schweißbedingungen und Elektrodenbehandlung auf den Wasserstoffeintrag ins Schweiß-
gut bei Verwendung von Stabelektroden.
Sonderdruck: Gefahrenquelle Wasserstoff bei der Schweißung von unlegierten Stählen.
Böhler Schweißtechnik Austria GmbH
EN 1011-2:
Recommendations for the welding of metallic materials.
Module 2: Arc welding of ferritic steels.

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Fractures and different kind of fractures Page 1
Chapter 2.07: Fractures and different kind of fractures
Contents
1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 2
2 Definitions ............................................................................................................................. 3
3 Overview of technical break phenomena ........................................................................... 3
4 Forced fractures ................................................................................................................... 4
4.1 Types of forced fractures ........................................................................................................................ 4
4.2 Metallurgical principles ............................................................................................................................ 5
4.2.1 Brittle fractures ............................................................................................................................ 5
4.2.2 Ductile fractures .......................................................................................................................... 8
4.3 Forced fractures – test .......................................................................................................................... 14
5 Fatigue fractures ................................................................................................................ 15
5.1 Metallurgical principles .......................................................................................................................... 15
5.2 Fatigue fractures – test ......................................................................................................................... 17
6 Creep fractures ................................................................................................................... 18
6.1 Metallurgical principles .......................................................................................................................... 18
6.2 Creeping fractures – test ...................................................................................................................... 19
7 Evaluation of fracture patterns.......................................................................................... 20
8 Examples of damage caused by fracture phenomena .................................................... 22
8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 22
8.2 The sinking of the R.M.S. “Titanic” ...................................................................................................... 23
8.3 Collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge ........................................................................................... 23
8.4 Crashes involving the DeHavilland DH 106 “Comet” ....................................................................... 24
8.5 Boiler explosion on the S.S. “Norway” ................................................................................................ 25
9 Question .............................................................................................................................. 26
10 Bibliography...................................................................................................................... 28

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1 Introduction
Fractures and break phenomena in metallic materials are responsible for a large part of technical dam-
age (cf. section 8). Components tend to fail less due to a complex combination of unforeseeable influ-
ences. Also, material imperfections lead only rarely to the inoperability of technical systems as a rule. In
the majority of cases it is particularly the disregarding of basic rules for the design and use of metal-
lic materials (cf. module 3 for example) which is responsible for a large part of the technical damage
caused by break phenomena.
Effective damage analysis, e.g. in line with VDI Directive 3822, as well as the derivation of effective
countermeasures thus require knowledge of the technical mechanisms that produce the different
types of fractures. On the one hand, these depend on numerous internal, i.e. material-specific influen-
tial factors, including the atomic structure (type of elementary cell, cf. section 2.01), the microstructure
and the mechanical properties of the relevant metal or alloy. On the other hand, a significant link exists
between the different break phenomena and the external variables, such as the type of stress or the
ambient temperature.
The cause of numerous cases of damage, such as the sudden breaking of a series of “Liberty ships” and
“T2 tankers” (Figure 1) in the 1940s, or the numerous spectacular crashes of the DeHavilland DH 106
“COMET”, the world's first production jet engine airliner, in the 1950s (Figure 2) were finally explained by
evaluating the break mechanisms.
Note The aim of this chapter is NOT to analyse cases of damage. Instead it aims to explain the most
important types of break phenomena, their formation mechanisms and external appearance. This will
establish important principles necessary for effective loss analysis.
Notes: Likewise, this chapter does not deal with cracks or their features. These are described in detail in
section 2.06. It should be remembered that cracks are formed by mechanisms other than fracture. In
many cases, however, the appearance of minor cracks heralds the formation of fractures.
Figure 1: Detail showing brittle fracture damage to Liber- Figure 2: A DeHavilland DH 106 “COMET” aeroplane
ty freighter the S.S. “Charles S. Haight” that crashed due to fatigue fracturing (photo: Aeroplane
(photo: Ted Dow) Monthly, Trevor Friend)

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2 Definitions
Crack
A crack is a material split that does not encompass the entire cross-section of a material, component or
complex technical system, not yet causing it to fall apart. Cracks are in many cases starting points of a
fracture.
Fracture
A fracture is a material split that encompasses the entire cross-section of a material, component or
complex technical system, causing it to fall apart with irregular surfaces. In many cases, fractures can
start as cracks.
Allotropism / polymorphism
The term allotropism refers to the property of numerous chemical elements, while the term polymor-
phism refers to the property of numerous alloys (solid solutions) that enables them to change their ele-
mentary cell type according to temperature and pressure (cf. section 2.02).
3 Overview of technical break phenomena
Figure 3 differentiates technical break phenomena according to their main parameters. It must be noted
that all fracture types involve combinations of the parameters listed in this summary and depend on the
type of stress, type of deformation and type of fracture mechanism operating in the relevant material.
Fractures
Type of loading Type of deformation Type of break mechanism

The capacity of the material to The internal mechanism acting
The direction of the external
deform internally, both micro- within the material (which de-
stress (load) affects the type of
scopically and macroscopically, pends on the material) has an
fracture.
impacts on the fracture. impact on fracture morphology.
formation + cleavage frac-
Dynamic with plastic without plastic
Static loading merging of ture stress ex-
(cyclic) loading deformation deformation
cavities ceeded
Ductile
Fatigue- Brittle fracture Cleavage frac-
Forced fracture Sliding frac-
related (cleavage ture
fracture (ductile ture
fracture fracture) fracture
failure)
Figure 3; Classification of break phenomena according to their parameters
If the break phenomena are further classified according to type of stress, the relationships shown in Fig-
ure 4 result. These special fracture types will be dealt with in further detail below.

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Fractures
Forced fracture Fatigue crack Creep fracture
Sudden load Alternating load Static load

Stress is continuously Stress changes periodically or
Stress remains constant over
increased until the fracture oc- non-periodically over time,
time
curs depending on size and direction
Brittle fracture Deformation Progressive cracking up to
(cleavage frac- (ductile) frac- forced fracture, depending on
ture) ture stress
Perpendicular Deformation
to the direction and con-
Locally limited Fatigue fracture Residual
of tension with- striction (45°
Mixed mode initial crack surface forced fracture
out macroscop- to direction of
ic deformation fracture tension)
Crystalline frac- Honeycombed Wedge-shaped “Smooth” surface Coarse
ture surface fracture surface fractures with lines of rest structure
Figure 4: Overview of important fracture types according to type of stress
4 Forced fractures
4.1 Types of forced fractures
Forced fractures can be divided into brittle fractures and ductile fractures according to Figure 4. The re-
spective appearance of the fracture is presented schematically in Table 1.
Table 1: Types of forced fracture (schematic)
Brittle fracture Deformation fracture
Transgranular Intergranular Ductile fracture with Ductile fracture with
cleavage fracture cleavage fracture honeycomb formation necking
   
As is evident in Table 1 brittle material characteristics result in brittle destruction. This can occur both
transgranular as intergranular (fields  and  in the diagram). On the other hand, the ductile fractures

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are characterised by a more or less distinct reduction of area. The fracture can begin as an internal
honeycomb formation (field ), but, with sufficient flowability, this is not necessarily the case (field ).
Note For a better understanding of the following descriptions, please revise the “Real structure and ma-
terial properties” part of section 2.01.
4.2 Metallurgical principles

4.2.1 Brittle fractures
The majority of cubic body centred metallic materials lose their ability to slide at an atomic level as the tem-
perature drops, i.e. they lose plasticity and ductility. As a result, when loading is applied, the grains are split
along defined crystallographic planes, referred to as cleavage planes (cf.

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Table 2) or more weakened (more embrittled) grain boundaries. Consequently an unstable (less controlla-
ble) crack can expand (Figure 10). The splitting of the grains (and/or the grain boundaries) leads to the typi-
cal appearance of the cleavage fracture. This is a brittle (without any deformation) fracture that can occur
on both a transgranular and intergranular basis (cf. Table 1, both left hand fields as well as Figure 6 and Fig-
ure 7 / Figure 8 and Figure 89).
Note Transgranular cleavage fractures mainly occur in cubic body-centred and tightly packed hexagonal
structures because the sliding planes are insufficient.
The conditions for this fracture mechanism exist when the

highest normal tensile stress, i.e. the cohesive strength of
the material is exceeded. This fracture type is sometimes
also referred to as normal stress fracture. If there has been
no measurable plastic deformation prior to the fracture
(stress is less than the yield strength), a brittle fracture has
occurred.
Note Brittle fractures are normal stress fractures (cf. Figure

5 and Table 3).
Figure 5: How normal stress influences the formation of brittle frac-

tures
In particular, cleavage fractures may occur if:
– “atomic sliding” is prevented, e.g. by the “ordered arrangement” of substituted atoms or “concentration
clouds” of interstitially arranged atoms within the crystal.
– the blocking of “atomic sliding” increases as the temperature declines due to the decreasing diffusion rate.
– accumulating dislocations can no longer slide, causing the grain or grain boundary to fragment.
– larger incipient cracks occur in coarse grains than in fine grains due to the long dislocation paths.

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Table 2: Cleavage planes depending on the type of adhesion lattice (type of elementary cell)
The cleavage planes are the cube surfaces, i.e. {100) planes
cbc lattice The total number of the 6 cube faces (h k l) in the cbc lattice: 6
(100) (010) (001) (100) (010) ()001
Cleavage planes are the base- and top faces, i.e. the (0001) planes
hdp lattice Faces (h k l m) in the hdp lattice: 2
(0001) (0001)
Cleavage is not possible in the cfc lattice (except in the case of superimposed corrosion),
because there are enough sliding planes (12)
cfc lattice
According to VDI directive 3822, the term “intergranular cleavage fracture” applies to
cleavage along grain boundaries (cf. Figure 8 and Figure 9).
Figure 6: Brittle fracture – transgranular cleavage frac- Figure 7: Brittle fracture – transgranular cleavage frac-
ture in medium extension (REM image) ture in higher extension (REM image)
Figure 8: Brittle fracture – intergranular cleavage frac- Figure 9: Brittle fracture – intergranular cleavage frac-
ture in medium extension (REM image) ture in higher extension (REM image)
The fractured surfaces shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7 indicate gap facets with typical “flow lines” that
run in the direction of the crack propagation. They are reminiscent of “real” flows that begin at the start-
ing point of fragmentation and come to completion at the end: “tongues” develop on twin fractures. The
cleavage planes are not completely atomically smooth.

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The intergranular fracture shown in Figure 8 and Figure 9 occurs when the grain boundaries are embrittled
due to precipitations or impurities or the grains cannot be split in cfc structures (sufficient sliding planes are
present here.) In this case, the grain boundary was damaged by diffusible hydrogen.
Stage 1 Stage 2
 
(1  (1 
01 01
) )
 
(001) (001)
 
) )
01  01 
(1  (1 
Dislocations move under stress due to shear stresses  Dislocations accumulate due to mutual blocking
Stage 3 Stage 4

(1 
01
)

(001)

)
01 
(1 
Additional dislocations also move and accumulate un- The field of tension around accumulated dislocations
der stress leads to fragmentation, cleavage plane: (001)
Figure 10: Cleavage fracture, schematic formation mechanism
The crystallographic representations of the mechanism of the formation of (transgranular) cleavage frac-
tures are contained in Figure 10. Four stages can be assumed to exist. Firstly a submicroscopic cleav-
age crack occurs and develops into a cleavage fracture through unstable (uncontrollable) growth.
The variables listed below can promote the tendency for the formation of brittle fractures:
– Large plate thickness
– Sharp surface scarring
– High residual stress states
– Imbalanced structure (e.g. martensite)
– Non-metallic inclusions (e.g. MnS)
– Coarse-grained microstructure
– High carbon content
– Low temperatures
– Sudden (rapid) stress
– Embrittling precipitations (e.g. intermetallic phases, hydrogen)
4.2.2 Ductile fractures
The flow of a material can be seen as the sliding of the crystal planes across one another and therefore
the movement of dislocations. The material behaves plastically and is therefore ductile. The crack starts

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with the confluence of dislocations (linear lattice faults) at grain and phase boundaries. As a result local
stress concentrations are developed. Finally, in this way the fracture is linked to high local deformations.
Macroscopically this is expressed in a strong constriction (so-called “funnel fracture”) and microscopically
as a “honeycomb fracture” (Table 1, both right hand fields, Figure 13 and Figure 14)
Note Ductile fractures can occur in cbc, hdP and cfc microstructures. cbc and hdP microstructures are
particularly temperature-dependent.
Ductile fractures only occur after certain plastic deformations

(Figure 11) and are characterised by slow crack propaga-
tion. Hence this fracture type is referred to as a ductile frac-
ture. Individual phases, precipitations and inclusions sepa-
rate from the basic microstructure when the yield point or
elongation limit is exceeded.
Figure 11: How normal stress influences the formation of ductile

fractures
Ductile fractures differ in the way their fracture surfaces are formed. The question of whether the material
is “pure”, for example a pure metal or a “technical” material, such as an alloy is crucial. Thus, de-
pending on their appearance, so-called “shearing fractures”, “funnel fractures”, “wood fibre frac-
ture” or “drill fractures” can occur (cf. Figure 12 and Table 6).
Macroscopic occurrences
“Pure” material “Technical” material
Tensile load Bending Torsion
“Shearing fracture” “Funnel fracture” “Wood fibre fracture” “Drill fracture”
Microscopic occurrences
“Honeycomb fracture” (macroscopic “funnel fracture”)

Generally caused and influenced by secondary phase particles
Physical properties of the particles Brittleness of the particles (particle fracture)
Arrangement/distribution of the particles (transgranular/ intergranular ductile fracture)
Interface cohesion (de-cohesion cracks) Matrix properties between the particles
Figure 12: Types of ductile fractures (sliding fractures)
Ductile fractures often feature a characteristic honeycomb structure (Figure 13 and Figure 14). Phas-
es, precipitations and inclusions, for example, manganese sulphides or carbides, are often encountered
inside the honeycombs (Figure 14).

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Figure 13: Ductile fracture – honeycomb fracture in me- Figure 14: Ductile fracture – honeycomb fracture in high
dium extension (REM image) extension (REM image)
Ductile fractures (honeycomb fractures) are generally formed in three phases. In the first phase, tensile
stresses are applied uni-axially to the material. The material first behaves flexibly and no internal dam-
age occurs. In the second phase, individual precipitations, for example, manganese sulphides (Figure
16 to Figure 19), separate from the microstructure and local constrictions occur (microscopic at first). In
the third and final phase, many small cavities occur in the areas of the local constrictions. If the stress
is great enough, the connecting faces between these cavities separate and the characteristic honey-
comb pattern develops. This mechanism is shown schematically in Figure 15.
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Figure 15: Ductile fracture (honeycomb fracture) – schematic formation mechanism
The morphology of a fracture surface under the scanning electron microscope (SEM) can be seen in Fig-
ure 16. The clearly recognisable inclusions are manganese sulphides (MnS, Figure 17 to Figure 19).

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Figure 16: Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image Figure 17: Distribution of the element iron on the frac-
of a ductile fracture area with inclusions ture surface (EDX surface analysis)
Figure 18: Distribution of the element manganese on the Figure 19: Distribution of the element sulphur on the
fracture surface (EDX surface analysis) fracture surface (EDX surface analysis)
The appearance of the honeycombs with ductile fractures, i.e. whether they are straight, shallow, deep
or shear honeycombs or have an intergranular or transgranular structure, depends on a series on pa-
rameters. They are compiled in Figure 20.
Local Ductility of the matrix sur- Point of origin of the honey-

state of loading (stresses) rounding the particles combs in microstructure
Tensile load in the grain

Ductile matrix
Straight honeycombs Transgranular honeycomb fracture
Shearing load Deep honeycombs at the grain boundaries

Shear honeycombs Intergranular honeycomb fracture
Brittle matrix
Torsional load at grain boundary pores
Shear honeycombs Flat honeycombs Characteristic of creep fracture
Figure 20: Parameters affecting the manifestation of honeycomb fractures
In the case of a unidirectional (static) loading, the tendency of a material to ductile fracturing depends on
the following parameters among others:

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– Temperature (depending on the type of elementary cell)

– Type of stress state (unidirectional state preferred)
– Wall thickness, workpiece thickness
– Material hardness (ductile fracture preferably in the case of soft metals)
– Material (type of elementary cell)
– Purity of material (number/size of inclusions)
– Grain size and shape
Depending on the respective parameters, such as environmental conditions or material features, mixed
forms of the different types of forced fracture are possible. This means that both transgranular and in-
tergranular brittle fractures (cleavage fracture) as well as ductile and brittle ductile fractures can occur
simultaneously (Figure 21 and Figure 22).
Figure 21: Brittle fracture – mixed fracture area (inter- Figure 22: Ductile fracture – mixed fracture (ductile and
granular and transgranular), REM image brittle), REM image
Note The forced ruptures described in this section must not be confused with cracking, such as lamel-
lar tearing (cf. section 2.06). As shown in Figure 23 and Figure 24, such damage is caused within the
structure of the materials (e.g. impurities, precipitations, inclusions).
Figure 23: Overview of a lamellar tear (weld metal Figure 24: Ferritic-pearlitic structure with linear intersti-
fractured) tial manganese sulphides, fractured

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Table 3 shows the different types of forced fractures as well as their destruction according to their external
and internal stresses. The external direction of force, i.e. tension, compression, bending or torsion is as-
sumed.
Table 3: Formation of the forced rupture forms for different stresses

External loading Internal loading
Direction of the maximum stresses
Destruction pattern
in the problematic cross-section
Direction of force Highest normal Brittle frac- Shear or sliding
Highest shear
(separation) ture deformation
stresses
Stresses (brittle) (plastic)
Tension
Com
pression
Bending
Torsion

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4.3 Forced fractures – test
The technical proof of forced fractures can be provided in laboratory tests and with type tests. Two
fundamental concepts have established themselves for laboratory tests. These are:
– the transition temperature concept and the

– fracture mechanics concept
The transition temperature concept reveals the transition from ductility to brittleness when the temper-
ature is reduced under otherwise unchanged test conditions. Typical test methods corresponding to this
concept include:
– the tension, compression, bending and torsion testing (cf. Table 3)

– the Charpy test
– the bead bend test
– the ROBERTSON cracking trapping test
On the other hand, the fracture mechanics concept is used to determine a material parameter inde-
pendently of the specimen configuration, for example the critical stress intensity factor K IC, which can be
included in the component design calculation. The following are available for this purpose:
– the linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) are particularly suitable for brittle materials, e.g. nominal
stress concept
– the flow fracture mechanics are particularly suitable for ductile materials, such as CTOD concept;
J-integral-concept
Note Further information on various non-destructive test methods can be found in section 2.23.
Unlike laboratory tests, the majority of type tests are not standardised. Table 4 contains an overview of
common test methods.
Table 4: Process for testing large samples
Static Dynamic
Test type Crack arrest
crack initiation crack initiation
– Pressure test involv-
– Explosive test involv-
ing surface – Pressure test with
Full scale tests ing surface
scars/cracks, crack initiator
scars/cracks
– Static bend test
– Isothermal Robertson
– Tensile test on test,
Large scale tests – Explosion crack test
notched test pieces – Double tensile test,
– SOD test
– High-speed bending
– Tensile test on
test on notched test
notched test pieces,
Medium scale tests pieces, – Drop weight test
– Slow-bend test on
– Decreasing weight
notched test pieces
crack test
Depending of fracture mechanism used, forced fractures have a typical macroscopic appearance.
Thus brittle fractures appear crystalline, bright and ductile fractures are dull. The causes for this are
the light-optical characteristic features of the respective fracture areas (Figure 25).

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Brittle fracture Deformation fracture
Crystalline macroscopic appearance based on Dull macroscopic appearance based on non-

directional reflection directional reflection
Figure 25: Macroscopic appearance of forced fractures
5 Fatigue fractures
Fatigue or cyclic fractures are formed if, due to applied load changes, micro-plastic processes take
place at the smallest internal or external surface notches. These can lead to stress peaks on a micro-
scopic or macroscopic level. Consequently, yield strength and elongation excesses lead to small or
microscopic cracks in the microstructure. The formation of these cracks depends on many parameters.
These include:
– the intensity of the load,

– the duration of the load,
– the type of load,
– the form of the notch,
– the size of the notch.
The result is a crack with wedge-shaped sections. In addition, fatigue fractures feature a smooth, brit-
tle main fracture surface with numerous “lines of rest” as well as a ragged, coarse residual forced
fracture (Figure 26) which can occur both ductile as brittle. Its formation corresponds to the mechanisms
described in section 4.
The lines of rest, which are typical of fatigue fractures, occur if the load state of the component or test
piece changes during operation. Thus, for example, an interruption of the load also leads to an interrup-
tion in crack propagation. On the other hand, a continuation of the load or a change of amplitude fre-
quency allows the crack to continue to propagate.
Note About 60% of all break phenomena occurring in technical systems are fatigue fractures.

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Notch
For example: External notch caused by mechanical

damage to the shaft surface during operation
Residual forced
fracture surface Fatigue crack
Low-deformation (loose), flat, brittle fracture-like sur-

Fatigue face with numerous “lines of rest”
fracture
surface
Residual forced fracture
Notch
The surface resembles a forced fracture with plastic
deformation or brittle characteristics
Figure 26: Fatigue fracture – fatigue failure on a shaft
Fatigue fractures may occur both macroscopically (Figure 26) and microscopically (Figure 27 and Figure
28). In the first case, the “lines of rest” are evident to the naked eye, while in the latter case they are only
visible under the scanning electron microscope (SEM).
Figure 27: Microscopic fatigue fracture surface with Figure 28: Microscopic fatigue fracture surface with
“lines of rest” (REM image) “lines of rest”, detail (REM image)
With a cyclic loading, the tendency of a component and its compounds to fatigue fracturing depends on
the following parameters, among others:
– Frequency of the repetitions of load (number of load cycles)

– Load value (stress amplitude)
– Ratio of maximum and minimum load (stress ratio)
– Type of loading (tension, pressure, shear, bend, torsional stress)
– Direction of loading (parallel and perpendicular stresses)
– Formation and quality of the weld (e.g. penetration bead thickness, weld penetration)
– Material and surface quality
– Internal notches (e.g. precipitations, martensite seams, slag)

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5.2 Fatigue fractures – test
Test pieces or components are tested for susceptibility to fatigue fractures by means of fatigue endur-
ance tests. Circumstances are exploited so that, if a test piece or a component is subjected to a high
cyclic load, the fracture occurs after a certain number of vibration cycles. If this test is repeated with oth-
er test pieces or components and with an increasingly smaller load, an increasingly higher number of
vibration cycles is achieved before the fracture occurs. Finally, if the load is sufficiently low, no more frac-
turing occurs, even if the load continues to be applied. The diagram illustrating these examinations takes
the form of a so-called Woehler curve (cf. sections 2.23 and 3.07). These can be used to produce fa-
tigue endurance limit diagrams (cf. section 3.07). The best-known diagrams are:
– SMITH (e.g. for applications for cranes and cranes rails)

– HAIGH (e.g. for applications in general mechanical engineering)
– MOORLAND KOMMERS JASPER (e.g. for applications in rail-vehicle construction)
– GOODMANN (e.g. for suspension analysis)

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6 Creep fractures
At a constant stress and above a so-called transition temperature Tt or Tü , transgranular (e.g. due to
dislocation movements/ vacancy diffusion) and intergranular (e.g. grain boundary-slide/ diffusion) pro-
cesses take place in the microstructure. This is firstly associated with a linear increase followed by an
exponential increase in strain (Figure 30). This phenomenon is referred to as creeping. However,
sooner or later the material will no longer be able to compensate the constant increasing strain and
cracks occur that form the start of fractures, known as creep fractures.
Note The term “creep” is understood to mean time-dependent deformation under constant loading, pref-
erably at elevated temperatures. This is explained in greater detail in section 2.12.
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4
Figure 29: Schematic diagram showing the formation of creep cracks and fractures
In simple terms, the creep process can be subdivided into three areas. The first stage, transition or
primary creep involves plastic deformation and hardening, while the creeping speed decreases without
any evidence of internal damage. This is followed by the area of stationary or secondary creep. The
number of generated and compensated dislocations here is almost equally even. For a certain time there
is only a marginal increase in creeping speed. Dislocations start to shift increasingly and merge together.
Initial microscopic loosening of microstructures occurs (Figure 29, phases 1 and 2). De-strengthening
begins in the third (tertiary) area, leading to an accelerated creep process. This leads to an initial con-
striction or crack propagation (Figure 31) through the accelerated merging of already looser microstruc-
tures, as well as the formation of the creep fracture (Figure 29, phases 3 and 4). The terms “primary”,
“secondary” and “tertiary” have been derived from the linear time strain diagram, which is classified
according to these three typical areas (Figure 30). If the linear area of secondary creep can be extend-
ed at a higher temperature, this entails an increase in creep rupture strength.

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Figure 30: Schematic creep curve with primary, sec- Figure 31: Creep damage caused by the merging of
ondary and tertiary area cracks and loosening of microstructures
All technical mechanisms that prevent creep also improve the heat resistance properties of ferrous and
non-ferrous alloys.
– Purity (quality and stainless steels with low content of accompanying elements)
– Lattice structure (cubic body-centred: < 650 °C; cubic face-centred: > 650 °C)
– Ratio of maximum and minimum load (stress ratio)
– Solid solution formation (certain alloying elements cause the solid solution to become creep-resistant)
– Precipitations (fine dispersive and even distributed precipitations inhibit creep)
– Heat treatment Condition (uniformly distributed precipitations can only be achieved through heat
treatment)
6.2 Creeping fractures – test
Creep strength is tested in the creep rupture test (Table 5, cf. section 2.23). Test pieces are loaded
statically at constant high temperatures, and elongation is measured throughout the load time t. The
resulting strain  indicates a typical course, the creep curve (Figure 30). Important characteristic values
of the creep test are:
– the load time until the fracture occurs

– creep strength (corresponds to tensile strength under creep conditions)
– the creep limit (corresponds the yield point or elongation limit under creep conditions)
Table 5: Types of creep test

Continuous creep test Intermittent creep test
Application for brief testing up to approx. 1,000 h Application for long-time tests from 1,000 to
load time 200,000 h (24 years)
Determination of the primary creep area Determination of the secondary creep area
Use of single test piece test equipment Use of multiple test piece test equipment

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7 Evaluation of fracture patterns
Fracture patterns provide an indication of the applied loading or engagement and the consequent dam-
age. Thus, numerous schematic diagrams can be found in the literature (Table 6 to Table 9) that can
help in evaluating real (macroscopic) fracture surfaces (e.g. VDI Directive 3822, page 2). Examples of
fracture patterns caused by ductile forced fractures are to be found in Table 6 and Table 7.
Table 6: Fracture patterns – ductile forced fractures from tensile loads

Ductile tension forced fracture with shear lips Cleavage-shaped ductile tension forced frac-
ture
Zone 1: Zone 1:
The fracture surface The fracture surface
runs transverse to the runs transverse to the
axial direction and is 1 2 axial direction and is
dull, matt and rough. dull, matt and rough.
There is no sign of the There is no sign of the
start of a fracture. start of a fracture.
1 2
Zone 2: ~ 45° Zone 2:
The external area is The fracture surface
extremely reduced. The runs transverse to the
surface of the fracture is axial direction and has
funnel-shaped, smooth cleavage-shaped shear
and shiney. It is dull if surfaces. There are no
the direction of viewing signs of the start and
and shear correspond. end of the fracture.
Table 7: Fracture patterns – ductile forced fractures produced by bending and torsion
Ductile bending forced fracture Ductile torsion forced fracture
Zone 1:
The fracture surface is
Mt
Mb
diagonal to the axial

direction, is highly de-
formed, flat, shiny and
smooth. Fracture lines The component is visi-
indicate the start of the bly twisted. The fracture
fracture start and the surface runs transverse
shear land indicates the to the axial direction,
1 end of the fracture. has low deformation
2 and is flat, shiney and
smooth. There is noth-
Zone 2: ing to indicate the be-
The fracture surface ginning and end of the
runs transverse to the fracture.
axial direction, has low
deformation and is flat,
dull and rough.
Mt
M bb

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Table 8 contains schematic fracture patterns for brittle forced fractures. Table 9 contains information
about typical oscillation fracture patterns.
Table 8: Fracture patterns – brittle forced fractures

Brittle tension forced fracture Brittle torsion forced fracture
Mt
The fracture surface

runs transverse to the The fracture surface
axial direction, is brittle, runs at less than 45° to
flat, dull and rough. the axial direction, is
Fracture lines and sec- brittle, flat, dull and
tions indicate the start rough. Fracture lines
of the fracture and the indicate the start and
crack propagation direc- end of the fracture.
tion.
Mt
Table 9: Fracture patterns – oscillation fractures

Fatigue fracture with brittle residual forced Cleavage-shaped ductile tension forced frac-
fracture ture
Zone 1:
The fracture surface fol-
lows a characteristic pat- Zone 1 and zone 2:
tern, is brittle, flat, dull Comparison between
and rough. Sections and an oscillation fracture
lines of rest indicate the and a brittle rest forced
start of the fracture, while fracture
ancillary cracks mark the
end of the fracture.
Zone 3:
The fracture surface is
Zone 2:
diagonal to the axial
The fracture surface runs
direction, is highly de-
transverse to the axial
formed, flat, shiny and
direction, is brittle, flat,
smooth. Shear lips in-
dull and rough.
dicate the end of the
fracture.

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Table 10 contains schematic macroscopic types of fatigue fracture surfaces (light) and residual
forced fracture surfaces (dark) depending on the normal stress and the test piece shape. The arrows
indicate the direction of crack propagation. The macroscopic fracture lines are parallel to the arrows.
Numerous partial fatigue fractures occur simultaneously on the notched test pieces; which are separated
from one another by sections and merge within the cross-section during propagation. The arc lines indi-
cate the course of the crack fronts.
Table 10: Macroscopic break phenomena on oscillation fractures

High nominal stress Low nominal stress
Type of load
Smooth Notched glatt gekerbt
Tension and
Tension-
Compression
Unidirectional
bending
Alternate direction-
al bending
Circumferential
bending
8 Examples of damage caused by fracture phenomena

8.1 Introduction
Damage to technical systems is usually treated as highly confidential. As this can also result in a damag-
ing loss of image for the affected company, the technical literature only contains a few detailed descrip-
tions. Hence, the following section only describes break phenomena related to spectacular and publicly
known cases of damage that have already been described in detail. The timing and location of the dam-
age, the damage sequence, the cause of the damage and the type of fracture will be described in this
context.
Note The fracture patterns reproduced are not derived from the cases in hand. However, due to the
published information, it can be assumed that these can be regarded as typical of the fractured surfaces.

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8.2 The sinking of the R.M.S. “Titanic”
The sinking of the R.M.S. “Titanic” is still regarded as the most spectacular disaster (Figure 32).
The largest passenger liner in the world at the time, the “Titanic” was built by “Harland & Wolff” in Bel-
fast, Northern Ireland, between 1909 and 1912. The R. M. S. “Titanic” was one of three almost identical
sister ships (R.M.S. “Olympic”, R.M.S. “Titanic” and R.M.S. “Britannic”), which were designated “Olympic
Class”. They had a displacement of 53,147 t (compared to the M. S. “Costa Concordia”: approx. 50,000
t). Table 11 contains important details of the damage incurred.
Table 11: Information about the damage to the R.M.S. “Titanic”

Date, location: 16. April 1912; North Atlantic, North Atlantic, off Newfoundland
Environmental conditions: Water temperature: approx. -4 °C; Wind: Wind speed 0 (calm)
Collision with and iceberg and brittle break-up of the ship's hull under
Damage incurred and cause: water; the shipbuilding steel used did not have sufficient cold ductility,
construction faults in the ship's hull
Fracture type: Forced fracture – brittle fracture (transgranular cleavage fracture, Figure 33)
Figure 32: R.M.S. “Titanic” under construction in the Figure 33: Transgranular cleavage fracture due to mate-
“Harland & Wolff” shipyard (photo: Library of Congress, rial embrittlement at low temperatures
USA)
8.3 Collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge
The first Tacoma Narrows Bridge (near Seattle, Washington State) was built between 1938 and 1940 as
a suspension bridge and collapsed spectacularly after only four months in operation due to a design fault
and the consequent air-excited vibrations (Figure 34). Table 12 contains important information about the
damage incurred.
Table 12: Information about the damage – Tacoma Narrows Bridge

Date, location: 7. November 1940, 11:00; Tacoma, Washington, USA
Environmental conditions: Air temperature: approx. -12 °C; wind: wind speed 8 (approx. 65 km/h)
Torsional oscillation of the bridge platform initiated by changes in wind
Damage incurred and cause: speed; collapse of the bridge due to the breaking of the restraining ca-
bles as a result of excessive stress
Fracture type: Forced fracture – ductile fracture (“honeycomb fracture” , Figure 35)

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Figure 34: Collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in Figure 35: Ductile fracture (with non-metallic inclusions)
1940 (photo: Stillman Fires Collection) caused by material overload
8.4 Crashes involving the DeHavilland DH 106 “Comet”
The four-engine British DeHavilland DH 106 “Comet” was the world's first mass-produced jet engine
plane. A series of accidents occurred in 1953 and 1954 in which several aeroplanes broke up in mid-air.
Investigations showed that hairline cracks built up at the corners of the almost square windows over a
certain number of flying hours, causing a sudden failure of the structure that led to an explosive loss of
pressure and thus to the total loss of the planes. Table 12 contains important information about the dam-
age incurred.
Table 13: Information about the damage – DeHavilland DH 106 “Comet”

Date, location: 5 crashes world-wide between 26 October 1952 and 8 April 1954
Environmental conditions: Reduced air pressure at cruising altitude with normal cabin pressure
The expansion and contraction of the pressurised cabin during ascent
and descent led to significantly increased material fatigue in the area of
Damage incurred and cause:
the edges of doors and windows, causing the sudden failure of the struc-
ture
Fracture type: Fatigue fracture (Figure 35)
Abbildung 36: De Havilland DH.106 “Comet” 1, G-ALYP, Abbildung 37: Fatigue fracture with microscopic
B.O.A.C. (photo: R.A. Scholefield) “lines of rest” due to metal fatigue

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8.5 Boiler explosion on the S.S. “Norway”
In 1980, the S.S. “Norway” was one of the world's largest cruise ships (largest steam-powered cruise
ship). The displacement was 57,607 t. It was originally built as a transatlantic liner (Figure 38), was
launched in 1960, and went into service as the M.S. “France” in 1962. The ship sailed the North Atlantic
route between Le Havre and New York City. Following its sale to the Norwegian shipping company NCL,
it was refitted as a cruise ship in 1980. On the morning of 25 May 2003, the ship experienced a serious
boiler explosion in the port of Miami in which eight crew members lost their lives. Many others were in-
jured. Table 14 contains important information about the damage.
Table 14: Details of the damage to the S.S. “Norway”

Date, location: 23.05.2003, Port of Miami, Florida
Environmental conditions: Irrelevant at the time of damage
Incorrect boiler operation, poor maintenance and inadequate inspection
Damage incurred and cause: practices by the shipping company resulted in long time of material
changes, leading to a serious explosion is the main steam boiler
Fracture type: Probably creep fracture (Figure 39)
Figure 38: The S.S. “France” (later S.S. “Norway”) in the Figure 39: Creep rupture as the preliminary stage of a
port of Hong Kong (photo: Wikimedia) creep fracture
Note The information contained in this document is to be treated as such and does not replace any
technical regulations and specifications.The most recent editions apply in each case.

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9 Question
(1) Which important fracture types according to type of loading are you aware of?
 Lamellar tearing
 Forced fractures
 Ageing fractures
 Fatigue fractures
 Creep fractures
(2) How does stress change in the case of fatigue fractures?
 Stress is continuously increased until fracturing occurs.

 Stress changes periodically or non-periodically over time, depending on size and direction
 Stress remains constant over time.
 Stress is reduced with interruptions until fracturing occurs.
 Stress does not change.
(3) Which main types of forced fracture are you aware of?
 Creep fractures
 Fatigue fractures
 Brittle fractures (separation breaks)
 Hardness fractures
 Ductile fractures (tough fractures)
(4) Where can the microstructure be fragmented/splitted in the case of brittle fractures (cleavage
fractures)?
 Along the surface of the metal.

 Along the bearing surface of the metal.
 Along the defined crystallographic planes, known as cleavage planes.
 Along the body diagonal of crystal (grain).
 Along weakened (embrittled) grain boundaries.
(5) In which metals or alloys can transgranular cleavage fractures occur?
 In cubic-face-centred metals or alloys.

 In cubic-body-centred metals or alloys.
 In cubic-base-centred metals or alloys.
 In monoclinic-face-centred metals or alloys.
 The hexagonal closely packed metals or alloys.

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(6) Which important crystallographic quality/qualities must be met, so that ductile fractures can be
formed under stress?
 The material must have a cubic-face-centred elementary cell.

 The temperature of the deformation must be above the recrystallisation temperature T R.
 The material must be able to flow (the crystal planes slide over one another.)
 The material must have sufficient cleavage planes.
 The material must be amorphous.
(7) How can the occurrence of fatigue failures be explained?
 A microscopic embrittlement starts an uncontrolled microstructure resolution (transgranu-

lar disintegration of grains.)
 The transformation stresses cause a variety of cracks.
 A slowly rising static tensile load causes numerous microcracks that merge and fracture.
 Micro-plastic processes lead to local yield strength and elongation excesses, allowing
cracks to occur.
 The materials must be pre-damaged e.g. by forced fractures.
(8) What is understood by the term “lines of rest”?
 Micro fracture lines that have developed by changes to the load state on the fracture sur-
face.
 Characteristic lines that are caused by rust (corrosion).
 Lines on the material surface caused by short static overload (“stretch marks”).
 Macro fracture lines that have developed by changes to the load state on the fracture surface.
 Lines that pass through the intergranular grain boundaries.
(9) What is understood by the term “creep fracture”?
 Fractures that occur on upright components after a certain time.

 Fractures that occur on upright components in normal direction after a certain time.
 Fractures that can occur due to creep processes.
 Fractures that can occur during idle time and cyclic stress.
 Fractures that can occur at temperatures above a transition temperature over a long peri-
od of time.
(10) What area of creep curves should be extended for as long as possible?
 The primary area

 The secondary area
 The stationary area
 The tertiary area
 The area immediately before the fracture is introduced

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10 Bibliography
Pohl, E.:
Das Gesicht des Bruches metallischer Werkstoffe.
Munich, Berlin: Allianz Versicherungs-AG, 1956
VDI Directive 3822 (page 2):

Damage analysis. Damage from mechanical loads.
Edition: 04-2008
Dilthey, U.:
Schweißtechnische Fertigungsverfahren 2 – Verhalten der Werkstoffe beim Schweißen.
Gräfen, H.:
VDI Lexikon Werkstofftechnik.
Düsseldorf: VDI-Verlag, 1993
Naumann, F. K.:
Das Buch der Schadensfälle.
Stuttgart: Dr. Riederer-Verlag GmbH, 1976
Broichhausen, J.:
Schadenskunde.
Munich, Vienna: Carl Hanser Verlag, 1985
Lange, G.:
Systematische Beurteilung technischer Schadensfälle.
Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, 2001
Rösler, J.; H. Harders, H.; Bäker, M.:

Mechanisches Verhalten der Werkstoffe.
Wiesbaden: B. G. Teubner Verlag / GWV Fachverlage GmbH, 2006
Tolksdorf, E.:
Thermisches und thermo-mechanisches Verhalten von Werkstoffen.
in: „Hochschulpraktikum Schadensanalyse”
„Format”, Bayerischer Forschungsverbund Materialwissenschaften, München, 1998
Schuster, J.:
Marmor, Stein und Eisen bricht – Werkstoffliche Mechanismen der Entstehung von Brüchen und
Brucherscheinungen in Metallen. Part 1 and Part 2.
Der Praktiker, Düsseldorf, 62 (2010) 10 and 11, pp. 396-400 and 440-443

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Heat treatment of base materials SFI / IWE 2.08
and welded joints Page 1
Chapter 2.08: Heat treatment of base materials and welded joints
Contents
1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 2
2 Heat treatment equipment ............................................................................................................... 3
3 Technical heat treatment terms....................................................................................................... 3
4 Heat treatment of base materials .................................................................................................... 5
4.1 Annealing ................................................................................................................................. 5
4.1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 5
4.1.2 Normal annealing microstructure (fine grain microstructure) ......................................... 5
4.1.3 Stress relief annealing .................................................................................................. 7
4.1.4 Coarse grain annealing ................................................................................................. 8
4.1.5 Soft annealing............................................................................................................. 10
4.1.6 Diffusion annealing ..................................................................................................... 11
4.1.7 Recrystallization annealing ......................................................................................... 11
4.1.8 Solution annealing (homogeneous annealing) ............................................................ 13
4.2 Hardening effects ................................................................................................................... 14
4.2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 14
4.2.2 Hardening by transformation hardening ...................................................................... 14
4.2.3 Hardening by precipitation hardening ......................................................................... 16
4.3 Quenching/tempering ............................................................................................................. 19
4.3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 19
4.3.2 Tempering .................................................................................................................. 19
4.4 Thermo-chemical heat treatment............................................................................................ 22
4.4.1 Border zone hardening (surface layer hardening) ....................................................... 22
4.4.2 Case hardening .......................................................................................................... 22
4.4.3 Nitrogen hardening (Nitriding) ..................................................................................... 23
4.4.4 Carbonitriding ............................................................................................................. 23
5 Heat treatment of welded joints .................................................................................................... 23
5.1 Preheating ............................................................................................................................. 23
5.2 Postweld heat treatment ........................................................................................................ 24
6 Temperature measurement and recording ................................................................................... 25
7 Test of hardenability ...................................................................................................................... 26
8 Technical rules for heat treatment ................................................................................................ 26
9 Test questions ................................................................................................................................ 27
10 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 29

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1 Introduction
The technical importance of steel is based particularly on the fact that its properties, at a defined chemical
composition, can be changed significantly through heat treatment in its solid state. The reason for this is
the ability of the great majority of iron carbon alloys to be transformed into polymorphous lattice formations
- (cf. Section 2.03). Hence, non-ferrous metals that do not undergo such a transformation, such as
nickel, copper and aluminium, as well as certain steels, for example ferritic and austenitic stainless steel,
cannot be either normalised or hardened/tempered in the conventional way. For this reason, the
precipitation hardening mechanism is frequently used with such alloys (for definitions see Chapter 3).
Classic heat treatment processes can be divided into annealing, hardening and
quenching/tempering. In this context, Figure 1 features the characteristic temperature ranges for
important heat treatment processes in the Fe-Fe3C system. It is evident that the heat treatment
temperature is often dependent on the carbon content.
Figure 1: Temperature ranges for selected heat treatment processes in the Fe-Fe3C system

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2 Heat treatment equipment
According to EN ISO 17 663, the following equipment must be available to provide heat treatment during
welding as necessary:
– Furnaces and/or similar equipment (e.g. heating mats, induction systems, gas burners) – Figure 2,
– Programmer(s) for the heat treatment procedure,
– Equipment for measuring and recording temperatures,
– Cooling equipment,
– Lifting and transport equipment, as well as
– Personal protective equipment and other safety devices.
Due to the transfer of heat that takes place during every heat treatment and the resulting heat flow
(cf. Section 2.05), the area around the welded joint to be heat treated should be at least 10 times the
plate thickness/wall thickness. The following points require special consideration:
– different plate thickness and

– different material combinations.
Figure 2 Examples of heat treatment equipment for welded joints (left: annealing furnace with shielding gas
circulation; right: heating mats for pipelines)
3 Technical heat treatment terms
Important technical heat treatment terms are listed in EN 10 052 The following selection of definitions
has been compiled as an aid to understand the following sections:
Cooling
Lowering the temperature of a workpiece. Cooling can be carried out in one or more steps. The cooling
medium should be indicated, e.g. air, oil or water.
Cooling speed
It indicates changes in temperature depending on time during cooling.
Tempering
Heat treatment, which is generally carried out following hardening or some other heat treatment, in order
to achieve desired values for certain properties. It involves heating the material once or more to
temperatures below A1, holding them at this temperature and subsequently cooling as appropriate.

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Hardenability
The greatest hardness achievable in a given material by hardening under ideal conditions.
(The potential hardness increase is determined by the carbon content in steel.)
Precipitation hardening
Heat treatment, consisting of solution treatment and ageing.
Ageing
Heat treatment to which a solution-treated workpiece is subjected in order to achieve the desired values
for certain properties. It involves heating the material once or more to a given temperature(s), holding it
at this temperature and subsequently cooling it as appropriate. A distinction is made between hot and
cold ageing.
Austenitising
A heat treatment step during which the workpiece is heated to a temperature at which the matrix
becomes austenitic.
Deep hardenability
Hardening that starts at the surface of the workpiece. This is characterised by the hardening depth.
(Deep hardenability is determined by the alloying potential of steel.)
Annealing
Heat treatment, consisting of heating a material to a certain temperature, holding it at that temperature
and cooling in such a way that the state of the material is closer to equilibrium at room temperature.
This is a very general definition. It is therefore recommended that the purpose of annealing should be
specified in greater detail.
Hardness (according to A. MARTENS, 1900)

Hardness is the resistance with which a body opposes the penetration of another (harder) body.
Hardness cannot be calculated directly. It is derived from primary measured variables (e.g. testing force,
penetration depth, area of impression, cf. Section 2.23).
Hardening
Heat treatment, consisting of austenitising and cooling under conditions such that hardness increases
through the more or less complete transformation of the austenite to martensite and any intermediate
stage. Austenitising takes place at temperatures of approx. 50 K over GOS (A3).
Hardenability
The capacity of a steel to be transformed into martensite and/or bainite (under certain conditions of
hardening, hardenability is often marked by the hardness pattern relative to the distance to the quenched
surface of a hardened workpiece (edge quench test)).
Front quench test

Standardised test method (EN ISO 642), where a steel test piece is austenitised and is quenched with
a water jet at one of its fusion faces. The hardness profile, starting from the quenched fusion face,
characterises the hardenability of the steel.
Quenching/tempering
Combination of hardening and tempering at a higher temperature in order to obtain the desired
combination of the mechanical properties, particularly high toughness. Tempering takes place
at temperatures below PSK (A1).

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4 Heat treatment of base materials

4.1 Annealing
4.1.1 Introduction
Annealing: The reason for annealing a material is to create a certain processability (for example: cold
forming, cutting properties). The change in material properties is achieved by
transformation of structures, changing the size and arrangement, of structures, but not
their type, as well as the removal of internal stresses and changes in their distribution.
Numerous special annealing treatments exist, depending on the change in the required material
properties (Figure 3).
Annealing
Eliminate uneven Increasing of Reducing of Transformation of Special cases

microstructure workability stresses microstructures
Diffusion Normal annealing Stress relief Stress Relieving

(fine grain Tempering Regulated cooling
annealing annealing treatment
microstructure)
Bainite
Coarse grain Recrystallisation Crystal recovery Perlitic
Soft annealing Quenching microstructure
annealing annealing annealing annealing
transformation
Figure 3: Overview of heat treatment processes, annealing
All types of annealing treatments involve heating to a given temperature, holding at this target
temperature and cooling. While a material is being heated (heating-up time + soaking time), the increase
of temperature differences, due to thermal conduction, between the outer and inner areas of the
workpiece are stronger the faster the heating process and the larger the dimensions. Comparatively poor
thermal conductivity, as present in austenitic steels for example, reinforces the differences in
temperature and favours the occurrence of internal stresses. This can lead to distortion and stress
cracking as the temperature rises. Therefore the speed with which the workpiece is heated up should be
adjusted to the thickness of the material. The same also applies to cooling.
4.1.2 Normal annealing microstructure (fine grain microstructure)
The term normalising is understood to mean heating to temperatures of 30 to 50 K above A3 in the case
of hypo-eutectoid steels and 30 to 50 K above A1 in the case of hyper-eutectoid steels (depending on the
carbon content.) Depending on the dimensions, the respective workpiece will only be held at the
temperature for as long as necessary to heat it up completely. After that it will be cooled in resting air
(Figure 4, Table 1).

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Because the steel is twice subjected to an -α transformation, the material will be transformed into a
uniform, fine grained normal microstructure. The aim of normalising is thus also to achieve an even
microstructure with fine lamellar pearlite (Figure 4). A fast run-through of the -α region supports the
formation of a fine structure. Thus, all microstructural changes caused by hardening, tempering,
superheating, welding, or cold- and hot-forming will be removed by normalising, provided no permanent
defects, such as hardening cracks, have occurred.
Normalising (EN 10 052)

Heat treatment, involving austenitising, followed by cooling in resting air.
Temperatur
in °C 1200
1100 Holding time = 20 + D/2 (in min.)
1000 Holding
900
A3
800
A1
700
600 Slowly cooling at
500 resting atmosphere
400
300 Heating in highly
200 heated furnace
100
Figure 4: Schematic
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 temperature-time
Time in h progression during
normalising
Normalising is recommended in the following cases:
– in the case of coarse and/or non-uniform microstructure, e.g. after super-heating, or ferrite-pearlite
bands
– in the case of coarse grain,
– in the case of a solidification microstructure, e.g. at a weld joint or steel cast,
– in the case of steels embrittled due to ageing and
– in the case of all contructional steels with an insufficient toughness or a too low yield point.
Table 1: Normalising, processing parameters

Heating-up time: tA = 6.639 * CEW - 0.705 [h]; CEW = %C + (%Mn/5)+ (%Cr/4) + (%Mo/3)+ (%Ni/10)
Annealing TG  30 to 50 K over G-O-S (for hypo-eutectoid steels)
temperature: TG  950 - 150 %C + 20 %Cr + 30 %Mo + 200 %V + 10 %W - 20 %Ni (for cast steel)
Hold time: tH  20 + d/2 [min]
Cooling: Depending on the steel grade at resting air or in the furnace.
Avoid holding workpieces at normalising temperature for too long.
Technical
Heat alloy steels from 600 °C more slowly.
information:
When cooling in the furnace, only cool to 500 °C and then use resting air.
Increased grain coarseness because the workpiece is held at the given temperature
Possible for too long (overtime) or due to overheating.
problems: Martensite forms if the workpiece is cooled too quickly.
Formation of ferrite zones.
Renewed normalising at modified temperature and time.
Troubleshooting:
Subsequent cooling with changed cooling speed.

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Figure 5: Structure formation prior to, during and after normalising
4.1.3 Stress relief annealing
Stress-relief annealing is understood as annealing at below A1 with subsequent slow cooling, so that
internal stresses are reduced without significant changes to the other properties (Figure 6, Table 2).
Temperature
in °C 1200
1100
Holding time Approx. 3h;
1000 dimension-independent
A3 900
A1 800
700
600 650°C
500
400
  Stress relieving in the hot pool or hoit oil
Figure 6: Schematic
300
200
  Stress relieving in hot water
Cooling in the oven
temperature-time
progression during
100   stress-relief annealing
( stress-relief
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
annealing before
Time in h hardening; ,  stress
relief after hardening)

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Internal stresses can be generated due to different

Rp 0,2 20°C heat dilatations (uneven heating and cooling) of the
material e.g. during welding, soldering, solidification
Stress  in N/mm²
or quenching but also due to cold forming. These

R e 20°C 400°C
stresses often cause distortion or lead to the
650°C formation of cracks in the component.
R e 400°C These stresses within the workpiece can be only
relieved by plastic deformation at micro level. That
means that the internal stresses can be reduced up to
R e 650°C the yield point (yield strength) at which stress-relief
annealing took place (cf. Figure 7). With unalloyed
steels the most favourable annealing temperature lies
0 0,2 between 450 and 650 °C with a holding time of 1 to 2
Elongation  in % hours, depending on the dimensions of the workpiece.
Figure 7: Stress elongation diagrams for a

material for different temperatures
Stress-relief annealing (EN 10 052)

Heat treatment, consisting of heating and holding at high enough temperature and subsequent
appropriate cooling, in order to remove internal stresses without substantially changing the
microstructure.
Table 2: Stress-relief annealing, processing parameters

Depending on the problematic cross-section and the material areas to be relieved,
Heating-up time:
this should not be too short.
Annealing TG  450 to 650 °C (stress-relief annealing prior to hardening)
temperature: to approx. 200 °C (with stress relief in the hot pool, hot oil or water)
tH  approx. 3 hours with stress-relief annealing prior to hardening
Hold time:
Up to 2 hours with stress relief after hardening
Cooling: Cooling in the furnace or similar slow cooling.
Workpieces must be protected from decarburisation at temperatures above 500 °C
Technical
and long holding times. Structural changes are not permitted. Stress-relief annealing
information:
should follow as soon as possible after the process responsible for the stresses.
Possible If the temperature is too high and the hold time is too long, inadmissible
problems: microstructural changes can occur; distortion is caused by relieved stresses.
4.1.4 Coarse grain annealing
Coarse grain annealing is carried out at temperatures between 950 and 1,100 °C with a hold time of
between 1 and approx. 4 hours (Figure 8, Table 3). Due to the long hold time at comparably high
temperatures, a coarse austenite grain will be generated, leading to a coarse ferritic-pearlitic structure
after cooling. A slow run-through of the -α range supports formation of the coarse grain. The aim of
coarse grain formation is to produce a coarse grain with low hardness and toughness. This type of
microstructure is advantageous for milling, since the chips produced are small, thus leading to lower
cutting forces (less grain boundaries to be separated) (Figure 9).

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Temperature
in °C
1200 Holding
1100
1000
900
A3
800
A1 Heating in highly
700 heated furnace Holding time approx. 2h; dimension independent
600
500
400 Heating duration Slowly cooling in the oven
300 dependent on
dimensions
200
100 Figure 8: Schematic
temperature-time
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 progression during
Time in h coarse grain
annealing
Coarse-grain annealing (EN 10 052)

Annealing at a temperature above A3 with a sufficiently long hold time in order to achieve coarse grain.
Figure 9: Structure before and after coarse grain annealing (left: fine grained, rigid and tough due to numerous
grain boundaries; right: coarse-grained, better cutting properties, as grain boundaries are harder to split)
Table 3: Coarse-grain annealing, processing parameters

Heating-up
Heating in the high-temperature furnace, dimension-dependent
time:
Annealing
TG  950 to 1,100 °C
temperature:
Hold time: tH  2 hours, irrespective of dimensions
Cooling: Slow cooling in the furnace.
Technical
Avoid holding at annealing temperature for too long.
information:
Possible
Microstructures may be burned due to overheating and excessively long hold time.
problems:
Troubleshooting: Once burned, microstructures cannot be restored.

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4.1.5 Soft annealing
Soft annealing is understood to mean annealing at temperatures closely below or just above A1 or held
around A1 with subsequent slow cooling (Figure 10).
The aim of soft annealing is to obtain a soft microstructure suitable for further processing, such as milling
or cold deformation. The optimum condition of the microstructure consists of homogeneously distributed,
fine-grained, globular carbides embedded in a ferritic matrix (Figure 11). Unlike a lamellar-pearlitic
structure, such a microstructure can be split, bent, compressed, flanged, extruded or twisted with ease.
Due to the formation of the microstructure, soft annealing is also referred to as “annealing on globular
cementite” (abbreviation GKZ (from the German). This heat treatment is mainly used in steels with
carbon content above 0.5%, for example, with roller bearing steels.
Temperature
in °C
1200
1100
1000 850 °C
900 750 °C
A3
800
A1 620 °C
700
700 °C
600
500 Figure 10: Schematic
400 temperature-time
Short holding times only cooling in the oven
300 progression for soft
once annealing
200 tempreature is reached
annealing (solid line:
100 single soft annealing
of steels with low
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 carbon content;
Time in h dotted line: intensive
program annealing)
Soft annealing (EN 10 052)

Heat treatment for reducing the hardness of a material to a defined value.
Figure 11: Structure before and after the soft annealing

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4.1.6 Diffusion annealing
Diffusion annealing involves annealing at very high temperatures in the 1,050 to 1,250 °C range with a
sufficiently long hold time (up to 50 hours), Figure 12. Local differences in the chemical composition due to
microsegregations will be reduced and structural inconsistencies will be balanced. Macro-segregations
cannot be balanced due to their long diffusion distances. Due to high temperatures during diffusion
annealing a formation of coarse grains is unavoidable. Coarse grain can be removed by normalising.
Temperature
in °C
1200
1100
1000
900 30 to 40 hours
A3
800
A1 Cooling in the oven
700
600 Heating interruptions to avoid
500 formation of cracks
400
300
200 Air cooling
100
Figure 12: Schematic
30 bis 40 temperature-time
Time in h
progression during
diffusion annealing
Diffusion annealing (EN 10 052)

Annealing at high temperatures with a sufficiently long hold time, in order to balance local differences in
the chemical composition due to segregation by diffusion.
Table 4: Diffusion annealing, processing parameters

Heating-up time: Slow heating with interruptions for stress relief, thus preventing cracks.
Annealing
Depending on the solidus temperature, between 1,050 and 1,250 °C.
temperature:
Hold time: Between 30 and 50 hours (diffusion processes are time-dependent).
Cooling: Cooling in the oven (segregation removal) or air (banded structure).
Technical During the processing of diffusion-annealed workpieces, much material must be
information: removed from the surface to ensure that deep decarburisation is eliminated.
Very expensive, high furnace wear. High annealing temperatures and long holding
Possible times lead to a fundamental coarsening of the secondary grain. Accordingly,
problems: subsequent normalising is required. Significant burn-off and scale losses are also
inevitable. Major decarburisation.
4.1.7 Recrystallization annealing
During cold deformation, all parts of the microstructure that are plastic formable can be lengthened in the
direction of the deformation with a simultaneous build-up of internal stresses. The associated hardening
is characterised by an increase in strength and a simultaneous reduction in formability. For this reason
cold deformation cannot be carried out indefinitely, but after a certain deformation grade
recrystallization annealing is required in order to restore the original material properties.

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Recrystallization annealing (EN 10 052)

Heat treatment with the intention of achieving new grain formation in a cold-formed workpiece through
nucleation and growth without a phase change.
Every metal and every alloy has a specified recrystallization temperature TR above which the crystal
lattice will be rebuilt due to the thermal energy introduced. The lowest recrystallization temperature TRmin
can be measured using the TAMMAN rule. The absolute melting temperature TS of the relevant element
and the alloy (in Kelvin) is taken as the starting point (cf. Section 2.01):
TRmin ~ 0.4  TS.
250 Crystal recovery firstly involves rectifying zero-

dimensional lattice structure imperfections and
rearranging dislocations. Recrystallization
(primary recrystallization) leads to complete
Hardness Vickers HV 30
200
grain re-forming (fine grain – positive). Above
Secondary rekristallization
the recrystallization temperature, the small

Primary rekristallization
grains formed by primary recrystallization

(Grain re-forming)
150 combine to form a small number of large grains

Crystal recovery
(Grain growth)
(large grains – negative). This process is called

secondary recrystallization. The grain size
100 obtained by recrystallization is dependent on
the deformation grade, among other things: the
higher the deformation grade, the finer the
50 grain structure. The deformation grade of 10%
0 200 400 600 800 1000 requires a recrystallization temperature of
TR
approximately 600 °C, a deformation grade of
Annealing temperature in °C
25% about 400 °C and the deformation grade
Figure 13: Hardness-annealing temperature-curve for of 50% 300 °C.
65% cold drawn steel
Table 5: Recrystallization annealing, processing parameters

Heating-up time: Heating in the preheated furnace. Make sure the material is heated through.
Depends on the deformation grade and the alloy content.
Annealing
Non-alloy steels: TG ~ 450 to 600 °C
temperature:
Alloyed steels: TG ~ 600 to 800 °C
Hold time: 10 min.  tH  2 hours
Cooling: The temperature gradient during cooling must be sufficiently low.
Workpieces must be protected from decarburisation at temperatures above 500 °C.
Technical Recrystallization annealing of sheet metal, bands, etc. must be carried out under
information: shielding gas.
The temperature and duration of annealing are to be chosen very carefully.
Incomplete recrystallization with too low annealing temperature.
If annealing temperatures are too high, there is a risk of --microstructural
Possible
transformation.
problems:
Too high temperatures and critical deformation grades lead to coarse grain formation
through secondary recrystallization.
Troubleshooting: Incorrect annealing can be corrected by normalising.

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4.1.8 Solution annealing (homogeneous annealing)
The purpose of solution annealing is to bring and hold separated microstructures in solution
(homogenising). This is particularly desirable with austenitic Cr-Ni steels because it enables the required
corrosion resistance to be achieved. The aim is to obtain a homogeneous austenite crystal without
precipitations.
In other materials (non-ferrous metals), solution annealing is used as a pre-treatment for subsequent hot
or natural ageing. In the case of hardenable aluminium alloys e.g. AlMgSi or AlCu, after solution
annealing the finest crystals are precipitated by ageing on the basis of Mg2Si or Al2Cu, which then leads
to a (significant) increase in hardness.
Solution annealing (solution treatment) (EN 10 052)

Heat treatment with the aim of bringing separated components to a solid solution and holding them
there.
Figure 14: Examples of carbide precipitations in austenitic Cr-Ni-steel (not solution-annealed)
Table 6: Solution annealing, processing parameters

Slow heating with interruptions for a stress relief technique. Consequent
Heating-up time:
prevention of cracks.
Annealing Austenitic steels: TG ~ 1,050 °C
temperature: Non-ferrous metals: TG: alloy-dependent (homogenous area; aluminium ~ 500 °C)
Holding for several hours at annealing temperature (up to 50 hours, depending on
Hold time:
wall thickness).
Cooling: Quenching in water (austenitic steels) for example.
Diffusion processes must be prevented during cooling.
Technical
Solution annealing must be carried out under shielding gas.
information:
Expensive (energy-intensive, high furnace wear)
Insufficient tH means that not all precipitations can be dissolved.
Possible problems: Insufficient vab gives rise to a risk of re-precipitation.
Risk of oxidation of alloy elements and decarburisation.
Troubleshooting: Once burned and decarburised, microstructures cannot be restored.

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4.2 Hardening effects

4.2.1 Introduction
Hardening: The purpose of hardening is to give steel a high level of hardness through the
formation of martensite also resulting in a high resistance to abrasion. Attainable
hardness largely depends on the carbon content of the steel. Hardening includes
austenitising and quenching in a medium suited to the steel.
Information about the different types and process variants for hardening of steel materials can be found
in Figure 15.
Hardening
Volume hardening Surface hardening
Hardening from ‘‘Broken‘‘ Martempering /

rolling heat hardening Hot quenching
Induction Nitrogen Carbonitriding /

Flame hardening Dip hardening Case hardening
hardening hardening carburising
Figure 15: Overview of heat treatment processes, hardening
4.2.2 Hardening by transformation hardening
The most favourable hardening temperature, regardless of hardness technology according to Figure 16
depends on the steel's carbon content and is between 30 and 50 K above the line of the
A3-temperature in the Fe-Fe3C system (Figure 16).
Temperature
in °C
1200
1100
1000 Heating-up Holding time = 20 + D/2 (in min)
A3 900 and through-
800 heating
A1 Cooling with air
700 Cooling in oil
600
Cooling in water
500
400
300 preheating
Figure 16: Schematic
100 progression with
volume hardening with
Duration continuous cooling in
different mediums

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Heating and holding at heat treatment temperature for hardening thus corresponds to the comparable
steps of normalising (cf. Section 4.1.2).
However, during the hardening process the carbon is kept in a super-saturated solution by means of
quenching, i.e. the carbon cannot precipitate. Therefore, the cubic-body-centred elementary cell of the
-solid solution is distorted in the direction of the c-coordinates, thus forming a tetragonal cell, Figure 17
(martensite, cf. Section 2.03). The higher the carbon content of the steel is, the higher the tetragonal cell
distortions and the higher the quench hardness is.
cubic-face-centred cubic-body-centred tetragonally distorted
c = 2.97 · 10-10 m
a = 3.63 · 10-10 m a = 2.86 · 10-10 m a = 2.845 · 10-10 m
Figure 17: Tetragonal lattice distortion due to forcibly-released carbon atoms
The period the temperature is kept at hardening temperature must be long enough for the component to
be completely heated through, in order to completely dissolve the carbon in the austenite.
1000 Hardness of
When hardening hypo-
 2mm plates eutectoid steels, the
α +  +Z
maximum hardness that
1200 800
α Quenched from the can be obtained increases
Temperature in °C
 -zone in ice water to approx. 0.8% C. When

600 with 10% NaCl
1000 hardening hypereutectoid
Hardness HV
steels, quenching involves

800 400 Hardness after the two-phase area +Fe3C
quenching from
10
 +Z-zone and the cementite is not

600
fully dissolved. The
200 hardness remains on
Ms Hardness after
complete almost the same level. If
transformation to
400 0 mastensite hypereutectoid steels from
the austenite area above
Mf
200 -200 Hardness after Acm are quenched, then a
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 estimated tempering drop in hardness will be
effect
Carbon content in weight - % registered due to residual
austenite.
Figure 18: Martensite hardness as well as Ms and Mf temperature, depending

on the carbon content
Quenching can be carried out by several means, including water (water hardening), oil (oil hardening) or
air (air - hardening), Figure 16. Several quenching media may be involved in one quenching process,
such as during “broken hardening” or “martempering / hot quenching”.

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In order to obtain a complete martensitic structure, the quenching speed must be above the upper
critical quenching speed of the material over the entire workpiece (cf. Section 2.03).
The term hardenability (cf. Section 3) refers to the extent of the hardness (hardening) and the
distribution of the hardness (hardenability). If a workpiece is completely transformed into martensite
across its entire cross-section, this is referred to as core hardening. In this context, Figure 19 shows the
influence of the alloy composition on the core hardening capability of steels.
Critical cooling H2O Critical cooling H2O Critical cooling H2O

rate of... rate of... rate of...
Cooling speed
Cooling speed
Cooling speed
2 %-Ni- Steel 4,5 % Cr-Ni-
C-Steel Steel
oil Oil oil
Air Air Air
Diameter Diameter Diameter
“Hardeners“ “Deep hardeners“ “Core hardeners“

Figure 19: Influence of the composition of the alloy on the core hardening capability of steels
Table 7: Transformation hardening (example: Volume hardening), processing parameters

tA = 6.639 * CEW - 0.705 [hours]
Heating-up time:
Valid from CEW  0.4 and wall thickness up to 60 mm
Hardening
TH  30 to 50 K above austenitising temperature A3
temperature:
Hold time: tH  20 + D/2 [minutes]
Depending on the steel grade, quenching in water, oil or air.
Cooling: Single hardening: Quenching to room temperature
Martempering: Quenching to hot bath temperature (200 °C)
Technical Up to 500 °C slow heating; hardness temperature for oil should be 20 to 30 K above
information: that of water.
Incomplete austenite transformation with too short hold time; risk of cracking by
Possible
heating stresses; hardening cracks with too fast quenching; distortion of internal
problems:
stresses, hardening temperature too high.
Troubleshooting: Hardening cracks are irreversible.
4.2.3 Hardening by precipitation hardening

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Precipitation hardening is due to precipitation processes at room temperature or tempering temperature

(ageing temperature). Unlike transformation hardening (cf. Section 4.2.2) the hardness increase during
tempering (ageing) is significant. Precipitation hardening is the most important method for increasing
the strength of non-ferrous metals and their alloys without polymorphic phase transformation.
It is used particularly often with aluminium, nickel and copper alloys (Figure 20).
Temperature
in °C
1200
1100
1000
900 Solution annealing
800 Hold time: ~ 4 h
700
600 Quenching
500
Artificial ageing Slowly cooling at resting
400 atmosphere
Hold time: ~ 10 h
300
200
Natural ageing, ~ 5 days Figure 20: Schematic
100
temperature-time
Duration progression with the
precipitation hardening
(example: aluminium)
The mechanism of precipitation hardening is also used for steels. Precipitation-hardenable steels are
usually low-carbon special steels. In the case of these steels, the property change is achieved through
precipitation by carbides (WC) for example.
Table 8: Precipitation hardening (example: aluminium cast alloys), processing parameters

Heating-up time: Slow heating in the furnace.
Solution
annealing TL  520 °C
temperature:
Hold time: tH  4 hours
Cooling: Quenching
Artificial ageing: TA  520 °C
Ageing:
Natural ageing: TA  160 to 165 °C
Artificial ageing: tH  8 to 10 hours
Hold time:
Natural ageing: tH  5 d
Technical It is necessary to ensure a sufficiently high quenching speed and that solution
information: annealing does not lead to the precipitation of secondary phases.
Possible The precipitation of incoherent phases leads to over-ageing. The strength
problems: decreases.
If precipitation hardening is faulty, the complete process can be repeated, provided
Troubleshooting:
no alloying elements are burned.
Precipitation hardening is based on the precipitation of secondary phases in the material (coherent and
partly coherent), which form depending on the temperature and whose solubility decreases as the
temperature declines. Precipitations are manifold in size, shape and distribution (Figure 22 and Figure 23).
If the volume is sufficiently large in the secondary phase and if there is an optimum distance between
particles during distribution, then an increase in strength occurs (cf. Section 2.02). It must be emphasised that
not every alloy system with a solubility decline can be hardened. Thus, incoherent phases are not large
enough to influence the dislocation movement and therefore strength. In contrast to the precipitation of

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coherent and partly coherent phases, these incoherent phases decrease. If this process occurs with a
precipitation-hardening alloy, it is-referred to as over-ageing. If this state is reached, this precipitation
hardening must be repeated (Figure 21). This figure contains the schematic diagram for precipitation
hardening with its sub-processes solution annealing and ageing, as well as the material-specific
mechanisms.
Stable condition
Solution annealing
Alloying elements dissolve
in the solid solution
Quenching
Regeneration
supersaturated, metastable Artificial ageing
solid solution
Natural ageing
Aging at moderately
(RT aging)
increased temperature
coherent coherent and partly coherent partly coherent
precipitations, precipitations, transition precipitations, hot-cured
cold-cured condition Temperature conditions cold/hot-cured Temperature condition
increase increase
longer artificial
ageing
stable incoherent partly coherent and
equilibrium cycle, incoherent precipitations,
renewed curing stable condition longer artificial softening
ageing
Figure 21: Schematic diagram for precipitation hardening
Figure 22: Intermetallic phases in a wrought alloy Al Figure 23: Intermetallic phases in a cast alloy Al
Mg1SiCu (precipitation-solidified) Si12CuNiMg (precipitation-hardened)

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4.3 Quenching/tempering
4.3.1 Introduction
Quenching/tempering: Quenching and tempering is a combined heat treatment comprising

hardening and tempering. Steels have a high hardness level after
hardening, however toughness is very low. Most technical applications
require a sufficient high toughness, which can be achieved by tempering.
Depending on the type and process variant, quenching/tempering can be further subdivided. In this
context, Figure 24 includes known methods.
Quenching / Tempering
Quenching and tempering from roller heat Patenting Austempering
Continous patenting Bath patenting Immersion patenting Air patenting
Figure 24: Overview of heat treatment processes, quenching and tempering
4.3.2 Tempering
Tempering involves heating a hardened workpiece to a temperature below A1, holding it at this
temperature and then cooling it (Figure 25). Tempering causes the (0.2% yield-) strength limit to
decrease and to increase the elongation- / -necking at break (Figure 31). The tempering temperature is
to be selected so that a comparably high amount of hardness together with an acceptable toughness for
a predetermined application will be obtained.
Temperature
in °C
1200
1100
1000 Heating-up Holding time = 20 + D/2 (in min)
A3 900 and through-
heating
A1 800 Cooling with air
700 Cooling in oil
600
Cooling in water
500
400
300 Preheating
TEMPERING
200 HARDENING Figure 25: Schematic
progression for quenching
1,5 to 2 hours
Duration and tempering (hardening
and tempering)
Like all diffusion-dependent processes, the change in microstructure is dependent on the temperature
and duration of tempering. Microstructures that result from the transformation in the pearlite and
intermediate stage are only slightly changed during tempering. On the other hand, during tempering,
martensite is broken down gradually into an α-solid solution with an unimpaired lattice structure (ferrite)
and cementite. The higher the temperature, the faster the individual tempering processes. They largely
overlap each other. Four tempering stages are identified. They are shown in Table 9.

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Table 9: Tempering stages with steels

1st tempering stage
The C-atoms diffuse on interstitial places.
Section to approx.
Tetragonal distortion decreases depending on temperature and time.
150 °C
Sub-microscopic iron carbide crystals are precipitated.
2nd tempering stage
approx. Change of position of C-atoms in the lattice and transformation of Mtetra into Mcub.
150 °C to approx. Precipitation of finest iron carbides.
290 °C (Shearing of residual austenite into cubic martensite)
3rd tempering stage
approx. Precipitation of all carbon as carbides.
290°C to 400°C Cubic martensite is increasingly transformed into the cubic ferrite (C free).
4th tempering
approx. Acicular ferrite with embedded carbides.
400°C to 723°C Coagulation of carbides.
Figure 26: C45 - Initial state (ferrite + pearlite) Figure 27: C45 - hardened (martensite)
Figure 28: C45 - tempered at 500 °C/30 min (4th Figure 29: C45 - tempered at 100 °C/30 min (1st
tempering stage; tempered structure of ferrite + tempering stage; tempered martensite structure)
pearlite)

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The individual tempering stages cannot be separated from each other, but rather merge into one
another!
Figure 26 to Figure 29 show examples of the changes in the quenched and tempered steel C45 after
hardening and subsequent tempering at different temperatures. The influence of the tempering
temperature on the structure formation is clear (Figure 28 and Figure 29).
2000 100 In the case of Cr-, Mn- and Cr-Ni steels in

Tensile strength in N/mm2
particular, toughness decreases, if these
Impact energy in J
1900 90 are tempered at certain temperature
ranges. This decrease is shown in the
1800 80 reduction of the impact energy. Due to the
position of toughness losses in the
1700 70 temperature range between 300 °C and
Rm
350 °C, this appearance is called “300°C-
1600 Z 60 embrittlement”. This embrittlement is
Rp0,2 caused on the one hand by single-phase
1500 50 separations due to the transformation
Constriction /necking in %
processes from -carbide (Fe2C) to Fe3C
1400 40
0.2 yield strength
and on the other hand by the segregation

1300 30 of impurities, such as arsenic, antimony,
tin and phosphorous (Figure 30).
A
1200 20
Some steels, in particular Mn-, Cr-, Cr-Mn
1100 10 and Cr-Ni-steels, display a decreased
Kv
toughness during tempering after slow
1000 0 cooling (e.g. in the furnace). Fast cooling
200 300 400 500 600
(air, water) does not cause embrittlement,
Temperature in °C however.
Figure 30: “300 °C-embrittlement” in the tempering scheme

for 40NiCrMo6
Figure 31: Properties of 50CrMo4 after quenching, Figure 32: Tempering hardness of cold-, hot
depending on the tempering temperature working and high-speed tool steels

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Since this decrease in toughness takes place at a tempering temperature of approx. 500°C it is referred
to as “500 °C embrittlement”. Thus, construction steels that are among the above mentioned alloy
types should not be tempered in the temperature range of 300 °C to 500 °C, but either below or above
these temperatures.
Tool steels that contain a larger amount of carbide forming elements (chromium, vanadium,
molybdenum, tungsten) are often tempered several times. This leads to a “secondary maximum
hardness” in high-alloyed tool steels and high-speed steels (Figure 32).
4.4 Thermo-chemical heat treatment

4.4.1 Border zone hardening (surface layer hardening)
The surface of numerous construction elements, such as crank shafts, cogged wheels or camshafts, are
exposed to wear. These components require a high degree of surface hardness with a tough core at the
same time. One way of obtaining such a state is to only austenitise the surface of heat-treatable steels
and to quench it afterwards (Figure 33). Quenching is often carried out using a water shower. Heating is
partially achieved by:
– Metal baths (dip hardening)

– Gas flame (flame hardening)
– High-frequency current (induction hardening)
Figure 33: Microstructure areas of a surface layer hardened workpiece from C45 (left: Overview of the border
layer; right: Martensitic hardened microstructure with a few ferrite islands in the immediate border
region of the material surface, hardness: 439 HV1)
4.4.2 Case hardening
A further alternative to surface layer hardening is the carburisation of the border layer, also referred to as
case hardening or cementation, and subsequent quenching. Typical materials are case hardening steels,
i.e. steels with a carbon content lower than 0.25% that themselves do not essentially contribute to
increasing the hardness during hardening. During case hardening, the carbon diffuses into the border
layer. It can be conducted in carbonisation mediums with different aggregation states.

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Table 10: Carbonisation media and thermal treatment parameters

Medium aggregation state Application temperature in °C Application time in hours
solid 850 to 950 8 to 12
liquid 850 to 950 2 to 6
gaseous 800 to 900 2 to 6
4.4.3 Nitrogen hardening (Nitriding)
During nitrogen hardening nitrogen diffuses into the steel surface. The nitrating layer is very thin; only a
few tenths of a millimetre. Nitriding takes place in gaseous ammonia (NH3), for example, at temperatures
between 500 and 600 °C over a period of 30 to 60 hours. Cooling is carried out in a furnace, thus almost
avoiding shrinking stresses. Nitrided steel therefore has a naturally hard surface. The hardness of a
nitrided layer is higher than case hardened layers and is based on finest precipitations of metal nitrides.
The hardness of nitrogen hardened steels decreases sharply from the hard nitriding layer towards the
soft core. This transition is weakened by a hardness treatment. The nitriding layer is not influenced by
this hardening process.
4.4.4 Carbonitriding
During carbonitriding, case hardening and nitriding take place simultaneously. It can be conducted in
both gases and baths. A mixture of a carrier gas, propane and ammonia at temperatures between
750 and 850 °C is used for carbonitriding.
5 Heat treatment of welded joints

5.1 Preheating
Pre-heating involves reducing the speed of heat dissipation in the component or in the area of the
welded joint (in particular in the heat-affected zone) by applying heat already in to it, so that there is
sufficient time for diffusion, effusion and heat-guided processes (cf. Section 2.05).
Thus, the main purpose of pre-heating is to create and form more favourable microstructures. These
can be derived from sources such as weld TTT diagrams, which can provide answers to the question of
the different cooling speeds influences on the formation of structures and mechanical-technological
properties (e.g. hardness). In this context in particular, the t 8/5 concept according to SEW 088-2 and EN
1011-2 has special significance (cf. Section 2.05).
The reasons for pre-heating welded joints are thus as follows:
– To ensure a favourable microstructural state close to equilibrium.

– To permit the diffusion (effusion) of harmful atoms out of the microstructure.
– To maintain the ductility of the material in the area of the welded joint.
– To limit the residual welding stresses due to restraint.
– To eliminate weather-related influences.

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5.2 Postweld heat treatment
The necessity for and the type of heat treatment after welding depends on the chemical composition of
the materials and filler materials, the shape of the component, the wall thickness, the welding conditions,
the strength properties, the scope of non-destructive testing and, if necessary, adherence to additional
conditions. Thus, unfavourable microstructural states, which can result when welding steel and which
have an adverse affect on performance can be eliminated by subsequent heat treatments.
The heat treatment temperature and the duration of treatment are material- and component-related.
Information about this is generally found in the material specifications, for example, standards, VdTÜV
leaflets, and material information sheets. The heating and cooling rates are also to be selected in
accordance with the material, wall thickness and component dimensions.
If heat treatment is required after welding, stress relieving or tempering annealing is generally
sufficient for steels with a body centred elementary cell. Under certain circumstances, e.g. with a very
coarse-grained heat-affected zone, normalising can also prove to be effective. In the case of
austenites, strain hardening can be largely eliminated by annealing at about 1,000 °C with a minimum
hold time of approx one minute. The resolution of chromium carbide precipitations requires at least
three minutes at 1,030°C, while the solution of the digital sigma phase requires about 10 minutes hold
time at 1,050°C.
Table 11 contains a list of annealing temperatures for heat-resistant pressure vessel steels, depending
on the base material type used.
Table 11: Annealing temperature for similar welded joints irrespective of the product form
(according to TÜV SÜD Industrie GmbH)
Annealing
Serial no. Steel grade
temperature in °C
1 P235GH, P265GH; P295GH, P355GH, 17Mn4, 19Mn5 520 to 580
2 16Mo3 530 to 620
3 13CrMo4-5 600 to 700
4 10CrMo9-10, 11CrMo9-10 650 to 750
5 14MoV6-3 690 to 730
X10CrMoVNb9-1, X11CrMoWVNb9-1-1 740 to 770
6
X20CrMov12-1 720 to 780
12MnNiMo5-5, 13MnNiMo5-4, 11NiMoV5-3 530 to 590
7
15NiCuMoNb5 530 to 620 1) 2)
8 Fine grain structural steels according to DIN EN 10028-3 530 to 580
1)
Stress relief is to be performed at least 30 K below the tempering temperature. The temperature difference can be decreased if it can be proven,
using suitable measures (thermocouples, certification of the furnace investigation by an expert), that the tempering temperature is not exceeded.
2)
If the tempering temperature has been exceeded during stress-relief annealing, the strength and notch impact toughness must be verified on
the component.
If postweld annealing is carried out during welding procedure tests according to EN ISO 15614-1, then
postweld annealing of the weld(s) is mandatory during production. On the other hand, postweld
annealing is not permitted during production if this does not take place as part of the procedure test(s).

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6 Temperature measurement and recording
Quality requirements for heat treatment during welding, especially the measurement and recording of
temperatures, are specified in EN ISO 17663. The consistency of the heat treatment temperature must
be checked regularly by taking measurements. These measurements are carried out in an empty
furnace with thermocouples (Figure 34 and Figure 35). If the furnace is only used for postweld
annealing, one consistency measurement is sufficient. The temperature is to be increased to the
temperature of measurement and to be held there for 15 min.. The following should be recorded:
– Entrance- and exiting temperature,

– Heating-up speed,
– Holding temperature (or, if required, holding temperature range),
– Holding time (range, if required) and
– Cooling rate.
Instructions are to be prepared for all heat treatments. In case of welding, the stipulations for the heat
treatment may be contained in the welding procedure specification, or the latter may contain a reference to
the instructions for the heat treatment instead. The following information, where applicable, must be
included:
– Type of heat treatment, e.g. pre-heating, stress-relief heat treatment, normalising;

– Procedure for heat treatment, e.g. in the oven, inductive heating, resistance heating;
– Location and number of temperature measuring points;
– Protective gas requirement;
– Parameters for heat treatment;
– Support and certification of products or components;
– Type of cooling;
– Identification of the product or component, e.g. designation, number;
– Environmental conditions, e.g. protection against wind and rain;
– Extent of the heated zone and thermal insulation.
Figure 34: Digital thermometers with NiCr-Ni Figure 35: NiCr-Ni thermocouple for applying to
thermocouple (65 to 1.1150°C) components
If no temperature measuring systems are available, tempering temperatures can be measured relatively
accurately with the aid of simple auxiliary materials. The ignition temperatures of selected solids can be
used for this purpose, for example (Table 12).

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Table 12: Ignition temperatures of selected solids

Solid Ignition temperature in °C Solid Ignition temperature in °C
Match head (wood) 80 Cork 300-320
Newspaper 175 Charcoal 300
Plastics 200-300 Typewriting paper 360
Straw 250-300 Sugar 410
Pine 280 Cotton 450
7 Test of hardenability
The front quench test standardised in EN ISO 642 according to JOMINY is used to determine the
hardenability of steels. Cylindrical samples at heat treatment temperature (hardness temperature, cf.
Section 4.2.2) (Ø 25 mm, length 100 mm) are suddenly quenched on one of their fusion faces in special
test facilities using a water jet. After the samples have been fully cooled under the water jet, their
hardness is determined (cf. Section 2.23). The sample is ground in longitudinal direction and a HRC or
HV indentation is made at set intervals (1.5 - 3 - 5 - 7 - 9 - 11 - 13 - 15 - 20 - 25 - 30 -… mm). The
diagram showing the results indicates the case hardening depth.
8 Technical rules for heat treatment
DIN 17 022-1:
Heat treatment of ferrous materials - Methods of heat treatment - Part 1: Hardening, austempering,
annealing, quenching, tempering of components.
DIN 17 022-2:
Heat treatment of ferrous materials - Methods of heat treatment - Part 2: Hardening and tempering of tools.
DIN 17 022-3:
Heat treatment of ferrous materials - Methods of heat treatment - Part 3: Case hardening.
DIN 17 022-4:
Heat treatment of ferrous materials - Methods of heat treatment - Part 4: Nitriding and nitrocarburising.
DIN 17 022-5:
Heat treatment of ferrous materials - Methods of heat treatment - Part 5: Surface hardening.
DIN EN 10 052:
Vocabulary of heat treatment terms for ferrous products.
DIN EN ISO 642:

Steel - Hardenability test by end quenching (Jominy test).
DIN EN ISO 17 663:

Welding - Quality requirements for heat treatment in connection with welding and allied processes.

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9 Test questions
(1) What is understood by the term precipitation hardening?
 Heat treatment for hardening cubic martensite.

 Heat treatment for the precipitation of martensite.
 Heat treatment, consisting of solution treatment and ageing.
 Heat treatment for the formation of martensite of extreme hardness.
 Heat treatment for dissolving martensite.
(2) What is normalising?
 Heat treatment, involving austenitising and subsequent air cooling.

 Heat treatment for creating a bainitic structure.
 Heat treatment for creating a consistent microstructure with fine lamellar pearlite.
 Heat treatment for the precipitation of normal graphite in eutectic steels.
 Heat treatment for equalising strain and toughness.
(3) Stress-relief annealing of steels is carried out at what temperature?
 Above A3
 Above A1
 Below A1
 Above A4
 At 911 °C.
(4) What are the reasons for coarse grain annealing?
 To create a structure with high toughness and good strain properties.

 To create a structure with good weldability.
 To create a structure with low hardness and poor toughness.
 To create a structure with good cutting properties.
 To create a structure with good formability.
(5) Why is recrystallization annealing carried out?
 In order to effect grain growth through nucleation and growth without a phase change.
 In order to achieve the coarsest possible grain through grain growth.
 In order to reverse solidification caused by cold deformations.
 In order to compensate for concentration differences between the heat-affected zone and
weld metal.
 In order to effect phase changes (-).

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(6) What is the temperature for hardening?
 It corresponds to the normal annealing temperature.

 It is approx. 30 to 50 K above the pearlite formation temperature.
 It is approx. 30 to 50 K above the A1 temperature.
 It is approx. 30 to 50 K above the A3 temperature.
 It corresponds precisely to the Ms temperature.
(7) Which material-specific mechanism is used in precipitation hardening?
 The formation of martensite.

 The transformation of structure due to phase transformations.
 The formation of an intermediate stage (bainite).
 The precipitation of secondary phases.
 The formation of pearlite.
(8) Which temperature should never be exceeded when tempering steel?
 The Curie temperature.

 The pearlite formation temperature.
 The A1 temperature.
 723 °C.
 911 °C.
(9) Why do welded joints have to be pre-heated?
 To normalise the solidified weld metal.

 To enable the solution annealing of the preheated heat-affected zone.
 To ensure a favourable structure close to equilibrium.
 To permit the effusion of harmful atoms from within the structure.
 To eliminate weather-related influences.
(10) Which test can be used to test hardenability?
 Tensile test.
 Compression test.
 Drop-weight test.
 Front quench test.
 Rotating bar fatigue test.

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10 Bibliography

Eckstein, H.-J.:
Wärmebehandlung von Stahl. Metallkundliche Grundlagen. [Heat treatment of steel. Metallurgical principles.]

Metallurgie und Werkstofftechnik – Ein Wissensspeicher. Band 1. [Metallurgy and engineering materials
– A knowledge store. Volume 1.]
Schuster, J.:
[Welding of iron, steel and nickel materials – Guide for the welding-metallurgical practice.]
Fachbuchreihe Schweißtechnik, Band 130. [Series of reference books on welding technology, Volume 130.]
Mainka, J.:
Härtereitechnisches Fachwissen [Technical hardening expertise.]
Stanz, A.; Schäfer, K.:

Einfluss einer Wärmenachbehandlung auf die mechanischen Eigenschaften und das
Korrosionsverhalten nichtrostender Stähle [Influence of a postweld annealing on mechanical properties
and the corrosion behaviour of stainless steels]
Material and Corrosion, Weinheim 27 (1976) 10, pp. 701-705

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Structural (unalloyed) steels Page 1
Chapter 2.09: Structural (unalloyed) steels
Contents
1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 3
2 Classification of carbon and carbon-manganese steels.................................................. 4
3 Important properties of carbon and carbon-manganese steels ...................................... 4
3.1 Overview of key properties ....................................................................................................... 4
3.2 Load- bearing capacity and formability ..................................................................................... 4
3.3 Brittle fracture behaviour ........................................................................................................... 6
3.4 Wear-resistance ....................................................................................................................... 6
3.5 Suitability for heat treatment ..................................................................................................... 7
3.6 Weldability ................................................................................................................................ 7
3.6.1 Evaluation of weldability .................................................................................................. 7
3.6.2 Carbon Equivalent CEV .................................................................................................. 7
3.6.3 Effects of alloying and trace elements ............................................................................. 7
3.7 Suitability for hot-dip galvanising .............................................................................................. 9
4 Steels with designation based on their mechanical and physical properties .............. 11
4.1 Overview of key steel grades .................................................................................................. 11
4.2 Non-alloy structural steels and mechanical engineering steels according to EN 10 025-2 ...... 11
4.2.1 Concept and significant properties ................................................................................ 11
4.2.2 Grades .......................................................................................................................... 12
4.2.3 Weldability .................................................................................................................... 13
4.2.4 Example designations ................................................................................................... 14
4.3 Weather-proof structural steels according to EN 10 025-5 ...................................................... 14
4.3.2 Grades .......................................................................................................................... 15
4.3.3 Weldability .................................................................................................................... 15
4.4 Concrete reinforcing steels according to EN 10 080 and DIN 488-1 ....................................... 17
4.4.2 Grades .......................................................................................................................... 18
4.4.3 Weldability .................................................................................................................... 18
4.4.5 Marking /identification ................................................................................................... 19
4.5 Steels for pipes with circular or square cross-sections ............................................................ 21
5 Steels designated on the basis of their chemical composition .................................... 22
5.1 Overview of important steel grades......................................................................................... 22
5.2 Non-alloy case hardening steels according to EN 10 084 ....................................................... 22

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5.2.2 Grades .......................................................................................................................... 23

5.2.3 Weldability .................................................................................................................... 23
5.3 Non alloy quenched and tempered steels according to EN 10 083-2 ...................................... 24
5.3.1 Concept and respective properties ................................................................................ 24
5.3.2 Grades .......................................................................................................................... 24
5.3.3 Weldability .................................................................................................................... 25
6 Weld processing ................................................................................................................ 26
6.1 Welding Process..................................................................................................................... 26
6.2 Welding consumables / filler materials .................................................................................... 26
6.3 Effects of the welding heat treatment ...................................................................................... 27
7 Question ............................................................................................................................. 28
8 Literature ............................................................................................................................ 30

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1 Introduction
Non-alloy steels number among the most frequently manufactured steel materials in the world (together
with (low) alloy steels they count for approx. 85% of total annual steel production). These are used for
applications in steel construction, mechanical engineering, pipeline construction as well as in the
automobile and shipbuilding industries (Figure 1), but may also be quenched and tempered, depending
on their carbon content. In accordance with CEN ISO/TR 15 608 (grouping system for metallic materials
for welding purposes) these steels have been assigned to the so-called Material Group 1 and
particularly to the sub-groups 1.1, 1.2 and 1.4 (Table 1).
Figure 1: Examples of applications of non-alloy structural steels (source: Steel Information Centre (Stahl-
Informations-Zentrum))
Table 1: Material Group 1 according to CEN ISO/TR 15 608 and important European material standards
Structural steels – non-alloy, weatherproof, fine-grain (N)
Standard steels
Group Sub-group Steel grades
(examples)
Steels with a minimum yield point of ReH  460 N/mm2 and the following analysis
values in %: C  0.25; Si  0.60; Mn  1.70; Mo  0.70; S  0.045; P  0.045; Cu 
0.40; Ni  0.5b; CR  0.3 (0.4 for casting pieces); Nb  0.05; V  0.12; Ti  0.05
2 EN 10 025-2
1.1 Steels with a minimum yield point at ReH  275 N/mm (S235JR)
Steels with a minimum yield point at EN 10 025-2
1.2
275 N/mm² < ReH  360 N/mm² (S355J2)
1
Normalised fine grain structural steels with a minimum yield EN 10 025-3
1.3 2
point of ReH > 360 N/mm (S460N)
Steels with improved corrosion resistance against atmospheric EN 10 025-5
1.4
oxygen (S355J2W)
Note: In practice, the allocation of steels to the “material groups” according to CEN ISO/TR 15 608 often
leads to problems. The cause for this lies in the origin of the sources of this standard. They are based on
US-American standards for steels suitable for pressurized vessels according to ASME code. This is also
used to describe the groups of pressurized vessel steels (cf. Chapter 2.12) which do not encompass many
other steels (e.g. non-alloyed case-hardening, quenched and tempered, and tool steels).
Due to their chemical composition, all types of mild steels have been designated as carbon or
carbon-manganese steels. These can contain manganese in addition to carbon as its essential alloying
element. In a normalised condition, these indicate a ferritic-pearlitic microstructure and can, depending
on production technology, contain small amounts of silicon and/or aluminium (cf. Section 3.6.3). Due to
the necessary adaptation of the chemical composition to the respective purpose (cf. Sections 4 and 5),
these steels are not necessarily characterised by a guaranteed weldability.

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2 Classification of carbon and carbon-manganese steels
Carbon and carbon-manganese steels may be classified in accordance with Figure 2 using the
European classification system for steels according to EN 10 020 and EN 10 027-1. As can be seen, this
involves steels for steel construction (S), engineering steels (E), pipeline steels (L), etc. of at least
non-alloy quality steels (EN 10 020) which, due to their designation in accordance with their
mechanical and physical properties, have been classified as such (EN 10 027-1, cf. Chapter 2.04).
Contrary to this, there are also numerous steels which have been classified according to their chemical
composition, (e.g. non-alloy case-hardening, quenched and tempered, and tool steels), as carbon and
carbon-manganese steels (cf. Sections 5.2 and 5.3).
Main quality class according to EN 10 020

Non-alloy steels
Non-alloy quality steels Non-alloy high-grade steels
Carbon and carbon-manganese steels

Steels due to their mechanical and Steels due to their chemical
physical properties composition
S Structural steels S355
Non-alloy case hardening steels C10
E Mechanical engineering steels E360
L Pipeline steels L355 Non-alloy quenched and tempered
C C35
P Pressure vessel steels P355 steels
B Concrete reinforcing steels B500
Non-alloy tool steels C45U
R Rail steels R320
… other … … other …
Figure 2: Classification and designation of carbon and carbon-manganese steels
3 Important properties of carbon and carbon-manganese steels

3.1 Overview of key properties
Important properties of carbon and carbon-manganese steels include, among others:
– strength properties ..................................... load-carrying capacity

– elongation properties .................................. formability
– ductility (toughness) properties ................... brittle fracture behaviour
– hardness properties .................................... wear characteristics
– transformation behaviour ............................ suitability for the heat treatment
– suitability for thermal joining ....................... weldability
– suitability for coating ................................... suitability for hot-dip galvanising
3.2 Load- bearing capacity and formability
The strength properties (as characteristic of the load bearing capacity) of all kinds of carbon and
carbon-manganese steels are determined in particular by the level of carbon content. Therefore, the
amount of cementite (Fe3C) increases in the microstructure with increasing carbon. As a result:

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– there is an increase in the strength properties, tensile strength Rm and yield point Re (Figure 3) and
– there are decreases in the elongation properties, elongation after fracture A and reduction of area
Z (Figure 3), i.e., the formability reduces.
Figure 3: Influence of carbon

on strength and elongation properties
of non-alloy structural steels
Manganese also influences strength properties (substitutional solid solution formation) by its solid
solution-strengthening effect. Alloying these steels with manganese is not conducted with the primary
purpose to increase strength, however, in contrast to carbon (cf. Section 6).
Table 2 contains a summary of recommended minimum values for the bend radius in the bevelling of flat
products made from non-alloyed structural steels according to EN 10 025-2 with a product thickness up
to 30 mm. As can be seen, the diameter of the bending mandrel in the reverse bend test must be
enlarged due to decreasing formability. This means that the suitability of these materials for cold bending
or bevelling decreases with increasing carbon content and therefore with increasing strength.
Table 2: The influence of material strength on the diameter of the bending mandrel while carrying out the
bend test
Bend radius 1.0 to 2.0t* 2.0 to 2.5t* 2.5 to 3.0t* Test not applicable
Material S235 S275 S355 E295, E335, E360
t - Sheet thickness
Normalized or normalized rolled steels are suitable for hot forming. Steel grades with desired suitability for
cold forming are to be designated when ordering with “C” or “GC” or with the corresponding material
number.
Example: Cold drawn steel (bright steel) EN 10277-2 – S355J2C or 1.0579

Cold drawn steel (bright steel) EN 10277-2 – E335GC or 1.0543
Note: Cold forming can lead to a reduction in toughness. In addition, the risk of the formation of brittle
fractures (cf. Section 3.7 and Chapter 2.07) can increase in connection with galvanisation (cf. Section 3.3).

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3.3 Brittle fracture behaviour
The tendency towards the formation of brittle fractures (cf. Chapter 2.07) of carbon and carbon-
manganese steels is increased by the following variables:
– decreasing degree of deoxidation (FF  FN  FU)

– increasing content of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus
– multi-axial stress conditions,
– low temperatures,
– high (impact) rates of loading and
– increasing plate thickness.
Taking a number of manufacturing instructions into account, brittle fractures can be prevented:
– Use special killed steels without the critical carbon equivalent CEV,
– Avoid critical multi-axial stress conditions,
– Avoid forming, thermal cutting, and welding at low temperatures,
– Avoid metallurgical and geometric surface notches,
– Allowing free shrinkage as much as possible,
– Pre-heat thick cross-sections as well as
– Reduce residual stresses by stress-relieving heat treatments.
Brittle fracture behaviour is also definitively determined in the case of non-alloy steel by the ageing
behaviour, thus by time-dependent property changes in the material (cf. Chapter 2.02). Due to more
natural (more time-dependent) and heat ageing, but also through so-called strain-ageing (ageing by cold
forming), there can be a loss of elongation and toughness as a result. Embrittlement from ageing is
considerably influenced by the element nitrogen with increasing degrees of deformation. Cold-formed
areas are particularly at risk therefore. Taking a number of manufacturing instructions into account, this
metallurgically conditioned formation of embrittlement can be prevented. These include:
– avoid welding in cold-formed areas,

– prior to welding, normalise as necessary,
– use of steels from the quality group J2 or K2 as well as
– use steels specially killed with Al
A decreasing susceptibility to brittle fractures means an improvement in weldability.
3.4 Wear-resistance
Of the carbon and carbon-manganese steels, those with abbreviated designations are, with few
exceptions, not wear-resistant, due to their mechanical and physical properties (cf. Section 4). The
cause for this is their low carbon content and the further alloying elements.
Carbon and carbon-manganese steels, which are designated as such due to their chemical composition
(cf. Section 5), can however gain sufficient resistance to various types of wear, through e.g.
case-hardening, conventional hardening and quenching and tempering (cf. Chapter 2.08).

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3.5 Suitability for heat treatment
Carbon and carbon-manganese steels are transformable (--transformation). So they are also suitable
for heat treatment. The type of heat treatment processes under consideration for this depends on the
respective types of steels. The following heat treatments are possible and are used in practice:
– Stress-relief annealing (heat-treatment) (all types of carbon and carbon-manganese steels)

– Normalising (all types of carbon and carbon-manganese steels)
– Hardening (non-alloy case hardening steels, quenched and tempered steels and tool steels)
– Quenching and tempering (non-alloy case hardening steels, quenched and tempered steels and
tool steels)
3.6 Weldability
3.6.1 Evaluation of weldability
When evaluating the weldability of a steel, its chemical composition is taken as a basis. Furthermore, its
toughness behaviour, as recorded in the results of the notched-bar impact test, also provides significant
information about its weldability (cf. Chapter 2.23).
The most important element of the evaluation of a material analysis to determine weldability is carbon.
Carbon content up to 0.22% is generally not critical in relation to the suitability of an unalloyed material
for welding. Weldability is normal (cf. Chapter 2.05). This means that the material may be welded up to
a thickness of 20 mm without being preheated. Higher carbon content leads to a susceptibility to crack-
ing in the form of hardening cracks and also hydrogen induced cracks (cf. Chapter 2.06). Therefore,
these steels must be preheated prior to welding, in order to achieve a slow cooling and thereby avoid
excessive hardness caused by having an overly high martensite content, with the associated embrittle-
ment and susceptibility to cracks. Steels with carbon content above 0.4% are considered unsuitable for
fusion welding, i.e. they are to be considered not weldable. Their martensite content exceeds 50%, so
that, for example, residual welding stresses can no longer be plastically relieved.
3.6.2 Carbon Equivalent CEV
Using the carbon equivalent CEV (English: Carbon Equivalent) the weldability of carbon and carbon-
manganese steels can be measured, in general, and in particular the weldability of all types of unalloyed
structural steels can also be measured. It was developed to measure the effects of alloying and trace
elements on hardenability, taking the criteria for susceptibility to the formation of cold cracks of the
type age hardening cracks into consideration (cf. Chapter 2.06). In EN 10 025-1 this has been defined
as follows:
Mn (Cr  Mo  V) (Ni  Cu)

CEV  C   
6 5 15
3.6.3 Effects of alloying and trace elements
Apart from their influence on hardenability, alloying and trace elements are also characterised by other
further effects.

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Silicon ...
… in non-alloy structural steel gives information on the deoxidation state of the material. Steels containing
less than 0.1% Si are considered unkilled cast and their profiles and sheets display strong macroscopic
layers of segregation. These layers, or zones, also include higher contents of carbon, phosphorus and
sulphur and are therefore problematic for welding purposes. Steels with Si-content of about 0.2 to 0.8% are
considered to be killed cast and have no defined segregation zones. These steels have a good suitability for
welding. Steels with higher Si contents than 0.8% are brittle and only weldable to a very limited extent.
Manganese ...
... is, along with the carbon content, decisive for the strength and the toughness behaviour of a steel. In
order to obtain usable steel, it must contain at least 0.2% manganese. Any residual sulphur content can be
bound with that to form MnS, which yields sufficient toughness. Non-alloy structural steels such as the
S235 grades contain about 0.4 to 0.6% manganese. Manganese has a weaker deoxidising effect than
silicon, with the result that steels with contents over approx. 0.6% can be classified as killed steel. The
S355 grades have higher contents of this element. These contain between 1.0 and 1.6% manganese. At
these concentrations and in combination with the C-content, the suitability for welding is considerably
negatively influenced. Such steels as of a wall thickness of approx. 20 mm must be pre-heated prior to
welding. Steels with an even higher Mn-content, with the exception of Mn-austenites (austenitic
manganese steels, e.g. X120Mn12), are not used since these materials display poorer toughness
behaviour.
Aluminium ...
… belongs to the positively assessed elements in non-alloyed steels. It is an even stronger deoxidizer than
silicon. With the formation of aluminium nitrides, the ageing susceptibility of the material is prevented
(cf. Section 3.3). In addition, a considerably more fine-grained microstructural formation is achieved by the
nucleation supporting aluminium nitrides during normalizing (cf. Chapter 2.08) which improves both strength
and toughness. To achieve these positive effects an alloy content of more than 0.02% aluminium is
necessary. The maximum Al-content must not exceed 0.1% for non-alloy structural steels. Furthermore,
aluminium is added to nitriding steels and heat resistant steels to form nitrides and improve heat resistance.
Phosphorous ...
... is soluble in steel only in small quantities at room temperature and precipitates at higher content levels
as Fe3P. In unkilled steels, the element segregates very strongly and concentrates itself at the centre of
rolled products. In general, however, phosphorous has a negative influence on the toughness of steel,
expressed by an at times very severe loss of impact energy. Nitrogen and phosphorous together reduce
the ageing resistance of a steel. Phosphorous is positively assessed in steel for its machinability and
weather resistance. As for the weldability of steels, phosphorous has altogether negative effects.
Therefore, welding is no longer advised with phosphorous contents of approx. 0.05% or more. Modern
structural steels contain approx. 0.02% to 0.035% of phosphorous.
Sulphur ...
… is almost insoluble in steels. The element combines with iron and oxygen to form low-melting eutectics,
which lead to the formation of hot cracks in the temperature range over 950 °C. At temperatures of 800 °C,
sulphur leads to brittle fractures (red-shortness). Sulphur segregates in unkilled steels and concentrates itself
at the centre of rolled products. Due to this reason, sulphur is unwanted in steels, and, from a welding point of
view it is the element which considerably restricts the weldability of steel or indeed makes welding
impossible. In non-alloy structural steels, the sulphur content is therefore limited to contents  0.05% and in
stainless Cr-Ni steels even  0.03% (exceptions: S-alloyed machining steels). However, these low contents
must be bound by manganese in order to obtain usable steel. At high temperatures, manganese forms with
sulphur the compound MnS which, in rolled steel can be visible with increased magnification as a lined

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precipitation in the microsection or in the fracture surfaces. These precipitations, with stresses in the direction
of thickness of the rolling stock, may possibly lead to lamellar tearing (cf. Chapter 2.06).
Nitrogen ...
... is soluble in steel up to a certain amount. At room temperature, the element is however practically
insoluble. At lower temperatures, therefore, iron nitrides are precipitated after a prolonged period. These
precipitations require a long period of time and, at room temperature, can take up to fifty (50) years. This
type of precipitation, which is associated with a considerable level of embrittlement, is also called natural
ageing (cf. Chapter 2.02). Higher temperatures and cold forming as well as phosphorus, oxygen and
carbon contents accelerate the ageing. By means of annealing, embrittlement due to ageing can be
redressed or eliminated. The susceptibility of steel to ageing is tested by means of notch impact
toughness test specimens, which have been 10% cold-formed and annealed at 250 °C for half an hour.
In order to restrict or completely prevent the ageing sensitivity of structural steels, either the nitrogen
content must be limited to a maximum of 0.01% or alloying with aluminium, niobium or vanadium must
be performed, so that any dissolved nitrogen can be bound.
Oxygen ...
… is soluble to maximum 0.003% in steel and has an embrittling effect. Contents higher than 0.007% are
present as oxidic inclusions. When casting steel in moulds, the reaction of the oxygen with carbon causes
the molten metal to "boil" with the associated formation of carbon monoxide bubbles. In order to prevent
this reaction, deoxidisers such as silicon and/or aluminium are added to the steel (cf. Chapter 2.04).
Hydrogen ...
... leads to embrittlement of the steel. Approx. 0.0004 ml per 100 g iron is soluble at room temperature.
Features (appearance) of hydrogen induced cracks include "fish eyes", "micropatches", microcracks and
underbead cracking (cf. Chapter 2.06). Welded joints on non-alloy steels with average and higher carbon
contents and those on fine-grained structural steels are particularly sensitive to hydrogen embrittlement.
Here martensitic microstructures are more at risk than ferritic or ferritic-pearlitic ones.
3.7 Suitability for hot-dip galvanising
In 2005, optional requirements to the suitability of hot-dip galvanising were included in the regulations
(EN 10 025-2) for non-alloy structural steels. These are instructions for obtaining a visually appealing and
uniform formation of the zinc layer ("spangle") on the material surface. In this context, classes defining the
suitability for hot-dip galvanizing were introduced on the basis of the ladle analysis (Table 3).
Possible adverse effects on other properties, such as the brittle fracture behaviour or susceptibility to the
penetration of zinc phases into the material, are not considered in these requirements.
Table 3: Classes defining suitability for hot-dip galvanizing based on the ladle analysis
Elements, mass fraction in %
Class
Si Si + 2.5 P P
1  0.030  0.090 —
2*  0.35 — —
3 0.14  Si  0.25 —  0.035
only for special Zn alloys
Under normal circumstances, the layer resulting from hot-dip galvanizing comprises an iron-zinc alloy layer
and a pure zinc layer. Overly high silicon and phosphorous contents can, however, cause disproportionate
growth of the iron zinc layer. In particular, a critical silicon content accelerates the reaction between iron and

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zinc considerably. As a result, the proportion of the iron-zinc alloy layer is thicker than with materials with an
uncritical content of these elements (SANDELIN and SEBISTY effects Figure 4, Table 4). This can, as a
result, lead to adhesion problems of the coating and different surface colourations of the galvanisation layer.
As can be seen in Figure 4 and Table 4, the thicknesses of the galvanisation layer should be in the areas
1 or 3 (SEBISTY area) , by coordinating the silicon and phosphorous content in the base metal.
Figure 4: SANDELIN/SEBISTY effect during hot-dip galvanising (areas cf. Table 4)
Table 4: Formation of the zinc coating depending on the phosphorous and silicon content during hot-dip
galvanising
Number Si + P content in % Formation of the zinc coating
Normal Fe-Zn reaction, silvery bright coating, normal layer
1 < 0.030
thickness
SANDELIN area, accelerated Fe-Zn reaction, gray coating, large
2  0.030 to  0.13
layer thickness
SEBISTY area, normal Fe-Zn reaction, silvery matt coating,
3 > 0.13 to  0.28
medium layer thickness
Accelerated Fe-Zn reaction, matt grey, large layer thickness,
4 > 0.28
appearance becomes grey as Si content increases
If there are welded joints in the area of the hot-dipped surface, the silicon content in the filler material
(required for the desoxidation of the weld metal) can cause adverse visual effects. For this reason welded
joints should be arranged structurally in such a way that these are not perceived to be visually disruptive.

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4 Steels with designation based on their mechanical and physical properties

4.1 Overview of key steel grades
Non-alloy carbon and carbon-manganese steels, which are named and used according to the basis of their
mechanical and physical properties in EN 10 027-1, are listed in Table 5 with their descriptive symbols.
Table 5: Non-alloy steels based on their mechanical and physical properties

Symbol Steel grade Standards (examples)
S Steels for general steel construction EN 10 025-2, EN 10 025-5
P Steels for the construction of pressurised vessels EN 10 028-2
L Steels for pipe line construction EN 10 208-1, EN 10 208-2
E Mechanical engineering steels EN 10 025-2, EN 10 296-1
B Concrete reinforcing steels DIN 488, (EN 10 080)
Y Prestressed (concrete) steels EN 10 138-2, EN 10 138-4
R Steels for or in the form of rails EN 13 674-1
H Cold-rolled flat products in higher-strength drawing qualities EN 10 268, EN 10 346
D Flat products of soft steels for cold forming EN 10 111, EN 10 152
T Steel for packaging, plate and strip EN 10 202
M Electric sheet and strip EN 10 106, EN 10 107
4.2 Non-alloy structural steels and mechanical engineering steels according to EN 10 025-2
4.2.1 Concept and significant properties
Non-alloy steels that are characterised essentially by their tensile strength and yield point are
considered non-alloy structural steels and are used, e.g. in building construction and civil engineering,
hydraulic engineering, vessel construction as well as in automotive construction and mechanical
engineering. They stand out due to a ferritic-pearlitic microstructure (Figure 5) and are characterised
by the following significant properties:
– Tensile strength, yield point

– Formability
– Susceptibility to brittle fracture
– Weldability
Figure 5: Ferritic-pearlitic microstructure of a non-ally structural steel of the grade S355J2+N

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The steels according to EN 10 025-2 are not intended to undergo heat treatment except for those
marked with the delivery status +N. Stress relief annealing, however, is admissible for all grades of steel.
The strength properties of non-alloy structural steels fall as operating temperatures rise. For this reason
these steels must only be used up to a maximum limit temperature of 350°C. At higher temperatures,
it is better to revert to heat-resistant, non-alloy pressure vessel steels (P), e.g. according to EN 10 028-2
(cf. Chapter 2.12).
4.2.2 Grades
The non-alloy structural and mechanical engineering steels are being constantly further developed.
Today they are considered non-alloy quality steels in accordance with EN 10 020. There are no basic
steels any more. Also the deoxidation degree “unkilled” or “rimmed” FU is no longer permitted
(exception: S185, free choice of desoxidation). Since 2005 non-alloy structural steels can no longer be
produced using the SIEMENS-MARTIN process. Table 6 and Table 7 provide an overview and
comparison of currently standard steel grades and those from the past.
Table 6: Comparison of the grades of non-alloy structural steels

Mat. no. Deoxi. prEN 10 025-2:11 EN 10 025-2:05 EN 10 025:94 DIN 17 100:80
1.0035 Free choice S185 S185 S185 St 33
1.0037 Free choice — — S235JR St 37-2
1.0036 FU — — S235JRG1 USt 37-2
1.0038 FN S235JR S235JR S235JRG2 RSt 37-2
1.0114 FN S235J0 S235J0 S235J0 St 37-3 U
1.0116 FF — — S235J2G3 St 37-3 N
1.0117 FF S235J2 S235J2 S235J2G4 —
1.0044 FN S275JR S275JR S275JR St 44-2
1.0143 FN S275J0 S275J0 S275J0 St 44-2 U
1.0144 FF — — S275J2G3 St 44-2 N
1.0145 FF S275J2 S275J2 S275J2G4 —
1.0045 FN S355JR S355JR S355JR —
1.0553 FN S355J0 S355J0 S355J0 St 52-3 U
1.0570 FF — — S355J2G3 St 52-3 N
1.0577 FF S355J2 S355J2 S355J2G4 —
1.0595 FF — — S355K2G3 —
1.0596 FF S355K2 S355K2 S355K2G4 —
1.0590 FF — S450J0 — —
— FF S460JR — — —
— FF S460J0 — — —
— FF S460J2 — — —
— FF S460K2 — — —
FF S500J0 — — —
Table 7: Comparison of grades of non-alloy mechanical engineering steels

Mat. no. Deoxi. prEN 10 025-2:11 EN 10 025-2:05 EN 10 025:94 DIN 17 100:80
1.0050 FN E295 E295 E295 St 50
1.0060 FN E335 E335 E335 St 60
1.0070 FN E360 E360 E360 St 70

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The delivery condition is in principle a free choice for all non-alloy structural steels according to EN
10 025-2. If the customer requests a special delivery condition, e.g. normalised, this must be indicated
in the order and in the steel abbreviation (cf. Section 4.2.4).
Delivery conditions (for long products) are: normalised or normalised rolled: ......................+N
as rolled ...........................................................+AR
Cannot be ordered for flat products: thermomechanically formed .............................+M
With the introduction of the European regulation (EN 10 025) in the early 1990s, the national standard for
non-alloy structural steels (DIN 17 100), which had applied up to that point, was simultaneously
repealed. There is a wealth of differences between the two:
– The basis for the steel designation is the yield point and no longer the tensile strength.
– The impact energy is indicated in the steel designation (quality group).
– The limits of the chemical composition have increased (weakened).
– The hardening susceptibility (weldability) is measured via the carbon equivalent called CEV
– The formula for the carbon equivalent CEV is prescribed.
– Some grades contradict the former DIN regulations (delivery condition options).
– A distinction is made between construction steel (S) and mechanical engineering steels (E).
Part 2 of EN 10 025 contains the technical delivery conditions for non-alloy structural and mechanical
engineering steels (hot-rolled flat and long products). In the case of forgings for pressure vessel
construction EN 10 222-1 applies, while EN 10 250-1 applies for general use.
4.2.3 Weldability
Non-alloy structural steels according to EN 10 025-2 are not unreservedly suitable for welding
according to the different processes, since the behaviour of a steel during and after welding is not only
dependent on the material but also on the geometry and the manufacturing and operating conditions of the
component. In particular for the steel grade S185, no specification regarding the weldability is made, as no
requirements are placed on the chemical composition for this. This material is to be assessed therefore as
not suitable for welding. Steels of the quality classes JR, J0, J2 and K2 are suitable for welding in all
welding processes, where the general requirements applicable to welding steels in accordance with EN
1011-2 are observed. The suitability for welding improves with every grade from the quality class JR up to
the quality class K2 (where these exist). As the product thickness and strength increase so too can the
incidence of cold cracks in the welded zone (cf. Chapter 2.06). Their weldability is mainly influenced by:
– Degree of purity (deoxidation, quality class),

– Hardening susceptibility (carbon equivalent CEV),
– Affinity to brittle fracturing and ageing,
– Thickness influence, segregation behaviour as well as
– Anisotropy.
The three non-alloy mechanical engineering steels likewise contained in EN 10 025-2, i.e. E295, E335
and E360 must be categorised as not suitable for welding or only suitable for welding to a very
limited degree. On the one hand, no specifications as to the carbon content are provided in the
standard and, on the other, there are no impact energy requirements. This does not mean that all types
of mechanical engineering steels display restricted suitability for welding. There are, for example,
numerous steels explicitly intended for mechanical engineering (E) that are suitable for welding and
which guarantee toughness properties (e.g. E355K2, cf. Section 4.5, Table 14).

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4.2.4 Example designations
The abbreviation of unalloyed structural steels is based on the following in accordance with EN 10 027-1
(cf. Chapter 2.04):
S nnn aa* a* +a* +a*

Code letter for steel products
Code letters for the delivery condition (+N, +AR, +M)
Code letter C for the suitability for cold forming
Symbol for the quality class (KV and TTest)
Index for the minimum Re for thickness ≤ 16 mm in N/mm2
Code letter S (steel for steel construction)
* Specify if required
The number of the relevant European standard is to be placed before the respective steel abbreviation
(this is not common in practice however).
Examples: Steel EN 10 025-2 – S235JR

Steel EN 10 025-2 – S275J0C+AR
Steel EN 10 025-2 – S355J2+N
Steel EN 10 025-2 – S355J2C+C
4.3 Weather-proof structural steels according to EN 10 025-5

Weather-proof structural steels are steels to which a certain number of alloying elements have been
added, such as phosphorous, copper, chromium, nickel, molybdenum etc., in order to increase the steels'
resistance to atmospheric corrosion, in that protective oxide layers are formed on the base metal under the
influence of weather conditions. Like the non-alloy structural steels (cf. Section 4.2) they have a ferritic-
pearlitic microstructure (Figure 6) and are likewise characterised by the following significant properties:
– Tensile strength, yield point

– Weather resistance (corrosion inertia)
– Formability
– Weldability (observing certain rules)
Depending on the relevant steel grade, the maximum content of the alloying elements can be as follows:
Phosphorous:  0.15 % (e.g. S355J0WP)

Copper:  0.55 % (all weatherproof structural steels according to EN 10 025-5)
chromium:  1.25 % (e.g. S355J2WP)
The defining feature of this material group is the formation of relatively permanent adherent, self-
protective corrosive cover layers (due to the phosphorus, copper and chromium content, the colouring
is initially a light brownish red, turning later to a deep brown), which after it has been formed protects the
material relatively well against atmospheric corrosion, but is not sufficient to stop the corrosion process
completely. When using these steels, therefore, the following is to be considered:

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Waterlogging: Avoid design details or environmental conditions that permit waterlogging,

which can cause "normal" rusting, even with these steels. During design,
attention must be paid to ensuring uniform exposure to weathering without
the formation of "water pockets".
Chloride: Do not use in chloride-containing atmospheres e.g. in coastal areas or salt
extraction machines.
Industrial atmosphere: Take into account thickness supplements (corrosion allowance) when using
steels in chemically corrosive atmospheres, e.g. in an industrial environ-
ment.
4.3.2 Grades
Table 8 provides an overview and a comparison of the standardised steel grades past and present. The
current materials are (other) alloyed high-grade steels in accordance with EN 10 020.
The current grades can be ordered into the quality classes J0, J2, (J4 new) and K2 (only S355). The
quality classes differ with regard to the values determined for the impact work. In particular, steels of the
strength group S355 are distinguished according to the grades W and WP which mainly differ in their
carbon and phosphorous content.
Table 8: Comparison of the grades of non-alloy weather-proof steels

Mat. no. Deoxi. prEN 10 025-5:11 EN 10 025-5:05 EN 10 155:93 SEW 087:99
1.8958 FN S235J0W S235J0W S235J0W WT St 37-2
1.8961 FF S235J2W S235J2W S235J2W WTSt 37-3
1.8945 FN S355J0WP S355J0WP S355J0WP —
1.8946 FF S355J2WP S355J2WP S355J2WP —
1.8959 FN S355J0W S355J0W S355J0W —
1.8963 FF — — S355J2G1W WT St 52-3
1.8965 FF S355J2W S355J2W S355J2W —
1.8966 FF — — S355K2G1W —
1.8967 FF S355K2W S355K2W S355K2G2W —
— FF S355J4W — — —
FF S420J0W — — —
— FF S420J2W — — —
— FF S420J4W — — —
FF S460J0W — — —
— FF S460J2W — — —
— FF S460J4W — — —
Delivery conditions available for order are: normalised or normalised rolled: .......................... +N
A s rolled.............................................................. +AR
Thermomechanically formed ................................ +M
4.3.3 Weldability
Even the weatherproof structural steels are not unreservedly suitable for welding, as the behaviour of
a steel during and after welding is not only dependent on the material but also on the dimensions and the
form as well as on the manufacturing and operating conditions of the piece to be welded.

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When using filler materials that are not weatherproof, it must be ensured that the top layer (final run)
itself is weatherproof. Before welding, each already formed cover layer should be removed up to a
distance of 10 to 20 mm from the weld edge. In particular when welding steel grades S355J0WP and
S355J2WP which have high phosphorous content, special precautionary measures are to be taken. It
should likewise be considered that as the product thickness and strength increase, so too does the
tendency to cold cracking (cf. Section 2.11). Despite the decreased carbon contents of these materials,
the risk of cold cracks is higher due to the increased alloy components. Therefore, preheating is
required for S235-graded steels from 10 to 15 mm and for S355-graded steels from 5 mm. The welding
procedure and the weld processing can be chosen in a manner comparable to the corresponding steels
according to EN 10 025-2. With the P-alloyed steels, filler materials especially available for this purpose
(special quality) should be used. These are offered by most of the filler material manufacturers. The
general requirements for the welding of steels according to EN 1011-2 apply.
Figure 6: Ferritic-pearlitic microstructure of an weatherproof structural steel of grade S355J0WP
The abbreviation of unalloyed structural steels is based on the following in accordance with EN 10 027-1
(cf. Chapter 2.04):
S nnn aa a a* +a*
Code letters for the delivery condition (+N, +AR, +M)
Code letter P for the phosphorous content (S355)
Code letter W for the weather resistance
Symbol for the quality class and TTest
Code for the minimium Re for thickness ≤ 16 mm in N/mm 2
Code letter S (steel for steel construction)
The number of the relevant European standard is to be placed before the respective steel abbreviation
(this is not common in practice however).
Examples: Steel EN 10 025-5 – S235J0W+AR

Steel EN 10 025-5 – S355J0WP
Steel EN 10 025-5 – S355J2W+N

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4.4 Concrete reinforcing steels according to EN 10 080 and DIN 488-1

Concrete reinforcing steels are special steels, whose properties are designed exclusively for their use
as reinforcement in concrete. Like the non-alloy structural steels (cf. Section 4.2) they have a ferritic-
pearlitic microstructure (Figure 67). Their chemical composition is shown in Table 9. They are
characterised by the following significant properties:
– verified yield point (uniformly 500 N/mm²)

– guaranteed bending capability
– suitability for use with concrete
– existing fatigue endurance limit
– knot shear stress in reinforcing steel mats
– guaranteed weldability
The strength of concrete reinforcing steels is based, depending on the production process, on elevated
carbon content, cold forming (both only with old reinforcing steels), a micro-alloy and/or an edge zone
tempering. In contrast to the former practice, these materials must provide detailed verification of the
elongation in the form of ductility classes. These are defined by the yield point ratio and the percentage
total elongation at maximum force (cf. Table 11). They replace the previously common specification of
elongation after fracture.
Figure 7: Ferritic-pearlitic microstructure of a concrete reinforcing steel of grade B500A
Table 9: Chemical composition of concrete reinforcing steels to DIN 488-1

Chemical composition in weight -% (max.)*
Grade
Carbon Phosphorous Sulphur Nitrogen Copper
B500A
0.22 (0.24) 0.05 (0.055) 0.05 (0.055) 0.012 (0.014) 0.60 (0.65)
B500B
The values apply for the ladle analysis. The values in parenthesis are valid for the product analysis.
So in order for a steel to be used to reinforce concrete, a series of special requirements must be met.
These include:
– The material must have sufficient strength properties, including endurance and creep strength.
– The steel should display favourable joining properties. To this end, its surface has a specific ribbing.
– The steel may not be vulnerable to stress corrosion cracking. (The resistance to SCC is also
dependent, among other things, on the cement).
– The material has to have a sufficient weldability under site conditions.

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– The steel must display good mechanical workability. (Suitability for postweld upsetting of bar ends
and for cutting threads. Straightness is to be ensured when uncoiling from the ring.)
4.4.2 Grades
Table 10 provides an overview and a comparison of the standardised steel grades past and present. The
current materials are unalloyed quality steels in accordance with EN 10 020. As no steel grades were
named in EN 10 080, DIN 488-1 was introduced again at a national level in 2009. It includes two types
with a uniform yield point of 500 N/mm², that differ from the ductility classes (A and B, Table 11).
Table 10: Comparison of concrete reinforcing steel grades

Mat. no. Deoxidation DIN 488-1:09 EN 10 080:06 EN 10 080-x:99 DIN 488-1:84
1.0428 n.s. — — B420N BSt 420 S
— n.s. — — B450C* —
1.0438 n.s. B500A* — B500A* (B500N) BSt 500 S
1.0439 n.s. B500B* — B500B* (B500H) —
1.0466 n.s. — — B500N BSt 500 M
— n.s. — — B500C* —
* A, B, C – Ductility classes
Table 11: Ductility classes for concrete reinforcing steels to DIN 488-1
Requirement
Ductility class
Yield point ratio Percentage total elongation at Fmax
A Rm/Re = 1.05 Agt  2.5%
B Rm/Re = 1.08 Agt  5.0%
Concrete reinforcing steel can be manufactured as follows, according to the current DIN 488-1:
– hot-rolled, without post treatment,

– hot-rolled and heat treated from the roller heat,
– hot-rolled and cold-strained or
– cold deformed (by drawing or cold-rolling).
The material is offered in different delivery forms. These can be:
– straight rods (concrete rod steel),

– concrete reinforcing steel in ring; mechanically straightened, straight or bent rods, yokes, hooks or
loops (wrapped products),
– concrete reinforcing steel mats,
– lattice beams and
– concrete reinforcing steel with smooth or profiled surface (reinforcement wire).
4.4.3 Weldability
Modern concrete reinforcing steels have guaranteed weldability with the common arc fusion and
pressure welding processes. During welding, EN ISO 17 660, parts 1 and 2 (previously DIN 4099-1), are
to be complied with. The manufacturer of reinforcing steel welded joints requires a separate proof of
suitability and must have at least one welding supervisor as per ISO 14 731 with special technical
knowledge regarding the welding of these materials.

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The extensive expertise required for this is taught in a two-day DVS®-course according to the guideline
DVS®-EWF 1175 "Welding concrete reinforcing steel". This is offered by all companies and cooperative
facilities of the GSI.
For each welding process, which is used in the workshop or on site, the manufacturer must provide a
sufficient number of welders with special training for welding reinforcing steel. Depending on the
production processes the risk is due to the formation of cold cracks (cf. Chapter 2.06) or a de-
strengthening during welding.
Before welding, the carbon equivalent CEV, the production method and the conditions of delivery
must be determined. This requirement no longer applies, if:
– the weldability is verified in a welding procedure test with the highest permissible CEV value as per
applicable product standard; or
– it can be verified that the supplied steel has the same or a lower CEV value than the steel used in the
welding procedure test.
Note: Older concrete reinforcing steels are not suitable for welding or only suitable to a limited extent
and may not be welded, in accordance with the statutory stipulations of building law.
The abbreviation of concrete steels is structured as follows in accordance with EN 10 027-1 (cf. Chapter
2.04):
B nnn a +a* n
Nominal diameter or characteristic nominal parameters in mm
Code letter of smooth reinforcement wire (+G)
Symbol for the ductility class
Code for the minimum yield point in N/mm2
Code letter B (for Betonstahl, in English: concrete
reinforcing steel)
The number of the relevant standard is to be placed before the respective steel designation (this is not
common in practice however)
Examples: Concrete reinforcing steel DIN 488 – B500B–20.0

Reinforcement wire DIN 488 – B500A+G–6.0
Note: European code designations for steels are generally written without blank
characters. In this way they can be distinguished from the abbreviations according to
former DIN standards that are no longer used.
4.4.5 Marking /identification
Concrete reinforcing steels (old and new) have a special type of marking in connection with their
ribbing (Table 12). From their arrangement and shape, the grade (Table 13), the country of manufacture
and the manufacturer can be derived. Further more it is possible to differentiate between old and new
concrete reinforcing steels. The old steels have an even number of cross ribs and new steels have an
odd number of cross ribs.

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Table 12: Marking of old and new concrete reinforcing steels

Representation Description Weldability
Concrete reinforcing steel, very

not suitable for welding
old
Concrete reinforcing steel, very

not suitable for welding
old
suitable for welding

Concrete reinforcing steel, old
low heat
Concrete reinforcing steel, old weldable
Concrete reinforcing steel, new suitable for welding
Table 13: Marking of modern concrete reinforcing steels to DIN 488-1

B500A B500B
3 rib series 2 rib series 4 rib series

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4.5 Steels for pipes with circular or square cross-sections
Sections 4.2 and 4.3 presented non-alloy structural steels predominantly, from which mainly (hot-rolled)
long and flat products are manufactured. Also pipes with circular or square cross-sections (hollow
sections) can be made of non-alloyed carbon and carbon-manganese steels. Depending on their
respective intended use, the pipes are characterised as steels for steel construction (S), mechanical
engineering (E), pressure vessel construction (P) and the construction of pipelines (L) with characteristic
short names. Numerous standards exist on this in the regulations (Table 14).
With respect to weldability, the information in the respective standards is to be observed. The same
features that apply to the long and flat products apply here (cf. Section 4.2.3).
Table 14: Overview of steels for pipes with circular and square cross-section
Hollow profiles for steel construction made of non-alloy structural steels (S)
Method of manufacture Standard (example) Abbreviation (examples)
cold-formed, welded EN 10 219-1 S235JRH, S275J0H, S355J2H,
hot-formed, seamless or welded EN 10 210-1 S355K2H
Circular steel pipes for general engineering applications from mechanical engineering steels (E)
E235, E275, E355
Welded pipes from non-alloy steels EN 10 296-1
E275K2, E355K2, E460K2
E235, E275, E355
Seamless pipes from non-alloy steels EN 10 297-1
E275K2, E355K2, E460K2
Steel pipes for compressive-type loads

Welded pipes from non-alloy steels with defined P235TR1, P235TR2,
EN 10 217-1
properties at room temperature P265TR1, P265TR2
Seamless pipes from non-alloy steels with P235TR1, P235TR2,
EN 10 216-1
defined properties at room temperature P265TR1, P265TR2
Seamless and welded steel pipes for pipelines for combustible media (L)
Pipes of requirements class A
EN 10 208-1 L235GA, L245GA, L360GA
(PNom.  16 bar, low pressure)
Additional symbols as per EN 10 027-1 are contained in the steel designations listed in Table 14. These are:
H ............... Hollow profile

T ............... Tube (pipe)
R ............... Room temperature
G............... Special requirements (here: suitable for combustible media)
A ............... Requirements class (PNom  16 bar, low pressure)
Note: In the standards quoted in Table 14 , products of other steels can also be standardised, for example,
from fine grain structural steels and/or alloyed steels. However, these are not the subject of this chapter.

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5 Steels designated on the basis of their chemical composition

5.1 Overview of important steel grades
Non-alloy carbon and carbon-manganese steels, which are named, in accordance with EN 10 027-1 on
the basis of their chemical composition, are listed in Table 15 with their respective identifying symbols
and their minimum and maximum carbon contents.
Table 15: Non-alloy steels on the basis of their chemical composition

C-content
Short symbol Steel grade Standards (examples)
min. max.
0.10 0.15 (Non-alloy) case hardening steels EN 10 084
C 0.35 0.60 (Non-alloy) quenched and tempered steels EN 10 083-2
0.45 1.20 (Non-alloy) tool steels EN ISO 4957
5.2 Non-alloy case hardening steels according to EN 10 084

Unalloyed steels with low carbon content which are intended for carburising or carbonitriding and
subsequent hardening are considered non-alloyed case hardening steels (cf. Chapter 2.08). The aim of
this thermochemical heat treatment consists of producing a hard as possible edge zone in the
component while the core remains tough. Typical applications e.g. are gears, shafts and studs. These
materials have in the (normalised) delivery state a ferritic-pearlitic microstructure (Figure 8, left) and have
in the case hardened state a tempered martensite in the edge zone (tempering microstructures Figure 8,
right). Relevant properties of non-alloy case hardening steels are:
– only hardenable and quenchable after carburisation or carbonitriding

– high edge hardness in the case hardened state, soft core
– Carbon contents between 0.10 and 0.20%
– high purity
– in the not case hardened state suitable for welding
Figure 8: Microsection through an unalloyed case hardening steel C15 (left: State +N, ferritic-pearlitic ones;
right: State +QT, Tempered martensite in the edge zone hardened)

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5.2.2 Grades
Table 106 provides an overview and a comparison of the standardised steel grades past and present.
The current materials are unalloyed steels in accordance with EN 10 020. Case hardening steels with
an “E” as the final letter in the abbreviation have a maximum sulphur content of 0.035%. Steels with an
“R” have a sulphur content in the range between 0.020 to 0.040%.
Note Alloyed materials are also standardised in EN 10 084, in addition to the unalloyed steels listed in Table
16. These are not the object of this chapter however, as they are not carbon or carbon-manganese steels.
Table 16: Grades of non-alloy case hardening steels in comparison

Wkst.-Nr. Type EN 10 084:08 EN 10 084:98 DIN 17 210
1.1121 Stainless steel C10E C10E Ck 10
1.1207 Stainless steel C10R C10R —
1.1141 Stainless steel C15E C15E Ck 15
1.1140 Stainless steel C15R C15R Cm 15
1.1148 Stainless steel C16E C16E —
1.1208 Stainless steel C16R C16R —
5.2.3 Weldability
All into Table 16 specified non-alloy case hardening steels are usually weldable in the not-carburised
and in the normalised state. The general requirements are valid for the welding of steels to EN 1011-2. If
a weld processing should be performed in the edge zone, cold cracks (especially age hardening
cracks, cf. Chapter 2.06) are to be expected. At the same time the risk consists that by heat input during
welding the hardened edge zone will be destroyed which would affect the given wear-resistancy.
The abbreviation of unalloyed case hardening steels is based on the following in accordance with EN
10027-1 (cf. Chapter 2.04):
C nnn a
Symbol for the maximum sulphur content or range
100 x medium percentage C content of the prescribed range
Code letter C (unalloyed steels with an average Mn content < 1%)
Example: Case-hardening steel EN 10 084 – C10E

Case-hardening steel EN 10 084 – C15R

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5.3 Non alloy quenched and tempered steels according to EN 10 083-2

5.3.1 Concept and respective properties
Unalloyed steels, which receive high strength properties through hardening, are considered as unalloyed
tempered steels. Their toughness is determined by the ratio of hardness and temperature of the
following tempering process. Examples of applications: spheres for crank, axes, shafts, connect rods,
studs, bolts and other construction parts of high - strength. These materials have in the delivery state
(normalised) – such as non-alloy case hardening steels – a ferritic-pearlitic microstructure (Figure 9, left)
and have in the quenched and tempered state a microstructure of (tempered) martensite (quenched and
tempered microstructures Figure 9, right). Relevant properties of non-alloy quenched and tempered
steels are:
– Hardenable and heat treatable (temperable)

– high - strength with sufficient toughness in the quenched and tempered state
– Carbon contents between 0.20 and 0.60%, high purity
– limited to no weldability
Figure 9: Microsection of an unalloyed case hardening steel C45 (left: State +N, ferritic-perlitic microstructure
right: State +QT, tempered microstructures)
5.3.2 Grades
Table 107 provides an overview and a comparison of the standardised steel grades past and present.
The current materials are non alloy quality and non alloy high-grade steels in accordance with EN
10020. Quenched and tempered steels (non alloy high-grade steels) with an “E” as the final letter in the
abbreviation have – similar to case hardening steels – a maximum sulphur content of 0.035 %. For
steels with an “R” the sulphur content is in the range of 0,020 to 0,040 %.
Table 17: Grades of non-alloy quenched and tempered steels in comparison

Wkst.-Nr. Type EN 10 083-2:06 EN 10 083-2:95 DIN 17 200
1.0402 Quality steel — C22 C 22
1.0501 Quality steel C35 C35 C 35

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Wkst.-Nr. Type EN 10 083-2:06 EN 10 083-2:95 DIN 17 200

1.1151 High-grade steel C22E — Ck 22
1.1149 High-grade steel C22R — Cm 22
5.3.3 Weldability
The unalloyed quenched and tempered steels up to a carbon content of maximum 0.40% in the non-
tempered and normalised state as listed in Table 17 are conditionally suitable for welding. Above all pre-
heating is required. The height of the pre-heating temperature depends on the carbon equivalent CEV
as well as the nominal section (thickness). The general requirements for welding of steels acc.to EN
1011-2 are to be observed. Steels with higher carbon content, even in the non-heat-treated or
normalised state, should not be processed by welding, because cold cracking (especially age
hardening cracks, cf. chapter 2.06) is to be expected. Due to their high C-content they tend to
transform completely into martensite. Such materials are to be assigned as not suitable for welding.
The abbreviation of unalloyed quenched and tempered steels is based on the following, similar to case
hardening steels, in accordance with EN 10 027-1 (cf. Chapter 2.04):
C nnn a*
Symbol for the maximum sulphur content or range
100 x medium percentage C content of the prescribed range
Code letter C (unalloyed steels with an average Mn content < 1%)
* if required
Example: Quenched and tempered steel EN 10 083-2 – C45

Quenched and tempered steel EN 10 083-2 – C60E

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6 Weld processing
6.1 Welding Process
With a given weldability carbon and carbon-manganese steels can be processed with all modern welding
processes which have been outlined in detail in Module 1.
6.2 Welding consumables / filler materials
The choice of filler metals depends on the minimum requirements for the mechanical properties of the
base materials. For preventing metallurgical “notches” filler materials should be used that produce a
weld metal having comparable mechanical properties as to the base material (Table 18). For
example EN ISO 17 660-1 specifies that for load-bearing welded joints of reinforcing steel (compare ct.
4.4), the minimum yield point of the filler materials must be at least 70% of the yield point of the base
material. For load-bearing butt welded joints the yield point of the filler materials has to be the same or
even higher than the yield point of reinforcing steels to be welded.
Table 18: Recommendations for base material - filler material allocations with unalloyed structural steels
(examples)
Parent metal Filler metal
Yield Chemical
Symbol for the Symbol for the
strength Quality group Process composition
yield point test temperature
(N/mm²) solid wire
E —
235 JR, J0, J2 G 38 0, 2, 4 G3Si
S S3
E —
275 JR, J0, J2 G 38, 42 0, 2, 4 G3S
S S3
E —
355 JR, J0, J2 G 42 0, 2, 4 G3Si, G4Si
S S3
Possible required pre-heating temperatures are to be selected according to the value of the carbon
equivalent CEV as well as to the t8/5- concept (cf. Chapter 2.05) respectively. – if available – to the
Welding TTT-diagrams (cf. Chapter 2.03). If necessary a practical welding test followed by
microstructure examinations respectively hardness tests, is recommended. As a rule of thumb, the
maximum hardness should not exceed 300 to 350 HV in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of unalloyed
structural steels.
Table 19 shows a selection of current filler material standards of carbon and carbon-manganese steels.

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Table 19: Filler material standards for carbon and Carbon-Manganese Steels (selection)
Welding process Standard Title
Manual metal arc Welding consumables – Covered electrodes for manual metal
EN ISO 2560
welding arc welding of non-alloy and fine grain steels – Classification
Welding consumables – solid wire electrodes, tubular cored
Submerged arc
EN ISO 14 171 electrodes and electrode/flux combinations for submerged arc
welding
welding of non alloy and fine-grained steels. Classification.
Welding consumables – Wire electrodes and deposits for gas
Gas shielded metal
EN ISO 14 341 shielded metal arc welding of non alloy and fine grain steels –
arc welding
Classification
Gas shielded and Welding consumables – Tubular cored electrodes for gas
nog-gas shielded EN ISO 17 632 shielded and non-gas shielded metal arc welding of non-alloy
metal arc welding and fine grain steels – Classification
Welding consumables - Rods, wires and deposits for tungsten
TIG welding EN ISO 636 inert gas welding of non-alloy and fine-grain steels -
Classification
6.3 Effects of the welding heat treatment
The welding heat treatment generally leads to a microstructural change in the heat-affected zone of the
base material and in the weld metal already added in multi-layer welding. Accordingly, changes of
mechanical properties are present. The weld metal of the last run is in the as-cast state which is being
discussed in detail in chapter 2.05.
Note: All European steel designations according to EN 10 027-1 are to be written in principle without
any blank characters. Therefore, in this way the intended steels can be distinguished from former DIN
standards.
technical regulations and specifications.The most recent editions apply in each case.

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7 Question
(1) Which Carbon and Carbon-Manganese steels are allocated to steels among others due to the
designation in accordance with their mechanical and physical properties?
 Case hardening steel

 Structural steel
 non alloy quenched and tempered steel
 Engineering steel
 reinforcing steel
(2) From the following properties are carbon and Carbon-Manganese Steels normally indicated?
 Tensile strength
 Corrosion resistance
 Yield strength
 Microstructure deformation behaviour
 High polish polishing capability
(3) The assessment of weldability for carbon and Carbon-Manganese Steels takes place on which
basis?
 According to tensile strength

 The yield strength
 On the elongation after fracture
 The chemical composition
 On fracture toughness
(4) Which information is collated into the quality group (grades) of the non-alloyed steels?
 Yield point, hardness and weldability

 Impact strength and chemical composition
 Impact energy and test temperature
 Yield point and tensile strength
 Yield point and chemical composition
(5) Which of the following steels concerns an unalloyed structural steel?
 S355N
 S355ML
 E360
 B500A
 S355J2+N

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(6) How is the “weather resistance” of steels of the same designation being achieved?
 By special measures for corrosion protection

 By the formation of permanently adherent, self-protective corrosive cover layers
 By the formation of a thin passive layer
 By chromium content above 12%
 Through increased content of the element phosphorous, copper and chromium
(7) What can be understood by a ductility class for reinforcing rods?
 a defined value of the impact energy must be obtained.

 A certain impact strength must be met.
 A certain ratio of yield point and a certain proportional total elongation must be met for
maximum force in the tensile test.
 A certain ratio of reduction of area and elongation after fracture must be obtained.
 A certain ratio of the impact energy and impact strength must be obtained.
(8) What does it mean of having steel with designation C35E?
 Non-alloy structural steel

 Non-alloy case hardening steel
 Non-alloy steel tool steels
 Non-alloy high-grade steel
 Non-alloy quenched and tempered steel with limited sulphur content
(9) Which properties should have the weld metal of filler materials for example, non-alloy structural
steels have?
 It should have a significantly higher hardness as the heat-affected zone.

 It should have a significantly lower tensile strength than the heat-affected zone.
 It should have increased contents of alloying elements (e.g. chromium and molybdenum).
 It should not lead to cracks in the bead bend testing.
 It should exhibite comparable mechanical properties as the base materials.

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8 Literature
You will find further information in the following publications.
Schuster, J.:
Fachbuchreihe Schweißtechnik, Band 130.
Böse, U.:
Das Verhalten der Werkstoffe beim Schweißen – Teil 1.
Schulze. G.:
DIN-Fachbericht CEN ISO/TR 15 608:

Guidelines for a metallic material grouping system
Berlin: DIN German institute for a E.V., 2006
EN 1011-2:
Welding – recommendation for the welding of metallic materials.
Module 2: Lichtbogenschweißen von ferritischen Stählen.
Ausgabe: 05-2001

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High strength steels Page 1
Chapter 2.10: High strength steels
Contents
1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 3
2 Material mechanisms of strengthening .............................................................................. 5
2.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Strengthening by precipitation-hardening ............................................................................................ 5
2.3 Strengthening by cold strain hardening ................................................................................................ 6
2.4 Strengthening by solid solution hardening ........................................................................................... 6
2.5 Strengthening by lattice transformation ................................................................................................ 7
2.6 Strengthening by grain boundaries ....................................................................................................... 7
3 Fine-grain structural steels.................................................................................................. 9
3.1 Overview of fine-grain structural steels ................................................................................................ 9
3.2 Normalized fine-grained structural steels ........................................................................................... 10
3.2.1 Overview..................................................................................................................................... 10
3.2.2 Types .......................................................................................................................................... 10
3.2.3 Manufacturing ............................................................................................................................ 11
3.2.4 Designation example ................................................................................................................ 11
3.2.5 Weldability .................................................................................................................................. 12
3.3 Thermomechanically rolled fine-grain structural steels .................................................................... 12
3.3.1 Overview..................................................................................................................................... 12
3.3.2 Grades ........................................................................................................................................ 13
3.3.3 Production .................................................................................................................................. 14
3.3.5 Weldability .................................................................................................................................. 15
3.4 Quenched and tempered fine-grain structural steels ....................................................................... 16
3.4.1 Overview..................................................................................................................................... 16
3.4.2 Grades ........................................................................................................................................ 16
3.4.3 Production .................................................................................................................................. 17
3.4.5 Weldability .................................................................................................................................. 18
4 High-strength two-phase, multi-phase and special steels .............................................. 19
4.1 Overview of high-strength steels for vehicle construction ............................................................... 19
4.2 Microstructure of high-strength steels for vehicle construction....................................................... 21
4.3 The “bake-hardening” effect ................................................................................................................. 22
4.4 Two-phase steels ................................................................................................................................... 22
4.5 Multi-phase steels .................................................................................................................................. 22
4.6 Alloyed high-strength special steels.................................................................................................... 24
4.7 Further developments ........................................................................................................................... 24
4.7.1 HSD® steels ............................................................................................................................... 24
4.7.2 TRIPLEX steels ......................................................................................................................... 24
5 Welding................................................................................................................................ 25
5.1 High-strength fine-grain structural steels ........................................................................................... 25
5.1.1 General information .................................................................................................................. 25

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5.1.2 Welding process ........................................................................................................................ 25

5.1.3 Welding consumables/filler materials .................................................................................... 25
5.1.4 Effects of temperature-time curve during welding ............................................................... 27
5.1.5 Estimation of pre-heating temperatures ................................................................................ 29
5.2 High-strength two-, multi-phase and special steels .......................................................................... 36
5.2.1 General information .................................................................................................................. 36
5.2.2 Information concerning the welding of coated steels .......................................................... 36
5.2.3 Welding process ........................................................................................................................ 37
5.2.4 Welding consumables/filler materials .................................................................................... 37
6 Test questions .................................................................................................................... 38
7 Bibliography........................................................................................................................ 40

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1 Introduction
High-strength fine-grained construction and stainless steels, i.e. steels with yield point of over 355
N/mm², are used to increasing extent in the economy. They replace especially in constructional, vessel,
pipe line, crane and vehicle construction unalloyed structural steels (Figure 1). Partly due to their signifi-
cant higher strength properties (at fine grain steels currently to Rp0.2 = 1,300 N/mm ²) they are suitable in
particular for lightweight construction structures, enable substantial savings on material and production
costs (Figure 2). In accordance with DIN CEN ISO/TR 15 608 (group management of metallic material
for welding purposes) these steels have been assigned to Material Groups 1, 2 and 3, particularly to
the sub-groups 1.3, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 (Table 1).
Table 1: Material group 1 according to CEN ISO/TR 15 608 and important European material standards
Fine Grain Steels (N)
Standard steels
Group Sub-group Steel types
(examples)
2
Steels with a minimum yield point of ReH  460 N/mm and the following analysis val-
ues in %: C  0.25; Si  0.60; Mn  1.70; Mo  0.70; S  0.045; P  0.045; Cu  0.40;
Ni  0.5b; CR  0.3 (0.4 for casting pieces); Nb  0.05; V  0.12; Ti  0.05
Normally annealed fine-grained construction steels with a mini- EN 10 025-3
1 1.3 2
mum yield strength of ReH > 360 N/mm (S460NH)
Fine Grain Steels (M)

Thermomechanically treated fine grain steels and cast steel with a specified minimum
2
yield strength of ReH > 360 N/mm
Thermomechanically treated fine grain steels and cast steel
2.1 types with a specified minimum yield strength of EN 10 025-4
2 2 (non S275M)
2 360 N/mm < ReH  460 N/mm
Thermomechanically treated fine grain steels and cast steel with prEN 10 025-4
2.2 2
a specified minimum yield strength of ReH > 460 N/mm (S500M)
Fine Grain Steels (Q)

Quenched and tempered and precipitation hardened steels, exceptionally stainless
2
steels, with a minimum yield strength ReH > 360 N/mm
Quenched and tempered steels with a minimum yield point at EN 10 025-6
3.1 2 2
360 N/mm < ReH  690 N/mm up to S460QL
3 Quenched and tempered steels with a minimum yield point at EN 10 025-6

3.2 2
ReH > 690 N/mm up to 960QL
3.3 Precipitation hardened steels, other than stainless steels EN 10 137-3

(withdrawn)
Note The classification of steels under "material groups" according to CEN IUSO/TR 15 608 causes fre-
quent problems in practice. The reason for this is the origin of the sources for this standard. These are
based on the US standard for "pressure vessel steel" according to the ASME code. This also explains
the pressure vessel-steel-specific groups (cf. Chapter 2.12), which do not include the variety of other
steels (e.g. numerous high-strength special steels).
High-strength special structural steels, like e.g. those used in automotive production (cf. Section 3) can
usually only be assigned tothese “material groups” to a limited extent, as such materials are neither
known nor used in pressure vessel construction.
Likewise, the commonly used thermomechanically treated steel S275M cannot be categorized into a
“material group” according to EN 10 025-4, as its strength is below the required minimum yield point of
360 N/mm2 (cf. material sub-group 2.1 in Table 1).

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Figure 1: Sample applications for high-strength fine structural steels (source: Liebherr, ThyssenKrupp)
One of the triggers for the development of high-strength steels was the construction of cranes and mo-
bile cranes in particular. Here the increase in capacity was key, as well as a reduction in dead weight.
The following economic criteria apply to the use of such materials:
– Increasing the service-/reducing the dead weight through

- Energy cost savings (fuel),
- Waiving of escort vehicles (less transporting capacities/volumes) and
- Reduce of transport routes (higher payload/vehicle).
– Reducing of material- and manufacturing costs through

- Lower material costs (better yield point-thickness-ratio),
- Lower labour costs by e.g. less weld metals (thinner) and
- Possibility of using bend radiuses for weld preparation.
80 100
Sheet thickness in comparison to S355 in %
S1100 S355
70 S960
Sheet thickness reduction in %
10 S960QL S355J2+ 27,8 S890 80

N
60
S460 10 S960QL S355J2+N 27,8
S690
50
60
40
S690
30 40
S460 S890
S960
20 S1100
20
Load-bearing capacity =
10 constant Load-bearing capacity =
S355 constant
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Yield strength N/mm² Yield strength N/mm²
Figure 2: Influence of the yield point on the plate thickness (acc. to ThyssenKrupp)
Note: Steels with yield point or yield strength values of Re over 355 N/mm2 are designated as high-
strength steels. In the European regulations, terms such as “higher strength”, “highest strength”,
“ultra high-strength”, “mega high-strength” or the like are not defined. However, these can be found
in the literature at times and are based only on individual classifications or originate from US publica-
tions.

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2 Material mechanisms of strengthening

2.1 Overview
As already stated in Chapter 2.01, all metals – and therefore steels too – are characterized by their abil-
ity for strengthening / hardening. This is very closely associated with a more or less effective hinder-
ing of the mobility of dislocations, i.e. one-dimensional lattice microstructure imperfections. From a
metallographic point of view there are five mechanisms that can effect an increase in strength. These
are:
– Precipitation hardening
– Cold strain hardening
– Solid solution hardening (alloy formation),
– Hardening by lattice transformation (formation of martensite) and
– Grain refinement (formation of grain boundaries).
In high-strength fine-grain and special steels these mechanisms are used both separately and in combi-
nation. The goal is to improve weldability by deliberately limiting the strengthening effect of carbon.
2.2 Strengthening by precipitation-hardening
Strength values can be increased significantly by precipitating the smallest particles from a solid solu-
tion with decreasing solubility of a second component as the temperature falls (Figure 3, see Chapter
2.02). This depends on the size and number of precipitates that inhibit the movement of dislocations in
the base lattice. The hardening mechanism – applied on its own – runs the risk however of a strong de-
crease in elongation and toughness, which is on the other hand compensated for by grain refinement.
F F
Figure 3: Principle of strengthening by Figure 4: Principle of strengthening by strain

precipitation (precipitations cause hardening (dislocations build up and
stresses in the lattice) therefore can no longer move)
Consequently, high-strength fine-grain structural steels are alloyed in a targeted fashion with small
amounts of titanium, niobium and/or vanadium, in order to achieve strengthening through the
formation of finely dispersed precipitates (nitrides and carbonitrides) in combination with an adapted
heat treatment. These precipitations lead, on the one hand, to the aforementioned hindering of the
movement of dislocations and, on the other hand, produce a variety of crystallisation grains, which
promote the formation of a fine-grain microstructure by preventing secondary recrystallisation (cf.
Chapter 2.01).
Due to their low alloy content these elements are also called “micro-alloy elements”.

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Note: In fine-grain structural steels with yield points Re to 355 N/mm², which are all fully killed with alu-
minium, the resultant temperature-resistant aluminium nitrides, working as crystallisation grains, also
effect a sufficient fine-grain formation, so that with such materials additional micro-alloy elements do not
always have to be added.
Note: In such materials, a secondary metallurgical treatment with calcium (calcium injection, cf. Chapter
2.04) has a comparable effect. Here too temperature-resistant precipitates are formed, which are avail-
able as crystallisation grains for a sufficient fine grain formation.
2.3 Strengthening by cold strain hardening
Cold strain hardening increases strength levels by means of plastic deformation below the recrystal-
lisation temperature TR (Figure 4, see Chapter 2.01). During plastic deformation the additionally formed
dislocations pile up at obstacles (e.g. at grain boundaries). If the material is to be deformed further, in-
creased tension (i.e. force per area) is required; the material has therefore become “hardened”.
This effect is however only usable to a limited extent, as, along with a drop in toughness, the
BAUSCHINGER effect must also be taken into consideration (Figure 5). This means that the direction of
the subsequent loading must not deviate from the deformation direction, as otherwise a flow (through
dislocation movements) occurs at lower stresses.
Compression

S Note The Bauschinger effect states that a
previously, by compression, cold-worked steel
may exhibit a smaller force at the beginning of
plastic flow during subsequent tensile stress.
The reasons for this are the residual stresses
 in steels which remain due to irregular distribu-
 S'  S   S' tion of the deformation after loading relief
(Figure 5). With a reverse loading direction the
Tension dislocations are activated more easily to
move.
Figure 5: BAUSCHINGER effect,

schematic representation
2.4 Strengthening by solid solution hardening
Solid solution hardening is obtained by embedding or exchange (substituting) of foreign atoms into the
basic lattice (Figure 7, chapter 2.01 and cf. chapter 2.02). The different atomic volumes in a substitu-
tional solid solution generate a permanent elastic stress field which is able to strongly influence the
movements of the dislocations. A similar effect is obtained with a strongly stressed interstitial solid solu-
tion. Thus, as is known, strength increases strongly in non-alloyed structural steels with increasing car-
bon content (cf. Chapter 2.09), which impacts negatively on the weldability of these materials.
Depending on the type, quantity and size of the integrated atoms, a simultaneous increase in strength
and toughness values can occur (e.g. in the alloy with nickel) as can a simultaneous sharp drop in im-
pact energy.

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Figure 6: Principle of strengthening by solid solu- Figure 7: Principle of strengthening by grain

tion solidification (dislocation movement is impeded by boundaries (grain boundaries represent obstacles to
foreign atoms) dislocation movement)
2.5 Strengthening by lattice transformation
The fourth mechanism for strength increasing is the classic hardening process for steel (cf. Chapter
2.03 and Chapter 2.08). In this process, cooling rates greater than vcrit increasingly suppress the diffusion
of carbon. The supersaturation of this element leads, due to the martensitic transformation (“micro-
structure shearing”), to a considerable increase in the dislocation density and thus to micro and macro
internal stresses, which bring about an increase in the strength properties. Depending on the carbon
content and the cooling rate, the toughness properties generally deteriorate significantly.
2.6 Strengthening by grain boundaries
During the transition from a monocrystal to a multi-crystalline microstructure, all of the properties influ-
enced by the presence of grain boundaries are subjected to a strong modification. The multi-crystalline
state is a statically disordered distribution of the crystallographic orientations of the individual grains cre-
ating, macroscopically, the impression of an isotropic behaviour. This is all the more pronounced, the
more finely grained the microstructure is.
A grain boundary is a considerable obstacle to the movement of dislocations, which are accelerated
within a grain as a result of effective shearing strain but then decelerated or stopped at the grain bounda-
ries (Figure 7, cf. Chapter 2.01). Only by means of increasing the shearing strain is it possible for dis-
locations to slide across the grain boundary. The reason for this is that each grain boundary is to be re-
garded as an area of higher energy which has to be overcome first. Frequently, sliding is not possible in
the neighbouring grain either, due to the difference in orientation. Fine-grained microstructures thus have
higher strength properties (Rp, Re and Rm). On the other hand the ratio of “grain size to strain cross-
section” can be advantageous with respect to increased toughness properties. With a coarse grain there
are insufficient sliding possibilities for strong necking, which is in turn essential for high reduction of area
and therefore good elongation behaviour. The dislocations are more frequent in a fine grain.
The grain size therefore is one of the few influencing factors that both increases the strength and ad-
vantageously influences plasticity and toughness. The Hall-Petch relation describes the empirically
determined relationship. This is shown in graphic terms in Figure 8 for an unalloyed structural steel of the
grade S355J2+N. It is:

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W
R eL  σ R 
LK
Where:
ReL: Lower yield point

R: Friction stress, which must be exerted, in order to initiate the dislocation movement in the grain,
W: Resistance, which the grain boundaries exert against the propagation of the plastic deformation,
is a measure of the influence of the grain boundaries on the dislocation movement
LK: linear average grain size
Figure 8: Lower yield

point or 0.2% yield strength of
a steel S355J2+N in relation
to the reciprocal root from the
grain size at a constant de-
formation speed 6  10-4 I/s
(acc. to DAHL, HENGSTEN-
BERG and BEHRENS)
The influence of the grain size on the transition temperature of the impact energy as a measure for the
toughness behaviour is described theoretically by COTTRELL. According to:
ΔTÜ  K 
1
 a 1 
 d 2
 cm 2 
Δ 
2
For the constant a, the following values resulted from various experiments:
a = 1.65  10³ (acc. to Cottrell),

a = 3.3  10³ to 4  10³ (acc. to DAHL and STUD MOUNTAIN),
a = 2.10  10³ (acc. to Varga).

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3 Fine-grain structural steels

3.1 Overview of fine-grain structural steels
The fine-grain structural steels are classified according to the respective manufacturing process used
and the associated principal strengthening mechanisms. Accordingly, they are subdivided into:
– normalised rolled fine structural steels (N)),

– thermomechanically rolled fine-grain structural steels (M) and
– quenched and tempered fine-grain structural steels (Q)
In the past, the strengthening mechanism through specific precipitations was still used explicitly in an in-
dependent group of fine-grain structural steels,
– precipitation-hardening steels (A)
However, these were characterized by greatly reduced weldability and are currently no longer stand-
ardised (formerly EN 10 137-3).
Table 2 contains a general overview of the currently common types of fine-grain structural steels, their
strength limits, the alloying base and the relevant effective solidification mechanisms. It is clear that as
strength properties increase, more strngthening mechanisms are specifically used, where strengthen-
ing by grain boundaries (fine-grain formation) is always the most important mechanism.
Table 2: Overview of the types of fine-grain structural steels and their effective strengthening mechanisms
Designation Yield strength Alloying basis Type of
Type
(Standard) [N/mm²] Henkel (analysis in %) strengthening
C  0.22; Si  0.65; Mn  1.80;
normalised rolled
Al  0.015;
fine-grain struc-
N 275 - 460 additional micro-alloy with: KgV, MkV, (AsV)
tural steels
(EN 10 025-3) V  0.22; Nb  0.06; Ti;  0.06
  0,26
thermomechani-
C  0.18; Si  0.65; Mn  1.80;
cal rolled fine-
275 - 500 (stand.) Al  0.015;
M grained structural KgV, MkV, VsV
275 - 700 (trade) Micro-alloy with:
steels
(EN 10 025-4) V  0.14; Nb  0.06; Ti;  0.06
C  0.22; Si  0.86; Mn  1.80;
Quenched and Al  0.010;
tempered fine- Micro-alloy with
460 - 960 (stand.) KgV, MkV, GuV,
Q grain structural
460 - 1,300 (trade) V  0.14; Nb  0.07; Ti;  0.07 VsV
steels (Q) additional:
(EN 10 025-6) Cr  1.6; Ni  2.1; Mo  0.74
partly: Zr or B
Key:
KgV Strengthening by grain boundaries
MkV Strengthening by solid solution formation
AsV Strengthening by smallest precipitations (due to micro-alloy)
VsV Strengthening by dislocations
GuV Strengthening by lattice transformation
standard Standardised grade
trade Available grades (not all standardized)

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3.2 Normalized fine-grained structural steels

3.2.1 Overview
With the normalised fine-grain structural steels (normalising rolled), the precipitation of fine-particle
carbides, nitrides and carbonitrides during cooling in air from the austenite area results in a fine-grained
ferrite-pearlite microstructure (cf. Sections 2.2 and 3.2.3). These kinds of steel are therefore also referred
to as pearlitic fine-grain steels. A typical microstructure is shown in Figure 10. For comparison purpos-
es, Figure 9 shows the microstructure of unalloyed structural steel of the grade S355J2+N, which is also
in the normalised state, but was not normalising rolled. The differences in the grain size are clearly iden-
tifiable. Normalised fine-grain structural steels are identified by the following characteristic features:
– Normalising rolled, unless otherwise agreed (cf. Section 3.2.3)

– Strength properties are between 275 ≤ Re ≤ 460 N/mm²
– Available as basic (N), low-temperature (NL) and heat-resistant (NH) series (latter in EN 10 028-3)
– Cmax ≤ 0.22%; micro-alloyed with: Nb, Ti, V; tough at sub-zero temperatures through to 0.85% Ni
(product analysis)
Figure 9: Microstructure of a normalised unal- Figure 10: Microstructure of a normalised fine-

loyed structural steel of the grade S355J2+N grain steel of the grade S355N
3.2.2 Types
In Table 3 the grades of normalised fine-grain structural steels, currently recorded in EN 10 025-3, are
compared to the materials standardised in the past.
Table 3: A comparison of grades of normalised fine-grain structural steels (*for legend cf. Fehler! Verweis-
quelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.)
Material
Quality* EN 10 025-3:05 EN 10 113-2:93 EU 113:72 DIN/SEW
no.
1.0490 UQS S275N S275N FeE 275 KG N StE 285
1.0491 UQS S275NL S275NL FeE 275 KT N TStE 285
1.0545 UQS S355N S355N FeE 355 KG N StE 355
1.0546 UQS S355NL S355NL FeE 355 KT N TStE 355
1.8902 LES S420N S420N FeE 420 KG N StE 420
1.8912 LES S420NL S420NL FeE 420 KT N TStE 420
1.8901 LES S460N S460N FeE 460 KG N StE 460

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1.8903 LES S460NL S460NL FeE 460 KT N TStE 460
3.2.3 Manufacturing
The manufacturing of these types of high-strength fine structural steels occurs by normalising rolling.
The required process steps are listed in Table 4. Figure 11 shows the temperature time curve for this
manufacturing process. The properties of the steels in the normalised formed state correspond largely to
that of a normalised sheet metal. The following normalising heat treatment is therefore not necessary.
Table 4: Process steps for normalising rolling

Normalising Rolling
Process step 1 Intermediate step Process step 2

Pre-deformation Waiting phase Final deformation
With each rolling stitch the grain
Occurs at relatively high size is reduced, since due the
Sheet material cools on a given
temperatures and serves primary low transformation temperatures
deeper rolling temperature
shaping the grain growth is strongly re-
duced during recrystallisation
Cooling the rolling piece at resting air
1300
Rolling phase 1 (1.100 – 1.200°C)
1100
Temperature in °C
Waiting time Rolling phase 2 (> 900°C)
900
Transition area -  (700 – 900 °C)
700
Cooling at
resting air
500 Figure 11: Temperature-time cycle for
Time normalising rolling (according to Dillinger
Mill GTS)
3.2.4 Designation example
The abbreviation of normalised fine-grain structural steels is structured as follows in accordance with EN
10 027-1 (cf. Chapter 2.04):
S nnn a a* a*
Additional symbols for steels of group 2 acc. to EN 10027-1
Code letter L for quality group with defined minimum values of im-
pact energy
Code letter N for delivery condition
Code for the minimum yield strength in N/mm2
Code letter S (Structural steel)

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* Specified as appropriate
The number of the relevant standard should precede the steel code (however this is not common prac-
tice)
Example: Steel EN 10 025-3 – S275N

Steel EN 10 025-3 – S355NL
3.2.5 Weldability
Normalised fine-grain structural steels are suitable for welding, taking into consideration the general re-
quirements for welding steels according to EN 1011-2. Their weldability is comparable to and better than
that of unalloyed structural steels (cf. Chapter 2.09). Under certain circumstances, the welding joints may
have to be pre-heated. The level of the pre-heating temperature depends particularly on their ability to
form:
– Cold cracks of type age hardening Crack (t8/5 concept, cf. Chapter 2.06 and Section Fehler! Ver-
weisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.) and
– Cold cracks of type hydrogen-induced crack (TP concept, cf. Chapter 2.06 and Section Fehler! Ver-
weisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).
Normalised fine-grain steels are normal or generally weldable.
3.3 Thermomechanically rolled fine-grain structural steels

3.3.1 Overview
In thermomechanically rolled fine structural steels the desired increase in strength is achievd by
combined rolling and heat treatment. Due to the associated possibility – compared to normalising rolled
fine-grain structural steels – of a further decrease in carbon content, these materials have almost no
pearlite in their microstructure (cf. Figure 13). For this reason thermomechanically rolled fine-grain struc-
tural steels are also called pearlite-poor or pearlite-free fine-grain structural steels.
Figure 12: Microstructure of a normalised, unal- Figure 13: Microstructure of a thermomechanically

loyed structural steel of grade S355J2+N rolled fine-grain structural steel of grade S460M

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In comparison, Figure 12 shows the microstructure of an unalloyed structural steel of the grade
S355J2+N, which is present in the normalised state. The differences in the grain size and in the pearlite
share (black) are clearly visible. The thermomechanically rolled fine-grain structural steels are character-
ized by the following features:
– Rolling temperatures are lower than with conventional rolling

– Strength properties are between 275 ≤ Re ≤ 460 N/mm² (or 500 N/mm2 in prEN 10025-4)
– Available as basic version (M) and as low temperature series (ML), not as resistant series heat
– Cmax ≤ 0.18%; micro-alloyed with: Nb, Ti, V; tough at sub-zero temperatures due to up to 0.85% Ni
(product analysis)
Thermomechanically rolled fine-grain structural steels are characterised by a particularly high degree of
purity. This is achieved through a series of special metallurgical measures:
– Basic oxygen steelmaking process (L.D. process) with strong reduction of phosphorous and sulphur
– Vacuum treatment to reduce oxidic inclusions
– Calcium injection to reduce sulphur to content of less than 0.002%
As a result of the Ca treatment, non-metallic inclusions (including oxides) are formed globular and not
acicular, whereby only small amounts of desoxidation media are required.
Due to their high purity, there is no or only a very low risk of formation of lamellar tearing in thermo-
mechanically rolled fine-grain structural steels (cf. Chapter 2.06).
Due to the characteristic features of thermomechanical rolling, these materials require special attention
during heat treatments. Thus, hot deformation at temperatures above the recrystallisation temperature
TR is, in principle, not permitted. An associated drop in strength is not reversible. Other heat treat-
ments with temperatures above 580°C are also to be omitted. Any required stress-relief annealing can
be done between 530 and 580°C with a holding time of 90 to 150 minutes.
Cold deformation causes no problems and is therefore permissible. However, it must be considered
here that the strength values rise and the toughness properties decrease.
3.3.2 Grades
In Table 3 the grades of thermomechanically rolled fine-grain structural steels currently recorded in EN
10 025-4 are compared to the materials standardised in the past.
Table 5: A comparison of grades of thermomechanically rolled fine-grain structural steels

Material Quality EN 10 025-4:05 EN 10 113-3:93 EU 113:72 DIN/SEW
no.
1.8818 LES S275M S275M FeE 275 KG TM —
1.8819 LES S275ML S275ML FeE 275 KT TM —
1.8823 LES S355M S355M FeE 355 KG TM StE 355 TM
1.8834 LES S355ML S355ML FeE 355 KT TM TStE 355 TM
— LES (S500M) — — —
The grade S500M is a new addition to prEN 10 025-4:11.
M: KVtransv at -20 °C (20 J); ML: KVtransv at -50 °C (16 J)
UQS: Non-alloyed quality steel; LES: (Other) alloyed high-grade steels (main quality groups acc. to EN 10 020, cf. Chapter 2.04)

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3.3.3 Production
The production of this type of high-strength fine-grain structural steel involves thermomechanical roll-
ing. The required process steps are listed in Table 6. The temperature/time curve for this manufacturing
process is found in Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.. The properties of such
steels correspond largely to those of a normalising formed sheet (N).
Table 6: Process steps during thermomechanical rolling

Thermomechanical rolling (M)
Process step 1 Intermediate step Process step 2

Predeformation Waiting phase Final deformation
Takes place at a temperature
range, where the material no
Takes place at somewhat lower
longer recrystallises
temperatures than for normalis- Weaving of the rolled piece on
(800 – 900 °C)
ing rolling; the relatively coarse the roll table until the final de-
or
microstructure of the slab be- formation temperature is
Part of the final deformation oc-
comes increasingly fine-grained reached
curs at lower temperatures
through recrystallisation
(650 - 750 °C). Therefore Re 
but impact energy .
Rolled piece cools at resting air
1300
Rolling phase 1 (1.100 – 1.200°C)

1100
Temperature in °C
Waiting time Rolling phase 2 (> 900°C)
Waiting time
900
Rolling phase 3 (> 700°C)
700
Accelerated cooling with H 20

(ACC=accelerated cooling) Cooling at Figure 14: Temperature-time-
500 resting air
cycle during thermomechanical rolling
Time (acc.to Dillinger Mill GTS)
Figure 15 and Table 7 provide information on the process steps involved in thermomechanical rolling,
the comprehensive, metallurgical processes taking place, the rolling parameters and the material proper-
ties specifically influenced as a result.
Processing of Plate
Figure 15: Process stages and operations in thermomechanical rolling

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Table 7: Process stages and operations during thermomechanical rolling

Process stage Heating Pre-rolling Finishing-rolling Cooling
Austenitising Grain refinement
Grain refinement
Dissolution of Precipitation
Metallographic Microstructure
processes precipitations Dislocation density transformation
Recrystallisation Obstruction of
Grain growth
recrystallisation
Temperature Temperature Temperature
Rolling parame-
Degree of defor- Degree of defor- Cooling rate
ters Time
mation [%] mation
Affected material Strength Strength Strength
Toughness
properties Toughness Toughness Toughness
The abbreviation of the thermomechanically rolled fine-grain structural steels is structured as follows in
accordance with EN 10 027-1 (cf. Chapter 2.04):
S nnn a a* a*
Additional symbol for Group 2 steels according to EN 10027-1
Code letter L for quality group with fixed minimum values of impact
energy
Code letter M for the delivery condition
Code number for the minimum yield point in N/mm2
* Specified if applicable
The number of the relevant standard should precede the steel code (however this is not common in
practice).
Example: Steel EN 10 025-4 – S355ML

Steel EN 10 025-4 – S460MC
3.3.5 Weldability
Thermomechanically rolled fine-grain structural steels are suitable for welding, taking into consideration
the general requirements for welding steels according to EN 1011-2. The same characteristics apply to
these as to normalised materials (cf. Section 3.2.5). An overly high heat input leads to a deterioration of
properties in the HAZ and is to be avoided.
Thermomechanically rolled fine-grain structural steels are normally or generally weldable.
Note: All heat treatments and therefore also the fusion and resistance welding of thermomechanical
rolled fine-grain structural steels require a reliable and reproducible temperature measurement.

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3.4 Quenched and tempered fine-grain structural steels

3.4.1 Overview
With quenched and tempered fine-grain structural steels, in addition to the known alloy mechanisms,
the desired increase in strength is obtained by water (fluid) quenching. Due to the microstructure that
results (Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.) these materials are also termed mar-
tensitic or bainitic fine-grain structural steels.
Figure 16: Microstructure of a normalised unalloyed Figure 17: Microstructure of a quenched and tem-
structural steel of the grade S355J2+N pered fine-grain structural steel of the grade S690Q
For comparison purposes, Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. shows the micro-
structure of an unalloyed structural steel of the grade S355J2+N, which is present in the normalised
state. The differences in grain size are obvious. Quenched and tempered fine-grain structural steels are
characterized by the following characteristic features:
– Contain chromium (≤ 1.5%) and nickel (≤ 2.0%) as alloying elements

– Strength properties are between 450 ≤ Re ≤ 960 N/mm2 (commercially to 1,300 N/mm²)
– Available: basic (Q), low-temperature (QL) and low-temperature (QL1) special series
– Cmax ≤ 0.22%; micro-alloyed with B, Nb, Ti, V; tough at sub-zero temperatures through Ni to 2.1%,
hardened with Cr to 1.6% (ladle analysis)
3.4.2 Grades
In Table 8 the grades of quenched and tempered fine-grain structural steels currently recorded in EN
10025-6 are compared to the materials standardised in the past.
Table 8: A comparison of grades of quenched and tempered fine-grain structural steels

Material
Quality EN 10 025-6:05 EN 10 137-2:93 EU 137:83 DIN/SEW
no.
1.8908 LES S460Q S460Q FeE 460 V —
1.8906 LES S460QL S460QL FeE 460 V KT TStE 460 V
1.8916 LES S460QL1 S460QL1 — —
1.8924 LES S500Q S500Q FeE 500 V StE 500 V
1.8984 LES S500QL1 S500QL1 — EStE 500 V

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Material
Quality EN 10 025-6:05 EN 10 137-2:93 EU 137:83 DIN/SEW
no.
1.8986 LES S500QL1 S500QL1 — EStE 550 V
1.8987 LES S620QL1 S620QL1 — EStE 620 V
1.8931 LES S690Q S690Q — StE 690 V
1.8988 LES S690QL1 S690QL1 — EStE 690 V
1.8940 LES S890Q S890Q — —
1.8983 LES S890QL S890QL — TStE 890 V
1.8925 LES S890QL1 S890QL1 — EStE 890 V
1.8941 LES S960Q S960Q — —
1.8933 LES S960QL S960QL — TStE 960 V
Q: KVtransv at -20 °C (27 J); QL: KVtransv at -40 °C (27 J); QL1: KVtransv at -60 °C (27 J)
LES: (Other) alloyed high-grade steels (quality groups acc. to EN 10 020, cf. Chapter 2.04)
3.4.3 Production
The production of this type of high-strength fine-grain structural steel involves combined rolling and
quenching and tempering. The process steps required are listed in Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte
nicht gefunden werden.. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. shows the tempera-
ture-time curve for this production. Quenching and tempering produces a very finely grained (finely
acicular) and uniform microstructure (Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.), which
gives the steel high strength combined with good toughness. If the thermomechanically rolled fine-grain
structural steels are compared with the quenched and tempered materials, the following differences be-
tween the two types of high-strength steels results:
– Advantages of thermomechanically rolled fine-grain structural steels

- Depending on the sheet thickness and manufacturing process, the price is significantly lower
- Better planarity
- Better weldability through low CEV (no or low pre-heating required)
- Lower bending radii possible
– Advantages of quenched and tempered fine-grain structural steels

- Also available in larger sheet thicknesses
- Fewer internal stresses
- Heat treatments also involving high temperatures or hot deformation are possible
- Good toughness properties to temperatures of -60 °C
Table 9: Process steps with combined rolling and quenching and tempering
Combined rolling and quenching and tempering (Q)
Process step 1 Process step 2 Process step 3

Classic rolling Hardening Tempering
Takes place at somewhat lower Quenching / Tempering
temperatures than normalising
rolling; the relatively coarse- During hardening, the sheet is
The desired material properties
grained microstructure of the austenitised at about 900°C and
are set by subsequent tempering
cooled rapidly.
steel slab becomes increasingly

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fine-grained through recrystalli-

sation
Cooling in air Quenching in H2O Cooling in air
1300
Classic rolling (1.100 – 1.200°C)

1100
Temperature in °C
Hardening at normalization temperature (> 900°C)

900 Figure 18: Temperature-time curve
during the production of quenched and
tempered fine-grain structural steels (acc.
to Dillinger Mill GTS)
700 Tempering (< 700°C)
Core
Cooling Surface
500 .
Time
The abbreviation of quenched and tempered fine-grain structural steels is structured as follows in ac-
cordance with EN 10 027-1 (cf. Chapter 2.04):
S nnn a a*
Code letters L or L1 for quality groups with defined minimum values of
impact energy
Code letter Q for delivery condition
Code number for the minimum yield point in N/mm2
* Specified as appropriate
The number of the relevant standard should precede the steel code (however this is not common in
practice).
Example: Steel EN 10 025-6 – S460Q

Steel EN 10 025-6 – S690QL1
3.4.5 Weldability
The quenched and tempered fine-grained structural steels are suitable for welding, taking into considera-
tion the general requirements for welding steels according to EN 1011-2 (generally to a limited extent or
not at all; depending on yield point). The characteristics already formulated in Section 3.2.5 apply prefer-
entially to these steels. This means that particular consideration must be paid to their susceptibility to the
formation of cold cracks (both age hardening cracks and hydrogen-assisted cracks) (cf. in particular
Section Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).

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Quenched and tempered fine-grain structural steels are suitable for welding only to a limited ex-
tent or are not suitable for welding.
Note: All grades of quenched and tempered fine-grain structural steels require a special heat input
during welding, whereby special attention is to be paid to the pre-heating temperature.
4 High-strength two-phase, multi-phase and special steels

4.1 Overview of high-strength steels for vehicle construction
In the last few years numerous high-strength special steels have been developed, which are specially
adapted to the requirements of automobile construction, in order to meet the demands for the lightweight
construction of body components. These materials are characterized by a combination of, at times very,
high strength with simultaneously good ductility. These steels include:
– Ferritic-bainitic steels (FB), two-phase,

– Dual phase steels (DP), two-phase,
– Steels with transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP), multi-phase,
– Steels with twin-induced plasticity (TWIP), single-phase,
– Complex phase steels (CP), multi-phase,
– Partially martensitic and martensitic steels (PMS, MS) multi-phase,
– Manganese boron steels (Mn-B); multi-phase,
– Martensite-hardenable steels and
– Unstable austenitic stainless steels (single-phase).
The mechanical properties of these alloys cover a broad property spectrum with tensile strengths Rm
from 300 to over 1,500 N/mm2, whereby different material-technological mechanisms are used to
achieve these properties (cf. Section 2).
Since these materials must stand out due to their good cold formability in particular (manufacture of body
parts, for example by pressing, deep-drawing or hydroforming), an increase in strength through strain
hardening (cf. Section 2.3) and the associated loss of plasticity and ductility is not permitted. For this
reason, mechanisms such as solid solution hardening (cf. Section 2.4), using the alloying element
phosphorous or precipitation hardening (cf. Section 2.2) using targeted addition of micro-alloying
elements, like titanium, niobium or boron, are used. The mechanisms of a controlled microstructure
transformation (cf. Section 2.5) have proven particularly interesting, as these enable the creation of
steels with a favourable combination of strength and formability. A selection of currently common high-
strength special steels for automobile construction with their strength properties and ductility is compiled
in Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden..

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60
DD Soft steels
Elongation after fracture A80 in %
ML Micro-alloyed steels
50 DD FB FerritE bainite phases steels
DP Dual phases steel
FB TRIP TRIP TRIP Steel
40 CP Complex-phase Steel
DP
MS Martensite-phase steels
30
CP
20 MS
ML
10
Figure 19: Selection and
0 properties of currently common
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 hot-rolled high-strength steels for
Tensile strength in N/mm² automotive production
Compared to the unalloyed structural steels and the high-strength fine-grain structural steels, the two
and multi-phase and alloyed special steels offer the following advantages:

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SFI / IWE 2.10
– they meet the lightweight construction principle, i.e. high strengths allow smaller wall thicknesses,
– they are easily cold and/or hot formed,
– they have good ductility with high transformation velocities,
– they display strong hardenings with large total deformations, resulting in a high energy absorption
capacity (e.g. in. accidents) and
– they are weldable.
In Europe numerous grades of these steels are standardized in:
EN 10 346: Continuous, hot-dip coated flat steel products – technical delivery conditions.
4.2 Microstructure of high-strength steels for vehicle construction
Depending on the load profile, the chemical composition, the effective hardening mechanisms and the
heat treatment status, flat products made from high-strength steels for cold forming are characterised by
different, property-determining microstructure states (Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden
werden.).
Table 10: Overview of high-strength steels for cold forming and their microstructures
Flat products from high-strength steels for cold forming (selection)
Two-phase steels Multi-phase steels Alloyed special steels
FB steels TRIP steels Maraging steels

Ferritic-bainitic steels Steels with transf. ind. elasticity Martensite-hardenable steels
Ferritic-bainitic microstructure
Very fine ferritic-bainitic micro- Martensitic microstructure
with up to 15% metastable aus-
structure (nickel martensite)
tenite
DP steels CP steels Mn-B steels

Dual phase steels Complex phase steels Press-hardenable steels
Ferritic-martensitic microstruc- Ferritic bainitic martensite. Mi- Very fine tempering microstruc-
ture (martensite < 30%) crostructure with precipitations ture
PM steels TRIPLEX steels TWIP steels

Partially martensitic steels Three-phase steels Twin-induced plasticity
Ferritic-martensitic microstruc- Austenite, ferrite and fine, dis- Very fine austenitic microstruc-
ture (martensite > 50%) tributed nano-carbides ture (Mn-austenite)
Further developments Unstable austenitic steels

Steels with deformation marten-
Steels for high-strength flat products for cold forming are in site
continuous development. Fine grain austenitic microstruc-
ture with deformation martensite

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4.3 The “bake-hardening” effect
With the “bake-hardening” process (yield strength increase through heat treatment), finished formed
components are heat-treated at about 170 to 200 °C. This leads to the diffusion of carbon at dislocations,
which are then blocked and bring about a yield strength increase (accelerated ageing process). In au-
tomotive manufacturing, “bake-hardenable” steels are preferred for body parts, since they experience a
noticeable increase in strength during the paint baking treatment at the specified temperature range.
This is indicated by the BH index BH2 (yield point increase) and can be determined according to EN 10
325.
4.4 Two-phase steels
With two-phase steels, in addition to the solid solution strengthening mechanism using, e.g. phospho-
rus, strengthening by a second phase, e.g. embedding hard bainite or martensite islands in the ferrite
matrix, is also used. Furthermore with these materials precipitation hardening via fine-particle carbides in
the ferrite is also used to increase strength. Important examples of these include:
– Ferritic-bainitic steels (FB steels) and

– Dual phase steels (DP steels).
4.5 Multi-phase steels
The group of multi-phase steels is a further development of two-phase steels (cf. Section Fehler! Ver-
weisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.). With these materials the properties are regulated by an
intelligent mix of different hard microstructure components. This process uses the ability of steel to trans-
form into different microstructure types, depending on the forming and cooling conditions (polymor-
phism, cf. Chapter 2.02). Ferrite is a soft and easily formed phase, while martensite is very hard but only
formable to a limited extent. In terms of strength and formability, bainitic microstructures lie between
these two. Depending on the type and ratio of these phases to each other a wide range of materials can
be produced, which are characterised by very high strengths (Rm to 1,400 N/mm2) in conjunction with
good formability. Important examples of these include:
– Steels of residual austenite (RA or TRIP steels; Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden wer-
den.),
– Complex phase steels (CP steels),
– Martensite phase or partly martensitic steels (PMS, MS or M steels).

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Figure 20: TRIP steel HCT780T, ferritic-bainitic Figure 21: Press-hardenable steel 22MnB5,
microstructure with residual austenite fine-acicular tempering microstructure

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4.6 Alloyed high-strength special steels
While the previously presented two- and multi-phase steels offer a comparatively low alloying potential,
there are also high-strength steels for automotive applications, whose alloying content is significantly
higher, so much so that the designation of these materials in accordance with EN 10 027-1 is not based
on their mechanical-technological properties, but on their chemical composition instead. Many of these
steels are still in development or are nearing their market launch. The alloyed high-strength special
steels include among others:
– Press-hardenable steels (Mn-B steels; Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.)
– Martensite-hardenable steels (Maraging steels)
– Steels with twin-induced plasticity (TWIP steels)
– Austenitic stainless steels with unstable austenite
4.7 Further developments

4.7.1 HSD® steels
The latest developments include HSD steels® (High Strength and Ductility) also termed FeMnAlSi
steels. They belong to the group of TWIP steels and are characterized by similarly high levels of man-
ganese of 15 to 25% and an aluminium and/or silicon content of 1.7 to 2.6%. The strength and simulta-
neously excellent plastic ductility of these materials are greater than those of high-strength unstable aus-
tenitic Cr-Mn-Ni materials. In this way, tensile strengths of Rm over 1,000 N/mm2 are achieved with elon-
gation after fracture A80 of at least 50%. They are much more cost-effective. The disadvantage however
is that these steels tend to considerable segregations of manganese. Production by continuous casting
is therefore not possible and so strip casting is used. They are used when high strengths and defor-
mation are required.
4.7.2 TRIPLEX steels
The TRIPLEX steels belong to the group of multi-phase steels and are characterised by an extremely
fine-grain microstructure, which consists of an austenitic matrix with ferrite components, in which approx.
30 nm large carbides of the compound (FeMn)3AlC are embedded, distributed homogeneously. Their
special microstructure is achieved by a special heat treatment of solution annealing, quenching and arti-
ficial ageing. Compared to conventional steels, the density of these materials is up to 15% less ( = 6.5
to 7 g/cm) due to its alloy composition with high amounts of manganese (18 to 28%) and aluminium (9 to
12%) and carbon contents between 0.7 and 1.2%. Compared to iron, both elements have, on the one
hand, a lower atomic mass and on the other, a larger atomic radius. Consequently, TRIPLEX steels are
eight to ten percent lighter than other multi-phase steels. Furthermore, the materials are harder than
TWIP steels and more ductile than TRIP steels. Their properties are due to the finely distributed nano-
carbides, which allow the austenite and ferrite areas to slide easily. The elongation after fracture A80 thus
achieves values of up to 70%, which is the basis for their good cold forming ability. Subsequent heat
treatment can determine the mechanical properties over a wide range and the tensile strengths Rm of
approximately 700 N/mm2, which are already high in the delivery state, can be increased to over 1,100
N/mm2. The weldability of TRIPLEX steels is limited.

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5 Welding
5.1 High-strength fine-grain structural steels
5.1.1 General information
When welding fine grain structural steels the following basic rules must be observed:
– Multilayer technology is to be used to achieve high toughness values in the HAZ and the WM.
- Weaving or thick beads lead to poorer toughness values.
- Start the seam structure at the flanks so that the HAZ is heat treated.
– Assembly tack welds are in principle to be pre-heated as of sheet thicknesses of 12 mm.

- Pre-heating temperature at t = 12 to 25 mm: 100 °C; at t > 25 mm: at least 150 °C
– Locally limited heating can lead to cracks and is to be avoided. Pre-heating may be required under
certain circumstances.
- Heating can also result when grinding the root.
– High quantities of dust in submerged welding flux with alloying components are to be avoided.
- Risk of an irregular alloy, thereby uneven properties.
– In the case of longitudinal welds on cylindrical parts, the welding sequence is to be observed so that
no vaulting occurs.
- The weld reinforcement must be machined before straightening, as otherwise there is a risk of
cracking.
– The ignition of the arc on the component outside the welding groove is not permitted.
- Stray arcs or scorches must be ground and subjected to crack testing.
– Due to the risk of delayed, hydrogen-induced cold cracking, the NDT must be performed 24 h after
the completion of welding.
- With higher HD contents and larger sheet thicknesses the time interval is to be increased.
5.1.2 Welding process
With the weldability presented, the fine-grain structural steels can be welded using all modern welding
processes. These are discussed in detail in main section 1. However, differences in the alloy composi-
tion may require special measures for some steels. In cases of doubt, safety should be ensured by ask-
ing the steel manufacturer. Basic information on welding normalised, thermomechanically rolled and
quenched and tempered fine-grain structural steels is provided in the steel and iron products material
sheet SEW 088 and the EN 1011 standards, parts 1 and 2.
5.1.3 Welding consumables/filler materials
The choice of filler materials depends on the minimum requirements for the mechanical properties of the
base materials. To prevent metallurgical notches, filler materials are to be used, that where possible pro-
duce a weld metal that offers mechanical-technological properties that are comparable to those of
the base material (Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. and Fehler! Verweisquel-
le konnte nicht gefunden werden.).

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Table 11: Recommendations for base material-filler material allocations with fine-grain structural steels (ex-
amples for yield point to 500 N/mm ²)
Base material Filler material
Yield
Type of produc- Code for yield Code number for Chemical compo-
point Process
2 tion point test temperature sition of solid wire
(N/mm )
E —
275 N, M G 38, 42 0, 2, 4, 6 G3Si1
S S3
E —
355 N, M G 38, 42 0, 2, 4, 6 G3Si1
S S3Si
E —
420 N, M G 42, 46 0, 2, 4, 6 G3Si1, G4Si1
S S3Si, S4Si
E —
460 N, M, Q G 46, 50 0, 2, 4, 6 G4Si1
S S4Si
E 1NiMo
500 M, Q G 50 0, 2, 4, 6 G3Ni1
S S2Ni1Mo
Table 12: Recommendations for base material-filler material allocations with fine-grain structural steels (ex-
2
amples of yield points from 550 to 890 N/mm )
E 1NiMo
550 Q G 55 0, 2, 4, 6 —
S —
E Mn1NiMo
620 Q G 62 0, 2, 4, 6 —
S —
E Mn2NiMo
690 Q G 69 0, 2, 4, 6 —
S —
E Mn2Ni1CrMo
890 Q G 89 0, 2, 4, 6 —
S —
Any required pre-heating temperatures are to be selected in accordance with the t8/5 concept (cf. Chap-
ter 2.05 and Section Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.) or – if available – to be
derived from the welding TTT diagrams
(cf. Chapter 2.03). In this context, carbon equivalent CEV should also be observed. If necessary, it is
recommended that a practical weld test be performed with subsequent microstructure inspections or
hardness tests. As a rule of thumb, the maximum hardening in the heat affected zone (HAZ) should not
exceed 350 HV in normalised and thermomechanically rolled steels.
Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. lists a selection of current filler material stand-
ards for fine-grain structural steels. In accordance with the international standards (ISO), filler materials
are generally classified in Europe according to Column A (identical to the previously valid European
standards). Column B is preferred in the Pacific region (USA, Japan, etc.). The two systems may not be
combined.

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Table 13: Filler materials for fine-grain structural steels (selection)

Product form
Standard Title
Welding process
Welding consumables - Covered electrodes for manual metal
E EN ISO 2560
arc welding of non-alloy and fine grain steels - Classification
Welding consumables - Covered electrodes for the manual
E EN 757
arc welding of high-strength steels. Classification
Welding consumables - Solid wire electrodes, tubular cored
S EN ISO 14 171 electrodes and electrode/flux combinations for submerged arc
welding of non alloy and fine grain steels - Classification
Welding consumables - Wire electrodes and weld deposits for
G EN ISO 14 341 gas shielded metal arc welding of non-alloy and fine grain
Welding consumables - Tubular cored electrodes for gas
T EN ISO 17 632 shielded and non-gas shielded metal arc welding of non-alloy
and fine grain steels - Classification
Welding consumables - Rods, wires and deposits for tungsten
W EN ISO 636 inert gas welding of non-alloy and fine-grain steels - Classifi-
cation
5.1.4 Effects of temperature-time curve during welding

5.1.4.1 Problems during welding of fine-grain structural steels
The most important parameter in the welding of fine grain structural steels is the temperature-time curve.
Therefore, with these materials, the welding heat treatment influences two basic properties of the heat-
affected zone. These are:
– Tendency to harden through martensite formation and thus to the formation of hardening cracks
(cf. Chapter 2.06)
– Tendency to recombine integrated hydrogen and thus to the formation of hydrogen-induced crack-
ing (cf. Chapter 2.06)
In particular, quenched and tempered fine-grain structural steels (cf. Section Fehler! Verweisquelle
konnte nicht gefunden werden.) are sensitive to hardening due to their chemical composition and the
resultant microstructure (strictly speaking these are special quenched and tempered steels). Due to their
small grain size, all fine-grain structural steels have significantly more grain boundaries than the unal-
loyed structural steels described in Chapter 2.09 and therefore significantly more potential microstructure
areas, in which atomic hydrogen can recombine.
Note: For a better understanding of the following problem you should consult Chapter 2.05, specifically
“cooling rate and cooling time” as well as Chapter 2.06, specifically “age hardening cracks” and
“hydrogen-induced damage”.
5.1.4.2 Tendency to harden as a result of martensite formation

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Investigations in the technical literature showed that with high-strength fine-grain structural steels in par-
ticular, the level of cooling speed impacts the toughness properties (expressed by the level of the transi-
tion temperature of the impact energy) and hardness.
Therefore high cooling rates, i.e. short t8/5 times on the one hand, produced a fine grain (fine-acicular)
microstructure with a good cold resistance (i.e. a low transition temperature between brittle fracture
and ductile fracture; at a materials technology level, secondary recrystallisation, which leads to grain
growth, is suppressed by the fast cooling). On the other hand, martensitic microstructures are charac-
terised by their high level of hardness (Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).
Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 1 Area 2 Area 3

Transition temperature
of the impact energy
Maximum acceptable hardness
Hardness
Recommended transition
temperature
t8/5 -Time t8/5 -Time
Figure 22: Influence of the cooling speed on the Figure 23: Influence of the cooling speed on hard-
transition temperature ness
If high-strength fine-grain structural steels are cooled too quickly after welding, cold cracks of the
type age hardening cracks can result in the area of the heat-affected zone (range 1 in Fehler! Ver-
weisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. and Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden wer-
den.).
If, on the other hand, the cooling of these materials occurs too slowly, i.e. if the t8/5 times are long, a
course grained microstructure with a low hardness, but high transition temperature of the impact
energy results (Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).
If high-strength fine-grain structural steels are cooled too slowly after welding, the heat-affected zone
has a considerably limited sub-zero toughness. Softening also occurs in certain circumstances (range
3 in Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. and Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht
gefunden werden.).
From both statements it can be derived that for each high-strength fine-grain structural steel a cooling
rate range exists, in which the properties of the heat-affected zone are characterised both by sufficient
sub-zero toughness (expressed by the transition temperature of the impact energy) and by acceptable
maximum hardening.
Note: For the reasons presented, the temperature during welding of high-strength fine-grain structural
steels must not fall below a minimum permissible t8/5 time and must not exceed a maximum t8/5 time. The
base material manufacturer must be asked about this cooling time range. It is therefore necessary
to tailor all the influential parameters to the welding process such that the time it takes to cool from 800
°C to 500°C is in this optimum range (range 2 in Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden wer-
den. and Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.). This procedure is called welding
with controlled or defined heat input.
For the fine-grain structural steels discussed in this Chapter, t8/5 cooling time values in the range of 10 to
25 s have proven successful. However, there is no reason not to use other cooling time values when

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SFI / IWE 2.10
welding in individual cases and after an appropriate review, as long as the requirements for the compo-
nent are met.
Note: When welding high-strength fine-grain structural steels the t8/5 time must be measured reliably and
reproducibly.
5.1.4.3 Tendency to form hydrogen-induced damage
In fine-grain structural steels there are, by several orders of magnitude, more potential microstructure
areas in which diffusible (atomic) hydrogen that is supplied during welding or is already present can re-
combine to form (thermodynamically stable) molecules. These include in particular grain boundaries (fi-
ne-grain), micro-precipitations (for example, carbides, nitrides, carbonitrides), but also the martensitic or
bainitic microstructure of the quenched and tempered fine-grain steels. Consequently, the steel can be
damaged from the inside out as a result of the constantly increasing gas pressure of the hydrogen mole-
cules forming. This results in the formation of e.g. cold cracks of the type hydrogen-induced crack or
the so-called fish eyes (cf. Chapter 2.06).
A very effective means of preventing such damage is to preheat the weld seam, in order to delay the
cooling of the weld area. This facilitates a greater escape (effusion) of atomic hydrogen after welding
over a shorter period of time than without preheating. In addition, pre-heating can reduce the residual
stress state. With multilayer welding there is also the option of starting without pre-heating, if, using a
suitable welding sequence, a sufficiently high interpass temperature is reached.
Note: The formation of hydrogen-induced cracks and the formation of age hardening cracks are two mu-
tually independent damage mechanisms, which, despite some common properties, should not be
confused. This fact is not sufficiently highlighted in many specialist publications or in the regulations (EN
1011-2, SEW 088, supplements 1 and 2).
5.1.5 Estimation of pre-heating temperatures

5.1.5.1 Preheating to prevent age hardening cracks
The simplest method to assess the need for pre-heating is to use the carbon equivalent CEV (cf.
Chapter 2.09). Accordingly, all structural steel standards from the 10 025 series contain special tables,
detailing for each material recorded the maximum permissible carbon equivalents as a function of the
sheet thickness. If the actual equivalent of a batch exceeds these specifications, pre-heating should be
seriously considered.

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0,90
0,80
unalloyed N M Q
0,70
0,60
CEV in %
0,50
0,40
0,30
0,20
Figure 24: Comparison of
0,10 the carbon equivalent CEV of
fine-grain structural steels
0,00 according to EN 10 025-3, 4, 6
S550Q
S275M
S355M
S420M
S460M
S460Q
S500Q
S620Q
S690Q
S890Q
S960Q
S275N
S355N
S420N
S460N
S235
S275
S355
S450
with non-alloyed structural

steels according to EN 10 025-
2

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As can be clearly seen from Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden., for the same
strength, the thermomechanically rolled fine-grain structural steels display the lowest carbon equivalent
CEV, to which their good weldability, among other things, can be ascribed. In contrast, the carbon equiv-
alents of quenched and tempered steels increase strongly with increasing yield points. Particular atten-
tion must therefore be paid to these materials with respect to pre-heating.
Note: The combination of CEV and sheet thickness only indicates the need for pre-heating, not however
the level of the pre-heating temperature. For this further parameters must be considered when weld-
ing.
The temperature-time curve during welding is influenced by the energy per unit length, the relative
thermal efficiency of the selected welding process (in contrast to SAW, cf. Chapter 2.05 and Section
Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.), the sheet thickness, the pre-heating tem-
perature, the weld shape (cf. Section Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.) and
the layer structure. Thus, with fusion and resistance welding, a quick heating to a specified peak tem-
perature occurs followed by significantly slower cooling. To describe the cooling rate, the time required
to cool from 800 °C to 500 °C, i.e. the t8/5 time, has proven particularly suitable for fine-grain structural
steels (cf. Chapter 2.05). The interaction of the above influencing factors on the heat-affected zone in
fine grain structural steels is illustrated in Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden..
Chem. composition of the base material Welding conditions
Welding pro- Welding pa- Pre-heating Weld

cess rameters temperature geometry
k U, I, v T0 F2, F3
Cooling time t8/5
Mechanical properties in the coarse grain zone of the HAZ

Figure 25: Parameters that influence the mechanical properties in the coarse grain zone of the HAZ
In addition to measuring the cooling time t8/5 in experiments, this can also be calculated. The formulae
required for this are included in EN 1011-2 and supplement 2 to SEW 088. They are based on the works
of UWER and DEGENKOLBE and are described in detail in Chapter 2.05.
It often proves a disadvantage, however, that it is not possible to determine explicitly the desired pre-
heating temperature T0 from the equations for the t8/5 time despite knowing the t8/5 time. Using adjust-
ment functions, FRANK developed an algorithm that does this directly. Here a differentiation must be
drawn between two and three-dimensional heat dissipation as described in detail in Chapter 2.05.
 198.6  t 8/5  v s 
T03  113.64  ln  5.3126
 F3  U  I  k 
 187.1 t 8/5  d2  v 2s 
T02  81.3  ln  6.8943
 F2  U  I  k
2 2 2


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In these equations, the following abbreviations have the following meanings:
t8/5 Cooling time between 800 and 500 °C (s) U Arc voltage (V)
k Relative thermal efficiency I Welding current (A)
F2 Weld factor for two-dimensional heat dissipation vs Welding speed (mm/s)
F3 Weld factor for three-dimensional heat dissipation d Sheet thickness (mm)
Note: When welding “thick sheets”, the heat dissipation occurs in three dimensions. The heat applied
by the arc can dissipate in the sheet layer and also in the direction of the sheet thickness. On the other
hand, with two-dimensional heat dissipation heat flow only occurs in the sheet plane (“thin sheets”)
– cf. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. and Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht
gefunden werden..
y y
y
x z
x x z
Figure 26: Representation of “two-dimensional” heat Figure 27: Representation of “three-dimensional” heat
dissipation dissipation
The sheet thickness has a strong influence in this calculation. By equalizing both equations, a limit
sheet thickness (transition sheet thickness dü) can be calculated, which represents the transition from
two to three-dimensional heat dissipation. These calculations should be performed using suitable com-
puter programs.
d > dü: Three-dimensional heat dissipation

d < dü: Two-dimensional heat dissipation
It is more simple to calculate the cooling time t8/5 or the pre-heating temperature T0 in each case and to
ascertain the type of heat dissipation from the values determined. Only the larger of the two values is
valid.
Note: It must generally be taken into consideration, that the calculation results are always only approx-
imate values.
5.1.5.2 Relative thermal efficiency and weld factors
The investigations to calculate the cooling time t8/5 (cf. Chapter 2.05) were originally only performed on
surface welds using submerged arc welding. The transfer to other welding processes (e.g. E, MAG
among others) and weld shapes necessitated the introduction of correction factors in these equations.
In this process, the correction factor for the welding process is designated (misleadingly) as relative
thermal efficiency k (relative to the submerged arc welding) while that for the weld shapes differing
from the surface bead, is designated as weld factor F.

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Note: A relative thermal efficiency of “1” does NOT mean that the submerged arc welding process brings
in 100% of the heat into the material, but only that the correction factor in the equation to calculate the
t8/5 time or the pre-heating temperature T0 is “1” and can therefore be ignored.
Note: Since other arc welding procedures generally input less heat into the base material compared to
submerged arc welding, their correction factor is less than “1”. Thus e.g. for MAG welding 85% of the
heat is NOT input either, instead the correction factor is only “0.85” compared to the submerged arc
welding process (cf. Chapter 2.05).
The tables for the relative thermal efficiency k and weld factors F2 and F3 are provided in Chapter 2.05.
Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. to Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht ge-
funden werden. contain the cooling times of the submerged arc welded surface beads for three- and
two-dimensional heat dissipation as a function of the energy per unit length and the pre-heating tempera-
ture.
Transition plate thickness dü [mm]
50 50 200 °C
250 °C
200 °C 40 150 °C
40
Cooling time t8/5 [s]
150 °C
100 °C 100 °C
20 °C 30
20 °C
30
Three dimensional hd 20
20 250 °C
10
Two-dimensional hd
10 5
5 10 20 30 40 50 5 10 20 30 40 50
Heat input Q = E * k [kJ/mm] Heat input Q = E * k [kJ/mm]
Figure 28: Transition from two-dimensional to Figure 29: Three-dimensional heat dissipation as a
three-dimensional heat dissipation as a function of the function of the heat input and the pre-heating tempera-
heat input and pre-heating temperature. ture
50 50
40 40
30 30
200 °C
20 20
150 °C
200 °C
100 °C 150 °C
100 °C
10 10 20 °C
t = 10 mm t = 20 mm
20 °C
5 5
5 10 20 30 40 50 5 10 20 30 40 50
Heat input Q = E * k [kJ/mm] Heat input Q = E * k [kJ/mm]
Figure 30: Two-dimensional heat dissipation as a Figure 31: Two-dimensional heat dissipation as a
function of the heat input and the pre-heating tempera- function of the heat input and the pre-heating tempera-
ture (sheet thickness t = 10 mm) ture (sheet thickness t = 20 mm)

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5.1.5.3 Preheating to prevent hydrogen-induced cracking
The hydrogen-induced cracking behaviour of welded joints on fine-grain structural steels is influenced by
the chemical composition of the base material and the weld metal, the sheet thickness, the diffusible
hydrogen content of the weld metal, the heat input during welding and the stress state. The correlations
between the above factors are depicted in Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden..
Chemical analysis of the Conditions of the Environmental

base material welding process conditions
Carbon Welding Sheet Diffusible

Equivalent parameter thickness hydrogen
CET U, I, v D HD
Tendency to form martensite Heat input
Absorption ability and solubility of the microstructure in the area of the welded joint for
diffusible hydrogen
Figure 32: Parameters influencing the susceptibility to hydrogen-induced cracking in the HAZ
The lowest temperature prior to the start of the first bead, which cannot be fallen below in the weld area
if hydrogen-induced (cold) cracks are to be avoided is called the pre-heating temperature Tp. During
multilayer welding, the term interpass temperature Ti is also used for this temperature relative to the
second and all subsequent beads. Chapter 2.11 contains exact definitions of these temperatures. To
simplify therefore, only the term “preheating temperature" is used hereinafter to avoid hydrogen-induced
cracks. From the named parameters, the pre-heating temperature Tp to prevent cold cracks of the type
hydrogen-induced cracking can be calculated. It results from the following dependency:
d
TP  700  CET  160  tanh   62  HD 0,35  (53  CET  32)  Q  330
 35 
where:
CET Carbon equivalent in%

HD Diffusible hydrogen in ml/100 g weld metal
Q Heat input Q in kJ/cm
The variables CET and Q are calculated as follows:
(Mn  Mo) (Cr  Cu) (Ni) Q  k   U  I   10 3

CET  C     
10 20 40 ;  v  (k: Relative thermal efficiency k)
The particular effects of the above named parameters on the pre-heating temperature are shown sche-
matically in Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.. As can be seen, an increase in
alloy content, sheet thickness and diffusible hydrogen content yields an increasing danger of forming
hydrogen-induced cracking – sufficient preheating is therefore required. On the other hand the risk of
cracking is reduced by increasing the heat input during welding. It is possible to dispense with preheating
therefore under certain circumstances.

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SFI / IWE 2.10
Tp rises with increasing CET Tp rises with increasing sheet thickness

250 200
200 150
Tp in °C
Tp in °C
150
100
100 CET = 0,3 %
d = 30 mm
HD = 4 50 HD = 4
50 Q = 1 kJ/mm
Q = 1 kJ/mm
0 0
0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Carbon equivalent CET in % Sheet thickness d in mm
Tp increases with rising HD Tp decreases with increasing Q

200 200
CET = 0,3
d = 30 mm
150 150 HD = 4
Tp in °C
100 Tp in °C 100
CET = 0,3
50 d = 30 mm
Q = 1 kJ/mm
50
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 1 2 3 4 5
Hydrogen content HD in WM Heat input Q in kJ/mm
Figure 33: Dependence of the pre-heating temperature Tp on different parameters when welding
Note: Preheating is recommended in any event, if the workpiece temperature falls below +5 °C. At tem-
peratures above +5 °C, the recommendation for pre-heating is dependent on the wall thickness. The
relevant valid transition sheet thicknesses are listed in Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden
werden..
Table 14: Dependence of the transition sheet thickness for preheating of the carbon equivalent CET (acc. to
SEW 088)
Carbon equivalent CET in % Limit thickness in mm
0.18 60
0.22 50
0.26 40
0.31 30
0.34 20
0.38 12
0.40 8

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5.2 High-strength two-, multi-phase and special steels

5.2.1 General information
For high-strength two, multi-phase and special steels, the mechanical-technological properties are less
likely to be determined by their chemical composition (TWIP, martensite-hardenable and instable austen-
itic steels being the exception), and more by the forming and cooling processes used during their pro-
duction. Therefore the microstructure of these steels is particularly susceptible to thermal impacts, as
occur also during fusion and resistance welding processes. The higher the strength, the more it is affect-
ed by the welding heat treatment. Welding processes with limited energy input (e.g. laser beam welding,
resistance welding) are to be preferred over those with a high heat input (e.g. manual metal arc welding),
as the heat-affected zone remains narrow, the flow restraint increases and local strength and hardness
changes under load have less of an influence. For these reasons soldering processes are used for these
steels to an increasing extent, as the thermal load on the base material is less than during welding.
Generally, when welding these steels it is their chemical composition and the microstructure that influ-
ence weldability. Increasing carbon contents likewise bring about increasing martensite shares and
thus a reduction in weldability (risk of the formation of hardening cracks). For mixed joints between
DP, TRIP, complex phase or martensite phase steels, further restrictions are possible in this context.
Compared to high-strength steels (cf. Section 3) comparatively high contents of silicon, aluminium and
the steel parasite, phosphorus, also have a disadvantageous effect on the weldability of these materials.
The absorption of diffusible hydrogen from the welding process must always be avoided in view of the
high-strength application, because this is to be regarded as damaging (hydrogen embrittlement, for-
mation of hydrogen-induced cold cracks, cf. Chapter 2.06). If this element does end up in the material,
however, its effusion is prevented by the coating (e.g. with zinc) during low-hydrogen annealing. Thus it
must also be ensured that hydrogen does not enter into the material as a result of atmospheric corro-
sion. With high-strength steels for vehicle construction therefore effective corrosion protection that coun-
teracts industrial air, thawing salt and incrustation not only serves to prevent rust, but also to protect
against hydrogen embrittlement. After welding, a suitable post treatment is recommended if required to
restore the corrosion protection in the weld area (e.g. by coating with zinc dust paint).
5.2.2 Information concerning the welding of coated steels
One of the characteristic features of high-strength steels for vehicle construction is that they – with the
possible exception of press-hardenable steels – are usually galvanised. It is essential that this fact is
taken into consideration when welding. The evaporation of the zinc layer as a result of the heating effect
of the arc during TIG welding can cause problems. The zinc forms an alloy with the tungsten of the
tungsten electrode. As a result, their ignition and arc behaviour deteriorate and the electrode service life
is reduced. The zinc layer on the underside of the sheet also evaporates during welding, and leads, de-
pending on the gap situation, to zinc oxide inclusions between the sheets, which reduce the strength of
the joint. Furthermore, evaporated zinc can push through the molten upper sheet and thus damage the
welding head. Thus, for example, when welding using a laser beam, component-dependent, construc-
tive measures must be taken to guarantee the unhindered escape of zinc vapours from the weld area.
With resistance welding it is important to consider that the zinc layer can change the contact resistance
to zero, which is also disadvantageous to the strength of the joint, as it is possible that a sufficient joint
cannot then be produced.

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SFI / IWE 2.10
5.2.3 Welding process
The welding of high-strength two-, multi-phase and special steels can be carried out using all procedures
that can also be used to process soft, deep-drawn grades. The filler materials, welding times or electrode
forces must be adapted during resistance spot welding, in order to achieve, e.g. an optimal material utili-
zation. It is to be considered that these steels generally involve flat products with significantly thinner
sheet thicknesses (in the mm range) compared to the high-strength fine-grain structural steels (cf. Sec-
tion 3). They are therefore suitable, not only for the classic arc welding process, but also and particular-
ly for welding with laser beam and for resistance spot welding, projection welding and seam weld-
ing. In this process, the joining techniques and the welding parameters must be adapted to the analytical
data, the surface finishing and the mechanical-technological characteristic values of the materials or ma-
terial pairings. In this context, both same-type and mixed joints with other steel grades can be produced
by welding. With resistance spot welding it is to be considered that as the material strength increases so
too does the required force which is applied by the welding head. Steels with tensile strengths of Rm to
500 N/mm2 are also appropriate for arc or laser soldering.
However, differences in the alloy composition and heat treatment during production may require special
measures for some steels. When in doubt, check with the steel manufacturer. Basic information regard-
ing welding of these is provided in the steel and iron products material sheet SEW 088 and the stand-
ards EN 1011, parts 1 and 2.
5.2.4 Welding consumables/filler materials
The strength properties of the filler materials for fusion welding are to be adapted to those of the base
material. If MAG welding is used, grades according to:
EN ISO 14 341: Welding consumables - Wire electrodes and weld deposits for gas shielded metal arc
welding of non alloy and fine-grain steels
e.g. G3Si1 or G4Si1 are to be preferred. If the joints are produced by arc or laser soldering, filler materi-
als according to:
EN ISO 24 373: Welding consumables - Solid wires and rods for fusion welding of copper and copper
alloys - Classification
e.g. CuSi3Mn1 (Cu 6560) or CuAl8 (Cu 6100), are to be used.
For fusion welded joints on TWIP steels newly developed FeMn flux-cored wires are available, whose
weld metal does not however match the strength of the base materials. Since steels are usually surface-
galvanized, there is a tendency under certain circumstances to form hot cracks during welding as a re-
sult of penetrating zinc phase.
The unstable stainless austenitic steels are/can be fusion-welded using all common processes. For
same-type joints, the alloy 1.4316 (X1CrNi19-9) is to be used as the filler material, while for mixed joints
with unalloyed steels, the grade 1.4370 (X15CrNiMn18-8) is to be used.
Note: The information contained in this document is advisory in nature and does not replace technical
regulations and specifications. The latest version of such regulations and specifications apply in each
case.

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6 Test questions
(1) In which material sub-group according to CEN ISO/TR 15 608 can the steel S460QL be classified?
 1.3
 2.1
 2.2
 3.1
 3.2
(2) With which materials-science mechanism is steel hardening associated?
 Migration of carbon atoms

 Diffusion of spaces
 Facilitating dislocation movements
 Preventing dislocation movement
 Secondary recrystallisation
(3) Using which solidification mechanism can strength and toughness be kept reliably at a high level?
 Solidification by precipitation (precipitation hardening)

 Solidification by strain hardening (cold forming)
 Solidification by solid solution solidification (alloy)
 Solidification by lattice transformation (martensite formation)
 Solidification by grain boundaries (fine-grain formation)
(4) By which materials-technological mechanism is fine-grain formation supported in normalised fine-

grain structural steels?
 Transformation stresses of bainite formation

 Prevention of dislocation movement by bainite formation
 Precipitation of fine particle carbides, nitrides or carbonitrides
 Yield point increase by strain hardening
 Precipitation of coarse cementite
(5) Which statements are correct for thermomechanically rolled fine-grain structural steels?
 They are almost pearlite-free.

 They are easily hot formable.
 They do not tend to lamellar tearing.
 They are very strongly sensitive to hardening.
 They are generally and normally weldable.

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SFI / IWE 2.10
(6) What does the term “bake-hardening” mean?
 Quick stop (“Brake”) of all heat-treatment processes.

 Yield point increase through heat treatment.
 Blocking of dislocations through carbon diffusion at temperatures up to 200 °C.
 Precipitation hardening through carbide formation.
 Phosphorous atoms lead at increased temperature to solid solution strengthening.
(7) What is a TRIP steel?
 A multi-phase steel
 A steel that is characterised by deformation-induced martensite formation at room tem-
perature
 A steel that is characterised by a special thermomechanical treatment before rolling
 A precipitation-hardenable steel
 A ferritic-bainitic steel with up to 15% metastable austenite in the delivery state
(8) Why must high-strength fine-grain structural steels have to be pre-heated prior to welding?
 To prevent an uncontrolled grain growth

 To prevent creeping and/or flow processes
 To prevent hardening cracks (limitation of martensite formation)
 To prevent hydrogen-induced cracks (enable hydrogen effusion)
 To prevent precipitation strengthening
(9) What can be used to assess the need to pre-heat a high-strength fine-grain structural steel with
respect to preventing hardening cracks?
 The “relative thermal efficiency” k of the welding process.

 The “weld factors” F2 and F3.
 The carbon equivalent (CET).
 The carbon equivalent (CEV).
 The yield point ratio Rm/Rp0.2.
(10) What is the difference between the pre-heating temperatures T0 and Tp?
 There is no difference.
 T0: two-dimensional heat dissipation: Tp: three-dimensional heat dissipation
 T0: for thinner sheets; Tp: for thick sheets
 They differ by the seam factor F
 T0: to prevent hardening cracks (t8/5 concept); Tp: to prevent hydrogen-assisted cracks
(enable hydrogen effusion)

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7 Bibliography
You will find further information in the following publications

Schuster, J.:
Fachbuchreihe Schweißtechnik, Band 130.
[Welding of iron, steel and nickel materials – Guide for the welding-metallurgical practice. Series of ref-
erence books on welding technology, Volume 130.]
Schulze. G.:
Die Metallurgie des Schweißens. [The metallurgy of welding.]
Roos, E.; Maile, K.:
Werkstoffkunde für Ingenieure. Grundlagen, Anwendung, Prüfung.
[Materials science for engineers. Principles, application, test.]
Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Verlag; 2011
Heller, T.; Hoffmann, O.; Etzold, U. et al.:
Neue Stähle für moderne Fahrzeugkarosserien. [New steels for modern vehicle bodies.]
ThyssenKrupp Stahl AG
Berns, H.; Theisen, W.:
Eisenwerkstoffe - Stahl und Gusseisen. [Ferrous materials - Steel and cast iron.]
Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Verlag; 2008
Leaflet 092:
Elektrolytisch verzinktes Band und Blech. Charakteristische Merkmale.
[Electrolytic zinc-coated strip and sheet metal. Characteristic features.]
Stahl-Informations-Zentrum, Düsseldorf [Steel Information Centre]
Schuster, J.:
Abkühlzeit gut – alles gut – Schweißen von hochfesten Feinkornbaustählen.
[Cooling time good – Everything's good – Welding high-strength fine grain structural steels.]
Der Praktiker, Düsseldorf, 64 (2012) 3 and 4, pp. 69-71 and 116-120
EN 1011-2:
Schweißen – Empfehlungen zum Schweißen metallischer Werkstoffe.
Module 2: Lichtbogenschweißen von ferritischen Stählen.
[Welding - Recommendation for welding of metallic materials – Part 2: Arc welding of ferritic steels;]
Issue: 05-2001
Uwer, D.; Degenkolbe, J.:
Kennzeichnung von Schweißtemperaturzyklen hinsichtlich ihrer Auswirkung auf die mechanischen Ei-
genschaften von Schweißverbindungen.
[Identification of welding temperature cycles with respect to their influence on the mechanical properties
of welded joints.]
Stahl u. Eisen, [Steel and Iron] Düsseldorf, 97 (1977) 24, pg. 1201-1207
Frank, G.:
Berechnung von Vorwärmtemperaturen beim Schweißen.
[Calculation of preheating temperatures during welding.]
Schweißen und Schneiden, [Welding and cutting] Düsseldorf, 40 (1988) 4, pg. 169-171
Leaflet DVS 0916:

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Metall-Schutzgasschweißen von Feinkornbaustählen.

[Gas-shielded metal arc welding of fine-grain structural steels.]
Deutscher Verband für Schweißen und verwandte Verfahren e. V.
[German Association of Welding and Associated Processes]
Issue: 11-1997

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Application of structural and high strength SFI / IWE 2.11
steels Page 1
Chapter 2.11: Application of structural and high strength steels

Contents
1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 2
2 Selected applications ........................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Structural steel engineering ............................................................................................................. 3
2.2 Bridge construction .......................................................................................................................... 4
2.3 Pipe line construction ...................................................................................................................... 5
2.4 Crane construction .......................................................................................................................... 6
2.5 Automotive production ..................................................................................................................... 8
2.6 Shipbuilding ..................................................................................................................................... 9
2.7 Railway vehicle construction .......................................................................................................... 10
3 Application in building structures .................................................................................... 12
4 Simplified application of the cooling time concept ......................................................... 14
4.1 Definition of Terms ........................................................................................................................ 14
4.2 Practical measuring of t-times8/5 .................................................................................................... 14
4.3 Auxiliary tools for temperature and cooling time measurement ...................................................... 15
4.4 Application of the DVS leaflet 0916 ............................................................................................... 16
4.5 Application of the DVS leaflet 1703 ............................................................................................... 18
4.6 Practical information for welding with stick electrodes ................................................................... 19
5 Test questions .................................................................................................................... 21
6 Bibliography........................................................................................................................ 23

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1 Introduction
In chapters 2.09 (unalloyed constructional steels) and 2.10 (high-strength steels) the different steel
grades, their qualities and their welding processing have been discussed in detail. The purpose of this
chapter consists of showing notable examples for the usage of these materials in the economy and the
daily life. Thereby the decision on the usage of these steels depends basically always on the coherence
with the respective building and the possibilities of its manufacturing. (Figure 1). Only through a collec-
tive observation nowadays, innovative structures can be realised. That is why reference should be made
to the constructive manufacturing rules next to the respective examples. In this context attention should
be paid to the already detailed disquisition of the main areas 1 and 3.
Material (steel)
(basic properties,
manufacture-specific
properties)
Performance properties, Manufacturing properties

material costs
Property change
Structure Manufacture
(Design) (welding)
(Function -> Load ->
Material and shape) (Shaping, treatment, Figure 1: Schematic display of
refinement)
Producibility, manufacturing the relation between material,
costs constructor and manufacture.
Figure 2 shows details of the steel manufacturing in Germany over the last thirty years. As to be recog-
nised, the predominant part of the raw steel amount deals with rolled steel. The amount of flat steel ex-
ceeds the one of long products of steel. Furthermore can it be taken from the display that the produced
amount of stainless steels is below 10%. Therefore the predominant amount of steel manufacturing is
set to unalloyed and other alloy steels (cf. Chapter 2.04).
Raw steel (total) of which Stainless steel

of which Siemens-Martin steel of which oxygen steel of which electric steel
Rolled steel (total)
of which long steel of which flat steel
Production in million t
50
40
43.8
30
26.1
46.4
43.8
39.5
38.4
24.9
41.8
20.1
20
35.8
21.3
34.7
10
12.9
11.9
10.7
9.2
7.2
8.4
8.7
Figure 2: Proportionate steelmak-

5.8
0 ing in Germany, partly estimated

1980 1990 2000 2010 (source: Federal Statistical Office,
trade association steel)

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2 Selected applications
2.1 Structural steel engineering
Selection of base material:

Use of steels with yield strength range from 235 to 460 N/mm ²
– e.g. non-alloyed structural steels according to EN 10 025-2 (S235JR to S355J2), Figure 3 and Figure 4
– e.g. fine grain structural steels by EN 10 025-3 (S275N to S460N) and EN 10 025-4 (S275M to S500M)
– with increasing yield strength increased welding specifications
Structural criteria:
Design of the structure acc. to the yield strength
– Type of load determines the design
– Basics of structural design – consideration of EN 1990 (EC 0)
Characteristics:
Design for predominantly static or dynamic loading
– Applications preferred in the technical (cf. chapter 3) and monitoring-required area
– structural information in EN 1993-1-ff (EC 3) – formerly DIN 18 800-1 and 2
Figure 3: Example of steel construction, roofing of the Figure 4: Example of steel construction, roofing of the
central stadium Leipzig (Picture: SLV Halle GmbH) central stadium
Figure 5: Double-sided welding of thick sheet steel Figure 6: Welding in horizontal position

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When welding these steels in steel construction the following characteristic features are to be considered
among others:
– Welding in accessible positions (to be considered in the design), Figure 5 and Figure 6
– Sheet metal materials of t = 5 to t = 60 mm (tmax. = 120 mm)
– Rolled and hollow sections (e.g. LIFT 100: tG = 10 mm, tS = 6 mm; HEB 1000: tG = 36 mm, tS = 19 mm)
– Materials of non-alloyed structural steels to Re  355 N/mm²
– Materials of fine grain structural steels (N, M) to Re  460 N/mm²
– Application, partly outdoors (wind- and weather influences)
– Ensuring an adequate heat input (t 8/5 concept)
Quality requirements according to EN ISO 5817:

– Quality level B for dynamic loading (if necessary additional requirements as per EN 1993-1-9)
– Quality level C with predominantly static loading
2.2 Bridge construction
Selection of base material

Use of steels in yield strength range from 235 to 460 N/mm²
– e.g. materials to EN 10 025-2 (S235JR to S355J2) in delivery condition +N as well as EN 10 025-3
(S275N to S460N) and EN 10 025-4 (S275M to S500M), Figure 7 and Figure 8
– Type of load determines the design
Characteristics:
Design for predominantly static or dynamic loading
– Applications preferred in the technical (cf. chapter 3) and monitoring-required area
– structural information in EN 1993-1-ff (EC 3) – formerly DIN 18 800-1 and -2
Figure 7: Example of steel bridge construction, box gird- Figure 8: Example of steel bridge construction, assem-
er S355J2+N, 40 m (Picture: SLV Halle GmbH) bly at the final site (Picture: SLV Halle GmbH)

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When welding these steels in bridge construction the following characteristic features are to be consid-
ered among others:
– Welding in partly difficult accessible assembly positions

– Thickness range of sheet metals from t = 10 to t = 150 mm (for railway bridges consideration of e.g.
RiL 804)
– Materials of non-alloyed structural steels to Re  355 N/mm² (also for temporary constructions)
– Materials of fine-grained structural steels (N,M) to Re < 460 N/.mm²
– Ensuring an adequate heat input (t 8/5 concept), Figure 9

– Quality level B in main bearing structures (possibly additional requirements required)
– Quality level C with subordened parts and components
Figure 9: Pre-heating of a weld joint on site (Picture: Figure 10: Welding of thick plates in the bridge girder with
SLV Halle GmbH) submerged arc weld tractor (Picture: SLV Halle GmbH)
2.3 Pipe line construction

Use of steels in yield strength range from 245 to 555 N/mm² (preferred fine-grained steels)
– e.g. materials to EN 10 208-2: L245NB to L555MB, Figure 11 and Figure 12
Design of the pipe line acc.to maximum permissible operating pressure
– maximum permissible operating pressure must not exceed design pressure
– Safety factor for steel pipes depending on the steel quality 1.50 to 1.60
– Consideration of the type of the medium (flammable or inflammable)
Characteristics:
Calculation of the wall thickness
– Based upon worksheet DVGW G 463 and DIN EN 1594
When welding these steels in pipe line construction the following features are to be considered among oth-
ers:
– Welding of not rotating components, i.e. pipes (out-of positions, Figure 14)
– Diameter area of the pipes from Dn 100 to Dn 1,400 with wall thickness of 4.5 to 40 mm
– Usage of inside or outside adjustment/positioning assembly tools

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– Ensuring an adequate heat input (t 8/5 concept), Figure 13

– Quality level B for transport lines
– Quality level C for distribution pipe lines and water pipes
Figure 11: Installation of a high pressure gas transport Figure 12: Pre-assembly group of a high pressure gas
pipe line with special vehicles (Picture: VNG AG) transport pipe line with special vehicles (Picture: VNG
AG)
Figure 13: On-site pre-heating of a weld joint through Figure 14: Welding of gas transport pipe line (Picture:
induction (Picture: VNG AG) VNG AG)
2.4 Crane construction

In particular the use of fine grain structural steels in yield strength range from 460 to 1,300 N/mm²
– e.g. material to EN 10 025-3 (S460N), EN 10 025-4 (S460M to S500M) respectively. S700M and EN
10 025-6 (S460Q to S960QL) and S1100QL, Figure 15 and Figure 16
– with increasing yield strength significant increased welding specifications
– Consideration of deadweight and lifting mass + cranes beams

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Characteristics:
Design for predominantly static load
– Tensile pulsating loading (“Low Cycle Fatigue” - concept)
– Application in monitoring-required area
– Basics of structural design in EN 1993-1-ff (EC 3) – formerly DIN 18 800-1 and -7
Figure 15: Mobile crane LTM 11200-9.1 (photo with per- Figure 16: Crawler crane LR 13500 (photo with per-
mission of Liebherr-international Germany GmbH) mission of Liebherr-international Germany GmbH)
Figure 17: Welding of a high-strength tube construction of Figure 18: Robot welding of a tension plate of
S770QL (photo with permission of Gothaer automotive S960QL (photo with permission of Gothaer automo-
engineering GmbH) tive engineering GmbH)
When welding these steels in crane construction the following features are to be considered among others:
– Welding in optimal positions (to be considered in design and during manufacturing)
– Sheet metal materials of t = 3 to t = 180 mm (maximum)
– Rolled and hollow sections (e.g. Pipes with circular cross-section: Ø = 29 mm with t ~ 3 mm;
to Ø = 430 mm, with t ~ 60 mm)
– Materials of non-alloyed structural steels with Re =355 N/mm²
– Materials of fine-grained structural steels (N, M, Q) to Re  1,100 N/mm²
– welding fabrication only in the workshop area, Figure 17 and Figure 18
– Ensuring an adequate heat input (t 8/5 concept),

– Quality level B for all safety-related joints
– Quality level C only in rare exceptional cases

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2.5 Automotive production

Use of steels in tensile strength range to approx. 1,800 N/mm ²
– e.g. materials acc. to EN 10 346 (Two- and multi-phase steels as well as alloyed special steels), Fig-
ure 19 and Figure 20
– Consideration of the applicable solidification mechanisms
– with increasing tensile strength weldability becomes less
Design of the construction (body) acc. to the yield- or tensile strength
– Consideration of the deformation behaviour in fabrication process
– Design acc- to crash behaviour, evaluation through the EURO-NCAP crash test (European New Car
Assessment Programme)
– Consideration of the energy absorptive capacity of the body
Characteristics:
Design according to cyclic (fatigue) and the dynamic (crash) - behaviour
– Application in the not regulated area, manufacturer-specific structures and company standards
Figure 19: Interior basic body of the 1er BMW with clas- Figure 20: Robot-supported fabrication of raw bodies of
sification of the applied material (photo with permission the 1er BMW (photo with permission of BMW AG, pho-
of BMW AG) tographer: Martin Klindtworth)
Figure 21: Robot-supported vehicle body manufacturing Figure 22: Spot welding during vehicle body manufacturing
(photo with permission of BMW AG, photographer: Mar- (photo with permission of VW AG, Golf VI - DVD, visitor
tin Klindtworth) service Wolfsburg)

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When welding these steels in automobile manufacturing the following features are to be considered
among others:
– Welding possible in all positions (in particular for resistance spot welding)
– very high degree of weld automation (Welding robot, Figure 21)
– Sheet metal materials to max t  3 mm (thin plate), Figure 22
– Materials of soft steels for cold forming (e.g. DC, DD, DX) to Re  280 N/mm²
– Materials of high-strength flat products (e.g. FB, DP, CP, TRIP, PMs) to Rm  1,800 N/mm²
– welding fabrication only in the workshop area,
– Application of automated welding and joining processes with reduced heat input
Quality requirements
– evaluation according to specifications of manufacturer
2.6 Shipbuilding

Material selection according to the specifications of the classification society (e.g. Germanic Lloyd, Lloyd
`s Mark, office Veritas, Det Norske Veritas and others)
– e.g. normal shipbuilding steels with ReH, min. = 235 N/mm (acc. to GL- regulation II-1-2 classification to
the following quality grades with different toughness: GL-A, GL-B, GL-D, GL-E).
– e.g. “high-tensile” shipbuilding steels with ReH, min. = 315; 355 and 390 N/mm² (acc. to GL regulation II-
1-2 classification to the following quality grades with different toughness: GL-A 32/36/40; GL-D
32/36/40; GL-E 32/36/40; GL-F 32/36/40), also thermo-mechanically rolled steels
– Letters A, B, d, E, F specify the test temperature for the Impact Test
Design of the structure acc. to the yield (e.g. with the GL)
– Type and height of the loading determines the design (dynamic, bending, torsion)
– Basics of design acc. to regulations of the respective classification society
Characteristics:
Design as a function of the loading
– Monitoring by ship classification society Figure 23, Figure 24
Figure 23: large container ship “MSC LUDOVICA” Figure 24: Cruise ship “NORWEGIAN STAR” in manufac-
during simultaneous unloading and loading in the port turing and equipment hall of Meyer-Werft, Papenburg
of Hamburg (Picture: Jens Möbius) (Picture: Stahl-Informations-Zentrum)

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Figure 25: Welding operations in the hull in the shipyard Figure 26: Welding during prefabrication of ship compo-
area (Picture: Germanic Lloyd) nents (Picture: Germanischer Lloyd)
When welding these steels in ship construction the following features are to be considered among others:
– Welding in all positions required (also out-of positions possible)

– Sheet metal materials of t ~ 5 t ~ 40 mm (with larger thickness possible)
– Materials from non-alloyed shipbuilding steels with Re = 235 N/mm ²
– Materials of “high-tensile” shipbuilding steels (with fine grain steels, N, M) to Re = 390 N/mm ²
– welding fabrication inside manufacturing hall and on external areas, Figure 25 and Figure 26
– Ensuring an adequate heat input (t 8/5 concept)
Quality requirements:
– Are in accordance with the regulations of the respective classification society following quality levels
in accordance with DIN EN ISO 5817, special requirements are possible
2.7 Railway vehicle construction

Use of steels in the yield strength range of 235 to 355 N/mm ² with and without defined copper content
as well as soft-steels for cold-forming
– e.g. materials to EN 10 025-2 (S235JR to S355J2), EN 10 025-3 (S275N to S355NL), EN 10 025-4
(S275M to S460ML), also steels according to EN 10 025-6 possible
– e.g weather resistant materials according to EN 10 025-5 (S235JRW to S355J2WP)
– e.g cold rolled steels according to EN 10 130 (DC01 and DC04)
– Consideration of EN 15 085-4, 5 and 3 as well as DIN 5512-1, 2 and 4
– Base materials must correspond to the requirements of the planning documents
Design of structures according to yield strength
– type of load and safety requirements determines the design, Figure 27 and Figure 28
– Defaults for the design of rail vehicles in EN 15 085-3
Characteristics:
Design for static and/ or dynamic loading
– Application in monitoring-required area (in Germany: Railway Federal Office EBA and Notified Bodies
for manufacturing certification)
– Production requirements acc. to EN 15 085-4

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Figure 27: Diesel suburban traffic trains Alstom Figure 28: Tram Bombardier Flexity in Berlin (Picture: Bom-
Coradia LINTs of the DB (Picture: Alstom bardier Transportation GmbH)
Transport)
Figure 29: Inner body view of Alstom Coradia LINT Figure 30: Production of passenger trains at factory location
line (Picture with permission of Alstom Transport Bautzen of company Bombardier (Picture with permission of
Germany GmbH) Bombardier Transportation GmbH)
When welding these steels in railway construction the following features are to be considered among others:
– Welding is possible in all positions (particularly with resistance spot welding)

– Materials to max t  3 mm (thin plate), materials with sheet thickness to t ~ 24 mm (incidently larger
sheet thickness possible, e.g. during wheel-boogie production, to t = 60 mm)
– Materials of soft steels for cold-forming (e.g. DC, DD, DX) to Re  280 N/mm²
– Materials of unalloyed steels and fine-grained structural steels to Re  355 N/mm²
– Weld manufacturing in workshop only Figure 29 und Figure 30
– Next to manual welding also application of automated welding and joining processes
Quality requirements according to EN ISO 5817, EN 15 085-ff:

– permissible quality levels: B, C and D
– Quality level B for dynamic and alternating loaded components
– Quality level D only in rare exceptions for subordinated components
– the acceptable quality level depends on type of load and safety requirements of the component

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3 Application in building structures
The characteristic application of steels and high-strength steels in building structures lies in the fact that this is
subject to the European Building Products Guideline (future product regulation). In Germany this is created
by the Construction Products law (Bauproduktengesetz). The transformation of technical rules is made by the
German Building Law (federal state law, regional building regulations) and is legally regulated. The contract-
ing parties can not decide freely (like in the not-controlled area) over the usage of materials. So far the per-
missible materials in building control area were clearly named in DIN 18 800-1. This has been substituted by
the extremely extensive series of European standards EN 1993-1-ff (EC 3). Therefore material specific
ations are among others in:
EN 1993-1-1, EN 1993-1-3, EN 1993-1-8, EN 1993-1-10, EN 1993-1-11 and EN 1993-1-12 and the re-
spective national appendixes (NA):
In particular the national Appendix to EN 1993-1-1 gives information on the application of grades and
steel products. The application of EN 1993-1-1 is limited to steel grades and steel product acc.to Table
1. Additional permissible steels under building construction supervision are mentioned in EN 1993-1-3,
as mentioned in Table 2. The use of steel grades with yield points up to 700 N/mm ² are specified in EN
1993-1-12 (Table 3). Others than the grades collated in these tables, are only allowed to be used, if:
– the chemical composition, the mechanical properties and weldability are defined in the conditions of
the steel manufacturer and these properties can be allocated to one of the steel types stated in EN
1993-1-1, or
– their full description and application is described and regulated in engineering standards, or
– their usability has been verified by a technical usability analysis (e.g. general technical approval or.
Agreement in particular cases).
Note For the designation of the strength properties in material technological and structural standards
different symbols are used. These can be applied (ideally) equally as follows:
Yield strength: y = R eH
Tensile strength: u = R m
Table 1: In EN of 1993-1-1 named steel materials

Standard Materials
unalloyed construction steels:
EN 10 025-2
S235, S275, S355, S450
normalised or normalised rolled fine grain structural steels
EN 10 025-3
S275N/NL, S355N/NL, S420N/NL, S460N/NL
thermomechanisch gewalzte Feinkornbaustähle
EN 10 025-4
S275M/ML, S355M/ML, S420M/ML, S460M/ML
structural steels with improved atmospheric corrosion resistance
EN 10 025-5
S235W, S355W
Quenched and tempered fine-grain structural steels
EN 10 025-6
S460Q/QL/QL1
Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain steels
EN 10 210-1
S235H, S275H, S355H, S275NH/NLH, S355NH/NLH, S420NH/NLH, S460NH/NLH
Cold formed welded structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain steels
EN 10 219-1 S235H, S275H, S355H, S275NH/NLH, S355NH/NLH, S460NH/NLH, S275MH/MLH,
S355MH/MLH, S420NH/MLH, S460MH/MLH

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Standard Materials
Unalloyed structural steels
EN 10 025-2
S235, S275, S355, S450
normalised or normalising rolled fine-grained structural steels
EN 10 025-3
S275N/NL, S355N/NL, S420N/NL, S460N/NL
thermomechanisch gewalzte Feinkornbaustähle
EN 10 025-4
S275M/ML, S355M/ML, S420M/ML, S460M/ML
flat products continuously cold-rolled of unalloyed structural steels
ISO 4997
CR 220, Cr 250, Cr 320
continuously hot-dip zinc-coated sheet of unalloyed structural steels
EN 10 326
S220GD+Z, S250GD+Z, S280GD+Z, S320GD+Z, S350GD+Z
Hot rolled flat products made of high yield strength steels for cold forming
EN 10 149-2 S315MC, S355MC, S420MC, S460MC, S500MC, S550MC, S600MC, S650MC,
S700MC
EN 10 149-3
S260NC, S315NC, S355NC, S420NC
flat products cold-rolled from steels with high yield point to cold forming
EN 10 268
H240LA, H280LA, H320LA, H360LA, H400LA
continuously hot-dip galvanized sheet of steels with high yield point to cold forming
EN 10 292
H260LAD, H300LAD, H340LAD, H380LAD, H420LAD
continuously hot-dip galvanized strip and sheet of steels with Zn-aluminium- coatings
EN 10 326
S220GD+ZA, S250GD+ZA, S280GD+ZA, S320GD+ZA, S350GD+ZA
continuously hot-dip galvanized strip and sheet of steels with Al-Zn-coatings
EN 10 326
S220GD+AZ, S250GD+AZ, S280GD+AZ, S320GD+AZ, S350GD+AZ
continuously hot-dip zinc-coated strip/sheet from non-alloyed steels for cold forming
EN 10 327
DX51D+Z, DX52D+Z, DX53D+Z

Standard Materials
Quenched and tempered fine-grain structural steels
EN 10 025-6
S500Q/QL/QL1, S500Q/QL/QL1, S620Q/QL/QL1, S690Q/QL/QL1,
EN 10 149-2
S500MC, S550MC, S650MC, S700MC
Materials previously not listed in DIN 18 800-7 , are now listed in EN 1090-2. These mainly correspond
to selected steeals as mentioned in Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3. Furthermore information is also given
regarding approved cast steel materials.
As a difference between the so far valid national regulations (DIN 18 800-ff) and the EN 1090-2, now
also structural steels up to S960 can be applied under the conditions that the execution conditions are
verified regarding the reliability criteria and that all necessary additional requirements are determined.
Note Due to complexity of the building law with questions regarding materials not listed in the context of
the tables above, it is recommended to consult a Notified Body before the start of processing.

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4 Simplified application of the cooling time concept

4.1 Definition of Terms
On the basis of EN ISO 13 916 the following definitions of important temperatures in welded joints are
applicable:
Pre-heating temperature (Tp):

Temperature in the weld area of the work-piece directly prior to every welding operation. Under normal
conditions it is measured as a lower limit and is usually set as the lowest interpass temperature (Ti).
Interpass temperature (Ti):

Temperature of the adjacent base material measured directly prior to welding the next layer in a multi-
layer welding process. Under normal conditions it is set as the highest temperature
Preheat maintenance temperature (Tm):

Lowest temperature in the weld area. It is also to be observed if welding is interrupted.
Note For the pre-heating temperature with “the cooling time principle” the designation T0 is used, in order
to differentiate between the pre-heating temperature Tp of “the hydrogen concept” (compare chapter
2.05, 2.06 and 2.10).
4.2 Practical measuring of t-times8/5
As shown in chapter 2.10 during welding fabrication of high-strength fine grain structural steels a series
of features must be observed which often overstrain the practitioner due to their complexity and theoreti-
cal background. The normal welding of these materials make nevertheless no problems in case their
cooling time t8/5 is given. The easiest way in order to get it is to consult the steel manufacturer (compo-
nent consulting, component leaflets). If the required information is included then only a safe and repro-
ducible measuring of the cooling time t8/5 is required. If the requirements are met, i.e. the measured val-
ue corresponds with the manufacturer’s requirement, the occurrence of age hardening or of hydrogen
induced cracks is not to be expected if the processing is performed appropriately (steel manufacturer's
already out all required examinations and summarised these in8/5the t- “time”). If there are differences
between both values, the welding parameters and/ or the welding process must be modified in a way
that the pre-set value of the cooling time is achieved. Simplified expressed:
Cooling time good– all is well!
EN ISO 13 916 contains a practical guide for measuring the preheating-, interpass- and preheat mainte-
nance temperature and therefore also the cooling time t8/5 as well as for the positioning of the measuring
points.
In accordance with this standard, measurement of the pre-heating temperature to be applied on the
welder’s workpiece surface is to be executed at a distance A:
A=4t
of the longitudinal weld bevel face, but not more than 50 mm (Figure 31 and Figure 32). This require-
ment is to be used for workpiece thickness t up to a weld thickness of 50 mm. If this thickness is ex-
ceeded, the required temperature to be found at a minimum distance of 75mm on the base material in
every direction to the joint preparation if no other agreements exist.

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If feasible, the temperature is to be measured at the opposite of the side which is being heated. Other-
wise the temperature at the heated side is to be clarified at the moment a temperature equalisation has
been reached after removing the heat source and taking into consideration the workpiece thickness.
If fixed continous heat sources are used which do not allow accessing to the opposite side, the meas-
ured value on the exposed surface of the base material is to be retrieved adjacent to the joint prepara-
tion. The possible time frame for the temperature equalising is in the magnitude of 2 minutes for every 25
mm base material thickness.
The interpass temperature must be measured on the weld metal or on the direct adjacent base mate-
rial and must be determined directly before the welding heat source passes. If there are stipulations for
the heating maintenance temperature, this is to be monitored for the duration of an interruption in
welding.
A
A
t
A
A A A
A
Figure 31: Distance between the measuring points for Figure 32: Distance between the measuring points for
butt welds in accordance with DIN EN ISO 13 916 fillet welds in accordance with DIN EN ISO 13 916
4.3 Auxiliary tools for temperature and cooling time measurement
For the verification of an appropriate cooling rate or cooling time, the compliance to the maximum per-
missible interpass temperature is of great importance. With too high interpass temperatures and also
with too high preheat temperatures the mechanical properties of the welded joint (especially toughness
and strength loss) are impaired unfavourable. Usually interpass temperatures of 220 °C to 250 °C should
not be exceeded. Temperature measurement is carried out according to EN ISO 13 916. In this context
common tools for temperature measurement can be:
– temperature-sensitive means (e.g. temperature indication crayons or colours),

– Contact- or quick-response thermometer,
– Thermocouples as well as
– Contactless measurement by optical or electrical equipment (Figure 33 and Figure 34).
The welding supervisor should posses e.g. over a quick-response thermometer, the welder must have at
least two temperature indication crayons (tempilstik) for different temperatures. It requires the ther-
mocrayon of minimum preheat temperature and the thermocrayon of the maximum permissible interpass
temperature. The first crayon has to, the second crayon may not be turned over, if welding needs to be
done. By doing this it can be realised reliably, with less effort, that the welded joint does not cool too fast
and in addition, not too slowly (cf. Chapter 2.10).

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Figure 33: Pyrometer with measuring instrument “Weld- Figure 34: Display of the measuring course with the
Scanner” for the permanent determination of t- times8/5 permanent determination of t- times8/5
(Picture: HKS-Prozesstechnik GmbH) (Picture: HKS-Prozesstechnik GmbH)
An example of an arrangement for the permanent determination of the cooling time t8/5 includes Figure
33. The temperature on the workpiece surface is generated out of the mean value of the values which
are measured in a generated circle (of points) of two mixed lasers and is shown via a suitable instrument
in real time. The distance of the digital pyrometer from the weld determines the size of the measuring
spot.
Note When applying the auxiliary tools for measuring temperature and cooling time as mentioned in this
section,, please note that each tool does have a specific fault. Thus, no “exact” measurements with any
of the tools listed are possible (cf. Table 4).
Table 4: Advantages and disadvantages selected “auxiliary means” for temperature measurement in weld-
ing
Measuring instrument Advantages Disadvantages
temperature-sensitive crayons or inaccurately, only approximate
very low cost
colours temperature indication possible
Contact-, quick-response ther- relatively exact temperature Interactions with workpiece sur-
mometer measurements possible face possible
accurate temperature measure- Sometimes difficult to attach, risk
Thermoelements
ments possible of detaching
accurate temperature measure-
optical or electrical contactless Result of measurement by emis-
ments possible, and automation
measurement equipment sivity controllable
possible
4.4 Application of the DVS leaflet 0916
The DVS leaflet 0916 includes instructions in line with standard usage for MAG welding of steels that,
due to their mechanical and mechanical-technological properties are to be welded under special heat
conductions. This includes especially high-strength fine grain structural steels.
The correlation between cooling time t8/5 and the energy per unit length is described using examples in
Figure 35 and Figure 36. For a pre-heating temperature of 100 °C the graphs shows which energy per unit
length can be applied with a certain sheet thickness, weld shape and a cooling time. If other preheat tem-

welding
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peratures are used, the energy per unit length is to be adapted accordingly. Thus it can be done without
complex calculations in the8/5t- concept, as they are presented e.g. in chapter 2.05 and 2.10.
Note The in leaflet DVS 0916 described correlations apply preferably for welding positions PA, PB and
PC. However, strongly weaving welded joints cannot be covered. Here it is advisable to determine cool-
ing time t8/5 in a preliminary test.
60 60
Conditions: Conditions:
T0 = 100 °C 55 T0 = 100 °C
55
Fillet size a in mm
F2 , F3 = 0,9 F2 = 0,45 bis 0,67
F3 = 0,67
50 50
t8/5 = t8/5 = 25 s
Energy per unit length E in kJ/cm

25 s 20 s
45 Adverse effect to 45 Adverse effect to
mechanical properties in mechanical
WM and HAZ properties in WM 15 s

40 20 s 40
and HAZ
35 35
12 s 7,0
30 15 s 30
10 s
25 25 6,5
12 s
8s
20 10 s 20 6,0
6s
8s
15 15
5,0
6s
10 10 4,0
3,0
Risk of hardening Risk of hardening
5 5
cracks cracks
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Plate thickness d in mm Plate thickness d in mm
Figure 35: Permissible energy per unit length for Figure 36: Permissible energy per unit length for MAG
MAG welding of butt welds as a function of the plate welding of fillet welds as a function of the plate thickness
thickness, with reading-off example (acc. to DVS (acc. to DVS 0916)
0916)
In Figure 35 a reading-off example is drawn. From this figure the procedure for the determination of the
optimal energy(ies) per unit length can be taken for plates made of fine grain steels with a thickness t =
15 mm and t8/5 -time- interval between 8 and 12 s. Starting from the plate thickness, first a straight line is
drawn up to the minimum t-8/5 as given e.g. by the steel manufacturer. If this curve has been reached, on
the y-axis the minimum required energy per unit length can be read. For the maximum permissible t8/5-
time- value the specified procedure is to be repeated. For the chosen example, an area of the energy per
unit length of approx. 13 to 21 kJ/cm is applicable. If this is kept, there will not be a risk of age hardening
cracks (compare Chapter 2.06 and 2.10).
Information on the verified energy-values per unit length for gas-shielded arc welding with solid and flux
cored wire electrodes is given in Figure 37 and Figure 38 (wire diameter = 1.2 mm, shielding gas: M21 –
with C1 about 5% higher energy per unit length, with M22 about 5% lower energy per unit length.)

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30 30
25

25

20  20 


Ope
ratin 


Ope

g ar ratin
ea
15  g ar

15
  ea
  
10  10
5
5
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Welding speed vs in cm/min Welding speed vs in cm/min
Figure 37: Dependency of the energy per unit length to Figure 38: Dependency of the energy per unit length to
the welding speed; Solid wire (Ø 1.2 mm) the welding speed; Solid wire (Ø 1.2 mm)
Curve              
V 29 27 24 22 20 19 18 17 25 24 23 23 22 21
A 300 275 250 225 200 175 150 125 250 225 200 175 150 125
vz
10.5 9,0 8,0 7,0 5,5 4,5 3,5 3,0 10,0 8,7 7,2 6,2 5,0 4,2
[m/min]
If the adjusted welding parameters are to be found for the energy per unit length (of 13 or. 21 kJ/cm) as
determined by the example in Figure 35, Figure 37 is to be followed. For an arc voltage of 29V, a weld-
ing current of 300 A and a wire speed vz of 10.5 m/min (curve 1), welding speeds of approx. 25.5 and
39.5 cm/min can be read.
Note the described processes and measures in leaflet DVS 0916 are used for the prevention of age
hardening cracks (t8/5-Concept).
4.5 Application of the DVS leaflet 1703
In the DVS leaflet 1703 recommendations are given for the choice of the component temperature for arc
welding steel constructions made of S355. When applying the information from the leaflet it is to be con-
sidered that it originates from the year 1984 and is already for several years in revision. Nevertheless the
information included, is currently still suitable and good for estimating the pre-heating temperature.
The leaflet differentiates between two steel grades of St 52 on the basis of their carbon and manganese
content, and the results can likewise be applied to the modern steels of type S355.
 S355 with C  0.18% and C + Mn/6  0.42%

 S355 with C + Mn/6  0.42%
On the basis of the added energy per unit length and the plate thickness, the required pre-heating tem-
perature can be read directly from these nomograms (Figure 39).
Note The procedures and measures described in DVS 1703 serve to prevent age hardening cracks
(t8/5 concept).

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E, MAG, SAW
17 Butt weld Fillet weld
Three
16 dimensional
Two dimensional
heat
15 heat conductivity
conductivity
14 18,3
To=0°C
18,1
+20°C
13 Two dimensional Three dimensional
heat conductivity heat conductivity 17,8
12 +50°C
17,4
11 +80°C
17,3
13,6 To=0°C +100°C
10 13,5 17,0
+20°C +120°C
13,2 +50°C 16,7
9 +150°C
13,0 +80°C
8 12,8 16,2
+100°C +180°C
12,6 16,0
+120°C +200°C
7 12,4 15,7
+150°C +220°C
6 12,1 +180°C
11,9 +200°C
5 11,7
+220°C
4 dü
3 dü
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 / 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Work piece thickness d [mm] Work piece thickness d [mm]
Figure 39: Workpiece temperature T0 as a function of the workpiece thickness d and the energy per unit
length E (weld types: Butt weld, fillet weld; Steel Grade: S355 (St 52), according DVS 1703
Note In revised drafts of the DVS leaflet 1703 the prevention of cold cracking is based upon the hydro-
gen induced cracking type. These are however in no direct relation to the t-concept8/5.
4.6 Practical information for welding with stick electrodes
In case of metal arc welding with stick electrodes, the welding speed vs results from the arc-time t in seconds
of a stick electrode, whereby a residual stub end length is considered, and their run out length L in cm:
L  L Weld run length of the electrode in cm

vs   
t t Arc-time in s of the stick electrode with a specimen stub end length of 50 mm
Resulting the energy per unit length in J/cm:
 UI t 
E 
 L 
The value of the numerator (U  I  t) is practically constant because the current I and the time t behave
approx. inversely proportional meaning that if I increases, t decreases and vica versa. In this way the
heat-input can be presented in dependency of just only the run out length L.
Through these special diagrams the welder can easily maintain an certain heat-input by providing the
required run out length for the used stick electrode (Figure 40, cf also EN 1011-2 Appendix C).

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Figure 40: Electrode run out

length as a function of the energy
input (acc. to NITTKA)
Note The information contained in this document is to be seen as reference only and does not replace
technical regulations and specifications. The latest version of such regulations and specifications apply
in each case.

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5 Test questions
(1) In which yield point area are steels mostly used in steel construction?
 180 to 235 N/mm ²

 460 to 960 N/mm ²
 235 to 460 N/mm ²
 355 to 420 N/mm ²
 185 to 690 N/mm ²
(2) How are steel microstructures designed according their strength properties?
 according to elongation after fracture

 according to reduction in area
 according to yield strength
 according to tensile strength
 according to impact energy in J
(3) Which Quality level acc. to EN ISO 5817 is to be applied with dynamic stressed steel constructions?
 Quality level A.
 Quality level B.
 Quality level C.
 Quality level D.
 The application of the quality level is not required.
(4) Which aspect is especially to be respected regarding the weld heat input of structural steel mate-
rials?
 wind speed
 heating-up time.
 cooling rate is too high.
 the t-concept8/5.
 use of induction equipment.
(5) Which are the maximum common yield points for steels in bridge construction?
 with Re min = 235 N/mm ²


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(6) Which special type of structural steels is used preferably in gas transportation pipe line construc-
tion?
 unalloyed structural steels

 Fine Grain Steels (N)
 Fine Grain Steels (M)
 Fine grain steels (Q)
 unalloyed application steels
(7) Which parts of EN 1993-1 provide detailed information on the application of the steel grades in
the building construction area?
 EN 1993-1-1 and EN 1993-1-1 NA

 EN 1993-1-2
 EN 1993-1-3
 EN 1993-1-5
 EN 1993-1-12
(8) Where is the interpass temperature to be measured in accordance with EN ISO 13 916?
 inside of the weld metal

 on the weld metal surface
 directly on the base material surface adjacent to the weld metal
 on weld metal bottom side
 on the thermal uninfluenced parent material
(9) How can it be ensured that the welder starts neither with too low or with too high preheat- and
interpass temperatures on high-strength fine grain steels during welding operations?
 The welder has to observe carefully the soaking colour of the HAZ of the welded joint.
 The welding supervisor should be able to evaluate the annealing colours of the HAZ correctly.
 From two thermocrayons, the first must change and second must not change if welding is to
be applied.
 Annealing colour must be applied by the welding supervisor on the tempering colour of the
HAZ under consideration of the first derived.
 For such materials the height of preheat and interpass temperature is not appropriate.
(10) Against which types of cold cracks are the described measures especially directed in the DVS
leaflet 0916?
 Against cold cracks type lamellar tearing.

 Against cold cracks type age hardening crack.
 Against cold cracks type hydrogen-assisted crack.
 Against cold cracks type ageing crack.
 They act from each type of cold cracks.

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6 Bibliography
You will find further information in the following publications
DIN EN 10 130:
Cold rolled low carbon steel flat products for cold forming - Technical delivery conditions
Ausgabe: 02-2007
DIN EN 10 346:
Continuously hot-dip coated steel flat products - Technical delivery conditions
Ausgabe: 07-2009
DIN 5512-1, 2 und 4:

Materials for rail vehicles. steel. Selection standards.
Ausgabe: 05-1997
Germanic Lloyd:
Apparatus Engineering specifications & guidelines
Index II: Materials and welding, part 1 - metallic materials, chapter 2: Steel and ferrous metals.
Leaflet DVS 2935-2:

Spot welding multi-phase steels (AHSS), cold-rolled by sheet metals from low-alloy steels –.
DVS -Deutscher Verband für Schweißen und verwandte Verfahren e. V. [German Association of Welding
and Associated Processes]
Ausgabe: 05-2007
Merkblatt DVS 0916:

Metall-Schutzgasschweißen von Feinkornbaustählen.
DVS – German association for welding technology E.V.
Ausgabe: 11-1997
Leaflet DVS 1703:

Recommendations for the choice of the component temperature during arc steel constructions made St 52.
DVS – Deutscher Verband für Schweißtechnik e. V.
Issue 10-1984
DIN EN ISO 13 916:

Welding - Instructions for the measurement of preheat, interpass and preheat maintenance temperature
Ausgabe: 11-1996
Leaflet 092:
Elektrolytisch verzinktes Band und Blech. Charakteristische Merkmale.
Stahl-Informations-Zentrum, Düsseldorf
EN 1011-2:
Recommendation for welding of metallic materials - Part 2: Arc welding of ferritic steels
Ausgabe: 05-2001

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Creep and creep resistant steels Page 1
Chapter 2.12: Creep and creep resistant steels
Contents
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 3
2 Definitions ....................................................................................................................................... 4
3 Metallographic basics..................................................................................................................... 5
3.1 Mechanical properties of steels at elevated temperatures ........................................................ 5
3.2 Mechanism of creep ................................................................................................................. 6
3.3 Influencing creep behaviour ...................................................................................................... 8
3.3.1 Overview of key factors .................................................................................................. 8
3.3.2 Influence of alloying elements on heat resistance ........................................................... 9
3.3.3 Effect of precipitations and heat treatments on heat resistance ...................................... 9
3.4 Creep rupture strength and its verification .............................................................................. 10
3.5 Tempering embrittlement and its verification ........................................................................... 10
3.5.1 Embrittlement at high temperatures .............................................................................. 10
3.5.2 Verification of tempering embrittlement......................................................................... 11
4 Overview of heat-resistant pressure vessel steels ..................................................................... 11
4.1 European standardisation of heat-resistant pressure vessel steels ......................................... 11
4.2 Trade names and product names of pressure vessel steels ................................................... 12
5 Microstructure composition and application limits of heat-resistant pressure vessels steels13
5.1 Possibilities of classification .................................................................................................... 13
5.2 Application according to mechanical and physical properties.................................................. 15
5.2.1 Unalloyed pressure vessel steels ................................................................................. 15
5.2.2 Fine grain pressure vessel steels ................................................................................. 15
5.3 Application according to chemical composition ....................................................................... 16
5.3.1 Alloy pressure vessel steels for temperatures up to 500 °C .......................................... 16
5.3.2 Alloyed pressure vessel steels for temperatures over 500 °C ....................................... 17
5.4 Microstructure formation of heat-resistant steels..................................................................... 18
5.5 Special materials for specific applications ............................................................................... 19
5.5.1 Hydrogen pressure resistant steels .............................................................................. 19
5.5.2 Heat-resistant alloys, nickel and cobalt based .............................................................. 19
6 Welding processes for heat-resistant pressure vessel steels ................................................... 19
6.1 General information ................................................................................................................ 19
6.2 Suitable welding processes .................................................................................................... 20
6.3 Heat treatment of welded joints .............................................................................................. 20
6.3.1 Heat input during welding ............................................................................................. 20
6.3.2 Postweld heat treatment ............................................................................................... 21
6.4 Welding consumables / filler materials .................................................................................... 22
6.5 Mixed joints ............................................................................................................................ 23

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6.6 Guidelines for quality assurance of welding operations........................................................... 24

7 Test questions............................................................................................................................... 25
8 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................. 27

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1 Introduction
Steels which are used at temperatures up to the recrystallisation temperature are called heat-resistant
steels. The most important characteristic is guaranteed strength at operating temperature. So they
have sufficient resistance to creep processes. Furthermore, they can be characterised by their specific
application temperature, chemical composition and, although not always easy, weldability. Selected
heat-resistant steels are also resistant to hydrogen pressure. The materials are used especially for the
force components of power plants, heating and pressure vessels as well as for temperature and
pressure-prone reactors (Figure1, Figure 2).
Figure1: Heat exchanger pipes of heat-resistant Figure 2: Evaporator of heat-resistant pressure vessel
pressure vessel steel 13CrMo4-5 steel 10CrMo9-10
In addition to other technical material measures steels are added with the elements chromium,
molybdenum, vanadium and tungsten to improve their heat-resistancy. Due to their preferential use of
pressure vessel materials, the classification of these steels is carried out in accordance with DIN CEN
ISO/TR 15 608 (metallic material grouping system for welding) in particular the so-called material
group 4, 5 and 6 and its sub-groups as well (Table 1 Table 3).
Pressure vessel steels – alloys, heat-resistant to approx. 500 °C
Standard steels
Group Sub-group Steel types
(examples)
Cr-Mo (Ni) - steels with low vanadium content, with Mo  0.7% and V  0.1%
EN 10 028-2
4.1 Steels with Cr  0.3% and Ni  0.7% (16Mo3)
4
EN 10 222-2
4.2 Steels with Cr  0.7% and Ni  1.5% (18MnMoNi5-5)
Pressure vessel steels – alloys, heat-resistant to maximum 550 °C
Vanadium-free Cr-Mo steels with C  0.35%
EN 10 028-2
5.1 Steels with 0.75%  Cr  1.5% and Mo  0.7% (10CrMo9-10)
no EN
5.2 Steels with 1.5% < Cr  3.5% and 0.7 < Mo  1.2% (12CrMo12-10)
5
EN 10 028-2
5.3 Steels with 3.5% < Cr  7.0% and 0.4 < Mo  0.7% (e.g. X12CrMo5)
EN 10 216-2
5.4 Steels with 7.0% < Cr  10% and 0.7 < Mo  1.2% (X11CrMo9-1)

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Pressure vessel steels – alloys, heat-resistant to maximum 650 °C
Cr-Mo-(Ni) - Steels with high vanadium content
EN 10 216-2
6.1 Steels with 0.3%  Cr , 0.75% Mo  0.7% and V  0.35% (14MoV6-3)
Steels with 0.75% < Cr  3.5% and 0.7 < Mo  1.2% EN 10 028-2
6.2
V  0.35% (13CrMoV9-10)
6
Steels with 3.5% < Cr  7.0%, Mo  0.7% keine EN
6.3
0.45%  V  0.55% (no EN steel)
Steels with 7.0% < Cr  12.5%, 0.7% < Mo  1.2% and EN 10 028-2
6.4
V  0.35% (X10CrMoVNb9-1)
2 Definitions
Next to the heat resistancy of pressure vessel steels the following important terms and properties are
defined.
Strength
By the term strength the capability of a body is understood to resist against forces and deformation, i.e.
withstanding deformation. The strength properties are technically linked to the type and number of
barriers for the dislocation movement (see Chapter 2.01).
Thermal/heat resistance
Heat resistance is the strength of a material at temperatures up to the recrystallisation temperature.

At these temperatures the barrier effect on the dislocation movement is reduced, e.g. by coagulation of
precipitates and the strength properties drop. To achieve a high heat resistancy stable microstructures
must be attached against temperature rising. This can be done, among others ways, by the
replacement of iron into cementite by special carbide forming alloying elements such as molybdenum,
chromium and vanadium, as these delay the coagulation.
Yield point at elevated temperatures
The term yield point is understood as the yield strength at elevated temperatures. The level of yield
strength is temperature dependant (Figure 4see section 3.1).
Creep rupture strength, creep limit
The strength values of creep rupture strength and creep limit are currently not normatively defined
anymore. Since they are nevertheless very important for the description and evaluation of the strength
properties of heat-resistant steels at high temperatures over long periods (100,000 h and higher) and are
also listed in numerous material leaflets and tables, for their exact definitions it is referred to in chapter
2.23.
Creep rupture strength at a specific test temperature is the test tension (stress) which leads to fracture
after a certain time to (e.g.: Rm 100000/550). The creep limit is defined as the test stress 0 that leads to a
specific plastic elongation (e.g.: Rp0.2 1000/350) at a specific testing temperature. The determination of these
parameters takes place in the creep rupture test (see 3.4section).

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3 Metallographic basics
3.1 Mechanical properties of steels at elevated temperatures
The mechanical properties of metallic materials and therefore also of steels depend on a series of
parameters. In particular these include:
– the level of mechanical load (stress),

– the level of the operating temperature and
– the duration of load (stress).
Therefore, increasing the mechanical load causes it to fracture at a certain stress. This behaviour can
be controlled e.g. by the tensile test at room temperature according to EN ISO 6892-1 (Figure 3, see
chapter 2.23). If besides the mechanical load the temperature will be raised, the stress value at which
fracture occurs decreases with increasing temperature (Figure 4). This in contrast to the elongation at
fracture and the reduction of area (Figure 5). In order to test this data a tensile test is held at elevated
temperatures according to the EN ISO 6892-2.
Rp0,2 20 °C
Strength properties [N/mm²]
400 °C
R e20°C
Stress in N/mm²
Rm
650 °C
ReH R e400°C
ReL R e650°C
0,2 %
Strain  [%]
Strain  [%]
Figure 3: Schematic diagram of a stress-strain diagram Figure 4: Influence of the test temperature on the tensile
at room temperature test results
Figure 5: Mechanical-technological properties of Figure 6: Plastic elongation depending on temperature

structural steels as according to temperature and time (creep curves)
If next to temperature also time becomes an influencing value, then at a specific temperature, the so
called transition temperature Tü, the elongation doesn’t drop anymore but will increase linear in the

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beginning and will rise exponentially subsequently (Figure 6). With advancing time the material can no
longer compensate this and initially cracks will arise which can act as starting points for fractures. To
verify this behaviour an uni-axial creep rupture test under tensile load according to EN ISO 204 can be
executed (Chapter 2.23 and section 3.4).
3.2 Mechanism of creep
Creep is the main issue of the aforementioned mechanisms. Creep is undertood as a time-dependent
deformation under a constant load, preferably at elevated temperatures. After applying a mechanical
load to a test piece the elongation, unlike the case of "normal "plasticity, tends to a total elongation which
consists of an elastic and a plastic amount. Rather it continues to increase constantly, until a fracture
occurs by creeping fracture.
Note The characteristic values of materials for components that are used in the area of creep rupture
strength, must also take into account the duration of service life.
The properties of metallic materials are therefore time-dependent above the transition temperature Tü,
as the vast majority of scientific material mechanisms are running thermically activated The transition
temperature Tü is dependent on the melting temperature TS and is valid:
Tü  0.3  TS
At temperatures become higher than the transition temperature, thus at T > Tü, a series of different
changes of state are running, which can be attributed to the influences of temperature, mechanical
load, time as well as ambient atmosphere. Here metallic materials are subject to an irreversible
plastic deformationthat progresses slowly but steadily, at low mechanical stresses below yield strength
R. This increasing plastic deformation under constant load is called creep and is dependant on
temperature, load(stress), time and type of material.
Creep is mainly based on transgranular processes, like dislocation movements and vacancy
diffusions, as well as intergranular processes, such as grain boundary sliding and grain boundary
diffusion are involved. Consequently creeping processes are mostly associated with the damage of the
metallic material due to cracks or to fracture (Figure 7).
Creeping processes are completed over time in three separate stages from each other (Figure 6, Figure 8).
These are:
Stage I - primary creep (- Creep):
Primary creep is typical for low temperatures and stresses. The creep speed constantly decreases.
Strain hardening effects due to the intersecting of and therefore mutual obstructing dislocations are
responsible for this. Diffusion processes are of secondary importance in this area. The plasticising that
takes place duringthe primary creep mainly corresponds to the processes involved in classic
temperature-dependant stress loads.
Stage II - Secondary creep (constant creep):
Secondary creep is the most technically relevant, as most materials are subject to it in this stage. The
creep speed is constant. There is an equilibrium between strain hardening and recovery. The aim of the
development of heat-resistant steels is therefore to extend this stage as long as possible without
entering the transition in stage III.

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Stage III - tertiary creep (exponential creep):
In the tertiary creep stage the high creep speed quickly leads to material fracture. Creep fractures run
intergranular. Due to its proximity in time to the destruction of the material, this stage it is technically not
usable.
Note Of special importance is the time of the transition from the secondary to tertiary creep, since
damaging mechanisms start increasingly taking control over the compound structure and the material
can be destroyed within a very short time (Figure 8).
The residual service life of actual, creep rupture loaded components can be estimated by ambulatory
taken microstructure blue prints, containing information on the degree of damage(Figure 7, Figure 8).
Figure 7: Formation of creep cracks from creeping processes
– left picture above: first microstructure breaking-ups are arising

– right picture above: Growing microstructure breaking-ups
– left picture below: Connected initial cracks arising
– right picture below: continuous cracks develop, component fracture

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Figure 8: Formation of creep-rupture

cracks through creep processes
A Observed
B observe, possibly shortened
inspection test period
C monitoring operation until repair
D immediate repair
3.3 Influencing creep behaviour

3.3.1 Overview of key factors
The threshold temperature for the heat resistance of a material is the recrystallisation temperature
TR (see Chapter 2.08). At temperatures below the TR the grain boundaries are integral components of
the lattice and obstruct the flowing effectively. In turn continuous flow processes encouraging creeping
through an consistent dislocation movement. Therefore fine-grained microstructures below the
recrystallisation temperature are more heat-resistant than coarse-grained ones. All material-related
measures that increase the recrystallisation temperature, also therefore improve the heat resistance
characteristics and thus the creep rupture strength. Some of these include:
Purity
– Using carbon and stainless steels with low levels of residual elements.
Lattice structure
– Change the lattice structure from body-centred cubic(< 600 °C) to face-centred cubic (> 600 °C). In
the austenitic structure, due to the number of different sliding planes and the transformation freedom,
operating temperatures up to 800 °C are possible (alloying with nickel).
Solid solution formation (see section 3.3.2)

– Lattice distortion due to substitutional solid solution formation (alloying with Mo, Mn- and Ni).
– Raise the recrystallisation temperature TR by alloying elements with high melting temperatures, for
example, molybdenum and tungsten (Table 4).
Precipitations (see section 3.3.3)

– Finely dispersed and evenly distributed precipitations inhibit creep (alloying with carbide formers, like
chromium, vanadium and/or tungsten)
– only possible in combination with a specific heat treatment
Heat treatment (see section 3.3.3)

– evenly distributed precipitations only possible by heat treatment (normalising for creating an even
homogeneous grain, tempering)
– Consider the temperature difference between point A1 and the tempering temperature, because this
considerably affects creep rupture strength.

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3.3.2 Influence of alloying elements on heat resistance
The correlation between melting temperature TS and recrystallisation temperature TR is described by

the TAMMANN rule (see Chapter 2.01 and 2.08).
TR  0.4  (TS + 273) - 273
In Table 4 the influence of selected alloying elements on the recrystallisation temperature of iron is listed.
Figure 10 illustrates the effects of alloying elements on the increase of yield strength Re and creep
resistance RB compared to non-alloyed steel.
Table 4: Effect of alloying elements on the recrystallisation temperature of iron

Element Short symbol TS Element in °C TR Element in °C  TR iron in K
Tungsten W 3.380 1.188 + 240
Molybdenum Mo 2.625 886 + 115
Vanadium V 1.860 580 + 50
Chromium Cr 1.850 576 + 45
Iron Fe 1.536 451 0
Cobalt Co 1.492 433 + 21
Nickel Ni 1.453 417 + 20
Figure 9: Effects of alloying elements on Re and RB Figure 10: Alloying effect on creep strength
(according to KOLGATIN among others)
3.3.3 Effect of precipitations and heat treatments on heat resistance
Different types of precipitations can be adjusted by certain combination of alloying elements and heat
treatments which, due to their obstruction of the dislocation movement, are beneficial to increase the
heat resistance (Figure 10). These mainly include:
Tempering and forming finely dispersed special carbides

– material-related mechanisms: Microstructure distortion caused by martensite / intermediate stage
(bainite), microstructure distortion by precipitation hardening
– Effect: the combination of tempering and precipitation hardening is effective even at low alloy
concentrations.

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Formation of finely dispersed intermetallic compounds

– Material-related mechanisms: Structure distortion by precipitation hardening in combination with heat
treatment
– Effect: Precipitation hardening by intermetallic compounds is effective at higher alloy concentrations.
3.4 Creep rupture strength and its verification
Testing the long-term behaviour (creep sensitivity) of steels under load conditions at constant
temperatures until fracture or until reaching a defined elongation(e.g. 1% permanent elongation) within a
defined duration time, is conducted by the creep rupture test according to EN ISO 204. By testing with
constant test force the increase of the deformation is measured (Figure 11, Figure 12; see chapter
2.23).
Figure 11: Creep diagram with expansion time line and Figure 12: Example of a time fracture diagram with time
creep rupture strength expansion curves and time fracture curve
3.5 Tempering embrittlement and its verification

3.5.1 Embrittlement at high temperatures
Depending on the level of the operating temperature different embrittlements can be observed in heat-
resistant steels. These include:
"300 °C-embrittlement" or "blue brittleness" (200 °C < T < 400 °C) – irreversible
Cause: Precipitation of iron carbides (cementite – Fe3C) and nitrides, causing changes in
the strain hardening behaviour as well as the ageing effects in steels with higher
carbon- and or nitrogen contents
Effect: Poor cold-forming properties, embrittlement
Avoidance: avoid temperature affected area or using silicon alloyed steels
"500 °C-embrittlement" or "tempering embrittlement" (450 °C < T < 530 °C) – reversible
Cause: Enrichment of grain boundaries with micro- elements (e.g. P, As, Sb, Sn) or carbides
after extended temperature load stress; especially encountered in heat-resistant Cr-Mn-
steels

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Effect: Impact energy is reduced, transition temperature increases in the impact test,
embrittlement
Avoidance: Avoid temperature range or using Mo- and/or W alloyed steels (improvement from
0.05% Mo, between 0.2 - 0.3% Mo rarely available anymore)
3.5.2 Verification of tempering embrittlement
Verification of tempering embrittlement in heat-resistant Cr-Mo steels can be simulated in laboratory

using the so-called step cooling test according to EN 10 028-2. “step cooling test”, SCT-Test). The test
piece is subjected to a temperature-time cycle as shown in Figure 13
The shift of the transition temperature

of the notched impact test (see
Chapter 2.23) to higher temperatures
due to step cooling is a measure for
embrittlement. If this shift is
multiplied by a factor (normally 2.5) it
corresponds, to the current state of
knowledge, to the shift after many
years of use. Therefore conclusions
can be deducted for long-term
behaviour even after a relatively
short testing period.
Figure 13: Recommended sequence in the step cooling test
Different empirical relations based on chemical analysis are applied to estimate the tendency of the
embrittlement of steels. The most well-known are the J- or WATANABE factor for base materials and the
X- or BRUSCATO factor for weld metals. For these the following equations and limit values apply.
WATANABE factor: J  %Mn  %Si  %P  %Sn  10 4  150
BRUSCATO factor: X
10  %P  5  %Sb  4  %Sn  %As  15
100
4 Overview of heat-resistant pressure vessel steels

4.1 European standardisation of heat-resistant pressure vessel steels
In European and international standards, the heat-resistant flat products of pressure vessel steels are
standardised in the standard-series EN 10028 and ISO 9328 (Table 5). These are the basis for further
European standards which contain pressure vessel materials, like:
– seamless (EN 10216 serie) and welded steel tubes (EN 10217 serie),
– Forgings (EN 10222 serie),
– Cast steel (EN 10 213 serie),
– Fasteners for pressure vessels (EN 10 269),
– Bars for pressure purposes (EN 10 272 and EN 10 273)
– Creep resisting steels, nickel and cobalt alloys (EN 10 302).
Furthermore, a number of additional heat-resistant special materials exists which properties are not
specified in any standard. In this case the material leaflets of the respective manufacturers should be

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used. In EN 13 445-2 the materials for unfired pressure vessels are divided numerically into groups and
sub-groups according to the CEN ISO/TR 15 608 that was published as a DIN technical report (see section
1).
Note For heat-resistant steels the classification to the CEN ISO/R 15 608 "material groups" has created
no problems, in contrary to many other steels, since all these "groups" were originally developed for
pressure vessels materials.
Table 5: Overview of the series of standards EN 10 028 and ISO 9328

Part Contents
1 General requirements.
2 Non-alloy and alloy steels with specified elevated temperature properties.
3 Weldable fine grain steels, normalised.
4 Nickel alloy steels with specified low temperature properties.
5 Weldable fine grain steels, thermomechanically rolled.
6 Weldable fine grain steels, quenched and tempered.
7 Stainless steels.
4.2 Trade names and product names of pressure vessel steels
Often heat-resistant steels for pressure vessels are used for new or special developments for specific
applications. Furthermore, there are a range of materials on the market which were developed outside
Europe, e.g. in the USA or Japan. So many of these steels do not have abbreviations and material
numbers in accordance with EN 10 027. In practice numerous trade names, product names and
designations according to non European standards have been become familiar (e.g. ASTM A213) which
do not comply with the nomenclature prescribed in Europe. A direct comparison between the products
from different manufacturers and origins has become difficult (deliberately). Therefore, Table 6 includes
a comparison of selected trade names and abbreviations of current common pressure vessel steels as
well a functional description of their microstructures.
Table 6: Comparison of trademarks and product names with EN short descriptions

Trade name, EN-Material
Grain structure EN- Short description
Product name*, ** Number
WB36 bainitic (martensitic) ferritic ~1.6368 ~15NiCuMoNb5-6-4
T/P11 bainitic (martensitic) ferritic ~1.5415 ~16Mo3
T/P12 bainitic (martensitic) ferritic ~1.7335 ~13CrMo4-5
T/P22 bainitic (martensitic) ferritic ~1.7380 ~10CrMo9-10
T/P23, HCM2S bainitic (martensitic) ferritic — ~7CrWMoVNb9-6
T/P24 bainitic (martensitic) ferritic ~1.7378 ~7CrMoVTiB10-10
T/P9 amended martensitic Cr steel ~1.7386 ~X12CrMo9-1
T/P91 modified martensitic Cr steel ~1.4903 ~X10CrMoVNb9-1
T/P911, E911 modified martensitic Cr steel ~1.4905 ~X11CrMoWVNb9-1-1
T/P92, Nf616 modified martensitic Cr steel ~1.4901 ~X10CrWMoVNb9-2
X20 modified martensitic Cr steel ~1.4922 ~X20CrMoVW12-1
VM12 modified martensitic Cr steel — ~X13CrWMoVNb12-1
* T = thin-walled boiler tubes (tube); ** P = thick-walled components (pipe)

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5 Microstructure composition and application limits of heat-resistant pressure vessels

steels
5.1 Possibilities of classification
The classification of heat-resistant steel grades for pressure vessels regarding their microstructure
composition and their thermal application limits can be made both on the level of operating temperature
(Table 7 and Table 8) as on its alloy content (and Table 10). As can be seen, in particular the nature of
the elementary cell, i.e. whether cubic-body or face-centred cubic, affects significantly the maximum
operating temperature. Therefore only materials with an austenitic and therefore face-centred cubic
microstructure are used in the high-temperature range from and above approximately 700 °C.
Table 7: Classification of heat-resistant steels and their operating temperatures with examples
Temperature range Steel Examples
Unalloyed and Mn alloyed pressure vessel steels,
up to approximately 400 °C P235GH, P355NH
normalised fine grain structural steels
up to approximately 500 / 520 °C Mo-alloyed steels 16Mo3
Mo, Cr and Mo, chromium, vanadium alloyed,
up to approximately 550 °C 13CrMo4-5, 10CrMo9-10
heat-treatable steels
up to approximately 600 / 650 °C 9 to 12% modified martensitic Cr steels X22CrMoV12-1
above 600 °C Austenitic Cr-Ni steels X8CrNiNb16-13
above 700 °C Ni and Co-based special alloys X8NiCr32-20
Table 8: Classification of heat-resistant materials according to their microstructure

Heat-resistant steels and special materials
A B
Bcc structure Fcc structure
Up to 400 °C Up to 500 °C 500 to 600°C 600 to 650°C above 700 °C
unalloyed alloyed High-alloyed
ferritic-pearlitic bainitic Martensitic 9 to
Mo-legierte austenitic steels,
steels, fine-grain (martensitic) 12% chromium
Stähle Ni and Co-materials
structural steels ferritic steels steels
P235GH 16Mo3 13CrMo4-5 X10CrMoVNb9-1
X8CrNiNb16-13
P355NH 18MnMo4-5 10CrMo9-10 X22CrMoV12-1
X8NiCr32-20
C
TR-increase
No extra proven Carbide/nitride Precipitation
through Fcc structure with high crystal
methods; higher formation + hardening + spec.
molybdenum recovery temperature
purity; fine grain tempering Heat-treatment
alloying
Guaranteed increase in temperature and creep rupture strength 
A
bcc – body-centred cubic; B fcc – face-centred cubic; C TR - recrystallisation temperature

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Table 9: Classification of heat-resistant materials according the alloy content, overview

Heat-resistant steels and special materials
Use according to
mechanical / Use in accordance with their chemical composition
physical properties
Fine- martensitic
ferritic- Ferritic Mo- Bainitic austenitic steels,
grained Maraging Duplex 9 - 12%
pearlitic chromium legierte (martensitic) Ni- and
structural steels steels chromium
steels steels Stähle ferritic steels Co-materials
steels steels
below 500 °C below 500 °C Up to 550 °C above 550 °C
≤400°C ≤400°C ≤350°C ≤350°C ≤350°C ≤500°C ≤550°C ≤650°C ≤1,200°C
++Cr; ++Cr;
++Cr; +Cr;
+N (400 °); +Mo; +Ni;
++Cr; +Mo;
+M (--); +Mo +V; ++Ni;
+Ni +Mn;
+Q (300 °C) +Nb, +Cr,
stainless +V
+W ++Co
Table 10: Classification of heat-resistant pressure vessel steels according to alloy content with examples
DIN- short description German standard
EN- short description Mat. no. European standard
(replaced) (withdrawn)
ferritic-pearlitic steels (normalised)
17 Mn 4 P295GH 1.0481 DIN 17 155 EN 10 028-2
19 Mn 6 P355GH 1.0473 DIN 17 155 EN 10 028-2
15 Mo 3 16Mo3 1.5415 DIN 17 155 EN 10 028-2
Fine grain structural steels (normalised, thermo-mechanically rolled, liquid-tempered
WStE 355 P355NH 1.0565 DIN 17 102 EN 10 028-3
— P420M 1.8824 — EN 10 028-5
— P460QH 1.8871 — EN 10 028-6
bainitic (martensitic) ferritic steels
13 CrMo 4 4 13CrMo4-5 1.7335 DIN 17 155 EN 10 028-2
10 CrMo 9 10 10CrMo9-10 1.7380 DIN 17 155 EN 10 028-2
14 MoV 6 3 14MoV6-3 1.7715 DIN 17 155 not EN-standardised
17 MoV 8 4 17MoV8-4 1.5406 not DIN standardised nicht EN-genormt
martensitic heat-resistant steels
X 20 CrMoV 12 1 X20CrMoV12-1 1.4922 DIN 17 175 nicht EN-genormt
X 22 CrMoV 12 1 X22CrMoV12-1 1.4923 DIN 17 240 nicht EN-genormt
X 20 CrMoWV 12 1 X20CrMoWV12-1 1.4935 nicht DIN genormt nicht EN-genormt
austenitic heat-resistant steels
X 2 CrNi 19 11 X2CrNi19-11 1.4306 DIN 17 440 EN 10 028-7
X 6 CrNiMoTi 17 12 2 X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2 1.4571 DIN 17 440 EN 10 028-7
X 8 NiCrAlTi 32 21 X8NiCrAlTi32-21 1.4959 DIN 17 460 EN 10 028-7
X 3 CrNiMoN 17 13 3 X3CrNiMoBN17-13-3 1.4910 DIN 17 460 EN 10 028-7
pressure hydrogen-resistant steels
12 CrMo 19 5 X11CrMo5 1.7362 DIN 17 176 EN 10 216-2
20 CrMoV 13 5 20CrMoV13-5-5 1.7779 DIN 17 176 EN 10 216-2

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5.2 Application according to mechanical and physical properties

5.2.1 Unalloyed pressure vessel steels
Overview of material group

Materials: With carbon, carbon-manganese steel and micro-alloyed with molybdenum.
No verified mechanism. Using quality steels with low P + S- contents. Steels are
Heat resistance
normalised and contain manganese for solid solution hardening. These steels
mechanism:
have ferrite and pearlite microstructures.
Application: guaranteed yield point up to operating temperatures of 400 °C
Microstructure
Figure 14
example:
European standards (examples)

Pressure vessel steels Pipe steels Forged steels
EN 10 028-2 EN 10 216-2; EN 10 217-2 EN 10 222-2
P235GH P195GH P245GH
Note The unalloyed pressure vessel steels in accordance with EN 10 028-2 are to be assigned to material
group 1 according to CEN ISO/TR 15 608.
5.2.2 Fine grain pressure vessel steels
Overview of materials group

Normalised, thermo-mechanically rolled and liquid-heat-treated fine grain
Materials:
structural steels.
Use of unalloyed quality- and stainless steels, as well as alloyed stainless steels.
Mechanism of heat
The higher yield point at elevated temperature steels is due to its fine
resistance:
microstructure (N) as well as to tempering (Q).
Application: Operating temperatures between 300 and 400 °C (only N and Q)
Microstructure
Figure 15
example:
European standard (examples)

EN 10 028-3, 5, 6 EN 10 216-3; EN 10 217-3 EN 10 222-4
P275NH P355QH P285NH P285QH
P355NH P620QH
P355NH P500QH P355NH P355QH
P460NH P690QH P460NH P690QH P420NH P420QH
Note Due to the characteristics of their manufacturing provcess, thermomechanically rolled steels
must not be exposed to temperatures that exceed their recrystallisation temperature (see Chapter
2.10). For this reason EN 10 028-5 includes materials with no verified heat resistance properties.
Note Pressure vessels steels of fine grain structural steels according to EN 10 028-3, 5 and 6 can be
classified to material groups 1, 2 and 3 in accordance with CEN ISO/TR 15 608.

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5.3 Application according to chemical composition

5.3.1 Alloy pressure vessel steels for temperatures up to 500 °C
5.3.1.1 Molybdenum-alloyed ferritic-pearlitic steels

Materials: Micro-alloyed with molybdenum, ferritic-pearlitic steels.
Alloy steels (with Mo contents between 0.25 and 0.60) and normalised quality
Mechanism of heat
steels. Mo alloying increases the recrystallisation temperature compared to Mo-
resistance:
free steels.
Application: Operating temperatures up to 500 °C
Microstructure
Figure 16
example:

EN 10 028-2 DIN EN 10 216-2; 10 217-2 EN 10 222-2
16Mo3 (N) 16Mo3 (N)
16Mo3 (N)
8MoB5-4 (N) 15MnMoV4-5 (NT)
18MnMo4-5 (NT) 14MoV6-3 (NT) 14MoV6-3 (NT)
Note Molybdenum-alloyed ferritic-pearlitic steels according to EN 10 028-2 can be classified to material

group 4 in accordance with CEN ISO/TR 15 608.
5.3.1.2 Bainitic (martensitic) ferritic steels

Chromium, molybdenum, vanadium and also tungsten alloyed steels have a
Materials:
bainitic/martensitic-ferritic structure.
Solid solution formation by alloying elements. Increasing the recrystallisation
Mechanism of heat
temperature, particularly through use of molybdenum. Forming of finely
resistance:
dispersed special carbides and/or nitrides with Cr, V, W, Nb + heat treatment
Application: Operating temperatures from 450 to 550 °C
Microstructure
Figure 17
example:

EN 10 028-2 EN 10 216-2 EN 10 222-2
13CrMo4-5 (NT, QT) 13CrMo4-5 (QT) 13CrMo4-5 (NT, QT)
10CrMo9-10 (NT, QT) 10CrMo9-10 (QT) 11CrMo9-10 (NT, QT)
12CrMoV12-10 (NT, QT) 25CrMo4 (QT) 14MoV6-3 (NT, QT)
Note Bainitic (martensitic) ferritic steels according to EN 10 028-3, 5 and 6 can be classified to material
groups 4 and 5 in accordance with CEN ISO/TR 15 608.
Note At too high operating temperatures the finely dispersed special carbides and/or nitrides tend to
coagulate which reduces heat resistance and embrittles the material.

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5.3.2 Alloyed pressure vessel steels for temperatures over 500 °C

5.3.2.1 Martensitic steels with 9 to 12% chromium

Chromium, molybdenum, vanadium and also tungsten alloyed steels have a
Materials:
basic martensitic microstructure.
Complex effect of Cr in connection with Mo and V as well as the martensitic
Mechanism of heat
microstructure. Precipitation hardening by finely dispersed special carbides
resistance:
(M23C6), V/Nb carbonitrides with Cr, V, W, Nb + special heat treatment
Microstructure
Figure 18
example:

EN 10 028-2 EN 10 216-2 EN 10 222-2
X11CrMo9-1 (I)
X10CrMoVNb9-1 (NT)
X10CrMoVNb9-1 (NT, QT) X10CrMoVNb9-1 (NT)
X20CrMoV11-1 (NT) X20CrMoV11-1 (QT)
Note Martensitic pressure vessel steels up to 9 to 12% chromium, among others, according to EN 10 028-2
can be classified to material group 6 in accordance with CEN ISO/TR 15 608.
5.3.2.2 Austenitic steels

Stainless Cr-Ni and Ni-Cr steel, and heat-resistant Cr-Ni (Al, Si) steels with an
Materials:
austenitic structure.
Face-centred cubic microstructure is combined with a solid solution solidification
Mechanism of heat due to their high alloy potential as well as possible hardening by fine
resistance: precipitations. High TR up to 900 °C. Improvement of the scaling resistance
through use of aluminium and/or silicon.
Microstructure
Figure 19
example:

EN 10 028-7 EN 10 216-5 EN 10 222-2
X5CrNi18-10 X2CrNiMoN17-13-5
X8CrNiNb16-13
X1CrNi25-21 X1NiCrMoCu25-20-5
X1CrNiMoCuN25-25-5 X1CrNiMoCuN20-18-7 X1CrNiMoCuN20-18-7
Note Austenitic pressure vessel steels in accordance with EN 10 028-7 can be classified to material
group 8 according to CEN ISO/TR 15 608.

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5.4 Microstructure formation of heat-resistant steels
Figure 14: Ferritic-pearlitic structures of steel grade Figure 15: Heat-treated microstructure of steel grade
P355GH P690QH
Figure 16: Ferritic-pearlitic microstructures of steel Figure 17: Bainitic-ferritic microstructures of a steel
grade 16Mo3 grade 13CrMo4-5
Figure 18: Martensitic microstructure of steel grade Figure 19: Austenitic microstructures of steel grade
X10CrMoVNb9-1 X8CrNiNb16-13

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5.5 Special materials for specific applications

5.5.1 Hydrogen pressure resistant steels
Hydrogen pressure resistant steels are materials which are highly resistant to hydrogen at high
pressures and high temperatures (e.g. Hydrogenation). The resistance is achieved by adding chromium.
In combination with the available carbon these steels are therefore only limited suitable for welding.
Therefore usually pre-heating and postweld heat treatment are obligatory. Of special importance in this
context is the postweld heat treatment, in which the martensite in the heat-affected zone is removed and
the required hydrogen resistance is achieved.
Note In non-alloyed steels the hydrogen causes decarburisation at high temperatures. By reacting with
carbon from the carbides, e.g. Fe3C, methane is formed (CH4), which is not as diffusible as hydrogen.
This can lead to high internal pressures, especially at the grain boundaries and cause cracking.
In accordance with their highest permissible operating temperatures, pressure hydrogen-resistant steels
can be classified depending on their alloy content as follows:
– unalloyed steels with low carbon content 220 °C,

– Steels with about 1% chromium and 0.5% molybdenum 330 °C,
– Steels with about 6% chromium and 0.5% molybdenum 610 °C.
Note Pressure hydrogen-resistant steels according to EN 10 028-7 can be classified to material groups
5 and 6 in accordance with CEN ISO/TR 15 608.
5.5.2 Heat-resistant alloys, nickel and cobalt based
If the operating temperatures exceeds 700 °C, the application of nickel or Cobalt alloys is recommended.
For the adequate choice of a suitable alloy for the respective thermal and corrosive environmental
conditions, the material and application information provided by the respective manufacturers should be
considered in all cases.
6 Welding processes for heat-resistant pressure vessel steels

6.1 General information
To obstruct creep in heat-resistant steels sometimes very complex material-related mechanisms are
used, usually requiring special heat treatment techniques. As all fusion welding processes cause a
change of the material properties in the weld metal and in the heat-affected zone due to their thermal
effect, heat resistance can be negatively affected or be destroyed completely during thermal joining. Due
to this, these steels require a set of special features that have to be taken into account during the welding
process. Therefore all heat-resistant steels require:
– prior to, during and after welding
a material-specific heat controlling

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6.2 Suitable welding processes
With an actual weldability, heat-resistant steels can be processed with all modern welding processes.
However, in particular manual metal arc welding (MMA) and tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) are used.
These processes are descripted in detail in module 1. The TIG process is preferred for root welding. In
particular with gas-shielded arc welding of chromium-alloyed pressure vessel steels (Cr > 3%) special
attention must be dedicated to shielding the weld root. For this argon is suitable as a shielding gas.
6.3 Heat treatment of welded joints

6.3.1 Heat input during welding
In comparison with weldable unalloyed structural steels (see. Chapter 2.09) alloy heat-resistant steels
tend to hardening when welding. However, the properties in the heat-affected zone and in the weld
metal must correspond to the welding requirements of the base material. In this context the heat input
must be controlled in a way that a microstructure is formed which is highly similar to the base material
(compare Figure 20 and Figure 21). For this, the following measures are to be observed:
– Workpiece pre-heated for tacking and welding

– Comply with pre-heating temperature and interpass temperature during the total welding time
– controlled cooling after welding
– If required, heat treatment after welding
The pre-heat and interpass temperatures are dependant on the following parameters:
– Base material and base workpiece thickness

– Welding process and type of weld
– Hydrogen inputs
In accordance with EN ISO 3580-A, the recommended heat treatments of Table 11 are to be followed for
each of the heat-resistant and hydrogen pressure resistant electrodes as listed below.
Table 11: Heat treatments recommendations for pure weld metal with heat resistant and hydrogen pressure
resistant steels
Preheating and interpass
Alloying or Annealing after welding Minimum annealing time
temperature
Electrode Type: [°C] [min]
[°C]
Mo < 200 570 to 620 60  10
MoV 200 to 300 690 to 730 60  10
CrMo1 150 to 250 660 to 700 60  10
CrMoV1 200 to 300 680 to 730 60  10
CrMo2 200 to 300 690 to 750 60  10
CrMo5 200 to 300 730 to 760 60  10
CrMo9 200 to 300 740 to 780 120  10
CrMoWV12 250 to 350/400 to 500 740 to 780 120  10
Note Further recommendations for preheat and interpass temperatures dependant on the diffusible
hydrogen content can be seen at EN 1011-2, Annex C.

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6.3.2 Postweld heat treatment
The requirement and performing of a postweld heat treatment follows the actual applicable respectively
mandatory engineering regulations which are, among others:
– KTA standards, e.g. KTA 3211.1,

– Pressure Equipment Directive with the respective regulations e.g. EN 13 445-4, EN 12 952-5,
– VDBR-Associations agreement V 2003/3: Heat treatment of welded joints, Table 12.
Table 12: Annealing temperature for welded joints regardless of the product form
Steel Type Material Number Annealing temperature in °C
P250GH 1,0460 520 to 600
P195GH, P235GH, P265GH 1,0348, 1,0345, 1,0425
P295GH 1,0481 520 to 580
P355GH 1,0473
16Mo3 1,5415 530 to 620
13CrMo4-5 1,7335 600 to 700
10CrMo9-10 1,7380
650 to 750
11CrMo9-10 1,7383
7CrMoVTiB10-10 1,7378 730 to 750
14MoV6-3 1,7715 690 to 730*
X10CrMoVNb9-1 1,4903
740 to 770
X11CrMoWVNb9-1-1 1,4905
X20CrMoV11-1 1,4922 720 to 780
15NiCuMoNb5-6-4 1,6368 530 to 620*
P275NH, P355NH 1,0487, 1,0565
530 to 580**
P420NH, P460NH 1,8932, 1,8935
* The temperature should not exceed the actual applied tempering temperature. Considering the temperature tolerance, the heat-treatment
temperature should occur after welding sufficiently below the actual tempering temperature. If the tempering temperature has been exceeded
during stress-relief annealing, the strength and notch impact energy must be verified on the component.
** For the steel grade P460NH an annealing temperature upper limit of 560 °C is to be used.
It should be noted that extensive heat-treatment after welding can worsen the mechanical properties
should the stress relief heat treatment exceeds the time temperature parameters critical limits Pcrit
(according to EN 10 028-2) (Table 13).
Pcrit = Tsp (20 + lg thold) 10-3
where: Tsp = Stress-relief annealing temperature in K

thold = Hold time in h
Table 13: Time temperature parameter Pcrit according to EN 10 028-2

Steel Grade steel type Stress relieving annealing temperature in °C for a hold time of
Pcrit
(Examples) 1h 2h
C, C-Mn steels 17.3 580 575
16Mo3 17.5 590 585
13CrMo4-5 18.5 640 630
10CrMo9-10 19.2 675 665
X10CrMoVNb9-1 20.5 740 730

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Filler materials for heat-resistant steels must be able to achieve an appropriate weld for the base
material and the operating stress. The use of similar-type filler materials according to the steel
composition is recommended. The filler materials for welding heat resistant ferritic-pearlitic, as well as
bainitic (martensitic) ferritic steels can be divided into three basic types:
– Mo
– CrMo1 and
– CrMo2
corresponding to heat-resistant steels 16Mo3, 13CrMo4-5 and 10CrMo9-10 as well as to:
– Cr-Mo- and
– Cr-Mo-V- or Cr-Mo-W-V- alloyed special types
subdivided, where their weld metal compositions and properties are higly adapted according to the
respective steel (Table 14). For welding basic-covered electrodes should preferably be used, which are
very carefully re-baked in accordance with the specifications of the electrode manufacturers. Rutile
electrode type, also recommended for re-baking, can be used for root welding if TIG welding is not
possible. The choice of the electrodes is carried out in accordance with the requirements of the base
materials to be welded as given in the application guidelines of the electrode manufacturers. Current
filler material standards for heat-resistant steels are given in table 15.
Table 14: Examples of base- to -filler material classifications for heat-resistant steels
Parent metal Filler material
EN type Standard EN-ISO Type Norm
E Mo B 2 2 ISO 3580-A
16Mo3 EN 10 028-2 G Mo ISO 21 952-A
S Mo ISO 24 598-A
E CrMo1 B 2 2 ISO 3580-A
13CrMo4-5 EN 10 028-2 G CrMo1 ISO 21 952-A
S CrMo1 ISO 24 598-A
E CrMo2 B 2 2 ISO 3580-A
10CrMo9-10 EN 10 028-2 G CrMo2 ISO 21 952-A
S CrMo2 ISO 24 598-A
E CrMoWV12 B 2 2 ISO 3580-A
X20CrMoWV12-1 – G CrMoWV12 ISO 21 952-A
S CrMoWV12 ISO 24 598-A
Table 15: Filler material standards for heat-resistant steels (selection)

Form of product
Norm Title
Welding process
Filler materials; covered electrodes for the manual metal arc
E EN ISO 3580
welding of heat-resistant steels. Classification.
Filler materials; Wire electrodes, flux cored electrodes and
S EN ISO 24 598 wire-flux combinations for submerged arc welding of heat-
resistant steels. Classification.
Filler materials; wire electrodes, wires, rods and weld material
G EN ISO 21 952
for gas-shielded welding of heat-resistant steel. Classification.
Filler materials; flux cored electrodes for gas-shielded metal
T EN ISO 17 634
arc welding of heat-resistant steel. Classification.

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6.5 Mixed joints
Mixed joints between different heat-resistant steels can be produced by welding, taking into account the
regulations. The choice of filler material and the choice of the correct postweld heat treatment are
crucial (Table 16).
Note In certain cases a direct connection between different alloyed heat-resistant steels is not possible
(e.g. 16Mo3 – X10CrMoVNb9-1). In such cases an intermediate part must be used, e.g. 10CrMo9-10.
Table 16: Annealing temperature for welded joints between different heat-resistant rolling and/or forged
steels using recommended filler materials in accordance with VDBR Associations agreement
V2003/3: "Heat treatment of welded joints"
Combinations: Recommended Annealing temperature
Base material 1: Base material 2: Welding consumables in °C
P250GH 16Mo3 non-alloyed or similar to 16Mo3 530 to 600
P235GH
P265GH
16Mo3 unlegiert oder ähnlich 16Mo3 540 to 600
P295GH
P355GH
P235GH
P250GH 13CrMo4-5 similar to 16Mo3 540 to 600
P265GH
13CrMo4-5 560 to 620
16Mo3 ähnlich 16Mo3
10CrMo9-10, 11CrMo9-10 570 to 620
13CrMo4-5 10CrMo9-10, 11CrMo9-10 similar to 13CrMo4-5 680 to 690
13CrMo4-5 ähnlich 13CrMo4-5 680 to 720
14MoV6-3
10CrMo9-10, 11CrMo9-10 similar to 10CrMo4-5 690 to 730
similar to 10CrMo9-10 or
10CrMo9-10, 10CrMo9-10, 730 to 750
similar to 7CrMoVTiB10-10
11CrMo9-10, X10CrMoVNb9-1,
similar to X10CrMoVNb9-1,
7CrMoVTiB10-10 X11CrMoWVNb9-1-1 *
X11CrMoWVNb9-1-1
P235GH, P265GH, P250GH,
ähnlich 16Mo3 530 to 590
15NiCuMoNb5-6-4 16Mo3
13CrMo4-5 similar to 15NiCuMoNb5-6-4 570 to 620
P195GH, P235GH, P265GH,
P275NH, P355NH, unlegiert oder ähnlich 16Mo3
P250GH, P295GH. G355GH 530 to 580
P420NH, P460NH
16Mo3 similar to 16Mo3 or Mn-Ni alloy.
* When welding filler materials X10CrMoVNb9-1/X11CrMoWVNb9-1-1 the instructions provided by the filler material manufacturer must be
observed. Deviations are possible if the weld has been verified by a procedure test.

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6.6 Guidelines for quality assurance of welding operations
Regarding all welding operations, the measures as described in more detail in chapters 4.1 and 4.2 for
quality assurance are generally realised. Due to its specific use at high temperatures it must be noted
that, for example, in the context of working- or procedure tests according to EN ISO 15 614-1, in
particular the verification of hot- and creep rupture strength of welded joints at the intended
operating temperature and desired period of operation must be the focus point. Special attention
should also be dedicated to the influence of the heat treatment condition of the base materials towards
the HAZ of welded joints in a metallographic microsection. In this context, compliance, control and
documentation of the heat input is especially important when welding heat-resistant steels. The
complexity of temperature cycles using the example of martensitic 9 or 12% Chromium steels
X10CrMoVNb9-1 and X20CrMoV12-1 is shown in Figure 20 and Figure 21.
Figure 20: Schematic of temperature time cycle Figure 21: Schematic of temperature time cycle
during welding X10CrMoVNb9-1 (acc. to HEUSER and during welding X20CrMoV12-1 (acc. to HEUSER
JOCHUM) and JOCHUM)
Due to their classifications as pressure vessel steels and at operating pressures that exceed the
atmospheric pressure of at least 0.5 bar, additional requirements must be considered. These, among
others, are defined in the Pressure Equipment Directive 97/23/EG (European Pressure Equipment
Directive) and in the AD 2000 Code (see Chapter 3.09).
The buyer, test organisation or the expert can specify, with respect to the regulations as well as to the
the risk potential, to what extent additional non-destructive tests are necessary (e.g. PT, RT, US).
Also, for producing particular difficult or complex welds, even so after heat treatments more tightened
test requirements could be defined.
Note During the welding fabrication of heat-resistant pressure vessel steels the user information
regarding the respective basic or filler material manufacturers should be observed.
Note Pressure vessels steels and their welded joints are subject to special safety requirements for the
duration of their life cycle (see section 6.6).

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7 Test questions
(1) By which important characteristic(s) is (are) heat-resistant steels characterised?
 They can not change.

 They are heat-resistant.
 They have sufficient strength at low temperatures.
 They have a guaranteed strength at operating temperature.
 They are resistant to creep processes.
(2) What do you understand by the term "heat resistance"?
 It is the strength of a material at temperatures up to the pearlite formation temperature.

 It is the strength of a material at temperatures up to the austenite formation temperature.
 It is the strength of a material at temperatures up to the martensite formation temperature.
 It is the strength of a material at temperatures up to the recrystallisation temperature.
 It is the strength of a material at temperatures up to the wustite point.
(3) What is meant by the term "creep"?
 The term describes a time-dependent deformation under increasing load conditions.

 The term describes a time-dependent deformation under decreasing load conditions.
 The term describes a stress-dependent deformation under increasing load conditions.
 The term describes a ductile-dependent deformation under increasing load conditions.
 The term describes a time-dependent deformation under constant load conditions.
(4) What is meant by the transition temperature Tü and what is Tt in connection with heat resistance?
 Above this temperature the properties of metals are time-dependent.

 Above this temperature the strength properties of metals increase.
 Above this temperature will cause brittle fracture (cleavage fracture).
 Above this temperature steels must only be used with the test certificate.
 Above this temperature aluminium alloys must only be used.
(5) At which stages do creeping processes occur?
 Monolithic creep
 Primary creep
 Stationary creep
 Polymorphic creep
 Tertiary creep

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(6) Which limit temperature must not be exceeded when using heat-resistant steels?
 The temperature of the intermediate stage formation.

 The temperature of the cementite precipitation.
 The temperature of the precipitation of intermetallic phases.
 The recrystallisation temperature.
 The solidus temperature.
(7) Which alloying elements have a beneficial heat resistance?
 Transformable elements
 Elements with a low solidification temperature
 Elements from the third subgroup of the periodic table
 Elements with a high melting temperature
 Elements with strong diamagnetic properties.
(8) Which heat-resistant pressure vessel steels are suitable for operating temperatures up to 550°C?
 Non-alloy steels
 Mn-alloyed steels
 Mo-alloyed steels
 Mo, Cr and Mo, chromium, vanadium alloyed, heat-treatable steels
 Ni, Cu alloyed steels
(9) What especially must be considered when welding alloyed heat-resistant pressure vessel steels?
 Its pronounced tendency to retain (remaining) magnetism.

 Material-specific heat controlling prior to, during and after welding.
 Irreversible decrease in strength in the heat-affected zone.
 Its susceptibility to hardening in the heat-affected zone.
 Its insensitivity to phase transformations.
(10) Which parameters can be used in order to avoid a degradation of the mechanical properties of
heat-resistant steels during stress relieving?
 The carbon equivalent CEV.

 The carbon equivalent CET.
 The time temperature parameters Pcrit.
 The HERZSPRUNG-RUSSEL parameter HR-P.
 The stress intensity parameter i.

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8 Bibliography
Zimmermann, R.; K. Günther:

Metallurgie und Werkstofftechnik. (Volume 1)
Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig:, 1975
Schuster, J.:
Stähle für Druckbehälter – Aktueller Entwicklungsstand und Normung.
DVS Jahrbuch Schweißtechnik 2010
Düsseldorf: Deutscher Verlag für Schweißen und verwandte Verfahren DVS-Verlag GmbH; 2009
Schuster, J.:
Schweißen von Eisen-, Stahl- und Nickelwerkstoffen. Leitfaden für die schweißmetallurgische Praxis.
Fachbuchreihe Schweißtechnik, Band 130 [Series of reference books on welding technology, Volume 130]
Eckstein, H.-J.:
Technologie der Wärmebehandlung von Stahl.
Schulze. G.:
Physical Metallurgy of Welding.
Hanus, F.; R. Cawelius; G. Luxenburger:

Hochfeste wasservergütete Stähle für den Bau von Druckgeräten.
DVS-Jahrbuch Schweißtechnik 2005
Hahn, B.; W. Bendick:

Rohrstähle für moderne Hochleistungskraftwerke – Werkstoff- und Verarbeitungseigenschaften –
Einsatzempfehlungen.
DVS-Berichte, Band 239; S. 29-45.
Bendick, W.; B. Hahn; B. Vandenberghe:

Neue Rohrstähle für den Kraftwerksbau.
DVS-Jahrbuch Schweißtechnik 2006.
VDBR-Verbändevereinbarung V 2003/3:
Wärmebehandlung von Schweißverbindungen – Angaben zu Glühtemperatur und Glühdauer.
Ausgabe: 12-2003
EN 1011-2:
Welding - Recommendation for welding of metallic materials - Part 2: Arc welding of ferritic steels
Release: 05-2001

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Steels for cryogenic applications Page 1
Chapter 2.13: Steels for cryogenic applications
Contents
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 2
2 Definitions ....................................................................................................................................... 3
3 Verification of toughness ............................................................................................................... 3
4 Measures for achieving toughness at subzero temperatures...................................................... 5
4.1 General possibilities for increasing strength and toughness ..................................................... 5
4.2 Particular options for increasing toughness at subzero temperatures ....................................... 5
4.3 Influences of nickel and manganese on the toughness of steels with cbc elementary cell ........ 6
4.3.1 Influence of nickel on the the impact energy curve ......................................................... 6
4.3.2 Influence of manganese on the impact energy curve ...................................................... 6
5 Behaviour of metals at falling temperature ................................................................................... 7
5.1 Influence of falling temperatures on mechanical properties ...................................................... 7
5.2 Brittle fracture ........................................................................................................................... 8
5.3 Deformation fracture ................................................................................................................. 8
6 Overview of materials for low-temperature applications ............................................................. 9
6.1 Typical application temperatures and suitable steel materials................................................... 9
6.2 Low-temperature properties of non-alloy and alloyed fine grain structural steels .................... 10
6.3 Low-temperature properties of stainless steels ....................................................................... 10
6.4 Low-temperature properties of non-ferrous metals that are tough at subzero temperatures ... 11
7 Nickel-alloy pressure vessel steels that are tough at low temperatures .................................. 11
7.1 Overview of material group ..................................................................................................... 11
7.2 Properties of nickel-alloyed pressure vessel steels that are tough at subzero temperatures ... 11
7.3 Heat-treatment states of nickel-alloyed pressure vessel steels that are tough at subzero
temperatures ................................................................................................................................... 13
7.4 Microstructure formation of nickel-alloyed steels..................................................................... 14
7.5 Types of nickel-alloy pressure vessel steels that are tough at subzero temperatures ............. 14
8 Welding of nickel-alloyed pressure vessel steels that are tough at subzero temperatures ... 15
8.1 General notes on welding fabrication ...................................................................................... 15
8.2 Remanent magnetism and effective counter measures .......................................................... 16
8.3 Welding 1% and 3.5% nickel steels ........................................................................................ 16
8.4 Welding 5% and 9% nickel steels ........................................................................................... 17
8.5 Notes on the choice of filler metals ......................................................................................... 19
8.6 Notes on quality assurance of welding work ........................................................................... 19
9 Test questions............................................................................................................................... 20
10 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 22

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1 Introduction
Steels, which are used at low temperatures, are called cryogenic steels, low-temperature resistant
steels or steels that are tough at sub-zero temperatures. Their most important property is sufficient
toughness at operating temperature. Associated with this, is a considerable sensitivity to brittle
fracturing. Furthermore, they are characterised in some cases by high strengths and their suitability for
welding. These materials are used particularly in machinery for liquefying gas, for pipes, pumps, fittings
of cooling industry as well as for bearing, transport and pressure vessels of the liquidated gases (Figure
1, Figure 2). Nuclear research and engineering is also a special application of these steels.
Figure 1: LPG tanker (liquefied petroleum gas) with Figure 2: Tank for liquefied petroleum gas of a self-
gas tanks made of low-temperature resistant pressure service autogas filling station
vessel steels
For low-temperature applications, various materials can be chosen depending on the operating temperature.
These also include non-ferrous materials such as:
– Copper and copper alloys (cf. Chapter 2.18)

– Nickel and nickel alloys (cf. Chapter 2.19)
– Aluminium and aluminium materials (cf. Chapter 2.20)
To improve its toughness at subzero temperatures, the element nickel, in particular, is added to the
steel, in addition to other materials-technical measures. If the nickel content is below 10% and if no
further property-determining elements (like e.g. chromium) are added, the microstructure remains
ferritic-pearlitic at room temperature under conditions of equilibrium (Figure 16) and has a cubic body
centred elementary cell. Due to their preferred application as pressure vessel material steels, these
steels are organised, in accordance with CEN ISO/TR 15 608 (grouping metallic materials for
welding), into material group 9 and its subgroups 9.1 to 9.3 (Table 1).
Table 1: Material group 9 according to CEN ISO/TR 15 608 and important European material standards
Low-temperature resistant pressure vessel steels – nickel-alloyed
Standard steels
Group Sub-group Steel grades
(examples)
Nickel-alloyed steels with Ni  10%
EN 10 028-4
9.1 Nickel-alloyed steels with Ni  3% (13MnNi6-3)
EN 10 028-4
9 9.2 Nickel-alloyed steels with 3.0% < Ni  8% (X12Ni5)
EN 10 028-4
9.3 Nickel-alloyed steels with 8.0% < Ni  10% (X8Ni9)

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2 Definitions
In addition to their strength, the terms and properties defined below are particularly important for steels
that are tough at subzero temperatures.
Cryogenic engineering (low-temperature engineering)
The term cryogenic engineering should, according to the NIST (National Institute for Standards and
Technology, USA) only be applied to applications below -150 °C. This is why this chapter does not speak
of low-temperature toughness but rather toughness at subzero temperatures (see below).
Deformability
The deformation of a body is understood to be the change in its shape as a result of the influence of an
external force. The deformation can manifest as a change in length or angle.
Ductility
The term ductility describes the resistance of a material to fracture or crack propagation. The ductility
mostly occurs through the absorption of energy in plastic deformation. For numerous materials, including
in particular all cubic-body-centred metals (and therefore also the non-alloy structural steels), the ductility
is heavily dependent on temperature.
Toughness at subzero temperatures
The term toughness at subzero temperatures is not clearly defined. In the specifications, two limit val-
ues are defined for it. In accordance with SEW 680 steels are tough at subzero temperatures, if they still
display an impact energy of 27 J (at the cross specimen) at temperatures  -10 °C. Contrary to this DIN
17280 specifies as a limit value for toughness at subzero temperatures a temperature  -60 °C.
Note: The term 'toughness at subzero temperatures' is no longer included in the European standard DIN
EN 10 028-4. For this reason, reference is made to the withdrawn standards DIN 17 280 and SEW 680.
It is recommended to use the limit temperature -60 °C.
3 Verification of toughness
The toughness of steel materials is tested by proving a minimum value for impact energy in the
notched-bar impact test (cf. Chapter 2.23), which is required in the respective standards and regula-
tions (e.g. EN 10 028-4).
Depending on the crystal lattice structure and the test temperature, the notched-bar impact test produces
different curves, as shown in . These have the following meanings:
– Curve : Fine grain structural steels in the cbc lattice structure

– Curve : Metals with cbc or hdg lattice structure, e.g. non-alloy structural steels, chromium steels,
magnesium
– Curve : Metals with cfc lattice structure, e.g. austenitic Cr-Ni steels, aluminium, copper, nickel
– Curve : Brittle materials, e.g., cast iron
In particular non-alloy structural steels, like all other materials with cubic body centred elementary
cells (cf. Chapter 2.01) display a marked dependence between temperature and their toughness. The
transition between the tough "high" and the brittle "low" in the impact energy consumed/temperature
curve is described by the transition temperature Tü or Tt of impact energy (). This is defined as a tem-
perature between the high and the low of the impact energy consumed/temperature curve. The
following allocations are common in accordance with Chapter 2.23:

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Tü27 Temperature, at which the impact energy reaches a defined limit value (e.g. 27 J, )
Tü50 Temperature, at which a certain amount of matt or fibrous fracture area occurs, e.g. 50%
Tü0.4 Temperature, at which a defined measure of lateral widening is obtained, e.g. 0.4 mm
Tü50% Temperature, at which the size of the crystalline patch is 50% (amount of crystalline patch is
estimated)
The application temperature of a given material should therefore always be above the respective defined
transition temperature. In other words: Materials for low-temperature applications must be resistant
to embrittlement fractures.
80
High altitude
 70
 High altitude
Impact energy KV in J
 60
Impact energy KV in J
50
40
Steep drop Steep drop
30
27
20
Low altitude Low altitude
10

0
Temperature T Tü27
Temperature T
Figure 3: Schematic illustration of curves of im- Figure 4: Curve of impact energy consumed as a
pact energy consumed as a function of the tem- function of temperature, with example for the tran-
perature for different materials sition temperature Tü27
Figure 5: Broken up Liberty-T2-tanker S.S. Figure 6: Broken up Liberty freighter S.S “Charles S.
“Schenectady” in the port of Portland, USA Haight” near to Cape Ann, USA (picture: Ted Dow, USA)
(picture: Library of Congress, USA)
Before the phenomenon of the transition temperature was known, ships kept breaking apart in Arctic
waters due to embrittlement. Typical examples of this are the Liberty freighter and T2 tanker: these
World War 2 era ships broke apart with hardly deformation or obvious reason in wet dock or on calm
seas, but at low temperatures (Figure 5 and Figure 6). The sinking of the RMS “Titanic” on 15 April 1912
is ultimately due to a material embrittlement due to the low water temperatures of -4 °C in the North
Atlantic (Figure 7 and Figure 8). The steels used were not sufficiently tough at low temperatures.

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Figure 7: The RMS “Titanic” leaving Southampton on Figure 8: Iceberg, with which the RMS “Titanic” is pre-
10 April 1912 (picture: F. G. O. Stuart, U.K.) sumed to have collided (picture: Wikimedia)
4 Measures for achieving toughness at subzero temperatures

4.1 General possibilities for increasing strength and toughness
The metallurgical options for increasing strength presented in Chapter 2.10 do not always have a benefi-
cial effect on the toughness properties, as shown in Table 2. When using the respective mechanisms, it
is important to pay attention how these are influencing the use and processing properties, the toughness
at subzero temperatures and the suitability for welding.
Table 2: Options for changing the mechanical-technological properties of steel

Increase in Improvement in toughness
Mechanism
strength properties properties
alloying with existing
Solid solution hardening yes
elements
Strain hardening yes no
through special Ms-
Solidification by microstructural transformation yes
microstructure
Hardening yes very limited
Grain refining yes yes
4.2 Particular options for increasing toughness at subzero temperatures
An improvement in the impact energy values and thus an increased resistance to brittle fracturing at low
temperatures on non-alloy and low-alloy steels, i.e. steels with cbc elementary cell, can be achieved by
the following metallurgical measures:
Improvement in purity, inter alia by:

– lowering trace and impurity elements (phosphorus, sulphur each  0.025%)
Changing the alloy potential:

– Setting a (very) low carbon content (increase in strength by grain refining)
– Alloying with nickel and/or manganese (cf. Section 4.3)

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Setting a fine-grained microstructure, inter alia by:

– alloying with aluminium (0.02%)
– adding fine-grained additives (e.g. carbide formers such as niobium, vanadium, titanium, etc.)
– normalising, quenching and tempering, thermomechanical treatment
In most cases, a targetted heat treatment improves the toughness at subzero temperatures. In particular
with the low-alloy steels (Ni  1%) the homogeneity of the microstructure can be improved by normalising,
which then improves the toughness. On the other hand, the alloyed steels (Ni  3.5%) are generally
quenched and tempered. The resultant martensitic or martensitic-bainitic microstructure offers significant-
ly better toughness properties with simultaneoulsy high strength values than the normalised microstructure.
4.3 Influences of nickel and manganese on the toughness of steels with cbc elementary cell
4.3.1 Influence of nickel on the the impact energy curve
Nickel is the only element, through which the toughness of an iron-based material can be improved even
at falling temperatures. By adding nickel, the curve of the impact energy moves to the left over the tem-
perature line, i.e. the transition temperature and with it therefore the risk of the formation of brittle
fractures is moved to lower temperatures. In accordance with Figure 9 the transition temperature
Tü27 of a steel with 2% nickel and 0.15% carbon is about -120 °C. A steel with 13% nickel and 0.01%
carbon on the other hand does, up to a temperature of -196°C, not anymore display up a drop in the
course of the curve due to its austenitic microstructure (and therefore also no embrittlement at low tem-
peratures.) Nickel also brings about a lowering of the A1 and A3 temperature, with which a considerable
supercooling of the austenite transformation is associated. As a result, steels alloyed with sufficient nick-
el can already tend to form martensite (cubic martensite) during air cooling.
4.3.2 Influence of manganese on the impact energy curve
Manganese in quantities of up to approx. 2% impacts positively on the toughness of steels (Figure 10).
By adding this element the fineness of grain is improved, thus lowering the transition temperature Tü.
The reason for this is the reduction in the transformation temperature of austenite, which leads to a
significant delay in the diffusion processes during transformation. The result is a smaller secondary grain
size and a very fine formation of pearlite. Manganese content above 2% however leads, due to the
significantly lower transformation temperature of austenite, to the formation of intermediate stage (bain-
ite) or martensite, with which an increasing embrittling effect is associated. For this reason, the man-
ganese content is to be limited to maximum 1.7%, to guarantee the toughness of steels with a cbc ele-
mentary cell at subzero temperatures.
Note: To guarantee sufficient toughness at subzero temperatures, it is important to lower the share of
manganese in the steel further as the nickel content increases, as otherwise this would lead to an in-
crease in solid solution hardening and the associated drop in toughness.

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250 50
Impact energy (ISO-V-Probe) in J
200 0
Transition temperature Tü27 in °C

5 % Ni
150 8,5 % Ni -50

Fine granularity
13 % Ni
Bainite,
100 Martensite formation
- 150
2 % Ni
0 % Ni
3,5 % Ni
50 - 200
0 - 250
- 200 - 160 - 120 -80 -40 0 40 0 1,0 2,0 3,0
Test temperature In °C Weight content of manganese in %
Figure 9: Influence of nickel on the impact energy Figure 10: Influence of manganese on the transi-
according to EBERT tion temperature of the impact energy
5 Behaviour of metals at falling temperature

5.1 Influence of falling temperatures on mechanical properties
The temperature-dependence of the mechanical properties of metallic materials must be known if these
materials are to be used properly. Incidences of embrittlement in the thermally unaffected base material,
in the weld metal and in the heat-affected zone of welded joints are a key problem and should not occur
at operating temperature. Thus as the temperature falls, the resistance to shape change, the yield
strength and the tensile strength of metallic materials more or less increases. Under no circumstances
are these properties less than at room temperature, so that components that are sufficiently dimensioned
at room temperature can also withstand the stresses at low temperatures. For static stress, however, this
is only theoretically correct and is not necessarily the case in practice. The reason lies in the defor-
mation
behaviour. Whereas in metals and alloys with cubic-face-centred elementary cell the deformation
parameters either increase slightly or stay the same as the temperature falls, for metals and alloys with
a cubic body or hexagonal crystal structure, the ductility suddenly falls more or less strongly below
certain temperatures. The susceptibility of such materials to the formation of brittle fractures therefore
increases considerably (cf. Section 5.2).
Figure 11: Material parameters of S235, X2NiCr18-16 and TiAl6V4 as a function of temperature
(acc. to FREY and HAEFER)

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Figure 11 shows the curve of the strength and

deformation parameters as a function of temperature
using the example of three metallic materials with
different lattice structures. The marked steep drop
of the deformation parameters of non-alloy structural
steel S235 at falling temperature is clearly evident.
Figure 12 schematically illustrates what is known as

the “embrittlement temperature”. As can be
seen, as the temperature falls the yield point Re
increases faster than the tensile strength Rm. The
temperature, at which both strength values col-
lapse, is called the “embrittlement temperature”.
Figure 12: Schematic illustration of the term
“embrittlement temperature”
5.2 Brittle fracture
As the temperature drops, cubic-body-centred materials, in particular, lose the ability at atomic level to
glide under loading conditions (cf. Chapter 2.01). They lose their ductility and toughness. As a result,
any loading condition lead to a splitting of the grains. This in turn leads to the formation of an unstable,
propogating crack. The splitting of the grains produces the typical fracture appearance, the cleavage
fracture (this is brittle, because zero-deformation fractures develop, with few exceptions, in a transcrystal-
line fashion Figure 13). Brittle fractures occur without plastic deformations and require only a little energy
to form. Selected influences on this fracture type are compared with deformation fractures in Table 3.
Figure 13: Typical fracture area of a brittle fracture Figure 14: Typical fracture area of a ductile fracture
(cleavage fracture), SEM micrograph (honeycomb fracture), SEM micrograph
5.3 Deformation fracture
If the flowing of a material that takes place during plastic deformation processes is regarded as sliding
of the crystal planes on one another and therefore as the process of passing through dislocations, the
crack initiation can by explained by the collision of dislocations at, e.g. grain boundaries. These combine
into cavities and the material plastifies (i.e. it deforms). If the tension is high enough locally, the faces
between these cavities tear off. This results in deformation fractures with their typical honeycomb struc-
ture (Figure 14). A strong constriction in the area of the fracture zone is typical of this type of fracture.
Parameters that influence the formation of deformation fractures are contained in Table 3 and compared
to brittle fractures.

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Table 3: Selected parameters that influence the formation of brittle and deformation fractures (overview)
Variable Brittle fracture Deformation fracture
Temperature: Low temperatures Dependent on the type of elementary cell
Component thickness: Thick components Dependent on the load
Notches: Sharp notches Favourable influence
Residual stress state: High residual stress states Uniaxial stress conditions
Microstructure: Imbalanced micro structure Dependent on the microstructure hardness
(e.g. martensite)
Purity Embrittling inclusions Type, quantity, size of inclusions
Grain size: Coarse grain Dependent on the size and shape of the grain
Material (elementary cell): cbc, hdP Temperature-dependent (cbc, hdP, cfc)
Chemical composition: High carbon content Dependent on the type of elementary cell
Stress: Abrupt (fast) Static (slow)
6 Overview of materials for low-temperature applications

6.1 Typical application temperatures and suitable steel materials
As already described in Section 1, materials that are tough at subzero temperatures are used in particular
for gas liquefaction systems and for transporting and storing liquefied gasses. The need to liquefy
gasses results from the fact that the volume of liquid gas is many times smaller than that of the gaseous
phase. Thus, for example, 600 m³ of natural gas (comprising mainly methane, CH4) is reduced, at a
temperature of -163 °C, to 1 m³ of liquefied petroleum gas. Depending on the respective boiling or
condensation temperature, special steels have proven to be successful for this (Table 4).
Table 4: Application areas of selected materials that are tough at subzero temperatures compared to the
boiling temperatures of technical gases
Boiling tem-
Application limit Yield strength:
Gas perature Steel or material type
temperature in °C Re in N/mm²
in °C
Ammonia -33.4 -40 Fine grain structural steel (QL) 460 – 960
Propane -42.1 -50 Fine grain structural steels (NL, ML) 275 – 460
Carbon
-50.2 Fine grain structural steel (QL1) 460 – 890
disulphide -60
Radon -61.7 Ni-alloy pressure vessel steel (1% Ni) 285 – 355
Carbon
-78.5
dioxide
-100 Ni alloy pressure vessel steel (3.5% Ni) 355
Acetylene -83.6
Ethane -88.6
Ethylene
-103.8 -120 Ni-alloy pressure vessel steel (5% Ni) 390
(LEG)
Krypton -151.0
Methane -163.0
Ni-alloy pressure vessel steel (9% Ni) 490 – 585
(LNG)
-196 Austenitic Cr-Mn steels 300 – 320
Oxygen -182.9
Austenitic Cr-Ni-steels 200 – 350
Argon -185.9
Nitrogen -195.8
Neon -246.1 Austenitic Ni-Cr steels and alloys 250 – 300
-253
Hydrogen -252.8 Nickel and Ni alloys 80 – 300
Helium -268.9 -273 Nickel and Ni alloys 80 – 300

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6.2 Low-temperature properties of non-alloy and alloyed fine grain structural steels
The characteristics of high-strength fine grain structural steels are discussed in detail in Chapter 2.10.
Taking into consideration their use in the refrigeration technology, it is important to consider that these
can be used, depending on the way in which they are manufactured and their treatment status, down as
low as temperatures of -60 °C (QL1) (Table 4).
Due to their cubic-body-centre lattice all fine grain steels with particular toughness at subzero
temperatures also display a steep drop in the curve of impact energy consumed over temperature. This
is however moved to lower temperatures compared to non-alloy structural steels by the measures
described in Section 4.2 (cf. , curves  and . Depending on their manufacturing technology,
fine grain structural steels can be categorised into three main types (the fourth type, i.e. precipitation-
hardenable fine grain structural steels, is no longer standardised):
Normalised or normalised rolled fine structural steels (N) – EN 10 025-3:

– N: Cvtransverse at -20 °C  20 J
– NL: Cvtransverse at -50 °C  16 J
Thermomechanical rolled fine grain structural (M) – EN 10 025-4:

– M: Cvtransverse bei -20 °C  20 J
– ML: Cvtransverse bei -50 °C  16 J
Fluid or water-quenched and tempered fine grain structural steels (Q) – EN 10 025-6:
– Q: Cvtransverse at -20 °C  27 J
– QL: Cvtransverse at -40 °C  27 J
– QL1: Cvtransverse at -60 °C  27 J
6.3 Low-temperature properties of stainless steels
The properties of stainless steels in accordance with DIN EN 10 088-1 are discussed in detail in Chapter
2.15. Due to their austenitic micro structure with cubic-face-centred elementary cell, the austenitic
chromium-nickel materials in particular, display a tough behaviour even at temperatures in the vicinity of
absolute zero to (approx. 10 K). As can be seen in , curve , the curve of impact energy consumed over
temperature does not have a steep drop. Depending on their chemical composition, the austenitic
micro structure of these steels remains stable even at low temperatures. Affected by their micro
structural structure at room temperature, the stainless steels can be categorized into four main types.
Ferritic chromium steels:

– Application temperatures to: approx. -50°C
Martensitic chromium steels:

– Application temperatures of martensitic chromium steels to: approx. 0°C
– Application temperatures of soft-martensitic chromium steels to: approx. -50 °C
Austenitic chromium-nickel steels:

– Application temperatures up to: approx. 10 K
Ferritic-austenitic chromium-nickel steels:

– Application temperatures up to: approx. -200°C

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6.4 Low-temperature properties of non-ferrous metals that are tough at subzero temperatures
For use at low temperatures, however, a range of non-ferrous metals and their alloys with cubic-face-
centred lattice structure are suitable. These include in particular:

– Application temperatures up to: approx. -200 °C
Nickel and nickel alloys

– Application temperatures up to: approx. -273 °C (0 K)
Aluminium and aluminium alloys

– Application temperatures up to: approx. -200 °C
Note: these non-ferrous materials are discussed in detail in chapters 2.18, 2.19 and 2.20.
7 Nickel-alloy pressure vessel steels that are tough at low temperatures

7.1 Overview of material group
Through the development of pressure vessel steels with different nickel contents, materials are available,
which have sufficient impact properties at low operating temperatures (EN 10 028-4). These can be
classified according to their nickel content into four groups:
– 1% nickel steels
– 3.5% nickel steels
The alloying element nickel influences the transformation sequence and the quenching and tempering
of these steels, giving more favourable microstructure characteristics, in particular a fine-grained result.
In addition to the resultant improvement in toughness properties, the strength properties can also be
enhanced, even with the same contents of the other elements present in these steels, such as carbon,
silicon and manganese (solid solution hardening).
By increasing the nickel content, the transition temperature in the curve of impact energy consumed over
temperature can be moved to lower temperatures, without a marked prominent steep drop occurring.
With that, the application temperatures of such steels can be reduced, in some cases significantly ( and
Figure 9). In addition to the chemical composition, the microstructure formation, the
heat-treatment and stress states also impact on the position of the steep drop of the impact energy
(transition temperature) for these materials.
7.2 Properties of nickel-alloyed pressure vessel steels that are tough at subzero temperatures
Table 5, Table 6 and Table 7 provide information on the chemical composition and on selected mechani-
cal properties of nickel-alloyed steels that are tough at subzero temperatures. In terms of toughness at
subzero temperatures, these steels possess a high level of purity, i.e. low content of phosphorous
and sulphur as well as very precisely coordinated content of the main alloying elements, nickel
and manganese as well as carbon.

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Table 5: Chemical composition (ladle analysis) to DIN EN 10 028-4

Steel grade Mass fraction in %)
C Si Mn P S Altot Mo Nb Ni V
Short name Mat. no.:
max. max. max. max. min. max. max. max.
0.70 to 0.30 to
11MnNi5-3 1.6212 0.14 0.50 0.025 0.015 0.020 — 0.05 0.05
1.50 0.80
0.85 to 0.30 bis
13MnNi6-3 1.6217 0.16 0.50 0.025 0.010 0.020 — 0.05 0.05
1.70 0.85
0.80 to 1.30 to
15NiMn6 1.6228 0.18 0.35 0.025 0.010 — — — 0.05
1.50 1.70
0.30 bis 3.25 to
12Ni14 1.5637 0.15 0.35 0.020 0.005 — — — 0.05
0.80 3.75
0.30 bis 4.75 to
X12Ni5 1.5680 0.15 0.35 0.020 0.005 — — — 0.05
0.80 5.25
0.30 bis 8.50 to
X8Ni9 1.5662 0.10 0.35 0.020 0.005 — 0.10 — 0.05
0.80 10.00
0.30 bis 8.50 bis
X7Ni9 1.5663 0.10 0.35 0.015 0.005 — 0.10 — 0.01
0.80 10.00
Table 6: Mechanical properties at room temperature to DIN EN 10 028-4

Product thickness ReH Rm A
Steel grade
Usual delivery state*) [mm] min. min.
Short name Mat. no.: Over To [N/mm²] [N/mm²] [%]
30 285
11MnNi5-3 1.6212 +N (+NT) 30 50 275 420 to 530 24
50 80 265
30 335
13MnNi6-3 1.6217 +N (+NT) 30 50 345 490 to 610 22
50 80 335
30 355
+N
15MnNi6 1.6228 or +NT 30 50 345 490 to 640 22
or +QT
50 80 335
30 355
+N
12Ni14 1.5637 or +NT 30 50 345 490 to 640 22
or +QT
50 80 335
+N 30 390
X12Ni5 1.5680 or +NT 530 to 710 20
30 50 380
or +QT
+N 30 490
+NT640
plus +NT 30 50 480
640 to 840 18
30 490
X8Ni9 1.5662 +QT640 +QT
30 50 480
30 585
+QT680 +QT 680 to 820 18
30 50 575
30 585
X7Ni9 1.5663 +QT 680 to 820 18
30 50 575
*) +N = normalised; +NT = normalised and tempered; +QT = quenched and tempered; +NT640/+QT640/+QT680 = heat treatment type with minimum tensile
strength of 640 or 680 N/mm²

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Table 7: Minimum values of impact energy (ISO V specimens) according to DIN EN 10 028-4
Steel grade Heat- Minimum values of impact energy Cv in J at test temperature in °C
Position of
treatment
Short name Mat. no.: test pieces 20 0 -20 -40 -50 -60 -80 -100 -120 -150 -170 -196
condition*)
11MnNi5-3 1.6212 longitudinal 70 60 55 50 45 40 — — — — — —
+N (+T)
13MnNi6-3 1.6217 transverse 50 50 45 35 30 27 — — — — — —
+N longitudinal 65 65 65 60 50 50 40 — — — — —
15NiMn6 1.6228 or +NT
or +QT transverse 50 50 45 40 35 35 27 — — — — —
+N longitudinal 65 60 55 55 50 50 45 40 — — — —
12Ni14 1.5637 or +NT
or +QT transverse 50 50 45 35 35 35 30 27 — — — —
+N longitudinal 70 70 70 65 65 65 60 50 40 — — —
X12Ni5 1.5680 or +NT
or +QT transverse 60 60 55 45 45 45 40 30 27 — — —
longitudinal 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 90 80 70 60 50

1.5662 +NT640
transverse 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 60 50 50 45 40
longitudinal 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 90 80 70 60 50

X8Ni9 1.5662 +QT640
transverse 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 60 50 50 45 40
longitudinal 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 110 100 90 80 70
1.5662 +QT680
transverse 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 90 80 70 60 50
longitudinal 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 110 100
X7Ni9 1.5663 +QT
transverse 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 90 80
*) +N = normalised; +NT = normalised and tempered; +QT = quenched and tempered; +NT640/+QT640/+QT680 = heat treatment type with minimum tensile
strength of 640 or 680 N/mm².
7.3 Heat-treatment states of nickel-alloyed pressure vessel steels that are tough at subzero
temperatures
Nickel-alloyed steels are used in accordance with Table 6 and Table 7 in the normalised (+N) as well as
in the normalised and tempered (+NT) or in the liquid-hardened and tempered state (+QT). The following
examples describe typical states during heat treatments:
Example 1: 12Ni14+NT:
The heat treatment +NT for the steel 12Ni14 prescribes that this is to be austenitised in the temperature
range between 830 and 880 °C and subsequently cooled in air. Tempering occurs at temperatures between
580 and 640 °C. After tempering, the steel can be cooled either in air or quenched in water.
Example 2: X8Ni9+QT640:
The steel X8Ni9 exists in the quenched and tempered state as indicated by the code +QT. The tempering
and quenching treatment is carried out as follows:
– Austenitising between 770 and 830 °C with water or oil quenching.

– Tempering between 540 and 600 °C with cooling in air or quenching in water.
Note: The number “640” means that the minimum tensile strength must be Rm = 640 N/mm².

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7.4 Microstructure formation of nickel-alloyed steels
Figure 15 provides information regarding the influence of the nickel and carbon content on the micro struc-
ture formation of steel materials. It is clear that steels with high nickel and carbon contents have a fully aus-
tenitic microstructure. As the content of carbon decreases and the nickel content stays at the same level,
the tendency to form martensite increases. This is due to the supercooling of the - transformation in the
iron-nickel binary system (Figure 16). More nickel-rich and therefore tougher (more cubic) martensite may
form. Therefore these steels can be quenched and tempered depending on the nickel content.
Figure 15: Influence of the Ni and C-content on the micro Figure 16: Binary equilibrium system iron nickel
structure formation (acc. to GUILLET) (acc. to MASSALSKI)
7.5 Types of nickel-alloy pressure vessel steels that are tough at subzero temperatures
1% nickel steels
Alloying small quantities of nickel improves the hardenability of these steels. They are used both in the
quenched and tempered and in the normalised state. Their good behaviour up to temperatures of -60 °C
is achieved as a result of the tough, nickel-alloyed ferrite. Figure 17 shows the transformation behaviour
of the steel 13MnNi6-3. The steels are used for liquid propane and butane applications, among others.
A typical example of the 1% nickel steels is the material 13MnNi6-3.
3.5% nickel steels
The 3.5% nickel-alloyed steels are used in the temperature range from -50°C to -100°C. Thus they can
be used e.g. for the liquefying of carbon dioxide, acetylene and ethane. The materials have a terrific
combination of high strength and good toughness. A typical example of the 3.5% nickel steels is the
material 12Ni14.
5% nickel steels
These steels are used up to temperatures of minimum -120 °C. Compared with the 9% nickel steels,
these steels are more economical due to their lower nickel content, but they are not as strong. A typical
application of these materials is the construction of tanks for ethylene gas tankers. The only 5% nickel
steel standardised in EN 10 028-4 is the material X12Ni5.

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9% nickel steels
The application temperatures of steels with 9% nickel go as low as -196 °C. The extraordinary low tem-
perature properties of these materials are based on the high toughness of the low-carbon, tempered
(cubic) Ni-martensite. In this context, Figure 18 shows the transformation behaviour of the steel X8Ni9 in
the continuous TTT diagram. It is clear that this material is an air-hardening steel (cf. also section 4.3.1).
Typical applications of these materials include stationary storage tanks for very cold gasses, such as
liquid nitrogen. Due to their insensitivity to stress cracking corrosion (cf. Chapter 2.14), 9% Ni steels
can also be used in alkaline environments.
900 900
Austenitisation: 900 °C / 5 min Austenitisation: 790 °C / 5 min
800
800 A3 A3
700
700 A1
Temperature in °C
A F
Temperature in °C
600 A A1
P
600 500
500 Zw 400 Ms Zw
Ms
300
400 M
M Zw= bainite 200
Zw= bainite
300
HV1 430 295 274 210 170 160 100
HV1 360 350 320 300 300 290 280
200 0
1 10 10² 10³ 104 1 10 10² 10³ 10 4
105
106
Time in s
Time in s
Figure 17: Continuous TTT diagram for the steel Figure 18: Continuous TTT diagram for the steel X8Ni9
13MnNi6-3 (source: Heat treatment atlas) (source: Heat treatment atlas)
8 Welding of nickel-alloyed pressure vessel steels that are tough at subzero

temperatures
8.1 General notes on welding fabrication
The successful welding of nickel-alloyed pressure vessel steels that are tough at subzero temperatures
depends on a range of variables. These include, in particular:
– the steel grade,

– the manufacturing process and the delivered state,
– the remanent (remaining) magnetism,
– thermal conductivity and thermal expansion,
– the welding process and the filler metal,
– the heat controlling and the heat input and the
– cooling rate.
The choice of filler metals depends on the following criteria:
– toughness properties of the base materials,

– application temperature,
– costs,
– weldability with alternating current --> thorough knowledge of the magnetic specifics of the 9 % steel
(remanent magnetism),
– welding position --> suitability for out-of-position welding
– hot crack resistance and
– type of powder in submerged arc welding.

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8.2 Remanent magnetism and effective counter measures
The nickel steels that are tough at subzero temperatures, in particular the materials X12Ni5 and X8Ni9,
tend to build up a remanent magnetism, which can impair the welding process because of the blow
effect. They must therefore be welded in the demagnetized state. Here, a remnant magnetic field
strength of 1,600 A/m (corresponding to 20 Oe) as a mean value with respect to the disruptive magnetic
fields during welding should not in principle be exceeded.
Note: When ordering these materials, in addition to the usual material certificate according to EN 10204
“Types of inspection documents”, an inspection document about the magnetic field strength must be
agreed when accepting the semi-finished product.
During transport, storage and further processing, magnetisation of materials is to be avoided, which
could e.g. occur by rounding on bending rollers, transporting with magnet cranes, thermal cutting with
magnet roll guidance or the influence of current-carrying welding cables and the like. Prior to welding,
the magnetic fields between the joint edges should be checked. A field strength of max. 4800 A/m
(60 Oe) does not yet impair welding considerably. Stronger magnetic fields may be influenced by the
position of the antipole or respectively weakened by mounting permanent magnets or by creating a
closed field. Also, fitting a strip of non-alloyed sheet steel to the back of the weld reduces the blowing
effect in the welding gap by displacing the field lines. The stripe thickness shall correspond to at least the
thickness of the sheet to be welded and the stripe width to at least four times the thickness of the sheet
to be welded. If the measures stated do not lead to success, an improvement can be achieved by the
following approach:
– Welding with alternating current,

– Using modern welding power sources, e.g. “square wave” and
– Buffering the weld faces with the prescribed filler metal.
8.3 Welding 1% and 3.5% nickel steels
Usable welding processes:
E, SAW, TIG, MAG-M, MIG, ...
Welding consumables:
mostly same type (alloy type: 1 to 3.5% nickel)
– Very similar linear expansion coefficient as base material.

– For metal arc welding, hydrogen-controlled filler metals are to be used.
– For mixed compounds with austenites, nickel-based filler metals are to be preferred.
Examples of the same type of filler metals for 1% and 3.5% nickel steels that are tough at subzero tem-
peratures are listed in Table 8.
Table 8: Fillers of the same or similar type for 1% and 3.5% nickel steels (EN ISO 2560)
Alloying content in weight-%
Filler metal
%C % Si % Mn % Cr % Ni % Mo %W Others
E 46 8 2Ni B 0.05 0.3 1.4 — 1.8-2.6 — — —
E 50 8 3Ni B 0.05 0.2 1.4 — 2.6-3.8 — — —

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Heat treatment of the base material:
If the impact energy needs to meet high requirements around the fusion line, a quenched and
tempered base material is recommended.
Heat input during welding:
– Q  20 kJ/cm
Preheating and interpass temperature:
– Pre-heating temperature: is to be adapted to the plate/sheet thickness, temperature should not

go below 100°C.
– Interpass temperature:  180 °C
Note: If the interpass temperature is higher, the toughness properties of the heat-affected zone are
influenced negatively at operating temperature due to retarded cooling (risk of coarse grain formation).
In addition, cooling rates that are too high have a disadvantageous impact on the toughness of the
welded joint (risk of formation of brittle martensite).
8.4 Welding 5% and 9% nickel steels
Usable welding processes:
E, SAW, TIG, MAG-M, MIG, ...
Welding consumables:
The choice of filler metals for this steel group depends on various factors. These include:
– the component safety

(coefficient of expansion, hydrogen sensitivity, hot crack safety, deformability, impact energy, behaviour of
fracture mechanics, etc.)
– the design
(yield point, tensile strength, impact energy at design temperature, etc.)
– the cost effectiveness

(welding processes, deposition rate, frequency of repairs, price of the filler material, etc.)
Same-type welding (filler metals with 5 or 9% nickel; alloying type: same type):
To fully utilise the base material strength and toughness properties of the 9% Ni steels, same-type weld-
ing is recommended. However, it has only become common practice for special applications (problem:
weld metal toughness). Table 9 provides an example of such a filler metal.
Table 9: Filler metal of the same type for 9% nickel steels

Filler metal
SG Ni 9* 0.02 0.04 0.40 — 11.0 — — —
*) non-standardised commercial alloy

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Different-type welding (austenitic filler metals; alloying type: Cr-Ni):
Austenitic filler materials of this alloy group show good yield strength and toughness values in the weld
metal. They cannot however achieve the high strength of the base material in all cases. The weld metal
shows high impact properties for temperatures up to -196 °C. Table 10 provides examples of austenitic
filler metals.
However it must be taken into consideration that austenitic filler metals and thus their weld metal too,
depending on the degree of dilution (cf. Chapter 2.05) of the 5% and 9% nickel steels display deviating
linear thermal expansion coefficients. If this is not taken into account, material fatigue due to different
thermal expansion during alternating temperature loading may occur.
Note: Different-type austenitic welded joints on 5% and 9% nickel steels that are tough at subzero tem-
peratures are not resistant to changes in temperature.
Table 10: Different-type filler materials for 5% and 9% nickel steels (alloy type Cr-Ni, EN ISO 3581)
Filler metal
E 18 14 MnW B* 0.20 0.60 9.0 18.0 14.0 — 3.50 —
E 20 16 3 Mn L B 0.04 1.20 5.0-8.0 18.0-21.0 15.0-18.0 2.5-3.5 — 0.20 N
*) non-standardised commercial alloy, on the basis of EN ISO 3581
Different-type welding (Ni-based filler metals; alloying type: nickel alloy):
Different-type welding is preferred for 5% or 9% nickel steels. This is due to the better resistance to
changing temperatures. Ni-based metals thus display almost the same linear thermal expansion
coefficients as 9% Ni steels (Table 11). Moreover, Ni-based filler metals have a significantly lower crack
propagation speed than the other alloy types. Table 12 contains examples of such filler metals.
Table 11: Linear thermal expansion coefficients for different materials

Temperature range Coefficient of linear thermal expansion
Material -6
in °C in 10 /K
9% nickel steel 20 to -196 8 to 10
Chromium-nickel steel 20 to -196 14 to 16
Nickel-based alloy 20 to -196 9 to 11
Note: Temperature change-stressed welded joints with low-temperature resistant 5% and 9% nickel
steels can only be executed using the same type of steel or with nickel-based alloys.
Table 12: Different-type filler materials for 5% and 9% nickel steels (alloy type Ni-basis, EN ISO 14 172)
Filler metal
2.00 18.0 4.0 Fe
E Ni 6082 (NiCr20Mn3Nb) 0.10 0.80 Balance 2.00 —
6.00 22.0 3.0 Nb
20.0 8.5 3.5 Fe
E Ni 6012 (NiCr22Mo9) 0.03 0.70 1.00 Balance —
23.0 10.5 1.5 Nb

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8.5 Notes on the choice of filler metals
Figure 19 contains generally valid information on the choice of filler metals for nickel-alloy pressure ves-
sel steels that are tough at subzero temperatures.
1% nickel steels 3.5% nickel steels 5% nickel steels 9% nickel steels
Same-type welding Different-type welding Same-type welding Different-type welding
deviating properties of deviating properties of

same properties of base same properties of base
base material and weld base material and weld
material and weld metal material and weld metal
metal metal
Filler with 1 - 3.5% Ni Ni-based filler Filler with 5 - 9% Ni Cr-Ni filler Ni filler
Bonds are tough at

Bonds between 1 to
Usually with 1 to 3.5% subzero temperatures Use at T = Use at T =
3.5% Ni steels and
nickel steels and high-strength at the constant change
Cr-Ni steels
same time
Figure 19: Choice of the filler metals for nickel-alloyed pressure vessel steels that are tough at subzero tem-
peratures
8.6 Notes on quality assurance of welding work
As for all welding work, the quality assurance measures as described in more detail in Chapters 4.1 and
4.2 should always be implemented. Given the specifics of their use at low temperatures, however, it
must also be ensured that e.g. within the framework of the work and procedural tests to EN ISO 15 614-
1, the focus is placed in particular on verifying the toughness of the welded joints (impact energy) at the
intended operating temperature. On the other hand, the strength properties can be verified at room tem-
perature, as these do not deteriorate at lower temperatures (cf. Section 5.1). Special attention should
also be paid to the influence of the heat-treatment state of quenched and tempered base materials to-
wards the HAZ of the welded joints in the metallographic microsection.
Given their categorisation as pressure vessel steels and at operating pressures that exceed atmos-
pheric pressure by at least 0.5 bar, additional requirements are to be taken into consideration. These are
stipulated, inter alia, in the Pressure Equipment Directive 97/23/EG (European Pressure Equipment Di-
rective) and in the AD 2000 regulations (cf. Chapter 3.09).
Note: During the welding fabrication of pressure vessel steels that are tough at subzero temperatures,
the user information from the respective manufacturer of the base material and/or filler metal should be
respected.

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9 Test questions
(1) Which element can be added to steels to improve their toughness at subzero temperatures?
 Carbon
 Silicon
 Chromium
 Nickel
 Ytterbium
(2) Into which of the material groups according to CEN ISO/TR 15608 are pressure vessel steels that
are tough at subzero temperatures with up to 9% nickel classified?
 These steels cannot be assigned to any of these “material groups”.

 These steels can be assigned to “material group” 3.
(3) What is understood by the term “cryogenic”?
 The term stands for applications  -40 °C.

 The term stands for applications below room temperature.
 The term stands for refrigeration technology (applications  -0 °C).
 The term stands for very low temperature technology (applications  -150 °C).
 The term stands for all applications that require pressure vessel steels.
(4) What is meant, according to DIN 17280, by the term “tough at subzero temperatures” in relation
to steels?
 A steel is tough at subzero temperatures, if its carbon equivalent CEV  is 0.40.

 A steel is tough at subzero temperatures, if its reduction of area does not decrease as the
temperature falls.
 A steel is tough at subzero temperatures, if its elongation after fracture increases as the
temperature falls.
 A steel is tough at subzero temperatures, if at temperatures -60°C, it still has an impact
energy of at least 27 J (at the cross specimen).
 Steel is tough at subzero temperatures, if its yield point at temperatures  -60 °C is less
than 235 N/mm².
(5) Against which type of break phenomena do materials for cooling applications have to be stable?
 They must be resistant to lamellar tearing.

 They must be resistant to deformation fractures.
 They must be resistant to torsional fractures.
 They must be resistant to oscillation fractures.
 They must be resistant to embrittlement fractures.

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(6) Which steel materials can be used at operating temperatures as low as -60 °C?
 Non-alloy structural steels

 Fine-grain structural steels (QL)
 Fine-grain structural steels (QL1)
 Ni-alloy pressure vessel steels with 1% nickel
 Austenitic chromium-nickel - steels
(7) Which types of nickel-alloyed pressure vessel steels that are tough at subzero temperatures are
standardised in EN 10 028-4?
 1% nickel steels
 3.5% nickel steels
(8) Which physical phenomenon can impact adversely on the welding fabrication of nickel steels that
are tough at subzero temperatures?
 the Coriolis effect

 allotropism
 remanent magnetism
 weak interaction
 gravitation
(9) Which type of filler metals (alloying type) are preferred when welding 1% and 3.5% nickel steels?
 non-alloy filler metals (e.g. according to EN ISO 2560)

 same-type filler metals with 1% or 3.5% nickel
 austenitic Cr-Ni filler metals (e.g. according to EN ISO 3581)
 austenitic Fe-Mn filler metals (e.g. according to EN ISO 3581)
 nickel-based filler metals (e.g. according to EN ISO 14 172)
(10) What is to be considered for the different-type welding of 5% and 9% nickel steels?
 the type of temperature stress (with and without temperature changes)

 the linear coefficient of thermal expansion
 the relative thermal efficiency
 the weld factor
 the eutectoid reaction

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10 Bibliography
Issler, L.; Ruoß, H.; Häfele, P.:

Festigkeitslehre – Grundlagen. [Strength theory - Principles.]
Schulze. G.:
Die Metallurgie des Schweißens. [The metallurgy of welding.]
Frey, H.; Haefner, R.; Eder, F.X:

Tieftemperaturtechnologie. [Very low-temperature technology.]
EN 10 028-4:
Flat products made of steels for pressure purposes - Part 4: Nickel alloy steels with specified low
temperature properties.
Ausgabe: 09-2009
Steel-iron materials sheet W 680:

Steels that are tough at subzero temperatures (cryogenic steel).
Issue: 1979
Leaflet no. 470:
Stähle für tiefe Temperaturen. [Steels for low temperatures.]
Düsseldorf: Stahl-Informations-Zentrum
Leaflet DVS 0955:

Schweißtechnische Verarbeitung nickellegierter Stähle für Tieftemperaturanwendungen. [Welding of
nickel-alloy steels for low-temperature applications.]
Issue: 02-1999
Theis, E.:
Das Schweißen kaltzäher Stähle. [The welding of steels that are tough at subzero temperatures.]
in: “Schweißen und Schneiden – Fortschritte in den Grundlagen und in der Anwendung” [“Welding and
cutting – Progress in the principles and the application. ”]
Fachbuchreihe Schweißtechnik, Volume 36
Wende, U.; Demuzere, R.:
Schweißen von 3,5%-, 5%- und 9%igen Nickelstählen für die Tieftemperaturanwendung im Schiff- und
Apparatebau. [Welding of 3.5%, 5% and 9% nickel steels for low-temperature applications in ship and
apparatus construction.]
DVS reports, Vol. 136, pp. 62-70
Draugelates, U; Jekat, A.; Schram, A.:

Same-type MIG welding of 9% nickel steels that are tough at subzero temperatures.
DVS reports, Vol. 136, pp. 71-74
Schuster, J.:
Fachbuchreihe Schweißtechnik, Band 130 [Welding of iron, steel and nickel materials – Guide for the
welding-metallurgical practice. Series of reference books on welding technology, Volume 130.]

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Introduction to Corrosion Page 1
Chapter 2.14: Introduction to Corrosion
Contents
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 3
2 Definitions ....................................................................................................................................... 4
3 Principles of corrosion ................................................................................................................... 6
3.1 Introduction to the theory of corrosion....................................................................................... 6
3.2 Basic corrosion process............................................................................................................ 6
3.3 Types of corrosion .................................................................................................................... 7
3.3.1 Chemical corrosion ......................................................................................................... 7
3.3.2 Electro-chemical (electrolytic corrosion) ......................................................................... 7
3.3.3 Physical corrosion of metals ........................................................................................... 8
4 Introduction to electrochemistry ................................................................................................... 9
4.1 Electrodes (types of electro-chemical behaviour)...................................................................... 9
4.1.1 Electrode systems .......................................................................................................... 9
4.1.2 Ion electrodes ................................................................................................................. 9
4.1.3 Redox electrodes............................................................................................................ 9
4.2 Comparison of electrode potentials (galvanic cell) .................................................................. 10
4.3 The electro-chemical electromotive series of metals ............................................................... 11
4.4 Redox potentials ..................................................................................................................... 12
4.5 Passivation ............................................................................................................................. 13
5 Selected electro-chemical types of corrosion ............................................................................ 14
5.1 Preface ................................................................................................................................... 14
5.2 Uniform surface corrosion (rusting) ......................................................................................... 14
5.2.1 Description of the type of corrosion .............................................................................. 14
5.2.2 Test on susceptibility to corrosion ................................................................................. 15
5.2.3 Counter measures ........................................................................................................ 15
5.3 Intergranular corrosion (IC) ..................................................................................................... 15
5.3.1 Regular intergranular corrosion .................................................................................... 15
5.3.2 Knife-edge corrosion (knife-line attack)......................................................................... 17
5.4 Pitting corrosion (PC).............................................................................................................. 18
5.5 Crevice corrosion.................................................................................................................... 21

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5.6 Bimetallic corrosion (contact corrosion) .................................................................................. 22
5.7 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) ............................................................................................. 24
6 Corrosion protection .................................................................................................................... 27
6.1 Basic types of corrosion protection ......................................................................................... 27
6.2 Passive corrosion protection ................................................................................................... 27
6.2.1 Organic coating systems .............................................................................................. 27
6.2.2 Metallic coatings ........................................................................................................... 27
6.2.3 Non-metallic inorganic coatings .................................................................................... 28
6.3 Active corrosion protection ..................................................................................................... 29
6.3.1 Anti-corrosive additives (inhibitors) ............................................................................... 29
6.3.2 Cathodic corrosion protection ....................................................................................... 29
6.3.3 Anodic corrosion protection .......................................................................................... 30
6.3.4 Self-passivation ............................................................................................................ 30
7 Question ........................................................................................................................................ 31
8 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................. 33

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1 Introduction
The term “corrosion” is derived from the Latin word “corrodere” and means “eat away” or “gnaw away.”
For example, writings of the Greek philosopher Plato (427 - 347 BCE) have been found in which “rust as
the earthly component that precipitates from the metal”. That this is actually correct is shown in Figure 1
and Figure 2. At the beginning of industrialisation in Europe in the early 18th century and the flourishing
of scientific research, “corrosion” was for the first time understood as a chemical process. The compre-
hensive understanding of its electro-chemical character is relatively new. Specifically, it is redox reac-
tions between a metallic material and an aggressive material, referred to as the corrosive agent.
Figure 1: Rusted historical canon in a marine setting Figure 2: Flaking rust layer in the area of a harbour facil-
(picture: SLV Halle GmbH, S. Schulz) ity (picture: SLV Halle GmbH, A. Pinkernelle)
Corrosion processes lead to large economic losses every year. The annual costs due to corrosion dam-
age are estimated at around 4% of the gross national product. Over half of the damages are caused by
only a few (electrolytic) types of corrosion (Figure 3). For example, uniform surface corrosion, i.e. rusting,
is responsible for just one-fifth of the total damage although approximately 85% of the steels produced
worldwide are susceptible to rust (Figure 4). Accordingly, approximately 80% of corrosion damage is not
caused by rust. Types of corrosion that also corrode stainless steels (see Chapter 2.15) thus have to be
evaluated much more critically because they, along with rusting, are responsible for the majority of cor-
rosion damage. If one considers that such steels make up only about 6% of global steel production, then
the economic impact of these types of corrosion becomes evident (Figure 3 and Figure 4)
Surface corrosion, 16% Other, 9%

Other, 47% unalloyed and differently
Stainless, 6%
allowed, 85%
Stress
corrosion
cracking, 14%
Pitting corrosion, 12%
Cutting line corrosion, 2% Intercrystalline corrosion, 9%
Figure 3: Corrosion damage per year (estimated) by Figure 4: Steel production per year (estimated) by pro-
proportion portion

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2 Definitions
Uniform terminology and definitions for corrosion and its manifestations are defined internationally in EN
ISO 8044.
Corrosion
Corrosion is physicochemical interaction between metal and its environment, which leads to a change
in the properties of the metal and can lead to significant adverse effect on the function of the metal, the
environment or the technical system of which they are part of. The interaction is often of an electro-
chemical nature.
Corrosion system
A system which consists one or more metals as well as those parts of the surrounding, influencing the
corrosion.
Corrosion phenomenon
A measurable change caused by corrosion in any part of the corrosion system.
Corrosion damage
A corrosion phenomenon that causes an adverse effect to the functioning of the metal, to the environ-
ment or to the technical system of which it is part of. For example, an adverse effect to a required deco-
rative appearance can also be viewed as damage. In contrast, effects such as “normal” rust formation on
railway tracks are not corrosion damage.
Corrosion failure
Complete loss of the functionality of a technical system due to corrosive damage that has occurred.
Corrosion product
A substance that is formed as a result of corrosion.
Corrosion probability
A qualitative and/or quantitative term for the corrosion phenomena to be expected in a corrosion system.
Corrosion protection
A change to a corrosion system in a way that it reduces corrosion damage.
Corrosion test
A test performed in order to estimate the corrosion resistance of a metal, environmental contamination
by corrosion products, the effectiveness of corrosion protection measures or the corrosiveness of a cor-
rosive agent (see Chapter 2.23).

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In addition to the definitions specified in EN ISO 8044, the following definitions have been created for
selected corrosion products.
Rust
This is the product of surface corrosion of ferrous metals. It has a reddish-brown colouring and mainly
consists of iron oxide hydrates.
White rust
This is the product of surface corrosion of zinc and zinc alloys. It is caused by corrosion from conden-
sation and has a white colouring (Figure 5) and porous structure. White rust does not have a precisely
defined composition. It depends on the particular conditions under which it is formed. The corrosion
product consists mainly of (2 ZnCO3 , 3 Zn(OH)2 , 3 H2O), zinc hydroxide, a small amount of zinc oxide
and little zinc carbonate.
Figure 5: White rust on a zinc sheet Figure 6: Patina on copper material
Patina
This is the corrosion product of copper and copper alloys (see Chapter 2.18) under atmosphere condi-
tions (from Italian patina, “thin layer”). It adheres permanently to the surface and protects the metal
under it from further decomposition. Patina consists of complex basic copper compounds (Cu (CO3, SO4,
Cl) OH mixtures, urates or salts of other organic acids (Figure 6).
Verdigris
This is formed by the action of acetic acid on copper and copper alloys (it is the cuprous salt of acetic
acid, basic copper acetate – C4H6CuO4). Like the patina, it forms relatively dense topcoats.
Scaling (Oxide layer)
This is formed by the effect of high temperatures on the metal surface (chemical corrosion, section 3.3.1).
This is the product of “metal combustion” (oxide reaction product).
Annealing colours
These result from different temperature levels on the metal surface. They are thin scale layers with typical
colouring (caused by interference effects).

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3 Principles of corrosion
3.1 Introduction to the theory of corrosion
The theory of corrosion is often difficult for non-specialists to understand because it requires basic
knowledge of chemistry and electrochemistry. For this reason, this chapter deals in particular with phe-
nomenological aspects that can help the practitioner to recognise the most important types of corrosion
and to initiate effective countermeasures or avoid future corrosion damage.
Note It must be noted that, according to EN ISO 8044, the term corrosion is understood as a physico-
chemical interaction between metal and its environment. The information included in this chapter there-
fore applies only to such materials.
If corrosion is generally understood as a decomposition of metals, metallic materials can be corroded

by the three following basic forms of corrosion:
Chemical corrosion Electro-chemical corrosion Physical corrosion of metals

Occurrence (examples)
Lattice decomposition
in dry gases in acidic aqueous media
(embrittlement) at low temperatures
Methane formation from Fe3C and
in metal melts in neutral or alkaline media
H2 as f (pressure, temperature)
Manifestations (examples)
Uniform electrolytic material “Tin pest”

Scaling (oxide layer)
dissolution (Allotropism, polymorphism)
Non-uniform electrolytic material Compressed gaseous hydrogen
Starting up processes
dissolution damage
Formation of cover layers
Chemical metal dissolution Physical metal dissolution
(corrosion products)
3.2 Basic corrosion process
In simplified terms, the basic process of corrosion is related to two main processes, the anodic and the
cathodic reaction. Irrespective of the particular type of corrosion, the resulting corrosion product is elec-
trical neutral.
Anodic reaction Cathodic reaction

Metal dissolution (oxidation) Reduction
The area where electrons are delivered The area where electrons are absorbed (“used”)
(“released”) is referred to as the ANODE. is referred to as the CATHODE.
Electrons are delivered by the dissolving metal Electrons are absorbed by the forming
and the ionic state is entered. corrosion product (e.g. the rust constituents).

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3.3 Types of corrosion

3.3.1 Chemical corrosion
Chemical corrosion is said to occur if a metal reacts without the presence of electrolytes, e.g. with
oxygen, and is thereby decomposed with the formation of reaction products. In this type of corrosion, the
electrons go directly from the metal atom to the oxygen atom (for example). This is thus a type of corro-
sion that does not contain an electro-chemical reaction, i.e. no transport of electrons in metallic con-
ductors (and thus no current flow) occurs.
Anodic reaction:
1 (oxidation) Me  Men[]  ne[ ]
 Me  21 O2  MeO
2 Cathodic reaction: 1
O2  2e [ ]
O 2[  ]
(reduction) 2
Examples of chemical corrosion can, among others, be the following:
– Reactions that include a gaseous phase and occur at high temperatures and/or high pressures,
– Reactions with oxygen, e.g. formation of scaling on iron at temperatures > 600 °C, sulphur and sul-
phur compounds, nitrogen and nitrogen compounds, chlorine and the chlorine compounds,
– Reactions with organic compounds (carbonisation), hydrogen (hydrogen embrittlement), carbon mon-
oxide (e.g. formation of iron carbonyl),
– Corrosion processes in salt melts and with deposits as well as
– Corrosion processes in metal melts, especially the metals Zn, Hg, Sn, Pb and Cu.
Note What are referred to as solder fractures, i.e. grain boundary separations caused by low-melting
metals (e.g. zinc), are classified as corrosion processes in the latest literature. From the perspective of
welding metallurgy, however, this classification is untenable because the formation of eutectics cannot
be explained by corrosion theory. Solder fractures or solder cracks are, rather, hot cracks of a solidifica-
tion or liquation cracking type (see Chapter 2.06).
3.3.2 Electro-chemical (electrolytic corrosion)
Electro-chemical or electrolytic corrosion is understood to be corrosion processes that proceed in the

presence of ion-conducting phases. In this type of corrosion, electrical processes (electric current)
must also be considered in addition to chemical processes (materials conversion). The electric currents
result from the transport of:
– Electrons in metallic phases,

– Positively and negatively charged ions in ion-conducting phases (e.g. liquids, electrolytes)
This type of corrosion is dependent on the presence of aqueous solutions (electrolytes). Mobile charged
particles cause an electric current flow.
Anodic reaction:
1 (oxidation) Me  Men[  ]  ne[ ]
2a Cathodic reaction: O2  4e[ ]  2H2O  4OH[ ]  Me  12 O2  H 2O  Me(OH)2
(reduction, aerated system)
2b Cathodic reaction: 2H[  ]  2e[ ]  H2

(reduction, non-aerated system)

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In ferrous metals FeO(OH), what is referred to as bog iron ore, is created by the downstream oxidation
((i.e., brown iron ore or limonite):
Fe  12 O2  H 2O  Fe(OH)2  Oxidation  2Fe(OH)2  12 O2  2FeO(OH)  H 2O
Anode and cathode together form a corrosion cell. If both are located close to each other, the resulting
corrosion cell is referred to as a local cell. A corrosion cell is characterised by:
– the presence of an electrical conductive connection (metal) between anode and cathode and
– the presence of an electrolytic connection between anode and cathode
– the total charge of the electrolyte equals zero, i.e. the sum of the positive charges is equal to the sum
of the negative charges
Examples of electrochemical corrosion can include:
– uniform surface corrosion (see section 5.2),

– intergranular corrosion (see section 5.3),
– pitting corrosion (see section 5.4),
– crevice corrosion (see section 5.5),
– bimetallic corrosion (see section 5.6) and
– stress corrosion cracking (see section 5.7) and numerous others.
3.3.3 Physical corrosion of metals
Material changes caused by physical processes can, but do not necessarily, require the action of a
substance. For example, the diffusion of metal into grain boundaries on contact with liquid (e.g. mercury)
or easily diffusible metals (e.g. solid cadmium at temperatures above 150 °C) can be included in this
type of corrosion. The absorption of hydrogen and hydrogen-supported cold cracking (see Chapter 2.06)
are also categorised as physical corrosion of metal. If a material breaks down due to its allotropic
properties (see Chapter 2.02) at low temperatures (lattice transformation e.g. with the decay of - tin into
- tin below 13.2 °C, “tin pest”), then this is likewise referred to as physical corrosion of metal. This form
of corrosion manifests predominantly as internal corrosion.
Note Due to the very broadly formulated definition of the term corrosion in EN ISO 8044 (see section 2),
manifestations can still be classified as corrosion even if they have nothing to do with it. Welding can
also be classified as a corrosive action, as it is associated with physical and chemical interactions be-
tween the metal to be joined and its environment (see section 2). The classification of processes and
manifestations as corrosion therefore always requires good engineering common sense.

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4 Introduction to electrochemistry
4.1 Electrodes (types of electro-chemical behaviour)
4.1.1 Electrode systems
Electrode systems are employed for experimental evaluation of the qualitative and quantitative suscepti-
bility of metals to electro-chemical corrosion. Electrodes are systems in which heterogeneous reactions
occur between two phases. Depending on the type of the charged particles involved in the reaction at the
phase boundary (better at the electron transfer reaction), a differentiation is made between:
– Ion electrodes, section 4.1.2 (transfer of ions, i.e. ions are charged particles)
– Redox electrodes, section 4.1.3 (transfer of electrons, i.e. electrons are charged particles)
Secondary reactions can join the actual charge transfer reactions which then all together form the elec-
trode reaction.
4.1.2 Ion electrodes
If a metal is exposed to an electrolytic solution, metal ions transfer into the solution. In this solution, wa-
ter molecules settle onto the metal ions to yield what are referred to as hydrated metal ions. In the pro-
cess, the metal's remaining electrons give the metal a weak negative charge and a layer of water mole-
cules forms on its surface. The positively charged metal ions in the electrolytic solution gather on the
phase boundary gather at the metal-electrolyte phase boundary. Both together are referred to as the
electro-chemical blocking layer (Figure 7).
The potential gradient between metal and electrolyte is the electrode potential. This is a fundamental
property of a material in terms of its corrosive behaviour but cannot be determined as an absolute value.
At the ion electrode (metal electrodes), a dynamic equilibrium forms in which the process of metal depo-
sition and dissolution proceed at equal speed.
Me  Men[  ]  ne[ ] anodic reaction (metal dissolution, oxidation)
Men[  ]  ne[ ]  Me cathodic reaction (metal deposition, reduction)
Me Each reaction is associated with a current flow (partial current). In the equilib-
Me
+ rium, the anodic and cathodic partial current density is equally large. The fol-
lowing holds true:
iA = - iC
Wassermolekül
Water molecule(H 2H
O)
isum = iA + iC = 0
20
Figure 7: Schematic model representation of the second type of ion electrode (metal arc electrode)
4.1.3 Redox electrodes
Redox electrodes are characterised by the fact that no transport of ions occurs through the metal-
electrolyte phase boundary. A redox electrode thus results from chemical reactions that are associated
with a change in charges and occur on the metal surface. The changes in electrical charges resulting
from the reaction lead to “consumption” or “release” of electrons in the metal. This must be must so
electro-chemically noble (see 4.3) that its effect as an ion electrode (metal electrode) can be neglected.

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Precious metals such as platinum are used for redox electrodes. A typical redox electrode is the platinum
hydrogen electrode (heterogeneous redox electrode or hydrogen-bypassed platinum electrode, Figure 8).
H2 -Gas
1
2 H 2  H[  ]  e[ ] anodic reaction (hydrogen oxidation)
H
+ H[  ]  e[ ]  12 H 2 cathodic reaction (hydrogen evolution, reduction of hy-
drogen ions)
Pt +
H
The (platinum) hydrogen electrode is well reproducible. This electrode is

H
+ therefore used as a comparison electrode (“standard hydrogen electrode”).
Its potential U0 is, by definition, set equal to zero.
Figure 8: Schematic model representation of a heterogeneous redox electrode (metal, gas, electrolyte)
4.2 Comparison of electrode potentials (galvanic cell)
As described in section 4.1.2, single potentials of ion electrodes (metal electrodes) are not measura-
ble as absolute values; only the differences in potential between two galvanic half-cells can be de-
termined. Therefore, an (arbitrary) reference point has been established with the normal hydrogen
electrode (redox electrode) (Figure 8). The resulting voltage (potential difference) can thus be attributed
to the reaction of the ion electrode being measured.
Note The metrological detection of an ion electrode, i.e. the type of its electrochemical behaviour, is
only possible if it is electrically and electrolytically associated with a second electrode. This group of two
single electrodes is referred to as a galvanic cell (Figure 9).
The function of galvanic cells is based on a

V redox reaction. Reduction and oxidation occur
spatially separated, each in a half-cell. The circuit
is closed by joining the two half-cells with an
Ion bridge electron conductor and an ion conductor (ion
bridge). If a voltmeter is built into the electric
connection, the cell voltage under conditions of
equilibrium (cell current = 0) can be measured
less noble electrode
more noble electrode
(Figure 9). The cell voltage is generated primarily

from the difference of the two electrode poten-
Ions of less Ions of more
noble electrode noble electrode tials. The electrode with the lower potential
in solution in solution (negative pole) is the less noble electrode and
the electrode with the higher potential (positive
pole) is the more noble electrode.
Figure 9: Principle of a galvanic cell
If the cell current can flow, the anode is formed on the less noble electrode, i.e. the anodic reaction
prevails at this electrode (iA > i),C, and the cathodic reaction prevails at the more noble electrode cath-
ode (iA < iC). If the normal potentials of metals are sorted, the electro-chemical electromotive series
results (Figure 10, Table 3).

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4.3 The electro-chemical electromotive series of metals
For the theoretical evaluation of the susceptibility of a metal to electro-chemical corrosion, the (electro-
chemical) electromotive series of metals can be used (Figure 10, Table 3). This is a list of redox pairs
according to their standard electrode potential (standard conditions: T = 25 °C; p = 101.3 kPa;
pH = 0; ion activity = 1).
The position of a metal in the electromotive series is a classifier for estimating its corrosion readiness
or corrosion probability. It can thus be determined which of two metals is the more noble (cathode)
and which is the more ignoble (anode).
Table 1: Examples of redox pairs

Negative standard electrode potential (ignoble) Positive standard electrode potential (noble
Zn  Zn2[  ]  2e[ ] E° = -0.76 V Cu 2[  ]  2e[ ]  Cu E° = +0.35 V
Zn is thus a reduction agent because the element Cu is thus an oxidising agent because the ele-
tends to donate electrons (e) ment tends to accept electrons (e)
High tendency to metal dissolution (oxidation) Low tendency to metal dissolution (reduction)
Note Comparison with (platinum) hydrogen electrodes (see section 4.1.3) provides information on the
resistance of the metal in aqueous acids. If a metal is more ignoble than the hydrogen electrode
(negative electrode potential), it is dissolved in acids because aqueous acids contain H+ ions and the
free electrons can therefore be accepted.
Electrode materials
K Na Mg Al Mn Zn Cr Fe Cd Co Ni Sn Pb H Cu Ag Hg Pt Au
-3,0 -2,5 -2,0 -1,5 -1,0 -0,5 +/-0 +0,5 +1,0 +1,5
Normal potentials Of the electrode materials in Volt
Increasingly ignoble Increasingly noble
Electro-chemical character
Figure 10: Electro-chemical electromotive series of metals
Note: When using the electro-chemical electromotive series of metals, note that the formation of protec-
tive layers (e.g. corrosion products, passive layers) is not considered.
In addition to the theoretical electromotive series, there are also practical electromotive series that are
limited to a certain medium, e.g. a practical electromotive series under atmospheric conditions (Table 2),
in drinking water or in seawater.

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Table 2: Comparison between theoretical and practical susceptibility to corrosion in atmosphere

Theoretical electromotive Practical corrosion re-
series of metals sistance in atmosphere
Gold Au Tantalum Ta
platinum Pt Gold Au
Palladium Pd platinum Pt
Silver Ag Titanium Ti
Copper Cu Palladium Pd
Lead Pb Silver Ag
Nickel Ni Copper Cu
Cobalt Co (aluminium) Al
Iron Fe Chromium Cr
Tantalum Ta Nickel Ni
Chromium Cr Iron Fe
Zinc Zn Cobalt Co
Vanadium V Lead Pb
manganese Mn Zinc Zn
Titanium Ti Vanadium V
(aluminium) Al Magnesium Mg
Magnesium Mg manganese
4.4 Redox potentials
A redox pair is a combination of an oxidised and a reduced type of the same element (metal). The term
redox potential describes the value for the readiness of an element to accept electrons in a chemical
reaction and thereby to function as an oxidiser (Table 1). This allows the electro-chemical electromotive
series to also be viewed as a list of redox pairs according to their standard potential (Table 3).
Table 3: Electro-chemical electromotive series of metals (extract) in the form of redox pairs with the respective
standards potential (acc. to HAYNES)
Metal in Transferred Standard potential
Oxidised form Reduced form
redox pair electrons E° in V
2+ -
Gold (Au) Au +2e Au +1.40
6+ - 3+
Chromium (Cr) Cr +3e Cr +1.33
2+ -
Platinum (Pt) Pt +2e Pt +1.20
+
Silver (Ag) Ag + e- Ag +0.80
2+ -
Copper (Cu) Cu +2e Cu +0.35
4+ - 2+
Tin (Sn) Sn +2e Sn +0.15
+ -
Hydrogen (H2) 2H +2e H2 0.00
2+ -
Lead (Pb) Pb +2e Pb -0.13
2+ -
Zinn (Sn) Sn +2e Sn -0.14
3+ -
Molybdenum (Mo) Mo +3e Mo -0.20
2+ -
Nickel (Ni) Ni +2e Ni -0.23
2+ -
Cobalt (Co) Co +2e Co -0.28
2+ -
Cadmium (Cd) Cd +2e Cd -0.40
2+ -
Iron (Fe) Fe +2e Fe -0.44
2+ -
Zinc (Zn) Zn +2e Zn -0.76
2+ -
Chrom (Cr) Cr +2e Cr -0.91
3+ -
Niobium (Nb) Nb +3e Nb -1.10
2+ -
Manganese (Mn) Mn +2e Mn -1.18
3+ -
Titanium (Ti) Ti +3e Ti -1.21
3+ -
Aluminium (Al) Al +3e Al -1.66
2+ -
Titan (Ti) Ti +2e Ti -1.77
2+ -
Magnesium (Mg) Mg +2e Mg -2.37
2+ -
Calcium (Ca) Ca +2e Ca -2.76

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Metal in Transferred Standard potential

Oxidised form Reduced form
redox pair electrons E° in V
+
Potassium (K) K + e- K -2.92
+
Lithium (Li) Li + e- Li -3.05
4.5 Passivation
Passivation refers to the generation of a non-metallic protective layer on a metallic material. The pas-
sivation of the surface prevents or significantly slows down the corrosive dissolution of the base material.
This process can be caused
– spontaneously (independently) or
– selectively (e.g. due to applied protective layers, see section 6.2).
A typical example of spontaneous passivation are stainless steels (see Chapter 2.15). Alloying with
the element chromium at Cr content greater than 12% spontaneously forms a permanently adherent
and chemically resistant oxide layer (CrxOy) that is a few atoms thick (2 to 5 nm) and effectively sepa-
rates the steel from its surroundings. Progressive oxidation is therefore only possible through diffusion
through this oxide layer. However, further metal dissolution is stopped because the passivation layer
strongly impedes diffusion processes. The material appears to act nobly in electro-chemical terms (Table
2). If this oxide layer is slightly damaged (e.g. when removing annealing colours in the heat-affected
zone by brushing or grinding), bare metal again contacts the atmospheric oxygen and a new passivation
layer forms independently, i.e. the layer is “self-healing”.
Other technically significant materials that can form passive layers are aluminium, nickel, titanium, lead,
zinc and silicon.
Note: Under unfavourable conditions (halogenated media, electro-chemical potentials), materials with a
passive layer can become susceptible to pitting corrosion (see section 5.4).
The Pilling-Bedworth ratio (PB ratio) can be used to evaluate whether the oxide layer (passive layer) is
protective or non-protective in dry air (Table 4). It describes the ratio of the volume of the elementary cell
of a metallic oxide to the volume of the elementary cell of the corresponding metal.
VOxid MOxid  ρMetall M – molar mass ρ – Density

PBV   n – Number of metal atoms in the empirical
VMetall MMetall  n  ρOxid V – (molar) volume
formula of the oxide
Table 4: Evaluation of Pilling-Bedworth ratios

Pilling-Bedworth ratios
PB ratio < 1 Breakup of the oxide layer No protective effect Mg/MgO = 0.81
1  PB radio  3 Passivation Protective effect Chromium/Chromium (III)
oxide = 2.07
PB ratio > 3 Cracking off of the oxide No protective effect Fe/FeO (OH) = 3.6
layer

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5 Selected electro-chemical types of corrosion

5.1 Preface
Corrosion phenomena are very complex in their manifestation and can have various causes. A number
of these manifestations can also be favoured by the welding process. The thermal effect, changes in the
chemical composition, oxidation processes as well as the occurrence of inner stresses (residual welding
stresses) are responsible for causing them. Depending on the presence of mechanical loads and their
influence on the corrosion process, the types of corrosion are classified into those whose occurrence is
not associated with the presence of such loads (sections 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 0, 5.6) and those that proceed
only under additional mechanical loads (section 5.7).
Note: In the following descriptions, priority should be given to important types of corrosion that are influ-
enced considerably by welding.
5.2 Uniform surface corrosion (rusting)

5.2.1 Description of the type of corrosion
Uniform surface corrosion is general corrosion with nearly identical corrosion rates across the entire metal
surface (Figure 11). Welding materials similar to the base material dissolve at a speed similar to this. This
type of corrosion is also referred to as “uniform corrosion” or rusting. It generally occurs in homogeneous
materials in media (electrolytes) in which the material does not form resistant passive layers.
Figure 11: Schematic illustration of uniform area corrosion Figure 12: Heat exchanger pipe damaged by rust (pic-
ture: SLV Halle GmbH)
Characteristics of uniform corrosion are:
– anodic and cathodic sub-processes proceed immediately next to each other

– anodic metal surface areas can become cathodic areas and vice versa
– wall openings and holes can arise due to the complete consumption of the material (not to be confused
with pitting corrosion, see section 5.4)
In order to have a uniform surface corrosion, an aqueous solution (electrolyte, corrosive agent) with free
charge carriers has to interact with the metal surface (e.g. acids or leaches). A reducing effect can thus
occur and destroy thin as well as chemically non-resistant passive layers. As a result, the entire materi-
al surface (slowly) enters into solution and corrosion products (e.g. rust, Figure 12) deposit on the sur-
face.

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In chemical terms, rust is oxide and hydroxidic compounds which can include, among others, the Ta-
ble 5 specified components:
Table 5: Compilation of important rust components

Rust component Formula Type
Lepidocrocite -FeO(OH) Hydroxidic iron ores
Goethite -FeO(OH) (“bog iron ores”)
Magnetite Fe3O4
Hematite Fe2O3 Oxidic iron ores
Wustite FeO
5.2.2 Test on susceptibility to corrosion
The test on the susceptibility to uniform surface corrosion be performed using the salt-spray test ac-
cording to EN ISO 9227. This is described in greater detail in Chapter 2.23.
5.2.3 Counter measures
The formation of uniform surface corrosion can be effectively reduced or prevented using the following
measures. These cause an effective separation of metal and electrolyte.
Applying protective layers

Passive corrosion protection - Organic coatings
1 (material remains passive,
see section 6.2) - Metallic layers
- Inorganic-non-metallic layers
Influence of the material-medium system
Active corrosion protection - Use of restrictors, inhibitors
2 (material is active
See section 6.3) - Cathodic or anodic protection
- Use of self-passivating metals
5.3 Intergranular corrosion (IC)

5.3.1 Regular intergranular corrosion
Intergranular corrosion is a localised corrosion in which regions near the grain boundary are preferred.
It causes the decay of the entire structure into individual grains (grain disintegration, see Figure 13 and
Figure 14). Austenitic stainless steels (see Chapter 2.15) in particular have very low solubility for carbon
at room temperature. For this reason, these steels should be ordered preferentially in a solution-
annealed state (+AT) where the total carbon is divided uniformly in the microstructure of the steel
(Figure 15). If the temperatures are between 550 and 950°C, for example in the heat-affected zone of
weld joints (see Chapter 2.05), chromium carbides with the composition M23C6 (Figure 16) or the sig-
ma phase form in the immediate vicinity of the grain boundaries (see Chapter 2.15). This causes signifi-
cant chromium depletion in this very narrow structure range. Since chromium, unlike carbon, cannot
re-diffuse so quickly it is possible that the local chromium content will fall below the required 12% mini-
mum to maintain the passive state (see section 4.5).
The thus weakened grain boundaries cannot resist acidic corrosive media (electrolytes) and begin to
dissolve, which results in destruction of the microstructure by grain disintegration (Figure 14). Due to

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the course of this type of corrosion in the microscopic range, damage is not noticeable based on surface
effects such as discolorations.
Figure 13: Schematic illustration of intergranular corrosion Figure 14: Intergranular corrosion corrode initial grain
disintegration (SEM image)
Figure 15: Material in the solution-annealed and Figure 16: Material with carbide precipitations on the
quenched state grain boundaries
Precipitation diagrams are available (Figure 17) to estimate the susceptibility of stainless steels to inter-
granular corrosion during heat treatments. The temperature of the solubility limit for chromium carbide of
composition Cr23C6 results from the chromium and carbon content of the steel in these diagrams. The higher
these contents, the higher are these temperatures. At temperatures below the solubility limit, Cr carbides
precipitate (Figure 17). The speed of the precipitation is regulated by the processes of nucleation and chro-
mium diffusion (see Chapters 2.01 and 2.02). The end of IC susceptibility is reached once all carbon has
precipitated as chromium carbide and the chromium diffusion has neutralised the chromium depletion at the
grain boundaries. This straight line in Figure 17 therefore has the same inclination as the start of carbide
precipitation in the lower temperature range, as both processes are regulated by chromium diffusion.

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Figure 17: Formation of the IC field Figure 18: IC diagram of X5CrNi18-10 steel
As an experiment, the IC field can be determined by isothermally annealing of solution-annealed steel

test pieces at different temperatures during different times, followed by the Strauss test (- 5.3.3). The IC
field is created by the border of all IC-susceptible samples in the diagram (Figure 18). Heat treatments
that intrude into this field are not permissible.
5.3.2 Knife-edge corrosion (knife-line attack)
Knife-edge corrosion is a special case of intergranular corrosion. It can occur in particular in welded
joints in a very narrow range of the heat-affected zone of austenitic Cr-Ni steels. It has the appearance of
being “cut by a knife” due to its position close to the weld deposit.
The formation of this special type of intergranular corrosion

is linked to the effects of heat treatments on the heat-
affected zone. The temperatures in this area of the welded
joint rise above 1,200 °C. The result is dissolution of special
carbides such as niobium carbide. Due to fast cooling of
the welded joint the carbon thereafter, remains initially in
solution. If annealing is then performed at around 600°C
(e.g. by another weld pass or subsequent heat treatment),
this does not initiate the formation of additional stable spe-
cial carbides but rather the precipitation of Cr-carbide
(M23C6) in the area of the grain boundaries. This is due to
the fact that niobium, for example, diffuses significantly more
slowly than chromium. The material thus becomes suscepti-
ble to intergranular corrosion in this narrow zone despite
stabilisation (Figure 19).
Figure 19: Schematic illustration of

knife-edge corrosion
Note Stabilised steels must not be solution-annealed above 1,200 °C, since they become IC-susceptible
with subsequent annealing in the lower temperature range.

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The susceptibility of stainless and dual-phase Cr-Ni steels to intergranular corrosion and thus also for
susceptibility to knife-edge corrosion can be tested using the Strauss test and the Huey test according
to EN ISO 3651-1/2. These are described in greater detail in Chapter 2.23.
The formation of intergranular corrosion can effectively be reduced or prevented with the following
measures.
Binding of the carbon to elements of higher C-

affinity than chromium (formation of special car-
1 Stabilisation
bides)
- Alloying with carbide formers such as: Ti, Nb, Ta
Lowering the carbon content during production
2 Using ELC steels
- Steels with C content ≤ 0.03%
Bringing carbides into solution at the grain
3 Solution annealing boundaries in the microstructure
- Heat treatment at 1050 °C / water
5.4 Pitting corrosion (PC)

Pitting corrosion is corrosion in which the electrolytic metal removal occurs only in small surface areas
and leads to the metal dissolution. The cause of this type of corrosion, also referred to as chloride corro-
sion, is the presence of corrosion cells in minute areas of the surface (Figure 20, Figure 21). These are
caused by minor inhomogeneities (e.g. microsegregations in the material or damages of the passive
layer), with the creation of electrochemically more noble and more ignoble surface areas.
Figure 20: Schematic illustration of pitting corrosion Figure 21: Austenitic CrNi steel corroded by pitting cor-
rosion

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The formation of pitting corrosion can be understood as in the following description:

– An electrolytically more ignoble surface area becomes the anode and material loss (pitting) occurs;
the material dissolves in this area.
– The whole environment, which is nobler and protected by corrosion products, becomes the cathode. It
therefore cannot dissolve.
– The resulting pit remains the anode. Additional effects such as poor “ventilation” inside the pit
strengthen the anodic reaction, i.e. the metal dissolution.
– Based on the area rule (see section 5.6), the fact that a small anode area (pit) and a large cathode
area (environment) form a corrosion cell leads to a high rate of corrosion, i.e. the depth of the pit in-
creases at high speed.
The Evans element is suitable for describing the process of pitting corrosion (Figure 22). It corresponds
to the typical mechanism of electro-chemical corrosion.
Figure 22: Evans element to

describe pitting corrosion
Figure 23 provides information on the influence of temperature on resistance to pitting corrosion in stain-
less steels. As can be seen, the critical pitting temperature (CPT), i.e. the temperature beyond which
the probability of corrosion by pitting corrosion becomes very high, depends on the chemical composition
of the material. Here, increasing content of the elements chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen in par-
ticular are very advantageous. For this reason, these three elements are combined in the pitting re-
sistance equivalent (PRE).
100 700
Critical Pitting Temperature CPT in °C
X2CrNiMnMoNbN25-18-5- 4 (1.4565)
Susceptible to 1.4571
pitting 0,01 mol/l
X2CrNiMoN17- 11- 2 (1.4406)
NaCl; 30 °C
80
X5CrNi18-10 (1.4301)
PItting potential UH in mV
600
60 1.4301
500
40
20 400
Pitting-free
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 300
Pitting resistance index Ws= %Cr + 3,3 %Mo + 16 %N in % pickled Straw-yellow red / violet violet / blue
Figure 23: Influence of temperature on pitting corrosion Figure 24: Influence of annealing colours on pitting
resistance in the FeCl3test according to ASTM G 48 corrosion resistance (acc. to Diab and Schwenk)

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Some of the most common equations for estimating the sensitivity of stainless steels to pitting corrosion are:
PRE  %Cr  3,3  %Mo  16  %N (recommended for ferritic-austenitic stainless steels)

PRE  %Cr  3,3  %Mo  30  %N (recommended for austenitic stainless steels)
The higher the pitting resistance equivalent, the more resistant is the material to pitting or intergranular cor-
rosion (section 5.5). Alloys with a pitting resistance equivalent of over 33 are considered sea-water resistant.
The influence of ambient conditions on the passive layer cannot be neglected. If it has been damaged
e.g. due to annealing colours and scaling layers, the resistance to pitting corrosion worsens demonstra-
bly (Figure 24). However, local mechanical damages, for example, during grinding of the heat-affected
zone and in case of inadequate passivation, can also have deleterious effects.
Note In austenitic stainless Cr-Ni steels, molybdenum exerts a positive effect on pitting corrosion re-
sistance by changing the composition of the passive layer (see section 4.5) so that it becomes more
resistant to flat erosive electrolytic corrosion in reduced media. This effect must not be confused with the
influence of heat resistance due to the high recrystallisation temperature of this element (see Chapter
2.12). Molybdenum can thus exhibit different effects depending on the type of steel.
Testing the susceptibility of stainless steels to pitting corrosion can be done using the FeCl3 test accord-
ing to ASTM G 48. This is explained in greater detail in section 2.23.
The formation of pitting corrosion can be effectively reduced or prevented with the following measures.
Steels with special alloying content

1 Alloying
- Alloy with elements such as: Cr, Mo, N
Observing the critical pitting corrosion temperature
2 Application temperature
- This temperature must not be exceeded
Type of the surface quality
3 Surface quality
- Avoid grinding spots, polish if necessary

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5.5 Crevice corrosion

Crevice corrosion is a locally accelerated corrosion in connection with gaps and operates inside or imme-
diately next to a gap area (Figure 25, Figure 26) which has been formed between the metal surface and
another surface.
It is due to corrosion cells which are caused by concentration differences in the corrosive agent.
Figure 25: Schematic illustration of intergranular corrosion Figure 26: Austenitic CrNi steel corroded by intergranu-
lar corrosion
In stainless steels that are used in drinking water applications, crevice corrosion is to be expected at
gap widths smaller than 0.5 mm. Larger gaps, however, are not critical. Surface corrosion of organic
coatings (corrosion protection systems, section 6.2) is also due mainly to crevice corrosion. In this re-
gard, annealing colours and scaling layers must also be viewed critically because they can lead to the
formation of caps between themselves and the metal surface while also preventing the formation of pas-
sive layers.
Crevice corrosion by aeration cells:

– There is a concentration gradient in the electrolyte in
terms of oxygen content.
– At the “edge” of the gap, where oxygen is continuously
resupplied by the ambient air or by a flowing liquid me-
dium, there is a constant O2 content. The cathodic, oxy-
gen-consuming partial reaction, oxygen reduction, oc-
curs preferentially at the edge of the gap.
– There is a lower O2 concentration in the “inside” of the
gap because consumed oxygen cannot be transported
away quickly enough. The anodic partial reaction, the
anodic metal dissolution, therefore occurs inside the
gap.
– The poor “ventilation” in the gap, i.e. the lower oxygen
concentration, is the cause of crevice corrosion. The
corresponding corrosion cell is therefore also referred to
Figure 27: Schematic illustration of crevice as an aeration cell.
corrosion by aeration cells

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The test of the susceptibility of stainless steels to crevice corrosion can, similar to the test for pitting cor-
rosion (see section 5.4), be performed using the FeCl3 test according ASTM G 48. The result of these
tests is entered in diagrams as in Figure 23.
The formation of crevice corrosion can be effectively reduced or prevented with the following measures.
Avoid narrow gaps

1 Design
- No gap less than 0.5 mm wide
Seal gap by welding
2 Welding-engineering
- e.g. close rear sides of fillet welds
Use specially alloyed steels
3 Material-technical
- Molybdenum- steels are to be preferred
Avoid the formation of layers
4 Surface
- No dirt, annealing colours, scale layers etc.
5.6 Bimetallic corrosion (contact corrosion)

Bimetallic corrosion (formerly contact corrosion) is accelerated corrosion of a metallic area due to
a corrosion cell with different free corrosion potentials. It usually occurs between metals whose electro-
chemical potentials are different (nobler - more ignoble metal e.g. Fe - Zn, Figure 28 and Figure 29).
Dissolution of the ignoble metal through

formation of a galvanic local cell.
noble metal ignoble metal
Figure 28: Schematic illustration of bimetallic corro-

sion
Figure 29: Galvanic Zn layer of a base plate corroded
by bimetallic corrosion
This type of corrosion occurs is linked to three conditions. Bimetallic corrosion can only occur if they
are all met together. These include:
– A different corrosion potential of the metals in the system being observed

– There is an electron-conducting connection between the metals
– Both metals are joined by a conductive moisture film (electrolyte)

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If bimetallic corrosion occurs, it preferentially corrodes the ignoble material (anode), while the nobler
material (cathode) is actually protected against possible corrosion. Contact of two metals with different
potentials that are exposed to a conductive solution leads to a flow of electrons from the anode to the
cathode. The electro-chemical reactions that occur are the same as in an individual metal. However, the
corrosion to the anode increases strongly (Figure 30). In some cases, the element formation can also
lead to corrosion phenomena on materials which are actually resistant under the prevailing environmen-
tal conditions. This is possible on passive materials (e.g. aluminium) which can be polarised in critical
areas depending on the environment.
The mechanism of bimetallic corrosion is illustrated

schematically in adjacent Figure 30:
Noble metal 1 O  2e   H O  2OH  – Metals with differing electro-chemical nobility or igno-
e.g. iron 2 2 2
bility are connected to one another electrically AND by
an electrolyte solution.
– Anodic and cathodic sub-processes of corrosive dis-
solution are separated from each other.
– Anodic metal dissolution occurs on the electrochemi-
2e  cally more ignoble metal.
– The cathodic reaction (e.g. oxygen reduction) occurs
on the electrochemically nobler metal.
Ignoble Zn 2 Zn  Zn 2  2e  – The electro-chemically nobler metal is largely undam-
metal
e.g. Zn
aged.
Zn  1 O2  H 2O  Zn (OH )2
2
The protection of the electro-chemically nobler contact
partner specifically employed in applications for cathodic
corrosion protection with galvanic anodes (see section
Figure 30: Mechanism of bimetallic corrosion
6.3.2).
The susceptibility of a metal combination bimetallic corrosion can be estimated using the area rule
(Table 6). This is:
A Kathode Definitions in this vcorr corrosion speed Acathode Cathode area

v korr  c 
A Anode equation: c Constant Aanode Anode area
The constant c is the difference in potential of the two materials, i.e. higher the constant, the more like-
ly bimetallic corrosion is to occur.
Table 6: Diagram of the area rule

Possible combination of material Poor combination of material
The (ignoble) anode area must be significantly larger If the (ignoble) anode area is significantly smaller
than the (nobler) cathode area so that no dissolution than the (nobler) cathode area, dissolution of the
of the ignoble metal occurs. ignoble metal will occur.
Bimetallic corrosion does not occur if the conditions shown in Figure 31 are met.

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No bimetallic corrosion occurs…
… without an electron-conducting connection … in metals without a difference in potential
… with connecting electrolytes

Figure 31: Illustrations of conditions without a risk of bimetallic corrosion
The salt-spray test according to EN ISO 9227 is particularly well suited for testing the susceptibility of
metal combinations to bimetallic corrosion. This test is described in detail in Chapter 2.23.
The formation of bimetallic corrosion can be effectively reduced or prevented with the following measures.
Selection of material
1 Material-technical
- Using only one material (or similar)
Observing the area rule
2 Design
- smaller nobler areas, larger ignobler areas
Galvanic separation of the corrosion partners
3 Surface
- Non-conductive intermediate layers, coatings
5.7 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)

This type of corrosion involves the formation of cracks that take an intergranular or transcrystalline
course in metals under the action of certain corrosive agents with purely static or superimposed low-
frequency swelling tensile loads (Figure 32, Figure 33). A characteristic of stress corrosion cracking is
separation with low or no deformation, often without formation of visible corrosion products.
Note Stress corrosion cracking can occur only if tensile loads are also present in addition to the other
variables. This type of electro-chemical corrosion does not occur if these are absent or can be converted
into compressive stresses.

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Inter- and/or transcrystalline

destruction of the material
microstructure under tensile
stresses
Ftension
Figure 33: Austenitic microstructure corroded by trans-

Figure 32: Schematic illustration of stress corrosion crystalline stress corrosion cracking
cracking
Transcrystalline corrosion due to stress corrosion cracking

– e.g. in austenitic Cr-Ni steels and Ni alloys in chlorides but also in non-alloyed steels exposed to
H2S-containing media (e.g. wet, H2S-containing natural gas)
Intergranular corrosion due to stress corrosion cracking

– e.g. in unalloyed and (low-)alloyed steels in alkaline media, copper and aluminium alloys
Corrosion due to stress cracking is sometimes caused by very complex cathodic or anodic mechanisms
under the influence of tensile loads.
Cathodic stress corrosion cracking

– An aqueous solution covers the metal surface
– Tensile loads act
– Metal dissolves and enters the ionic state
+
– Electrons join with H to form hydrogen molecules
– Hydrogen leads to bubbling in the medium
– Hydrogen ions are absorbed by the metal
– Hydrogen ions diffuse to surface notches

– Increased dislocation density in the cracking tips, better
conditions for H2diffusion
Figure 34: Model representation the mechanism of cathodic stress corrosion cracking
The cathodic mechanism of stress corrosion cracking occurs preferentially in media such as H2S,
NH3 or HCN out of which hydrogen is formed in the cathodic sub-process that diffuses as atomic hy-
drogen into the material which embrittles after recombination of the atomic hydrogen. Plastically de-
formed areas such as cracking tips have an increased dislocation density and therefore better diffusion
conditions for hydrogen (Figure 34).

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In contrast, the mechanism of anodic stress corrosion cracking proceeds in particular in corrosive
agents such as halides, H2S or strongly basic solutions. The passive layer is destroyed and infiltrated at
lattice microstructure imperfections (e.g. phase and grain boundaries). The following dissolution of the
base material leads to the formation of surface notches. Cracking is possible on a sufficiently sharp notch
base. Crack growth occurs as a result of increased stress in the area of the crack tip under the influence
of the corrosive agent (Figure 35). The corrosion speed is high due to the small anode surface of the crack.
Anodic stress corrosion cracking

– An aqueous solution covers the metal surface
– Steel is covered with a light and chemically non-resistant

passive layer
– Tensile loads act
– The passive layer is damaged (dissolved) locally by the

corrosive agent
– The metal dissolves locally with release of oxygen
– The crack edge is passive, the crack base corrosively active
– Crack growth due to increased stress in the area of the

crack tip (plastic zone) under the influence of an agent
Figure 35: Model representation of the mechanism of anodic stress corrosion cracking
Various standardised test methods are available for testing the susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking.
These are described in more detail in section 2.23.
The formation of stress corrosion cracking in austenitic stainless steels can be effectively reduced or
prevented with the following measures.
From 45 °C for fcc materials

1 Temperature
- Avoid higher operating temperatures
Stresses in the tensile area
2 Stresses - Stress-relief heat treatment, creation of compressive
stresses
Must be able to cause SCC
3 Corrosive agent
- Selection of non-aggressive corrosive agents
Must be susceptible to SCC
4 Material
- Avoiding ferritic chrome or duplex steels

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6 Corrosion protection
6.1 Basic types of corrosion protection
The common technical measures for corrosion protection can be classified in principle into two basic
types which are:
– Passive protection against corrosion and

– Active protection against corrosion
The capability of the material to protect itself is generally assumed. Passive corrosion protection thus
includes all measures that shield the metal against corrosive media passively. These include, in particu-
lar, artificially applied films or coating (see section 6.2). In contrast, active corrosion protection is when
the material itself is made capable of independently, i.e. actively, protecting itself from corrosive dissolu-
tion (depending on the aggressiveness) or the metal-medium system is actively influenced (see section
6.3). These primarily include the electro-chemical protection processes as well as the use of inhibitors
and self-passivation.
6.2 Passive corrosion protection

6.2.1 Organic coating systems
Among the most important measures to protect against uniform surface corrosion (see section 5.2) is the
application of organic coating systems. Therefore, all aspects that are important for appropriate protec-
tion against corrosion (more properly, rust protection) have been addressed in the various parts of EN
ISO 12 944. In general, an organic coating medium consists of the following main components:
Matrix Oils, alkyd resins, chlorinated rubber, epoxy resins, polyure-

thanes, tar, bitumen
Pigments White pigments (titanium dioxide)
Coloured pigments (metal oxides, organic dyes)
Metal pigments, e.g. metallic zinc (functions as cathodic cor-
rosion protection)
Filler Metal oxides (silica, calcium carbonate, barium sulphate, iron
mica, among others)
Solvents Slightly volatile organic compounds or water that dissolves
the matrix
6.2.2 Metallic coatings

6.2.2.1 Hot-dip metalising
The most important process in hot-dip metallizing is hot-dip galvanising. This is also referred to as hot
galvanising. A differentiation is made between batch galvanising (small parts) and strip galvanising
(sheet metals, wires). In hot-dip galvanising, various alloy layers made of zinc and iron are formed (see
Chapter 2.09).
Hot-dip metallizing requires that the component must be suitably designed for hot-dipping. During
processing it is to be noted that contamination, for example, can lead to later galvanisation imperfec-
tions. The thickness of the zinc layer applied is critical to the rusting resistance of a component that will
be weathered during use. Additional protection in this regard can be achieved through an organic coating
on the zinc layer (duplex system) (see section 6.2.1).

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6.2.2.2 Thermal Spraying
In thermal spraying, metal particles are applied to the component surface by a propellant gas or an at-
omising gas. Depending on the starting material used, a differentiation is made in powder or wire flame
spraying. Due to a certain porosity, thermal spray procedures do not provide the same protection as
hot-dip metallisation. Thermal spraying with zinc is used:
– to galvanise stationary steel structures (bridges, industrial plants)

– to repair defects during hot-dip galvanisation.
6.2.2.3 Electrolytic metal deposition
By applying direct voltage, metals are galvanically deposited (cathodic reaction) on the component to
be protected. A typical example is the deposition of electro-chemically more ignoble metals on a nobler
base material (e.g. zinc on steel). In this regard, note that galvanically deposited zinc layers are thinner
than with hot-dip metalising (see section 6.2.2.1). Components galvanised in this fashion are preferen-
tially used in internal areas. Additional protection can be obtained by passivation of the zinc surface. In
contrast, electro-chemically nobler metals can also be deposited on a more ignoble base material (e.g.
copper, chromium, nickel or precious metals on steel). Multi-layer systems are usually used, e.g. the
copper / nickel / chromium system with a copper layer from 10 to 20 µm thick, a nickel layer from 20 to
30 µm thick and an outer chromium layer from 0.2 to 2 µm thick.
6.2.2.4 Chemical material deposition
Chemical material deposition is used in particular for the creation of nickel layers. In the process, nickel
ions are reduced by a chemical reaction and the resulting nickel atoms deposit on the component sur-
face. An advantage of chemical nickelisation compared to galvanic deposition (see section 6.2.2.3) is
the fact that the nickel layers formed have a more uniform layer thickness. This process is therefore
suitable for coating threaded areas, for example.
6.2.3 Non-metallic inorganic coatings
Metallic materials can also be protected by non-metallic-inorganic coatings. In many cases, these are
glasslike coatings such as enamel or ceramic. In chemical terms, these are fusion mixtures of sili-
cate, borates and fluorides metals with the metals sodium, potassium, lead and aluminium. Different col-
ourings can be achieved by using iron, chromium, cadmium, cobalt, nickel, gold, uranium and antimony
oxides. Note that enamel and ceramic layers are usually more brittle than underlying metal. They can
be destroyed if treated inappropriately. The properties of the coating must be matched to the substrate
support material and the intended use.
Technical enamels, as well as ceramics, are used in applications such as the construction of highly
acid-resisting pressure and agitating containers, storage tanks and receivers, columns, pipes and pipe-
line components in chemical and pharmaceutical process engineering.

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6.3 Active corrosion protection

6.3.1 Anti-corrosive additives (inhibitors)
Inhibitors (lat. inhibere “suppress”, “stop”) are substances that exert a slowing, inhibiting or preventive
effect on the corrosion process. Organic molecules, for example, deposit on the surface through adsorp-
tion and block reactions with the environment. Among corrosion inhibitors, VCI (volatile corrosion inhibi-
tor) agents are widely used for temporary protection but can also be added to closed systems such as
cooling circuits to function as long-acting inhibitors. One of these additives is hydrazine, N2H4, which
bonds the oxygen in the water or saturated steam with release of nitrogen dioxide (observe health pro-
tection measures!). From an electro-chemical perspective, inhibitors influence the anodic and/or cathodic
partial reaction of corrosion (section 3.2). Examples of this are:
– Inhibiting the anodic partial reaction through the formation of passive layers
– Inhibiting the cathodic partial reaction by preventing hydrogen evolution in the case of acid corrosion.
Inhibitors additionally cause the corrosion products to be dissolved while the material remains largely
undamaged.
6.3.2 Cathodic corrosion protection
Cathodic corrosion protection is an electro-chemical protection process in which an electric direct

current flows through the electrolyte (e.g. ground or water) onto the metal structures (e.g. cables, tanks)
that need to be protected. This protective current causes cathodic polarisation on the metal surface in
the electrolyte. This prevents dissolution of metal ions from the metal surface. The component forms the
cathode at the negative pole and is protected.
There are two main ways of generating the protective current: either with galvanic active anodes
(sacrificial anodes) of manganese or zinc by utilising the voltage difference between the electro-
chemically more ignoble anode material and the steel object being protected, or with a voltage source
(protective current device) in connection with inert passive anodes of titanium, iron silicon or niobium.
A disadvantage of the method using galvanic active anodes is that only a relatively small voltage is availa-
ble and the service life of the anodes is very limited due to the material removal induced by the protective
current on the anode itself. Active anodes therefore must be replaced on a regular basis to maintain the
corrosion protection. For this reason, industrial applications prefer protective systems using an external
current feed in which a protective current is fed to the protected object using a rectifier via one or more
inert passive anodes. The advantages of these protective systems are that the protective current can be
adjusted to the requirements and that the passive anodes have nearly infinite service lives because they
do not have any galvanically induced material loss. In cases with leakage current influences, rectifiers with
a potential-controlled output are also employed. Rectifiers with constant protective current (galvanostats)
are used for other applications such as the cathodic protection of reinforcing steel with embedded battery
eliminators of titanium. Typical examples of cathodic corrosion protection are:
– Protection of buried pipes

– Protection of enamelled hot water tanks
Cathodic protection is often used in addition to other corrosion protection processes. These include:
– Protection against corrosion on defects in the bitumen coating of a buried pipeline

– Protection against corrosion on defects in an enamel layer of a steel hot water tank

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6.3.3 Anodic corrosion protection
Anodic corrosion protection consists of applying an anodic current to force passivity in passivatable
metals that do not inherently passivate. Anodic corrosion protection can therefore only be used in pas-
sivatable systems, for example in sulphuric acid or caustic soda. The anodic protective current must be
maintained constantly in the active state of a metal, while the metastable state requires temporary
maintenance of this current. There are three procedures:
– The use of an anodic parasitic current

– The formation of local cathodes and
– The use of passivating inhibitors (passivators).
Anodic corrosion protection is present if the metal to be protected forms its own protective and dense
oxide layer through anodic oxidation (anodic polarisation) that prevents contact with the corrosive
agent. The resulting layer is significantly thicker and denser than a passive layer (see section 6.3.4) and
therefore significantly more resistant to mechanical loads. Particularly resistant oxide layers can be cre-
ated on the surface of aluminium by electro-chemical oxidation, for example. A common example is the
anodising of aluminium. Unalloyed steels can be protected by anodic corrosion protection against cor-
rosion by saltpetre and sulphuric acid. In stainless steels, this type of corrosion protection is used if these
materials are exposed to concentrated sulphuric acid.
However, a problematic aspect is that in acidic or alkaline media, damage to the protective layer leads to
very aggressive corrosion at damaged spots because the protective layer itself is often cathodic to the
material and local cells are therefore formed.
6.3.4 Self-passivation
Thin, very dense and chemically resistant metallic oxide layers that protect against further corrosive
metal deposition form on many metals and alloys such as stainless steels, chromium and aluminium
(see section 4.5). Self-passivation is used to describe a metal that is capable of doing this inde-
pendently and without outside support. This type of corrosion protection therefore differs from the
above-mentioned anodic processes (see section 6.3.3).
Note The information contained in this document should be considered as advisory and does not replace
any technical regulations or specifications. The latest version applies in each case.
Note This document has specifically dealt with only types of corrosion that can be influenced by the weld
processing of metals.

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7 Question
(1) What is generally meant by the term “corrosion” according to EN ISO 8044?
 A physicochemical interaction between a material and its surroundings.

 A physicochemical interaction between a metal and its surroundings.
 A mechanical interaction between a metal and its surroundings.
 A polymorphic interaction between a material and its surroundings.
 A qualitative interaction between a non-metal and its surroundings.
(2) Which basic forms of corrosion can attack metals?
 Chemical corrosion
 Metallic corrosion
 Non-metallic corrosion
 Electro-chemical corrosion
 Metal-physical corrosion
(3) Which two sub-processes are chemical and electrochemical corrosion associated with?
 The anodic reaction

 The thermodynamic reaction
 The anion reaction
 The cation reaction
 The cathodic reaction
(4) Which of the following statement(s) on electro-chemically ignoble metals is (are) correct?
 These metals are strong oxidising agents because these elements tend to accept electrons.
 These metals have a low tendency to metal dissolution (oxidation).
 These metals have a high tendency to metal dissolution (oxidation).
 These metals are strong reducing agents because these elements tend to donate electrons.
 These elements have a negative standard electrode potential.
(5) What is meant by the term redox potential?
 The measure of an element's capability to accept electrons in a chemical reaction.

 The capability of an element to serve as a reduction agent.
 The measure of an element's capability to donate electrons in a chemical reaction.
 The capability of an element to serve as an oxidising agent.
 The measure of an element's capability to accept ions in a chemical reaction.

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(6) What is rust?
 Rust is pure iron oxide.

 Rust are oxidic and hydroxidic ferrous compounds.
 Rust is iron chlorate.
 Rust is iron sulphate.
 Rust are alkaline copper sulphates and copper chlorides.
(7) How can intergranular corrosion in stainless steels be reduced or prevented?
 By stress-relief annealing.
 By alloying with the element molybdenum.
 By stabilisation with strong carbide formers (e.g. titanium or niobium).
 By using steels with very low carbon content (C  0.03%).
 By solution annealing (1,050 °C/water).
(8) Which alloying elements improve the resistance of stainless steels to pitting corrosion?
 Titanium,
 Chromium
 Niobium
 Molybdenum
 Nitrogen
(9) What is meant by the term “passive corrosion protection”?
 Measures in which the user remains passive. The metal passivates itself.
 Measures in which organic or metallic (for example) protective layers are applied to the
metal.
 Measures that shield the metal passively against corrosive media.
 Measures in which the metal can passivate by itself.
 Measures of cathodic corrosion protection.
(10) What is cathodic corrosion protection?
 An electro-chemical corrosion protection process.

 Protection against corrosion by manual application of organic coatings.
 Protection against corrosion by using galvanic active anodes (sacrificial anodes).
 Protection against corrosion by automated application of the sprayed metal coatings.
 A passive corrosion protection process.

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8 Bibliography
Zimmermann, R.; K. Günther:

Metallurgie und Werkstofftechnik. (Band 1)
Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig:, 1975
Tostmann, K.-H.:
Korrosion. Ursachen und Vermeidung.
Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, 2003
Kaesche, H.:
Die Korrosion der Metalle.
Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag; 1990
Wendler-Kalsch, E.; Gräfen, H.:

Korrosionsschadenkunde.
Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag; 1998
Schuster, J.:
Risse in feuerverzinkten Konstruktionen – Neue Überlegungen zum Bildungsmechanismus.
DVS-Berichte, Band 258, S. 368-375
Schuster, J.:
Fachbuchreihe Schweißtechnik, Band 130
Schulze. G.:
Haynes, W. M.:
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 91. Auflage.
Boca Raton, Florida: Taylor & Francis, 2010
Diab, A. S. M.; Schwenk, W.:

Beeinträchtigung der Lochkorrosionsbeständigkeit von CrNi-Stählen durch dünne Oxidschichten.
Werkstoffe und Korrosion, Weinheim 44 (1993), S. 367-372
Leaflet 829:
Edelstahl Rostfrei in Kontakt mit anderen Werkstoffen.
Düsseldorf: Informationsstelle Edelstahl Rostfrei, 2005
EN ISO 12 944:
Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint systems - Part 5.
Ausgabe: 01-2008

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Stainless and heat resistant steels Page 1
Chapter 2.15: Stainless and heat resistant steels
Contents
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 4
2 The history of stainless steels ....................................................................................................... 5
3 Definitions ....................................................................................................................................... 6
4 Metallurgical principles .................................................................................................................. 7
4.1 Alloying elements ....................................................................................................................... 7
4.1.1 Influence of alloying elements on the  region in ferrous binary systems ........................ 7
4.1.2 Main alloying elements ................................................................................................... 8
4.1.3 Additional alloying elements ......................................................................................... 10
4.1.4 Nitrogen as alloying element ........................................................................................ 10
4.2 Binary systems ........................................................................................................................ 11
4.2.1 Iron-chromium system .................................................................................................. 11
4.2.2 Iron-nickel system ........................................................................................................ 11
4.2.3 Chromium-nickel system .............................................................................................. 12
4.3 The ternary iron-chromium-nickel system ................................................................................ 13
4.3.1 Overview of the ternary diagram .................................................................................. 13
4.3.2 Phases, constituents of the microstructure and precipitations in the system Fe-Cr-Ni .. 14
4.4 Microstructure diagrams .......................................................................................................... 18
4.4.1 The Schaeffler diagram ................................................................................................ 18
4.4.2 The Delong diagram..................................................................................................... 20
4.4.3 The WRC diagram ....................................................................................................... 20
4.5 Determination of ferrite content in the microstructure of stainless steels .................................. 21
4.6 High heat resistance ................................................................................................................ 22
4.7 Resistance to heat and scaling ................................................................................................ 22
5 Classification of stainless steels ................................................................................................. 24
5.1 Classification according to EN 10 020 ...................................................................................... 24
5.2 Classification according to nickel content ................................................................................. 24
5.3 Classification according to microstructure constitution ............................................................. 25
5.3.1 Corrosion-resistant steels............................................................................................. 25
5.3.2 Heat-resistant steels .................................................................................................... 25
5.3.3 Highly heat-resistant steels .......................................................................................... 26

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5.4 Classification according to microstructure constitution and main properties ............................. 26

6 Types of stainless steels .............................................................................................................. 27
6.1 Ferritic stainless steels............................................................................................................. 27
6.1.1 Corrosion-resisting (acid-resisting) ferritic steels .......................................................... 27
6.1.2 Heat-resistant ferritic steels .......................................................................................... 28
6.1.3 Selected properties ...................................................................................................... 29
6.2 Martensitic stainless steels ...................................................................................................... 30
6.2.1 Corrosion-resisting (acid-resisting) martensitic steels ................................................... 30
6.2.2 Highly heat-resistant martensitic steels ........................................................................ 32
6.3 Austenitic stainless steels ........................................................................................................ 33
6.3.1 Corrosion-resisting (acid-resisting) austenitic steels ..................................................... 33
6.3.2 Heat-resistant austenitic steels..................................................................................... 34
6.3.3 Highly heat-resistant austenitic steels .......................................................................... 35
6.4 Austenitic-ferritic stainless steels ............................................................................................. 36
6.4.1 Corrosion-resisting (acid-resisting) austenitic-ferritic steels .......................................... 36
6.4.2 Heat resistant austenitic-ferritic steels .......................................................................... 37
7 Scaling resistance and use of heat-resistant steels ................................................................... 38
8 Standardisation of stainless steels ............................................................................................. 39
9 Welding processing ...................................................................................................................... 40
9.1 General information ................................................................................................................. 40
9.2 Applicable welding processes .................................................................................................. 40
9.3 Welding consumables / filler materials ..................................................................................... 40
9.4 Weldability and selection of filler materials ............................................................................... 41
9.4.1 Ferritic stainless steels ................................................................................................. 41
9.4.2 Martensitic stainless steels ........................................................................................... 43
9.4.3 Austenitic stainless steels ............................................................................................ 44
9.4.4 Austenitic-ferritic stainless steels.................................................................................. 45
9.5 Features of the joint design ...................................................................................................... 46
9.6 t12/8 concept and weldability ..................................................................................................... 46
10 Surface treatment of stainless steels .......................................................................................... 47
10.1 Basics ...................................................................................................................................... 47
10.2 Mechanical methods ................................................................................................................ 48
10.3 Chemical processes, pickling ................................................................................................... 49

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10.4 Chemical processes, passivating ............................................................................................. 49

11 Further rules for processing stainless steels ............................................................................. 50
11.1 Measures before and during welding ....................................................................................... 50
11.2 Measures after welding ............................................................................................................ 50
11.2.1 Flame straightening...................................................................................................... 50
11.2.2 Thermal cutting ............................................................................................................ 51
11.2.3 Hot-forming .................................................................................................................. 51
11.2.4 Cold forming................................................................................................................. 51
11.2.5 Shape cutting ............................................................................................................... 51
11.2.6 Heat treatments ........................................................................................................... 51
12 Stainless steels in construction supervision .............................................................................. 51
13 Question ........................................................................................................................................ 53
14 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................. 55

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1 Introduction
Steels whose chromium content exceeds 12% are capable of forming a permanently adherent and
chemically resistant passive layer on their surface and thus exhibit high resistance to corrosive attack
(see Chapter 2.14). These materials are therefore referred to as stainless steels. If they also have a
high resistance to high-temperature oxidisation, they can be classified as heat-resistant steels. Accord-
ing to EN 10 020, all types of stainless steels are a separate class that is not divided into high-grade
and stainless steels (see section 5.1).
Note According to EN 10 020:2000, stainless steels are not high-grade steels (see Chapter 2.04).
The materials are characterised by their chemical composition being matched to specific usage condi-
tions and as well as by their weldability (if not necessarily without difficulty) (exception: martensitic steels,
section 6.2). Stainless steels have a very wide range of application. They are used, for example, in steel
construction, facade engineering, the construction of chemical plants, pipeline construction, vehicle and
shipbuilding, in the foodstuffs industry and the household but also as in aeronautics and aerospace as
well as in nuclear and refrigeration engineering (Figure 1, Figure 2).
Figure 1: Chemical plant made of stainless steel (picture Figure 2: Cladding made of Cr-Ni-Mo stainless steel
courtesy Linde AG) (picture: J. Schuster)
According to CEN ISO/TR 15 608 (metallic material grouping system for welding), these steels can be
specifically assigned to what are referred to as material groups 7, 8 and 10 as well as their sub-groups
(Table 1 to Table 3).
Stainless steels – ferrite, martensitic, precipitation hardened
Normenstähle
Group Sub-group Stahlsorten
(Beispiele)
Ferritic, martensitic or precipitation hardened stainless steels with C  0.35% and
10.5%  Cr  30%
7.1 Ferritic stainless steels EN 10 088-1
(X6Cr17)
7 7.2 Martensitic stainless steels EN 10 088-1
(X50CrMoV15)
7.3 Precipitation hardened stainless steels EN 10 088-1
(X5CrNiMoCuNb14-5)

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Austenitic steels – partly stainless, partly wear-resistant
Austenitic steels
8.1 Austenitic stainless steels with Cr ≤ 19% EN 10 088-1
(X5CrNi18-10)
8 8.2 Austenitic stainless steels with Cr > 19% EN 10 088-1

(X1CrNiMoN25-22-2)
keine EN
8.3 Austenitic stainless manganese steels with 4% < Mn  12% (X120Mn12)
Stainless steels – austenitic-ferritic (duplex)
Austenitic-ferritic stainless steels (duplex steels)
EN 10 088-1
10.1 Austenitic-ferritic stainless steels with Cr  24% (duplex) (X2CrNiMoN22-5-3)
10
10.2 Austenitic-ferritic stainless steels with Cr > 24% (“superduplex”) EN 10 088-1
(X2CrNiMoN25-7-4)
2 The history of stainless steels
The invention of stainless steels based on the iron-chromium-nickel system is closely tied to Eduard
Maurer, 1886-1969 (Figure 3) and Benno Strauss, 1873-1944. In tests performed in “Laboratory II” of
the company Friedrich Krupp AG in Essen, Germany, starting in 1905 the researchers experimented
specifically with the alloying elements chromium, nickel and molybdenum in steel.
Figure 3: Eduard Maurer, one of the Figure 4: The “Pasel patent” of October 18, 1912 by the company
inventors of stainless steels Friedrich Krupp AG was the first patent on stainless steels.
(picture: TU Bergakademie Freiberg)
They examined Fe-CR-Ni- alloys, which they labelled with V (Versuchscharge=test batch), the number of
the batch and the resulting microstructure type (F – ferritic microstructure, M – martensitic microstruc-
ture, A austenitic microstructure). At the end of the investigations, two batches in particular were found to
be technically applicable. Both had a Cr-Ni ratio from 18 to 8 per cent by weight. While batch “V-2-A” did
not contain any molybdenum, batch “V-4-A” was alloyed with approx. 2% molybdenum and exhibited
better acid resistance (especially to pitting corrosion, see section 2.14). On October 18, 1912, the Frie-
drich Krupp AG company in Essen, Germany, registered a patent for the “production of articles requiring
high resistance to corrosion...” with the Reich Patent Office (Figure 4). These newly developed steels
made processes such as ammonia synthesis (the “Haber-Bosch process”) industrially viable for the first

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time.
In English-speaking countries, Harry Brearley, 1871-1941, is considered the inventor of stainless steels,
though this was a more or less accidental discovery. While examining firearm barrels alloyed with chro-
mium to improve their wear resistance, he found that this element too had a positive effect on the re-
sistance of these steels to corrosive attack. His patent was registered in 1913, one year after Krupp's
“Pasel patent” (Figure 4).
Note The steels developed at that time no longer exist in their original composition. Over the years,
constant changes were made to the chemical composition, in particular a decrease of the carbon content
and alloying with stabilising elements such as titanium and niobium. Therefore, today there are no “V-2-
A” or “V-4-A” steels. They are, however, used as common names by some people with some lack of the
technical knowledge.
3 Definitions
Stainless steel
According to EN 10 020, this includes steel with a mass fraction of at least 10.5% chromium and at most
1.2% carbon. This definition is, however, not technically correct, as it has been demonstrated that
spontaneous passivation occurs and that adequate corrosion resistance is achieved only at a chromium
content above 12%.
Other alloy steels
Other alloy steels are, according to EN 10 020, those types that do not meet the definition of stainless
steeps and cannot be assigned to the unalloyed steels.
Heat resistance
According to EN 10 095, this is the property of materials which are used at temperatures above 550°C
(for steels: Wustite point; wustite = FeO) due to its excellent resistance to the effects of hot gases and
combustion products as well as salt and molten baths while also exhibiting good mechanical properties
under short-term and long-term stress.
Non-scaling property
Steel is considered resistant to scaling up to a certain temperature if the scaled amount of metal at this
temperature is not approximately 1 g/m² h and does not exceed 2 g/m² h at a temperature 50 K higher
after 120 hours of stress with four intermediate coolings.
(High) heat resistance
According to EN 10 302, this is the property of steels, nickel and cobalt alloys with at least 8% chromi-
um to exhibit good mechanical characteristics under long-term usage conditions at temperatures
above 500°C. The property is expressed primarily in high values for the 1% time-yield limit and creep
rupture strength under continuous load.

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4 Metallurgical principles
4.1 Alloying elements
4.1.1 Influence of alloying elements on the  region in ferrous binary systems
Alloying elements influence the formation of the microstructure of ferrous alloys. Their effect is particular-
ly apparent in how they influence the  region in binary ferrous alloys (see Figure 5 and Chapter 2.03).
Influence of alloying elements on the austenite region in binary ferrous systems

M M M M
  
A4 
A4 A4
A4
 
 
 

A3 
A3 A3


 A3
Fe % LE Fe % LE Fe % LE Fe % LE
(a) (b) (c) (d)

 region is limited by Closed  region and
Unrestricted open  region
 region is limited by a multiple heterogeneous decreasing line of
heterogeneous state field
state fields equilibrium
Ni, Mn, Co, Pd, Ir, Pt etc. C, N, Cu, Zn, Au, Re etc. Nb, Ta, Ce, Zr, Hf etc. Cr, Mo, Si, Al, P, Ti, V, etc.
“Austenite formers” “Ferrite formers”
high less high less high high
Figure 5: Effect of alloying elements (AE) on the state region of the  solid solution
Alloying elements that expand the  region are referred to as “austenite formers”. Their elementary
cell is typically face-centred cubic (fcc) but can also be hexagonal close packed (hcp). Strong “austen-
ite formers” open the  region. It transitions into an unrestricted homogeneous solid solution region
(Figure 5-a). A typical example is the Fe-Ni system (see section 4.2.2). With less strong “austenite for-
mers”, the  region is limited by one heterogeneous state field (Figure 5-b). A typical example is the Fe-C
system (see Chapter 2.03). These elements too have either an fcc or hcp elementary cell. Elements that
constrict the  region, i.e. exert a positive effect on the  or  region, are referred to as “ferrite for-
mers”. In a majority of cases, they have a cubic-body-centred elementary cell. In less strong “ferrite
formers”, the  region is limited by multiple heterogeneous state fields (Figure 5-c), for example in the
Fe-Nb system. In contrast, strong “ferrite formers” completely close off the  region (Figure 5-d). The Fe-
Cr system (see section 4.2.1) is a typical example of this.
Note If steels do not have a - transformation, they cannot be subcooled and the formation of marten-
site is therefore impossible. As a result, alloys with this transformation behaviour can be neither nor-
malised nor hardened and do not harden during welding either.
In contrast, steels with binary phase diagrams, similar to Figure 5-b and Figure 5c, undergo
transformation from  to  to  depending on the alloy content. Hardening is therefore possible. Under
certain circumstances, there is also a hazard of hardening the heat-affected zone of welded joints.

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4.1.2 Main alloying elements
Table 4 and Table 5 show important chemical and physical properties of the element iron as well as the
main alloying components of stainless steels, chromium, nickel, molybdenum, manganese and copper,
including selected metallurgical features.
Table 4: Important chemical and physical properties of the elements iron, chromium and nickel
Atomic Electro-
26 1.8 24 1.6 28 1.8
number negativity
Symbol Fe Cr Ni
Name Iron Chromium Nickel
Relative atomic mass 55.847 51.996 58.71
Electron configuration 2-8-14-2 2-8-13-1 2-8-16-2
Appearance of pure el-

ement:
(Images: Wikimedia)
Melting point (°C): 1.536 1.800 1.455

Boiling point (°C): 3.250 2.660 3.750
Density (g/cm³): 7.86 7.14 8.85
Crystallogr. modifica- -, -, -, (-) iron none - only cbc none - only cfc
tion:
Microstructure influence: Base element “Ferrite formers” “Austenite formers”
Is, along with chromium and

The most important alloying
molybdenum, among the
element of stainless steels;
most important alloying
causes spontaneous
elements of stainless steels;
formation of a passive layer
acts as a strong “austenite
(oxygen-adsorbing
former” to increase
boundary layer) at content
toughness, especially in the
above 12%; higher Cr
low-temperature range; has
content improves heat
a grain refining effect and
resistance and tempering
lowers sensitivity to
resistance; scaling
overheating; the heat
resistance is increased in
Effect in stainless steels: Base element of all steels expansion coefficient of
combination with silicon or
steels alloyed with Ni
aluminium; chromium
achieves a minimum at
steels can be hardened
36% nickel; the electrical
and quenched/tempered
resistance is increased by
well; increases tensile
nickel; is substantially
strength, while elongation is
responsible for the
only been marginally
resistance of stainless
worsened; the hardening
steels to non-oxidising
ability is considerably
acids; can increase full
increased by decreasing
hardening and
the critical cooling speed
quenching/tempering.

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Table 5: Important chemical and physical properties of the elements molybdenum, manganese and copper
Atomic Electro-
42 1.8 25 1.5 29 1.9
number negativity
Symbol Mo Mn Cu
Name Molybdenum manganese Copper
Relative atomic mass 95.94 54.94 63.54
Electron configuration 2-8-18-13-1 2-8-13-2 2-8-18-1
Appearance of pure el-

ement:
(Images: Wikimedia)
Melting point (°C): 2.623 1.244 1.083

Boiling point (°C): 4.639 1.962 2.567
Density (g/cm³): 10.28 7.47 8.92
Crystallogr. modifica- none - only cbc , , ,  manganese none - only cfc
tion:
Microstructure influence: “Ferrite formers” “Austenite formers” “Austenite formers”
This has no significant

After chromium, this is
influence on corrosion
most important alloying
resistance; in connection This is alloyed both to
element for improving
with sulphur, it reduces improve the cold forging
corrosion resistance;
resistance to pitting behaviour as well as the
molybdenum is alloyed to
corrosion; contributes to corrosion resistance of
austenitic steels to
solid solution solidification; stainless steels; increases
improve the corrosion and
is a austenite former; in resistance to sulphuric acid
heat resistance; similar to
austenitic Cr-Ni steels, it solutions; can negatively
chromium and nickel,
complicates the impact intergranular
molybdenum tends to
transformation of the corrosion resistance; in
passivation; addition of 2
austenite under plastic and austenitic steels, the
to 5% Mo improves
temperature stress; the addition of copper up to 3%
resistance to pitting
element increases the increases corrosion
corrosion; the element also
solubility of the austenite resistance, especially in
Effect in stainless steels: increases resistance to
for nitrogen as an alloying conjunction with
stress corrosion cracking;
elements; is an effective molybdenum; during hot
at high temperatures,
deoxidising agent; working of cupreous steels,
molybdenum improves
approximately 10% Mn can enriched copper can
heat resistance and
be dissolved in ferrite at penetrate into the grain
resistance to scaling; the
room temperature; boundaries on the surface
element is a strong “ferrite
martensitic manganese under the influence of
former”; increases
steels with 2 to 10% Mn tensile stresses and lead to
hardenability and reduces
are very brittle; in austenitic surface cracks; unalloyed
the tempering
Mn steels with 12 to 14% structural steels are alloyed
embrittlement of chromium
Mn, hardening occurs due with copper up to 0.15%,
and manganiferous heat-
to cold forming resulting which improves resistance
treated steels; its property
from the transformation of to atmospheric corrosion
of forming carbides
austenite into martensite or
increases wear resistance
the formation of twinning

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4.1.3 Additional alloying elements
In addition to the six main alloying elements mentioned in section 4.1.2, stainless steels can be alloyed
with further elements depending on the stresses on the steels. Selected properties as alloying elements
are summarised in Table 6. In this regard, note that interactions among the individual elements and
properties that are irrelevant in stainless steels are not considered.
Table 6: Selected properties of alloying elements in stainless steels

Alloying elements
Eigenschaft
Cr Ni Mo Mn Co Si Al Cu Ti Nb N C
Cubic Cubic Cubic
Elementary cell
body cfc body cub hex dcp cfc cfc hex body — hex
(at room temperature)
centred centred centred
“Ferrite forming” effect ++ 0 ++ 0 0 ++ + 0 + + 0 0
“Austenite forming” effect 0 ++ 0 ++ + 0 0 ++ 0 0 ++ +
Carbide forming effect ++ 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 ++ ++ 0
Resistance to rust ++ + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Resistance to IC ++ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ++ ++ 0 --
Resistance to PC ++ + ++ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ++ --
Resistance to SCC ++ ++ + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Non-scaling property ++ 0 0 0 0 ++ ++ 0 0 0 0 0
High heat resistance + ++ + + ++ 0 0 0 + + 0 0
Hot crack resistance ++ -- + ++ - - 0 -- - - + -
In Table 6 means:
Cubic body cubic body centred ++ Very positive effect in stainless steels
centred
cfc cubic-face-centered + Verifiable positive effect in stainless steels
hex hexagonal 0 No or irrelevant effect in stainless steels
dcp diamond close packed - Rather negative effect in stainless steels
cub cubic special str. at RT -- Very negative effect in stainless steels
— no crystal microstructure at RT not relevant
4.1.4 Nitrogen as alloying element
In austenitic stainless steels, nitrogen deserves special attention as an alloying element. The effects of
this element are positive in such steels (Table 6). Nitrogen increases the austenite stability, making it
possible to reduce the content of expensive “austenite formers” such as nickel. Especially in connection
with the elements chromium and molybdenum, nitrogen considerably improves resistance to pitting and
intergranular corrosion (see Chapter 2.14). Furthermore, this element has proven to decrease the hot
cracking susceptibility of austenitic steels.
Nitrogen is often alloyed selectively to austenitic stainless steels with reduced carbon content (ELC
steels = Extra Low Carbon steels) so that there is no decrease in strength and the strength properties
can be further increased (if needed).
Note Interstitially dissolved nitrogen is a strong steel parasite in non-alloyed and steels with a body-
centred cubic structure (see chapters Chapter 2.04 and 2.09). In ferritic microstructures, diffusion pro-
ceeds by a factor of 100 to 1,000 times faster than in austenitic steels with a face-centred cubic close
packed structure. Precipitation such as brittle iron nitrides can therefore no longer occur near room tem-
perature and ageing effects cannot arise (see Chapter 2.02). Nitrogen is therefore usable as an alloying
element.

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4.2 Binary systems

4.2.1 Iron-chromium system
Chromium strongly constricts the  region. It is therefore a strong “ferrite former” in ferrous alloys.
According to Figure 6, technical chromium steels can be divided into three areas in which the properties
can be determined by the transformation curve.
Area I – Fe-Cr alloys with - transformation

In such steels, which always contain carbon, the transformation can be undercooled very easily so that
imbalance microstructures arise in this area in martensitic chromium steels (see section 6.2). Their
hardness is determined by the level of carbon content (C > 0.16%).
Area II – Fe-Cr- alloys with partial - transformation

Alloys with chromium content between about 10.5% and 12% can only undergo partial transformation.
Technical steels of this area are semi- or half-ferritic chromium steels (see section 6.1). The
transformable microstructure is predominantly martensite (0.10 < C < 0.16 %).
Area III – Fe-Cr alloys without - transformation

Alloys with chromium content of 12% and above are transformationless. The carbon content of
technical chromium steels is limited to a maximum of 0.10%. They are referred to as ferritic chromium
steels (see section 6.1).
Figure 6: Binary iron-chromium system in the alloy

range up to 50% chromium (according to Ober-
hoffer and Esser, Adcock, Cook and Jones)
4.2.2 Iron-nickel system
Nickel extends the  region to room temperature and therefore has an “austenite-forming” effect in fer-
rous alloys (see sections 4.1.1 and 4.1.2). Above a certain alloy content, --transformation in equilibri-
um does not occur so that steels are stable or full austenitic. At lower alloy content, - transformation
can be suppressed by quenching. The microstructure of such steels is not completely stable (Figure 7).
They are referred to as retained austenites. Typical examples include cold tough 5% and 9% nickel
steels (see Chapter 2.13).

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Figure 7: Binary iron-nickel system in the alloy

range to 100% chromium (according to Guertler
and Tammann)
4.2.3 Chromium-nickel system
The third edge-system of the ternary-system iron-chromium-nickel is the binary system chromium-nickel
(Figure 8). It is a characteristic eutectic system with partial solubility in the solid state (see Chapter
2.02). Chromium exhibits limited solubility to nickel (max approx. 32%), as does nickel to chrome
(max approx. 45%). In chromium-nickel alloys, brittle intermetallic phases can occur that are some-
times also found in the ternary phase space.
Figure 8: Binary chromium-nickel system in

alloy range up to 100% chromium
(according to Wever and Jellinghaus)

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4.3 The ternary iron-chromium-nickel system

4.3.1 Overview of the ternary diagram
The systems Fe-Cr, Fe-Ni and Cr-Ni form the boundaries of the ternary system Fe-Cr-Ni. All polylines of
the individual systems extend into the ternary space and form areas. These have been entered in Figure
9. To complement, Figure 10 only contains the area in which the brittle, intermetallic sigma phase exists
(see section 4.3.2.4) in the ternary phase space Fe-Cr-Ni.
Figure 9: Spatial illustration of the system Fe-Cr-Ni Figure 10: Area of the sigma phase in the ternary space
(acc. to Schuster) Fe-Cr-Ni (acc. to Schuster)
As can be seen, the spatial representation permits a good overview of the overall system. However,
practical work with the ternary system turns out to be extremely complicated. For this reason, the
literature contains numerous content sections at constant iron content to eliminate problems with, for
example, determining the transformation curve of Fe-Cr-Ni alloys (and thus of stainless steels). Figure
11 contains an example of such a section with 70% iron. This diagram also includes six areas whose
characteristic transformation curves for steels can be assigned (Table 7).
Table 7: Characteristic transformation curves for stainless steels

Area Transformation curve Type of stainless steel Section
Area  SS+ Full-austenitic Cr-Ni steels 6.3
Area  S  S +   S + +    Metastable austenitic Cr-Ni steels 6.3
Area  SS+++ Metastable austenitic Cr-Ni steels 6.3
Area  SS+S+++ Metastable austenitic Cr-Ni steels 6.3
Area  SS++ Austenitic-ferritic Cr-Ni steels 6.4
Area  SS+ Ferritic Cr steels 6.1

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Figure 11: Concentration section

through the iron-chromium-nickel
system at 70% iron, with areas
of same solidification and areas
of different delta ferrite morphol-
ogy according to Lippold and
Savage
4.3.2 Phases, constituents of the microstructure and precipitations in the system Fe-Cr-Ni
4.3.2.1 Delta ferrite
Delta ferrite ( ferrite) is the allotropic high-temperature phase of pure iron which has a cubic-body-
centred elementary cell at an atmospheric pressure between 1,392°C and 1,536°C (see Chapter 2.03).
If an austenitic stainless steels (see section 6.3) has a certain amount of  ferrite (Figure 12), this can
indicate the following manifestations and hazards:
– Can lead to embrittlement at temperatures around 475°C (see section 4.3.2.3),

– Can lead to sigma phase formation at temperatures between 600 and 850°C (see section 4.3.2.4),
– Can reduce the corrosion resistance under corrosive attack (see Chapter 2.14),
– Indicates a relative austenite instability and thus a risk of embrittlement due to deformed
martensite under cold forming,
– Determines the magnitude of the steel's magnetic reaction
Note The assumption that a certain amount of  ferrite, verifiable at room temperature, in the microstruc-
ture of welded joints of austenitic Cr-Ni steels improves their hot crack resistance (see Chapter 2.06) is
no longer correct according to current knowledge. Such content can be regarded, rather, as an indica-
tion that the alloy concerned is primarily ferritically solidified. Austenitic Cr-Ni steels in a ferritic primary
crystallisation exhibit better resistance to hot cracking during welding than do those with an austenit-
ic primary crystallisation (Table 7, Figure 11).
4.3.2.2 Austenite
Austenite () is the allotropic phase of iron which occurs in the pure element in a temperature range
between 911°C and 1,392°C It has a cubic-face-centred elementary cell (see Chapter 2.03). By using
“austenite formers” (see section 4.1) such as Ni, Mn, Co and N, the austenite region can be extended
down to very low temperatures. Steels with an austenitic microstructure (Figure 13) are characterised by,
among others, the following properties:

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– Very easily formed,

– Sometimes have a strong tendency to work hardening and are therefore less machinable,
– Not ferromagnetic (paramagnetic),
– Not susceptible to brittle fracture and are cold tough.
Figure 12: Austenitic microstructure with lined delta Figure 13: Austenitic microstructure with characteristic
ferrite and low TiN precipitations twins
4.3.2.3 ’ phase (475°C embrittlement)
The formation of the ’ phase (more properly ’) in the microstructure of stainless steels leads to what is
referred to as 475° embrittlement in the temperature range between 400 and 550°C. This is a “single-
phase separation” (into a Cr-poorer () phase and a Cr-richer ‘(‘) phase) and not an actual precipi-
tation. The phase occurs preferentially in ferritic chromium and duplex steels and with long soaking
times (steels with 12% Cr: 105 h, steels with 20% Cr: 20 h). Quick annealing at 600°C and subsequent
accelerated cooling can reverse associated embrittling effects.
Figure 14: Iron-chromium binary

system in the alloy range to
100% chromium with existence
area of the ’ phase (acc. to
Kubashevsky)
Figure 14 illustrates the position of the ’ phase in the iron-chromium binary system. As can be seen, it
occurs to the right of the existence area of the intermetallic  phase (see section 4.3.2.4), i.e. at very
high chromium content.

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Note The designation of the phases in the Fe-Cr-Ni system starts in accordance with the cooling curve
at high temperatures. Thus, in a given composition, the phase separated first from the melt is “high
temperature ferrite”, i.e. the  ferrite (see section 4.3.2.1). If it remains resistant down to room tem-
perature and below, it retains its designation. Such materials are therefore also referred to as 
ferrite at room temperature. However, since the appearance of 475 °C embrittlement, a different term,
' phase, has been introduced even though it should more properly be ' phase (- ferrite with high
dissolved chromium content).
4.3.2.4 Intermetallic phases
Numerous intermetallic phases can occur in stainless steels, of which the sigma, the chi and the Laves
phases are the most technically relevant.
Sigma phase
The sigma phase ( phase) is an intermetallic iron-chromium compound with approx. 45% chromium
content (Figure 9, Figure 10, Figure 14), it is hard and very brittle. Its chemical formula is (Fe, Ni)x(Cr,
Mo)y. The formation of this phases in the area of the grain boundaries (Figure 15, Figure 16) leads to
strong chromium depletion of the surrounding microstructure zones. The occurrence of the  phase in
particular impairs the impact work (especially resistance to intergranular corrosion, see Chapter 2.14).
Figure 15: Austenitic microstructure with visible  phase Figure 16:  phase precipitations (white) on the grain
precipitations (white) boundaries in very high resolution (SEM image)
The  phase formation depends on chromium content, the temperature and the cooling conditions. Its
formation proceeds very slowly at temperatures between 600 and 900°C. The required time is several
tens to several thousand hours. The  phase forms only if materials have a Cr content of more than
18%. Silicon, manganese and molybdenum shift the limit for formation of this compound to lower
chromium content. With cold forming the  phase formation begins earlier. Annealing above 850°C
causes the compound to enter into solution. The formation the  phase occurs especially quickly if the
stainless steel or weld contains  ferrite.
CHI phase
The CHI phase ( phase) is, similar to the - phase, a brittle intermetallic compound with the chemical
formula Fe36Cr12Mo10 or (Fe, Ni)36Cr18Mo4 and has a cubic-body-centred structure. It can occur preferen-
tially in weld metal and in the heat-affected zone of duplex steels and less likely in austenitic steels.

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Laves phase
The hexagonal Laves phase ( phase) is an intermetallic compound too. In chemical terms, in stainless
steels it corresponds to the formula Fe2Mo, but can also occur as Fe2Nb; Fe2Ta; Fe2Ti; Fe2W. It is not
formable at room temperature and is therefore very embrittling. Therefore, steels in which the phase has
formed have a risk of developing cracks during cold-forming processes. The same statements apply
here as for the  phase described above.
4.3.2.5 Carbides
Carbides in technical iron-chromium and iron-chromium-nickel alloys, i.e. in Cr-Ni and CR-Ni-Mo steels
alloyed with carbon-affine elements, have different and sometimes complex compositions. They can
have a positive effect (stabilising against intergranular corrosion, see Chapter 2.14) or negative effect
(embrittlement, increasing susceptibility to corrosion.) Table 8 provides information on selected
carbides (see also Chapter 2.03).
Table 8: Selected carbides in stainless steels

Microstructure Examples and description
TiC, VC (V4C3), ZrC, NbC (Nb4C3) / TaC, Cr23C6
These carbides are very stable and only slightly soluble in austenite (solid
Cubic solution). The C atoms in the carbides on interstitial sites can likewise be
substituted with alloying elements with a smaller atom radius (e.g. with N
carbonitride formation).
Mo3C, MoC, W 2C, WC, Ta2C, Fe2C, Cr7C3
Hexagonal
These carbides are stable and only slightly soluble in austenite ( solid solution).
Fe3C, Mn3C, Cr3C2, (Co3C), (Ni3C)
These carbides are unstable and very easily soluble in austenite. Ni and Co
practically do not participate in the carbide formation. Mn and Cr replace iron in the
cementite (Fe3C). Chromium carbides are intermediary phases. They are, like the
intermetallic phases, not ductile and therefore embrittle the steel. Chromium car-
Orthorhombic bides may cause intergranular corrosion of stainless steels (see Chapter 2.14).
These are Cr23C6 and mixed carbides such as (Cr, Fe)23C6. Cr7C3 may occur rarely,
since it is easily dissolved in the austenite. The carbon formation occurs at tempera-
tures between 450 and 850°C. The maximum precipitation speed is in the tempera-
ture range between 650 and 700°C. It should therefore be avoided or passed
through quickly.
Note During the formation of precipitations in iron-chromium-nickel alloys, note that nitrogen delays all
precipitations except for M6C carbides. In contrast, carbon only slows down the formation of  and 
phases.

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4.4 Microstructure diagrams

4.4.1 The Schaeffler diagram
Microstructure diagrams can be used to read (estimate) the microstructure resulting under certain condi-
tions and as a function of the chemical composition in the weld metal at room temperature.
The microstructure diagram (Figure 17) was developed in 1949 by Anton L. Schaeffler and considers
the influence of the alloying elements on microstructure formation through a chromium and nickel
equivalent. These dependences include the “ferrite forming” effect (similar to the element chromium) of
important alloying elements in the chromium equivalent Creq-Sch. On the other hand, the nickel equiva-
lent Nieq-Sch only includes elements that exhibit an “austenite forming” effect similar to nickel.
Chromium equivalent according to Schaeffler: Cr eqSch  %Cr  %Mo  1,5  %Si  0,5  %Nb
Nickel equivalent according to Schaeffler: Ni eqSch  %Ni  30  %C  0,5  %Mn
Figure 17: The

Schaeffler diagram
with lines of the same
 ferrite proportions in
% (FP – ferrite per-
cent)
Note Strictly speaking, the diagram applies to manual metal arc welding (E) with stick electrodes with a
diameter of 5 mm on 12-mm thick plates under typical cooling conditions. These lines can move in
other cooling rates due to other welding processes and/or welding parameters and/or workpiece thick-
nesses. The closer a material is to a boundary line, the more possible it is that a differing microstructure
will be generated than indicated in the Schaeffler diagram. This applies also in the case of deviations
from the origin analysis.
Carbon, C  0.2 - 0.25% Molybdenum, Mo  3.0% Nickel, Ni  35%

Chromium, Cr  30% Silicon, Si  2.5% Manganese, Mn  3.0%
No nitrogen is considered in the “original” nickel equivalent of the Schaeffler diagram. Charts from more
recent literature add this element to carbon and include the sum of both elements into the calculation
with the factor 30. The same applies to titanium. This is added to niobium in the chromium equivalent
and the sum of both is multiplied by the factor 0.5.
The microstructure ranges entered in the Schaeffler diagram permit the following statements:

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Austenite (A)
The stable or full-austenitic steels are located in this range (see section 6.3). Full-austenitic microstruc-
ture results when, for example, welding filler materials with 25% chromium and 20% nickel.
Ferrite (F)
Purely ferritic chromium steels with high Cr content and low carbon concentrations can be found in this
range (see section 6.1).
Martensite (M)
Purely martensitic microstructure originates predominantly when welding martensitic chromium steels
with C content > to 0.2% (see section 6.2).
Mixed microstructure: Austenite + Ferrite (A + F)

The metastable austenitic steels are found in this range (see section 6.3). Typical examples of these
materials are steels with 18% chromium and 8% to 10% nickel.
Mixed microstructure: Austenite + martensite (A + M)

Such a mixed microstructure results when welding an electrode with 18% chromium and 8% to 10%
nickel onto unalloyed structural steel (see Chapter 2.22).
Mixed microstructure: Martensite + ferrite (M + F)

The martensitic-ferritic mixed microstructure forms with chromium steels at 10.5% to 12% chromium and
carbon content below 0.1% (see section 4.2.1).
Mixed microstructure: Ferrite + martensite (F + M)

In the lower left range of the Schaeffler diagram are the non-alloyed structural steels whose Cr and Ni
equivalent are low due to absence of alloy constituents.
Mixed microstructure: Austenite + martensite + ferrite + (A + M + F)

A mixed area in which, due to the dilution of different materials, the creation of the above-mentioned mi-
crostructure combination of three phases can occur.
Figure 18: The

Schaeffler diagram
with lines of the same
 ferrite proportions in
% (FP: ferrite per
cent) and critical are-
as according to By-
stram

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The ranges registered by Bystram represent an extension of the Schaeffler diagram. These ranges con-
tain microstructures and manifestations critical for the weld metal that are to be expected (Figure 18)
and permit good assessment of weldability of the relevant alloys. As can be seen, there is a region in
the centre of the diagram in which the resulting mixed microstructures results of austenite and ferrite
or, under some circumstances some martensite, yield a weld metal resistant to cracks and embrittle-
ment (see Chapter 2.22).
4.4.2 The Delong diagram
The Delong diagram (Figure 19) from the year 1972 is a further development of the Schaeffler diagram.
A difference from the latter diagram is that it also takes into account the element nitrogen in its nickel
equivalent.
Chromium equivalent according to Delong: CreqDeLong  % Cr  % Mo  1,5  %Si  0,5  %Nb

Nickel equivalent according to Delong: NieqDeLong  % Ni  30  % C  0,5  %Mn  30  %N
As can be seen, the Delong diagram includes only a limited portion of the alloys recorded in the
Schaeffler diagram (section 4.4.1). It is valid for nickel equivalents between 10% and 21% and chromium
equivalents between 16% and 27%. It can be used to effectively predict the microstructures of meta-
stable austenitic chromium-nickel steels that form at room temperature (see section 6.3). Its im-
portance lies in the fact that, for the first time, it indicates the  ferrite proportions anticipated in such
steels, using the new unit ferrite number (FN) (see section 4.5).
Figure 19: The Delong

diagram with lines of
the same  ferrite
proportions in FN
(ferrite number) and
FP (ferrite per cent)
4.4.3 The WRC diagram
The WRC diagram is one of the current microstructure diagrams. It was created in the year 1992 by Kotecki
and Sievert on behalf of the Welding Research Council of the AWS (American Welding Society). It relies on a
development from the year 1988 by the same authors. In contrast with the Schaeffler and Delong diagrams
(see sections 4.4.1 and 4.4.2) in this diagram the ferrite proportions are indicated exclusively in FN. In par-
ticular, the diagram permits more accurate estimation of the anticipated microstructures of duplex steels
(see section 6.4) because it also dissolves materials with high ferrite content well.

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Chromium equivalent acc. to WRC: CreqWRC  %Cr  %Mo  0,7  %Nb

Nickel equivalent acc. to WRC: NieqWRC  %Ni  35  %C  20  %N  0,5  %Cu
Figure 20: The WRC

diagram with lines of
the same  ferrite
content in FN (ferrite
number) and project-
ed lines of the con-
tent triangle from the
system Fe-Cr-Ni
4.5 Determination of ferrite content in the microstructure of stainless steels
The determination of the ferrite content in austenitic steels can be made either metallographically by
using micro-sections, Figure 12, (destructively) or magneto-inductively, Figure 21 and Figure 22 (non-
destructively) directly at the weld. However, in magneto-inductive testing the reading is a function of
the chemical composition of the alloy. Therefore, when dealing with high ferrite content the indicated
ferrite content does not correspond to the actual content in the material, since high-alloyed ferrite tends
to a weaker magnetic reaction than the same ferrite content does with a lower alloy potential. For these
reasons, the ferrite number (FN) was introduced for indication of the content of ferrite (EN ISO 8249
and EN ISO 17 655).
Figure 21: Magneto-inductive ferrite metre Figure 22: Magneto-inductive ferrite metre

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It was originally assumed that the ferrite number corresponds approximately to the ferrite percentage
(FP) in a weld metal of type 19 9. Later examinations, however, found that the ferrite number describes
an excessively high ferrite percentage (FP) when dealing with increasing absolute ferrite content. Cru-
cially, however, the ferrite number system has a very high reproducibility in its measurement results. It
must be kept in mind that the deviation in measured values increases considerably at rising ferrite con-
tent. This deviation is less than 1 FN at low ferrite content (up to 10 FN) but can reach up to 25 FN in
steels with high ferrite content (e.g. duplex steels).
Note The  ferrite identified in the weld metal of stainless steels, for example, represents a proportion
(microstructure proportion) and NOT actual content. This issue is handled incorrectly in almost the
entire technical literature and even in standards (e.g. EN ISO 8249). A correct formulation would be: “A
proportion of up to 10% of the welding engineers trained in Germany are women”. And not: “The content
of women trained as welding engineers in Germany is a maximum of 10%”.
4.6 High heat resistance
The mechanisms for increasing the heat resistance of steels with a cubic-body-centred elementary cell
were described in detail in Chapter 2.12. These are effective up to temperatures of 650°C. For operating
temperatures over 700°C, only metals and alloys with a cubic-face-centred lattice, e.g. full-austenitic
chromium-nickel steels, can be used (see section 6.3).
Normally, recovery processes in the microstructure are increasingly benefitted at increasing tempera-
ture, which is reflected in a reduction of the strength properties etc. An austenitic microstructure, in con-
trast, counteracts this effect, since it has a high crystal recovery temperature. This is attributed to the
fact that the cubic-body-centred structure exhibits a low stacking fault energy, which, for example by
fragmenting the dislocations into partial dislocations, inhibits crystal recovery and thus softening. As is
described in Chapter 2.01, crystal recovery leads to the removal of stresses and thus to de-
strengthening by annealing zero-dimensional lattice microstructure imperfections and rearranging one-
dimensional lattice microstructure imperfections. Creeping (see Chapter 2.12) associated with effective
dislocation motion is thus slowed and the heat resistance is increased at high temperatures.
4.7 Resistance to heat and scaling
Three oxides (Figure 23, Figure 24) form when iron is oxidised in oxygen (corresponding to chemical
corrosion according to Chapter 2.14) at temperatures above 550°C:
– FeO (wustite): approximately 90% of the oxide layer thickness,

– Fe3O4 (magnetite): approximately 7% to 9% of the layer thickness and
– Fe2O3 (haematite): approximately 1% to 3% of the layer thickness.
The wustite layer and the magnetite layer grow via an outward migration of iron ions through iron oxide
lattice vacancies. The haematite layer grows via an inward migration of oxygen ions and additional dif-
fusion of molecular oxygen through microcracks, grain boundaries or dislocations (Figure 23).
The higher the heat resistant steels' resistance to scaling in hot gases and combustion products as
well as in salt and metal baths is achieved in particular due to their special alloying with the elements:
– Chromium, aluminium and silicon

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These elements concentrate due to their stronger affinity to oxygen in the oxide layer, where they form
oxides that inhibit ionic diffusion (layer growth by diffusion of metal and oxygen ions). Oxide layer
growth is thus not prevented but rather considerably limited.
Iron Wustite Magnetite Heamatite Oxygen

Fe FeO Fe3O4 Fe2 O3 O2
Fe++ Fe++ O--
Fe+++
e- e- e-
O2 over microcracks
and grain boundaries
Transfer of Fe++ + 2e- Formation of Formation of Fe3O4 Integration of

from metal into FeO FeO Formation of Fe2O3 oxygen
Figure 23: Oxidation of iron in oxygen above 550°C

(schematic according to Küntscher) Figure 24: Example of the oxide layer
The influence of the elements silicon and chromi-

um on steels' resistance to scaling during anneal-
ing in air (annealing duration 120 h) is shown in
Figure 25. As can be clearly seen, increasing
chrome and silicon content significantly reduces
the decrease in weight due to scaling. That is, the
heat and scaling resistance of the steels increases.
The lines in the illustration mean the following:
– Si content: 0.5% to 1.0% (blue curves)

– Si-Gehalt: 2.0% to 3.0% (red curves)
The highest application temperatures in air, which

achieve a maximum of 1,150 °C depending on alloy
content, can be strongly reduced by impurities in
the gas such as sulphurous components, water
vapour or ash constituents. It is recommended that
you consult with the material supplier if you lack
sufficient experience (see Table 20).
Figure 25: Influences of scaling resistance by the ele-
ments Cr and Si
Note The terms “highly heat-resistant” and “heat-resistant” are often confused with each other in the
technical literature. As has been shown, both properties result from very different materially scienced
mechanisms. A steel can be highly heat-resistant but burn at temperatures above 550°C and is there-
fore not resistant to scaling. On the other hand, there are numerous materials which are both highly
heat-resistant and resistant to scaling.

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5 Classification of stainless steels

5.1 Classification according to EN 10 020
According to EN 10 020:200, stainless steels are classified as shown in Figure 26.
Stainless Steels
Nickel content Main characteristics
Corrosion (Highly)
Heat resistant
Nickel < 2.5% Nickel  2.5% (chemically) heat-resistant
steel
resistant steels steel
(Material number system) (Preferred areas of application of the steels)
Figure 26: Subdivision of the class of stainless steels according to EN 10 020:2000
5.2 Classification according to nickel content
Classification according to nickel content and chemical composition corresponds to the material number
system according to EN 10 027-2. Subdivision according to main properties is performed in accordance
with EN 10 020 (Figure 27).
Highly
Heat-resistant heat-
Corrosion-resistant (chemically resistant) steels
steels resistant
steels
Cr steels with nickel Cr steels with nickel Cr, Cr-Ni, and Cr-Ni-
Nickel Nickel
content of less than content of 2.5% and Mo steels with spe-
< 2.5%  2.5%
2.5% more cial additives
without Mo with Mo without Mo with Mo
without Nb without Nb without Nb without Nb Special additives to:

without Ti without Ti without Ti without Ti Cu, Nb, Ti etc.
1.40.. 1.41.. 1.43.. 1.44.. 1.45.. 1.46.. 1.47.. 1.48.. 1.49..
1.4003 1.4113 1.4301 1.4435 1.4571 1.4650 1.4762 1.4876 1.4961

X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2
X2CrNiMoN17-12-2
X10NiCrAlTi32-21
X2CrNiCu19-10
X8CrNiNb16-13
X5CrNi18-10
X6CrMo17-1
X10CrAlSi25
X2CrNi12
Figure 27: Classification of stainless steels according to Ni content, chemical composition and main properties,
with examples

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5.3 Classification according to microstructure constitution

5.3.1 Corrosion-resistant steels
In accordance with EN 10 088-1, corrosion-resistant (chemically resistant) steels can be classified ac-
cording to their microstrucure constitution at room temperature, as in Figure 28.
Corrosion-resistant (chemically resistant) steels
Half (semi)
Ferritic Martensitic Austenitic Austenitic-Ferritic
Ferritic
Steel Steel Steel Steels
Steels
alloyed with:
alloyed with: alloyed with: alloyed with:
Chromium
alloyed with: Chromium, Chrom, Chromium (),
and
Chromium Carbon () Nickel, Nickel (),
Carbon
or Nickel () (molybdenum) Molybdenum
()
soft mar-
unstabilised stabilised martensitic unstabilised stabilised duplex superduplex
tensitic
1.4016 1.4502 1.4006 1.4125 1.4313 1.4301 1.4571 1.4462 1.4410
X2CrNiMoN25-7-4
X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2
X2CrNiMoN22-5-3
X3CrNiMo13-4
X105CrMo17
X5CrNi18-10
X8CrTi18
X12Cr13
X6Cr17
Figure 28: Classification of stainless steels according the microstructure constitution
5.3.2 Heat-resistant steels
In accordance with EN 10 095, heat-resistant steels can be classified according to their microstructure
constitution at room temperature, as in Figure 29.
Heat-resistant steels
Ferritic Austenitic Austenitic-Ferritic

Steel Steel Steel
alloyed with: alloyed with:
alloyed with:
Chromium (18 – 27%), Chromium (24.5 – 26.5%),
Chromium (7 – 28%)
Nickel (12 – 35%) Nickel (3.5 – 5.5%)
Increase in resistance to heat and scaling by alloying with silicon and aluminium, addition of
carbide formers such as niobium, titanium, cerium, vanadium;
carbon is above the corrosion-resistant (acid-resisting) steels
X10CrAlSi7 (1.4713) X8CrNiTi18-10 (1.4878) X20CrNiSi25-4 (1.4821)
X10CrAlSi25 (1.4762) X15CrNiSi25-21 (1.4841) (only a duplex steel standardised)
Figure 29: Classification of heat-resistant steels according to microstructure constitution

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5.3.3 Highly heat-resistant steels
In accordance with EN 10 302, (highly) heat-resistant steels can be classified according to their micro-
structure constitution at room temperature, as in Figure 30:
Highly heat-resistant steels
Martensitic Austenitic
Steel Steel
alloyed with: alloyed with:
Chromium (9 – 12%), Chromium (15 – 26%),
Molybdenum (1 – 2%), Nickel (9 – 34%),
Vanadium ( 0.4%), Molybdenum ( 3.5%),
Tungsten ( 1.1%) Cobalt ( 21%)
Increase in heat resistance by alloying with alu-

Increase in heat resistance by alloying with cobalt,
minium, silicon; increase in heat resistance by
aluminium, nickel; addition of carbide formers
addition of carbide formers such as niobium,
such as niobium, vanadium; addition of boron to
titanium, vanadium; addition of boron and/or
increase strength
nitrogen to increase strength
1.4903 1.4935 1.4910 1.4988
X10CrMoVNb9-1 X20CrMoWV12-1 X3CrNiMoBN17-13-3 X8CrNiMoVNb16-13
Figure 30: Classification of (highly) heat-resistant steels according to microstructure constitution
5.4 Classification according to microstructure constitution and main properties
Table 9 includes a possible classification of stainless steels according to their microstructure constitution
and main properties.
Table 9: Classification of stainless steels according to microstructure constitution and main properties
Main properties
Microstructure type
corrosion resistance heat-resistant highly heat-resistant
1.4016 1.4742
Ferritic Cr steels —
X6Cr17 X10CrAl18
1.4006
Semi-ferritic Cr steels — —
X12Cr13
1.4122 1.4923
Martensitic Cr steels —
X39CrMo17-1 X22CrMoV12-1
1.4313
Soft-martensitic steels — —
X3CrNiMo13-4
1.4301 1.4828 1.4961
Austenitic steels
X6CrNi18-10 X15CrNiSi20-12 X8CrNiNb16-13
Austenitic-ferritic 1.4462 1.4821
—
Cr-Ni steels X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 X20CrNiSi25-4

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6 Types of stainless steels

6.1 Ferritic stainless steels
6.1.1 Corrosion-resisting (acid-resisting) ferritic steels
The aim behind the development of chromium steels was to achieve lower material costs with corro-
sion resistance comparable to nickel alloy steels. The materials can exhibit different microstructure
formations as a function of their carbon and chromium content. A possible classification of these steels
is shown in Figure 31. If the carbon content exceeds 0.2, the microstructure is fully martensitic (see sec-
tion 6.2).
Chromium steels
Steels with 11  Cr  13% Steels with (12) 16  Cr  30%
limited corrosion resistance high resistance to chloride-induced transgranular stress

“slow-corroding” corrosion cracking
Improvement of corrosion resistance by alloying with molybdenum; nickel;

stabilisation with titanium or niobium
ferritic superferritic half-ferritic
C: 0.002 - 0.03%
C: 0.02 - 0.10% C: 0.08 - 0.20%
Carbon 0.02 to 0.10% Cr: 24 to 30%
Cr: 16 - 26% Cr: 12 - 17%
Mo:  4.5%
X2CrMoTi29-4
X1CrNiMoNb
X2CrNi12
X6CrTi12
X2CrTi17
X12Cr12
X15Cr13
X6Cr17
1.4003
1.4512
1.4016
1.4510
1.4592
1.4575
1.4006
1.4024
28-4-2
transformable transformationless transformable
-- transformation
- transformation transformationless
partial martensite for-
Risk of HAZ hardening coarse grain remains coarse
mation
Figure 31: Possible classification of ferritic stainless steels
Whereas the microstructure of the ferritic and so-called “superferritic” steels with Cr content below or
respectively significantly above 13% can be described well with the iron-chromium binary system (see
Figure 6) due to their low carbon content, this is no longer possible for semi-ferritic chromium steels. In
these materials, the influence of carbon on the formation of  loop must also be considered. Figure 32
shows that with increasing carbon content, the  region is expanded to higher chromium content. There-
fore, steels with chromium content above 12% may still be partially austenitised (complete austenitisa-
tion takes place in martensitic chromium steels at even higher carbon content, see section 6.2). These
half-ferritic materials have a microstructure consisting of different proportions of ferrite and martensite.

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1600
1500 Solidification line
1400
Temperature in °C
1300
 +  
1200
1100
1000
0%C
900
0,25 % C
800
 + carbide 0,40 % C
700
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Figure 32: Extension of the
ChromIum content in Masse -%  loop in the Fe-Cr system
(Figure 6)
The microstructure of transformationless ferritic steels consists of globular grains (Figure 33). Due to the
lack of α-γ transformation, these steels can be neither normalised nor hardened or tempered/quenched.
Their microstructure can therefore no longer be influenced by heat treatment. Their tendency for coarse
grain formation (Figure 34) at temperatures above 1,000°C therefore cannot be reversed by heat treat-
ments.
Figure 33: Single-phase ferritic base material micro- Figure 34: Coarse-grained single-phase ferritic
structure of the material X2CrTi12 microstructures in the HAZ of the material X2CrTi12
6.1.2 Heat-resistant ferritic steels
In contrast to the acid-resisting ferritic materials mentioned in 6.1.1, heat-resistant ferritic materials (at op-
erating temperature) must be transformationless, since transformation stresses are not allowed to occur
which otherwise would lead to cracking of the permanently adherent protective and against further oxida-
tion preventing scale layer. Their special property, i.e. their heat resistance, is in addition to their chromi-
um content also achieved by additional alloying with the elements aluminium and/or silicon (see section
4.7). Figure 35 provides information on the scale loss of selected ferritic steels.

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Typical examples of heat-

resistant ferritic chromium steels
include, among others, the mate-
rials:
– X10CrAlSi13 (1.4724)
– X10CrAlSi18 (1.4742)
– X10CrAlSi25 (1.4762)
Figure 35: Heat-resistant ferritic

steels – scale losses; stress length:
120 h; 4 intermediate coolings
(acc. to Küntscher)
6.1.3 Selected properties
Table 10 provides selected physical and mechanical properties as well as embrittlements and precipita-
tions by and in chromium steels.
Table 10: Selected properties and embrittlements/precipitations of chromium steels

Chromium steels
Physical Mechanical Embrittlements
Characteristics Characteristics Precipitations
Poor ductility Ferritic microstructure tends
All ferritic steels are
(only still adequately ductile at relatively quickly to form embrit-
ferromagnetic
t  10 mm) tling precipitations
Rising chromium and molyb-
Thermal conductivity and
Yield point can be increased for denum content amplifies  and 
electrical resistance lie between
half ferrites by quenching and phase formation (intermetallic
the non-alloyed structural and
tempering phases) with incorrect heat
austenitic steels
treatment
Ferrites and “superferrites” can The materials exhibit
Thermal expansion is slightly pronounced 475° embrittlement
be neither hardened nor
below that of unalloyed structural
quenched and tempered, are at chromium  17% and/or
steels
transformationless molybdenum  2%
Density is slightly lower than that Transition temperature of the Formation of chromium carbides
of unalloyed structural steels impact energy in ferritic steels is and nitrides, if not stabilised with
Sometimes tend strongly to grain greater than room temperature titanium, niobium, risk of attack
growth (“superferrites” ~ -50°C) by intergranular corrosion
Table 11 shows selected strength and strain properties (yield point, tensile strength and yield strength)
of chromium steels.

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Table 11: Selected mechanical properties of chromium steels (overview)

Property Half ferrites Transformationless ferrites “Superferrites”
Rp0.2 (N/mm²) 210 – 480 180 – 300 400 – 450
Rm (N/mm²) 400 – 750 380 – 640 550 - 700
A (%) 12 – 25 20 – 25 20 – 28
Note Due to the manifestations of precipitation and embrittlement mentioned in Table 10, chromium
steels cannot be used for high-temperature applications. If they are used as heat-resistant steels,
the operating temperatures must be either below the minimum or above the maximum precipitation
temperatures.
6.2 Martensitic stainless steels

6.2.1 Corrosion-resisting (acid-resisting) martensitic steels
Conventional martensitic chromium steels follow immediately on half ferritic steels in terms of carbon
content (see section 6.1). This starts at about 0.2%. Up to 100% of these materials can transform into
martensite due to their capability of complete austenitisation (Figure 32). Soft or nickel-martensitic
steels contain little carbon but have nickel content of up to approximately 6.5% to promote martensite
formation. These materials can also be classified as “supermartensites”. In connection with an addi-
tional precipitation hardening, the mechanical-technological properties of these materials can further
be increased. Figure 36 contains a possible classification of these materials.
Martensitic stainless steels
Martensitic Soft (nickel-) Precipitation-hardenable

chromium steels martensitic chromium steels Chromstähle
Cr: 12 to 18% Cr: 12 to 17% Cr: 13 to 18%
are also referred to as “super-

martensitic” steels in Anglo-American literature
Increase in strength: Increase in strength by: Increase in strength by:

only by carbon nickel, molybdenum intermetallic phases
C ≥ 0.2% Ni: 1 – 6.5%; Mo: 0.3 – 2.5% Ni  6%; Mo  1.3%; Cu; Al; Nb
Improvement of corrosion resistance by alloying with

molybdenum; hardness increase by vanadium; (stabilisation with titanium or niobium)
X90CrMoV18
X1CrNiMoCu
X5CrNiMoCu
X5CrNiMoTi
X3CrNiMo
X46Cr13
Nb14-5
1.4034
1.4112
1.4313
1.4589
1.4422
1.4594
12-5-2
13-4
15-2
Figure 36: Possible classification of martensitic stainless steels

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Classical martensitic chromium steels with C  0.2% and sometimes some amounts of molybdenum
as well as vanadium are only slightly suitable to unsuitable for welding due to their carbon content.
Their microstructure is purely martensitic (Figure 37). Soft-martensitic steels with strongly reduced
carbon content also exhibit a martensitic microstructure due their alloying with the element nickel (Figure
38). This takes advantage of the fact that there is also - transformation in the iron-nickel system
(Figure 7). If it is subcooled suitably, relatively tough and soft “nickel martensite” (cubic martensite)
forms. This is why these materials have been given their designation.
Precipitation-hardenable steels form intermetallic phases which stress the martensite lattice without
decreasing considerably the toughness or ductility. The microstructure is primarily in the mixed region A
+ M + F of the Schaeffler diagram (Figure 17). The heat treatment required for precipitation hardening
gives these steels a greater strength. They have also good general corrosion resistance. The intermetal-
lic compounds (Fe (Cu, Al, Nb) formed during the final ageing treatment serve as nucleating agents for
fine needle-like microstructure.
Somewhat confusingly, in Anglo-American usage “supermartensites” are used to describe all marten-
sitic steels whose chromium content is above 14% or which have a combined alloy of chromium and
molybdenum (Cr  12% and Mo  1%) and, if required, contain nickel content above 0.5%. These mate-
rials thus include both soft martensites as well as precipitation-hardenable martensitic steels. Finely dis-
tributed residual austenite may remain in the martensitic microstructures of these materials. There are
also known types which retain some ferrite. Table 12 provides information on possible applications of
martensitic stainless steels.
Table 12: Selected applications of martensitic stainless steels

Martensitic steel Applications
Surgical instruments, knives, rolling bearings, heat-resistant applica-
Conventional martensitic steels
tions up to 500°C, tool steel for hot work, knife and razor blades
Structural components with good toughness properties and good
Soft (nickel) martensitic steels
corrosive resistance
Martensitic steels that can be Structural components in machinery and plants under elevated
hardened through precipitation mechanical, thermal and corrosive stress
Figure 37: Tempered and quenched microstructure of Figure 38: Tempered and quenched microstructure of
tempered martensite and intermediate stage of tempered martensite and intermediate stage as well as
martensitic of chromium steel X46Cr13 numerous precipitations of the material X3CrNiMo13-4
Note In Anglo-American literature, the prefix “super” is often used to describe steels with special
properties or alloy compositions that are different than comparable standard materials.

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6.2.2 Highly heat-resistant martensitic steels
In addition to their use as acid-resisting steels, specially alloyed martensitic steels with a cubic-face-
centred elementary cell can also be used as for (high) heat-resistant applications (see Chapter 2.12 and
section 4.6). Typical examples of such steels are:
– X10CrMoVNb9-1 .................. (1.4903)

– X11CrMoWVNb9-1-1............ (1.4905)
– X22CrMoV12-1..................... (1.4923)
Note Martensitic stainless steels can no longer be used at temperatures above their respective aus-
tenitisation temperature. The result would be normalisation of the microstructure, which causes dissolu-
tion of the martensite. Therefore, these materials cannot be used for heat resistant and scale resistant
applications.
Table 13 and Table 14 provide information about selected physical and mechanical properties as well as
embrittlements and precipitations of or in martensitic and precipitation-hardenable steels.
Table 13: Selected properties and embrittlements/precipitations of martensitic and precipitation-hardenable

steels
Martensitic and precipitation-hardenable steels
Physical Embrittlements
Mechanical Characteristics
Characteristics Precipitations
All martensitic steels are All martensitic steels are Martensitic steels do not have a
ferromagnetic (reason: hardenable and tendency for 475° embrittlement
martensite is tetragonally or quenchable/temperable (reason: Martensitic steels do not have a
cubically distorted ferrite, ferrite alloying with carbon or nickel, tendency for  and  phase em-
is ferromagnetic) therefore transformable) brittlement
The risk of hardening cracks and
Soft-martensitic and carbide precipitations is noticea-
Depending on carbon content
precipitation-hardenable steels, bly lower with soft-martensitic
and additional alloying potential,
in contrast to conventional and hardenable steels.
the physical properties of these
martensites, are relatively ductile
steels are closer to those of
(in the not hardened state) and Martensitic steels are suscepti-
stainless ferritic steels or those
have sufficient toughness ble to hydrogen-assisted cold
of unalloyed steels
properties cracking
Table 14: Mechanical properties of martensitic stainless steels (quenched/tempered or aged)

Property Martensites Soft martensites Hardenable martensites
Rp0.2 (N/mm²) 600 500 - 800 500 - 1.000
Rm (N/mm²) 750 - 900 600 - 1.100 800 - 1.200
A (%) < 10 12 - 15 10 - 18
Impact energy (J) < 20 < 90 < 75

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6.3 Austenitic stainless steels

6.3.1 Corrosion-resisting (acid-resisting) austenitic steels
Austenitic steels are the material group of all stainless steels with the broadest scope of applications. It is
for corrosion-resisting (acid-resisting), heat-resistant and highly heat-resistant applications. Depending of
their chemical composition, they can have a full-austenitic (100% austenite) or an austenitic microstruc-
ture with low  ferrite content (metastable austenites). Figure 39 contains a possible classification of
these materials.
Austenitic stainless steels
Metastable austenites Stable austenites (“full austenites”)
Austenites “Superaustenites”
Microstructure of austenite with Microstructure of 100% austenite due to primarily austenitic solidifi-
low amounts of  ferrite ( 3 FN) cation without further transformations in the solid state (no  ferrite)
C: 0.01 to 0.12% C: 0.01 to 0.03%

C: 0.01 to 0.08%
Cr: 17 to 19%; Ni: 7 to 12% Cr: 19 to 25%; Ni: 24 to 35%
Cr: 18 to 19%; Ni: 13 to 15%
(Mn: 5.5 to 10.5%) Mo: 5 to 7%
Mo: 2 to 5%
Mo: 2 to 5%; N; (Ti, Nb) N: 0.15 to 0.25%
Improved resistance to corrosion through alloying of manganese,

silicone, copper vanadium, stabilisation with titanium or niobium
Cr-Mn Cr-Ni-(Mo)
austenites austenites
X1CrNiMoCuN
CuNW24-22-6
X12CrMnNiN
X2CrNiMoN1
X6CrNiMoTi
X2CrNiMo
X1CrNiMo
17-12-2
18-15-4
25-25-5
1.4372
1.4571
1.4434
1.4438
1.4537
1.4659
17-7-5
8-12-4
Figure 39: Possible classification of austenitic stainless steels
As shown in Figure 39, in exceptional cases the element nickel can be replaced with other “austenite
formers” such as manganese, nitrogen and/or copper. A number of austenitic stainless steels contain
additional alloying elements, for example molybdenum or nitrogen, which further improve the corro-
sion resistance (see Chapter 2.14). Furthermore, metastable austenites with the elements titanium or
niobium are stabilised against intergranular corrosion (see Chapter 2.14). Transformationless
“superaustenitic” stainless steels were developed for very high corrosion stress. In contrast, a man-
ganese content of 5.5 to 10.5% helps to maintain the austenitic microstructure of Cr-Mn austenites with
low nickel alloy content. At the same time, this element, in contrast with nickel, does not positively influ-
ence corrosion resistance in terms of easier repassivation. Furthermore, most Cr-Mn austenites have
lower chromium content than Cr-Ni-(Mo) austenites, so their corrosion resistance is correspondingly
lower.

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In the transformed state, austenitic stainless steels have a characteristic microstructure with numerous
twins and possible  ferrite lines or titanium nitrides (Figure 40), whereas in a cast state they have a
globular dendritic microstructure (Figure 41). In metastable austenitic stainless steels, a lack of suffi-
cient austenite stability may lead to the creation of deformed martensite during cold deformation. It
has ferromagnetic properties and can be confused with  ferrite when measuring the ferrite content.
The creation of deformed martensite worsens the corrosion resistance.
Figure 40: Austenitic microstructure of steel X5CrNi18- Figure 41: Austenitic casting microstructure of the mate-
10 with numerous twins, etched according to Lichteneg- rial GX2CrNiMo17-12-2 with interdendritic  ferrite,
ger/Blöch etched according to Lichtenegger/Blöch
6.3.2 Heat-resistant austenitic steels
Heat-resistant austenitic stainless steels are characterised by a transformationless, full-austenitic

microstructure. Their special property, i.e. their heat resistance, is in addition to their chromium content
also achieved by additional alloying with the elements aluminium and/or silicon (see section 4.7). The
highest application temperatures in air extend up to approx. 1,150°C depending on the content of alloy-
ing elements. Figure 42 provides information about the scale losses of selected heat-resistant steels.
Typical examples of such steels

are:
– X15CrNiSi20-12...... (1.4828)
– X15CrNiSi20-12...... (1.4841)
– X10NiCrAlTi32-21... (1.4876)
Figure 42: Heat-resistant austenitic

steels – scale losses; stress length:
120 h; 4 interim coolings (according
to KÜNTSCHER)

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6.3.3 Highly heat-resistant austenitic steels
Due to their significantly higher crystal recovery temperature compared to steels with a body-centred
cubic elementary cell, austenitic stainless steels are also suitable for high-temperature applications (see
section 4.6). The most important characteristic of these materials is their full-austenitic microstructure
which must be free of  ferrite and transformationless. Selected highly heat-resistant austenites are:
– X6CrNiWNbN16-16 .............. (1.4945)

– X12CrCoNi21-20 .................. (1.4971)
– X5NiCrAlTi31-20 .................. (1.4958)
embrittlements and precipitations of or in austenitic steels.
Table 15: Selected properties and embrittlements/precipitations of austenitic steels

Austenitic steels
Austenitic steels are non-magnetic Strength values significantly below Pronounced gain growth in aus-
(reason: austenitic microstructure) those of martensitic steels tenitic steels is not to be expected
Low temperature toughness down Strength-increasing measures can Full austenites do not have a ten-
to below - 200°C be taken dency for 475° embrittlement
Have significantly greater thermal Solid solution hardening by e.g. Precipitations can occur earlier in
expansion with lower thermal nitrogen, copper and/or manga-  ferrite than in the austenitic
conductivity than do ferritic steels nese basic microstructure
Austenites are not hardenable or Work hardening (e.g. by cold The formation of chromium car-
quenchable/temperable forming) bides promotes sensitivity to inter-
Hardening by precipitations (e.g. granular corrosion (IC) under at-
Tend to increased work hardening tack by electrolytes
carbides or nitrides)
Table 16: Mechanical properties of austenitic stainless steels (selection)

Property Solution annealed Nitrogen-alloyed Work hardened (40%)
Rp0.2 (N/mm²) 175 – 230 250 – 400 up to 1.100
Rm (N/mm²) 450 – 750 550 – 850 up to 1.200
A (%) 40 – 45 35 – 40 approx. 30
Impact energy (RT) > 100 100 < 90
Table 17: Work-hardening stages of austenitic stainless steels according to EN 10 088-2

Designation
Property
C700 C850 C1000 C1150 C1300
Rm N/mm² 700 – 850 850 – 1.000 1.000 – 1.150 1.150 – 1.300 1.300 – 1.500
For the sake of better machining properties, thinner cross-sections are supplied in the cold deformed
state. During machining the strength values, acquired by work hardening, and thus the tool load cannot
be increased significantly. Table 17 lists the achievable work hardening stages.

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6.4 Austenitic-ferritic stainless steels

6.4.1 Corrosion-resisting (acid-resisting) austenitic-ferritic steels
Austenitic-ferritic stainless steels (or ferritic-austenitic steels) combine characteristics of the ferritic and
the austenitic types. The alloy composition of these materials is selected in such a way that a mixed
microstructure with about 50% austenite and 50% ferrite amounts is obtained in the base material at
room temperature (Figure 44, Figure 45). Due to this microstructure, these stainless steels are also re-
ferred to as duplex steels.
Note Stainless duplex steels are essentially iron-chromium-nickel-molybdenum alloys. They have noth-
ing to do with high-strength dual-phase steels (see Chapter 2.10). The microstructure of these materials
is composed of hard martensite islands embedded in a ferritic matrix.
“Super and hyperduplex steels” are intended for highly corrosive environments, for example applica-
tions in seawater. In contrast with austenitic stainless steels, duplex materials are characterised by no-
ticeably better resistance to stress corrosion cracking. Figure 43 contains a possible classification of
these materials.
Austenitic-ferritic stainless steels (duplex steels)
Lean Standard “Super “Hyper

Duplex steels Duplex steels Duplex steels” Duplex steels”
PRE = %Cr + 3.3% Mo + 16% N
PRE: << 40% PRE: < 40% PRE: 40 to 49% PRE:  49%
Cr: ~ 22% Cr: ~ 22% Cr: ~ 25% Cr: ~ 27 to 32%

Ni: ≤ 2 to 4% Ni: ~ 4 to 5% Ni: ~ 6 to 7% Ni: ~ 6 bis 7%
Mn: 0 to ≤ 5% Mo: ~ 2 to 3% Mo: ~ 3 to 4% Mo: ~ 2 to 6%
Improvement of corrosion resistance by further alloying with

nitrogen, copper and tungsten
~X2CrNiMoN37-7-4
X2CrMnNiN22-5-2
X2CrNiMoN22-5-3
X2CrNiMoN25-7-4
(SAF 3707 HD®)

1.4162
1.4462
1.4410
Figure 43: Possible classification of austenitic-ferritic stainless steels

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Figure 44: Austenitic-ferritic microstructure of steel Figure 45: Transition between base material and weld
X2CrNiMoN22-5-3; austenite with twins metal; lined duplex microstructure in base material,
needle-like austenite in weld metal
6.4.2 Heat resistant austenitic-ferritic steels
The same general statements apply to heat-resistant duplex steels as for the ferritic heat-resistant steels
(see section 6.1.2). These materials must also be transformationless and precipitation-free at operat-
ing temperature. EN 10 088-1 contains only one heat-resistant austenitic-ferritic steel, the material
X15CrNiSi25-4 (1.4821).
embrittlements and precipitations of or in austenitic-ferritic steels.
Table 18: Selected properties and embrittlements/precipitations of austenitic-ferritic steels

Austenitic-ferritic steels
Exhibit ferromagnetic reaction Exhibit a pronounced tendency
Strength properties are above
(reason: approx. 50%  ferrite on to embrittlement by intermetallic
those of ferrites or austenites
delivery) precipitations
Nitrogen alloyed duplex steels However, the formation of Cr
Thermal expansion is lower and exhibit the highest strength carbides is not always likely
the heat conductivity better than values (reason: C )
austenitic steels (reason: higher
ferrite content than austenites) Toughness values are above Duplex steels tend to 475°
those of ferrites embrittlement
Ductility decreases with
Duplex steels tend to strain decreasing austenite content Precipitations can be dissolved
hardening (reason: high by solution annealing +
austenite content) Are not hardenable or quenching
quenchable/temperable

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Table 19: Mechanical-technological properties of austenitic-ferritic stainless steels

Rp0.2 (N/mm²) Rm (N/mm²) A (%) Impact work (RT)
400 – 750 500 – 900 > 18 > 50
Note Due to the manifestations of precipitation and embrittlement mentioned in Table 18, duplex steels
cannot, similar to chromium steels, be used for high-temperature applications. If they are used as heat-
resistant steels, the operating temperatures must be below the minimum or above the maximum precipi-
tation temperatures.
7 Scaling resistance and use of heat-resistant steels
The use of heat-resistant steels is strongly limited by the scaling resistance of these materials. Austenit-
ic steels are less resistant to sulphurous gases than ferritic steels. Due to the strong tendency of
nickel to combine with sulphur, low-melting “sulphur spots” form on the surface that can strongly reduce
resistance to scaling. The attack by sulphur dioxide (oxidising) is, however, significantly less strong than
by hydrogen sulphide (reducing). Sulphur dioxide forms oxide-containing protective layers, while hydro-
gen sulphide causes sulphides on the steel surface that do not provide sufficient protection. Carbonisa-
tion can deplete the matrix of chromium by forming chromium carbides. Ferritic steels in particu-
lar are especially sensitive to this effect because diffusion processes proceed considerably faster in the
cubic-body-centred lattice. Carbonisation additionally leads to melting point degradation of the outer lay-
ers down to somewhat into the application temperature and thus causes initial superficial fusions. Table
20 includes examples of the use of heat-resistant steels as well as their resistance to hot gases.
Table 20: Examples of the use of heat-resistant steels

Highest Resistance to
application sulphurous gases
N2-containing Applications
Steel Type temperature
Oxidising Reducing O2-containing (examples)
in air
(SO2) (H2S) gases
[°C]
Ferritic steels Carrier, hoisting ropes,
X10CrAlSi7 800 drums, rails,
X10CrAlSi13 850 bonnets and pipes,
Low
X10CrAlSi18 1.000 Very high Middle heat-resistant parts
X10CrAlSi25 1.150 of: industrial furnaces,
X10CrSi29 1.150 Middle coal gasification
Austenitic-ferritic steels plants,
heat treatment
X15CrNi25-4 1.100 High Middle Middle
furnaces
Austenitic steels Like ferritic and
X8CrNiTi18-10 850 austenitic-ferritic
X15CrNiSi20-12 1.000 steels at increased
Middle Low High
X12NiCrSi35-16 1.100 mech. load
X15CrNiSi25-21 1.150 pipes in petrochem.
At the highest application temperature Ta in air as guaranteed by the standard, the decrease in weight of
the particular steel due to scaling must not be greater than average 1 g/m²·h or 2 g/m² h at Ta + 50 K for
a stress length of 120 h with 4 intermediate coolings.

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8 Standardisation of stainless steels
Stainless steels are standardised in European regulations, i.a. in the EN 10 088 series of standards
(Table 21). Table 22 includes further material standards with stainless steels.
Table 21: Overview of the EN 10 088 series of standards

Stainless Steels
EN 10 088-1: Part 1 List of stainless steels.
EN 10 088-2: Part 2 Technical delivery conditions for sheet/plate and strip of corrosion resisting
steels for general purposes.
EN 10 088-3: Part 3 Technical delivery conditions for semi-finished products, bars, rods, wire, sec-
tions and bright products of corrosion resisting steels for general purposes.
EN 10 088-4: Part 4 Technical delivery conditions for sheet/plate and strip of corrosion resisting
steels for construction purposes.
EN 10 088-5: Part 5 Technical delivery conditions for bars, rods, wire, sections and bright products
of corrosion resisting steels for construction purposes.
Table 22: Overview of material standards for stainless steels in accordance with EN 10 088-1
Stainless Steels
Corrosion-resistant steels Heat-resistant steels Highly heat-resistant steels
EN 10 028-7 — EN 10 028-7
EN 10 088-2 — —
EN 10 088-3 — —
— EN 10 095 —
EN 10 151 —
EN 10 216-5 — EN 10 216-5
EN 10 217-7 — —
EN 10 222-5 — EN 10 222-5
EN 10 250-4 — —
EN 10 263-5 — —
EN 10 264-4 EN 10 264-4 —
EN 10 269 — EN 10 269
EN 10 270-3 — —
EN 10 272 — —
EN 10 296-2 — —
EN 10 297-2 — —
— — EN 10 302
EN 10 312 —
Note The designation system for stainless steels in accordance with EN 10 027-1 is described in detail
in Chapter 2.04.

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9 Welding processing
9.1 General information
The most important alloying element for all kinds of stainless steels is chromium (see section 4.1.2).
However, it has a high affinity to oxygen and can easily burn off (oxidise) during thermal joining.
Corrosive attack may occur if the alloy content falls locally below the known limit of 12% chromium (see
Chapter 2.14). The burning off of further alloying elements additionally reduces its corrosion resistance.
Note When welding these materials, it must be ensured that critical burn-off of the alloying elements
(e.g. chromium) that provide the materials' properties, does not occur.
9.2 Applicable welding processes
If they are weldable, stainless steels can be processed using all modern welding processes. However, in
particular the processes of manual metal arc welding (E), tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) but also laser
beam welding (LB) are used. These have been described in detail in main area 1. In all fusion welding
processes using these steels, special attention must be given to the backpurging of weld roots with
inert gases such as argon (EN 1011-3).
The selection of filler materials depends on the performance characteristics of the base materials. It
should likewise be ensured that the weld metal and base material have comparable mechanical-
technological properties. Table 23 includes a selection of current filler material standards for stainless
steels.
Table 23: Filler materials for stainless steels (selection)

Form of product
Standard Title
welding process
Welding consumables - Covered electrodes for manual metal
E EN ISO 3581 arc welding of stainless and heat-resisting steels - Classifica-
tion
Welding consumables - Wire electrodes, strip electrodes,
S EN ISO 14 343 wires and rods for arc welding of stainless and heat resisting
G EN ISO 14 343 wires and rods for arc welding of stainless and heat resisting
Welding consumables - Tubular cored electrodes and rods for
T EN ISO 17 633 gas shielded and non-gas shielded metal arc welding of stain-
less and heat-resisting steels - Classification
W EN ISO 14 343 wires and rods for arc welding of stainless and heat resisting

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9.4 Weldability and selection of filler materials

9.4.1 Ferritic stainless steels
The following features must be noted when evaluating the weldability of ferritic stainless steels:
– Risk of hardening and hardening cracks after martensitic transformation in half-ferritic steels
– Increasing martensite content increases the risk of hydrogen-induced cracks
– No risk of hot cracking
– Lower deformability with larger cross-sections ( 12 mm)
– Risk of embrittlement by chromium carbide precipitations
– Risk of  and  phase formation increases with increasing content of Cr and Mo
– Ductility loss due to 475° embrittlement under long annealing between 400 and 550 °C
– Impact energy (toughness) decreases with increasing Cr content
– Ferritic microstructure zones tend to grain growth at temperatures above 1,000 °C (Figure 34)
– High residual stresses due to relatively high yield points and low thermal conductivity
– The ferritic microstructure is ferromagnetic.
The following features must be noted with regard to the selection of filler materials for ferritic and half-
ferritic stainless steels.
Homogeneous/Semi-homogeneous (ferritic)
Same chemical and mechanical properties of base material and weld metal, resistant to
Advantage:
temperature changes
Low-ductility weld metal, relatively high yield point, risk of the coarse grain formation in
Disadvantage:
the base material (HAZ) and weld metal
Non-homogeneous (austenitic)
Ductile weld metal with lower yield point (residual stress relief, effect like an “exten-
Advantage:
sion element”)
Different chemical and mechanical properties (high thermal expansion in weld metal,
Disadvantage: lower in the base material), different colour shade of weld metal or top layer than
base material
Non-homogeneous (austenitic-ferritic)
Due to the low content of nickel, the chemical resistance, for example to S-contain-
Advantage: ing media, is similar to that of ferritic steels. The differences in thermal expansion
are not too large either. Ductility of weld metal is significantly better.
Disadvantage: Possibly different colour shade of weld metal and top layer than base material
Homogeneous/Semi-homogeneous (ferritic) fill layers – dissimilar (austenitic) top layer(s)

Ductile weld metal, reduction of residual stresses, same chemical resistance and
Advantage:
same mechanical properties of the top layer
Different heat expansion of the intermediate layers compared to dissimilar top layer,
Disadvantage:
more complex production
Figure 46 and Figure 47 include an overview of selected information on the welding of ferritic and half-
ferritic stainless steels. However, product catalogues from manufacturers of filler materials usually offer
several alternatives and recommendations.

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Heat conduction Welding
Technological Selection of
Pre-heating Postweld annealing
notes filler material
Ferritic Cr steels with 13% or higher chromium are Homogeneous welding should be avoided if possi-
transformationless (C  0.1%) ble
Promotes Promotes
Q = ; vS =  Non-homogeneous
stress relief Stress relief
from sheet thickness Coarse grain formation Do not 19 9 L; 19 9 Nb; 19 9 H
> 6 mm not reversible preheat 22 12; 25 20; 25 4
Annealing time
Heat-resistant steels: if necessary
between: Homogeneous
Tv ~ 250 – 300°C 700 – 850°C
15 and 60 min/air
Fill layers:
Lowers influence of 13; 17
TA ~ max. 200°C homogeneous
Cr carbides (30)
Top layer: austenitisch
Figure 46: Information concerning the welding of ferritic stainless steels
Technological
Pre-heating Postweld annealing Selection of filler material
notes
Steels with  13% Cr transform completely into Homogeneous welding should be avoided if possi-
martensite and ferrite; steels with  17% partially ble
Promotes Promotes
Q = ; vS =  Non-homogeneous
Stress relief Stress relief
Two ways of No risk of coarse grain Pre-heating is 19 9 L; 19 9 Nb; 19 9 H
pre-heating formation Recommended 22 12; 25 20
Temper without inter-
Tempering time:
Tv ~ 200 – 300°C mediate cooling: Homogeneous
0.5 and 2 h/air, furnace
650 – 800°C
Filling layer:
Tv ~ 100 – 150°C Temper over homogeneous
13; 17
Tinter ~ max. 150°C intermediate layers Covering layer:
austenitic
Figure 47: Information concerning the welding of half-ferritic stainless steels
Due to their higher temperature stability, heat and scale resistant steels are less sensitive to the for-
mation of precipitations or corn growth caused by welding heat. However, the brittleness of these steels
is somewhat higher.

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9.4.2 Martensitic stainless steels
When evaluating the weldability of these materials, one must consider the characteristic features of con-
ventional martensites but also the soft- or “supermartensites”. Martensitic steels generally have limited
to no suitability for welding. The following applies:
– All martensitic steels are hardenable

– Risk of forming cold cracks (hardening cracks and hydrogen-induced cracking)
– Risk of the hydrogen embrittlement
– Tend not to form coarse grains and to 475° embrittlement
– Tend to embrittle due to chromium carbide formation because of relatively high chromium and carbon
content
– Soft-martensitic and precipitation-hardenable steels are formable before hardening
– All martensitic steels require a specific heat input during welding
– Martensitic steels are ferromagnetic
Figure 48 and Figure 49 include an overview of selected information on the welding of martensitic and
soft-martensitic stainless steels.
Pre-heating Postweld annealing Technological notes Selection of filler material
Martensitic Cr steels must be quenched from the

Welding of these steels is problematic to impossible
austenite region
From carbon content: Stress relief annealing: Non-homogeneous

Q = ; vS = 
C > 0.1% 30 min at 720 – 800°C welding
Tv ~ 300 – 350°C (for dissimilar filler ma- Weldable to: 18 8 Mn; 19 9 Nb
(if necessary) terials) ~ 0.2% C 22 12; 25 20
TA ~ 200 – 320°C Anneal from welding If no heat treatment Homogeneous welding
Must be maintained heat at 700 – 800°C possible: Use filler 13; 17
during the entire (with homogeneous material with 25% Cr (no martensitic filler ma-
process filler materials) and 10 – 12% Ni terials exist)
Figure 48: Information concerning the welding of martensitic stainless steels
The desired structural condition consists of Soft-martensitic Cr steels have a relatively good
austenite and martensite suitability for welding
Non-homogeneous
Welding under Ms: Q = ; vS = 
Anneal twice at: welding
Tv ~ 100 – 180°C
600 °C/ 2 – 6 h / Air Only similar filler mate-
TA ~ max. 150°C not permitted
rials
Austenitise + anneal Controlled cooling to 50
Welding in the austenite Homogeneous welding
twice: – 100°C
area:
770 °C / 2 h / air + 2x Diff. hydrogen:
Tv ~ 200 – 300°C 13 4
600 °C / 2 h / air < 5 ml/100 g
Figure 49: Information concerning the welding of soft-martensitic stainless steels

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Hardenable martensitic steels have a relatively good suitability for welding. These steels transform
completely into tough martensite under controlled cooling to 50 to 100°C. Pre-heating is performed start-
ing at wall thicknesses of  25 mm. Annealing at temperatures of 450 to 550°C leads to finely dispersed
precipitations with low loss of toughness and ductility.
9.4.3 Austenitic stainless steels
The following features must be noted when evaluating the weldability of austenitic stainless steels:
– Full-austenitic steels are sometimes very vulnerable to hot cracks

– Thermal expansion coefficient is approx. 50% above the ferrites
– 40% larger gap distances must be selected compared with non-alloyed steels
– Thermal conductivity poorer than with ferritic steels
– Very good ductility
– No risk of cold cracking or brittle fracture
– High toughness properties down to (very) low temperatures (cold tough)
– Full-austenitic steels are non-magnetic, metastable steels almost non-magnetic
– Stress-relief annealing would be partially useful due to susceptibility to SCC
– Prefer ELC or stabilised types for prevention of IC
Note Due to the high hot cracking susceptibility of all full-austenitic stainless steels, welding techniques
with low heat input (small filler material diameters, stringer bead technique, reduced heat input) have
proven to be useful for these materials.
Note The hot cracking susceptibility of metastable austenitic steel depends on their position to the eutec-
tic trough in the Fe-Cr-Ni system (eutectic point in the content section, Figure 11). Only primarily ferritic
solidifying metastable austenites are relatively resistant to hot cracks and therefore well to very well suit-
ed for welding (see Chapter 2.06).
Figure 50 provides an overview of selected information on the welding of austenitic stainless steels.
Austenitic steels are transformationless below

Ensure homogeneous or higher-alloyed welding
the solidus temperature
Uncommon Uncommon Q = ; vS =  Metastable austenites

19 9 L; 19 9 Nb
Unnecessary Do not pre-heat 19 12 3 L; 19 12 3 Nb
if necessary: 24 12
Stress-relief annealing:
Promotes hot cracking
450 °C /1 h / air Low-stress
under some Full austenites
Solution annealing: Welding
circumstances
1,050 °C / 1 h / H2O
Ensure high clean- 18 8 Mn
Tinter < 150 – 200°C
ness 20 16 3 Mn L
Figure 50: Information concerning the welding of austenitic stainless steels

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9.4.4 Austenitic-ferritic stainless steels
The following features must be noted when evaluating the weldability of austenitic-ferritic stainless steels
(duplex steels):
– Increasing  ferrite content (> 60%) increases the risk of embrittlement, coarse grain formation and
hydrogen-induced cold cracking
– Increasing austenite content (> 50%) increases the risk of hot crack formation
– Depending of austenite content, limit the interpass temperature
– Possible toughness loss due to 475° and  phase formation with incorrect heat input
– Larger welding gaps must be provided due to high distortion
– Welding operations should generally be performed only using filler material
– Duplex steels are ferromagnetic due to its high proportion of ferrite
Duplex steels are characterised by a solid phase

Ensure homogeneous or higher-alloyed welding
transformation
Uncommon but possible QD = 5 - 25 kJ/cm Non-homogeneous

Uncommon
to dissolve intermetallic QSD = 2 - 15 kJ/cm welding
phases and for optimum Limit ferrite content in
From plate thicknesses 20 16 3 Mn N L
/ ratio the weld metal:
> 10 mm:
If necessary: Solution ~ 25 – 75 FN
Tv ~ 100°C Homogeneous welding
annealing at (optimally 50 / 50)
Tinter-D < 250°C 1,020 – 1,050 °C / 22 9 3 N L; 25 7 2 N L
Limit rate of cooling
Tinter-SD < 150°C 5 min / H2O 25 9 3 Cu N L
Figure 51: Information concerning the welding of austenitic-ferritic stainless steels
Figure 51 provides an overview of selected information on the welding of austenitic stainless steels.
Duplex steels are generally well suited for welding, however it must be ensured that the desired
volume ratio of austenite and ferrite is maintained in the weld (weld metal and heat-affected zone).
If homogeneous filler materials are used, most duplex steels solidify primarily ferritically and the subse-
quent partial transformation to austenite is too slow to establish a balanced ferrite-austenite ratio.
Therefore, “only” semi-homogeneous filler materials are used, in order to maintain a ferrite proportion
of 30 to 50% in the weld metal too. Excessive dilution of the specially designed filler material with the
base material must be avoided by setting the welding parameters to prevent “reducing” of the weld metal
and thus a reduction in the content of austenite formers in the weld metal.
Note There is a small selection of standard commercially available filler materials for duplex steels. The
optimal filler material for the specific case should be selected in consultation with the manufacturer.

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9.5 Features of the joint design
The requirements of EN ISO 9692-1 and EN ISO 9692-4 must be observed regarding joint preparation
(see module 1). In practical applications, joint-opening-angles between 70° and 90° have proven
appropriate for full-austenitic filler materials with high nickel content (see Chapter 2.19). Joint preparation
also includes cleaning the weld edges because nickel can absorb sulphur above 350°C from almost
any compound due to its high sulphur affinity. Under the influence of tensile stresses, impurities in the
area of the arc welding heat can lead to grain boundary damage due to nickel-nickel sulphide-eutectics
with a low melting point which impair the mechanical properties of a joint more or less strongly (hot
cracking mechanism, see Chapter 2.06).
9.6 t12/8 concept and weldability
Analogous to the t8/5 concept developed for unalloyed and fine grain steels (see Chapters 2.05 and
2.10), the cooling rates in stainless steels and especially in duplex steels can be described with the aid
of t12/8 times. This temperature range was selected because the austenite proportion which is critical to
the mechanical and corrosion properties of these materials forms primarily in the range between 1,200
and 800°C. For this reason, the cooling time t12/8 is often used as a characteristic value in heat treatment
of such steels.
t12/8 times of over 10 s have been proven to establish a balanced - ratio in duplex steels. With
nitrogenous duplex steels, these times should be approximately 15 s depending on how the welding
parameters are set.
Note In contrast to the t8/5 time and the associated cooling-off principle for fine grain structural steels
(SEW 088-2 and EN 1011-2), t12/8 times are NOT included in the relevant regulations. They have,
however, proven to be useful for describing the rate of cooling in austenitic and duplex steels.
Figure 52 provides information on the influence of cooling conditions on the  ferrite proportion of duplex
steels under heat treatment that simulates welding.
100
Base material:
80 Duplex steel
Proportion of delta-ferrite in %
Typ 22-5-3
60 Welding simulation
40
20
According to MUNDT and HOFFMEISTER
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Cooling rate Vfrom in K/s
Figure 52: Influence of cooling
 40 20 13,33 10 8 6,67 conditions on the  ferrite
Cooling time t12/8 in s proportion of duplex steels
according to Mundt and Hoffmeister

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10 Surface treatment of stainless steels

10.1 Basics
The most important functional properties of stainless steels are ensured by an invisible protective layer that
is approximately 2 to 4 nm thick, the passive layer. It already forms under the influence of oxygen in the
air (see Chapter 2.14). Scales, annealing colours, slag residues and spatters, as can be created when
welding or during subsequent annealing, but also greases, paints and rust from external sources
destroy the passive layer and obstruct the formation of a new, uniform layer. Under corrosive stress, the
steel underlying these layers can be attacked and dissolve corrosively (Figure 53 and Figure 54).
Figure 53: Welded joint with pronounced annealing Figure 54: Welded joint with annealing colours
colours tarnished by rust
Figure 55: Oxidation zone

during welding of stainless
steels
Figure 55 shows the oxidation zone as it forms in the area of the surface of welded joints of stainless steels
at the transition from weld metal to the heat-affected zone. As can be seen, the oxydation of the surface
causes pronounced damage to the passive layer. For this reason, such impurities, layers and damages must
be removed. This can be done mechanically or chemically (Figure 56).

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Chemical methods Mechanical methods
Pickling Polishing Grinding/polishing Blasting

Pickling baths Electrolytic Plaster Polishing Glass pearl
Scale can be “smeared
Pickling pastes Requires acid-based Pregrinding in”. Additional chemical
polishing electrolytes pickling often required
Spray pickling E.g.: H3PO4, Finish-grinding Sand
Surface pickling Glycol acid + H3SO4 Precision grinding
Mixture of different ac- Citric acid + H3SO4 Brushing The use of sand is not
ids Polishing permitted (often con-
tains ferritic compo-
No ferritic components nents).
Observe environmental and occupational safety
permitted
Figure 56: Surface treatments for stainless steels
10.2 Mechanical methods
Table 24 includes an overview of selected mechanical surface treatment processes for stainless steels
according DVS leaflet 0943.
Table 24: Overview of mechanical surface treatment processes for stainless steels
Process Description
The weld deposits can be cleaned by austenitic brushes if there are no increased
Brushing
requirements for chemical resistance of the materials.
Grinding can be used for local areas (e.g. levelling of weld deposits, grinding away im-
purities) or for pre-grinding the entire surface, for example prior to electropolishing. The
grinding wheels must be suitable for use on stainless welding materials and weld
Grinding
areas. When grinding without subsequent pickling or electropolishing, avoid higher
cold deformations and the related tensile residual stresses, in order to prevent in-
creased susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking.
Abrasive blasting of the surface of stainless steels is used primarily for two reasons:
– Eliminating minor annealing colours
– Producing a uniform appearance
Blasting Glass spheres are typically used to abrasively blast austenitic materials. The
compressive residual stresses occurring during abrasive blasting can prevent attack by
stress corrosion cracking. However, there is a risk that oxide layer or slag particles will
be hammered into the metal surface, which in turn creates points of attack for time
delayed corrosion.

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10.3 Chemical processes, pickling
Pickling serves to remove all impurities from the surface of stainless steel with the aim of achieving a me-
tallically pure surface. The composition of the pickling solution must be selected according to the materi-
al, the desired working temperature and the desired removal. Stronger or weaker pickling solutions are
needed depending on the required removal, expressed in micrometres (μm) of thickness loss. Only chlo-
ride-free pickling solutions are recommended. Pickling solutions of different concentrations of nitric acid,
hydrofluoric acid and water meet the required conditions. Strong pickling solutions allow a material removal
of up to 5 μm. Pickle is possible in bathes, as spray pickling and with pastes (Table 25).
Table 25: Overview of chemical surface treatment processes (pickling) for stainless steels
Process Description
Pickling The parts are dipped into pickling tanks at room temperature (if possible) for between
tanks 30 minutes and 2 h.
Pickling pastes are generally applied with a brush to the areas to be treated. Because
Pickling of their limited acidity, the duration of effectiveness must be considered. Multiple pick-
pastes lings may be required.
Spray pick- Spray pickling (special form of pickling pastes) is used particularly with large tanks for
ling which there is no correspondingly large pickling bath available.
After pickling, flushing with water until no acids can be detected on the component. Indicator paper
can be used to check whether neutralisation has been reached. During flushing, the desired passive
layer forms under the action of atmospheric oxygen on the steel. An additional passivation is not neces-
sary in this case.
10.4 Chemical processes, passivating
There is a risk of corrosion until complete formation of the self-protective passive layer on stainless
steels. Passivation by chemical means is therefore recommended.
There are essentially three methods available for passivation. They are compiled in Table 26. The
cleaned surface must necessarily come into contact with oxygen during passivation.
Table 26: Overview of processes for the passivation of stainless steels

Process Description
The parts are exposed to clean ambient air at room temperature. The formation of a
“Natural” pas- sufficiently dense and chemically resistant passive layer is complete after approx. 48
sivating h. “Natural” passivating can also last longer depending on ventilation.
Flushing with Deionised water (H2O) does not contain any free-moving charged particles. Due to
deionised wa- the chemically bound oxygen in the water, a sufficiently dense and chemically re-
ter sistant passive layer can develop in just 4 to 6 h.
Special passivation pastes contain chemically bonded oxygen in the form of HNO 3.
Passivation The application of such pastes leads to formation of the passive layer in just a few
pastes minutes. Note: Observe health and environmental protection measures.
Figure 57 provides information on the possible procedure for the surface treatment of parts made of
stainless steel.

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Part made of stainless steel
Greasy, dirty Grease- and dirt-free

Degrease
Annealing colours and scale Scaled

Rust from external sources
on surfaces weld seam
Pickling tank Pickling tank Pickling tank Pickling tank Surface pickling
Pickling tank Neutralise Water flushing
Water flushing Water flushing Passivate

Dry
Figure 57: Overview of possible surface treatments on parts made of stainless steel (source: ANTOX)
11 Further rules for processing stainless steels

11.1 Measures before and during welding
During the processing of stainless steels, high cleanness must be ensured at all times. The following
measures are to be considered:
– Use stainless tools, e.g. stainless wire brushes, chromium-plated hammers

– Protect the material against rust from external sources, separate grinding machines
– Protection by using films when bending and edging, separate workshops (“white” area) or at least
partitions to protect against spatters of non-alloyed steel.
– Avoid non-welded gaps
– Protect the area heated by welding, including the opposite side of the weld, using argon or not-
oxidising back purging gas.
During MAG welding, argon with 1 to 3% O2 or 2 to 3% CO2 is used as protective gas. Higher O2 content
and higher CO2 content lead to stronger annealing colours and to carbonisation which could create
chromium carbides which reduces corrosion resistance, in particular against intergranular corrosion (see
Chapter 2.14).
11.2 Measures after welding

11.2.1 Flame straightening
Flame straightening of stainless steel is possible and is performed in practice. Note that a neutral flame
setting as well as a gas surplus creates the risk of carbonisation and thus for the formation of
chromium carbides. In this case, the actual heating point is less corrosion-resistant (IC risk). For this
reason, as little as possible adjustment should be made. The flame must be set precisely. Remove all
annealing colours. To prevent the formation of precipitations, the heating time and the heating
temperature must be limited. The formation of residual stresses due to distortion or shrinkage must
also be considered.

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11.2.2 Thermal cutting
Thermal cutting now employs plasma cutting using gas mixtures such as Ar + H2, Ar + N or Ar + H2 + N.
During plasma cutting, note that the kerf is not constant in width across the sheet thickness. Cut edges
are usually resurfaced (grinded). If they are later exposed to corrosive attack, they must be bare metal.
-Powder cutting is also possible but hardly used in practice. In case it is used, the cutting edges must
be machined at an adequate depth.
11.2.3 Hot-forming
All stainless steels scale during hot forming. Since conventional scale decreases corrosion resistance
noticeably, it must be removed. In case of only local heating, non-stabilised steels have the risk of
chromium carbide formation in the areas in which the temperature remains between 600 and 800°C for
an extended time. Too long and high heating can likewise lead to coarse grain formation which cannot
be removed from transformationless steels.
11.2.4 Cold forming
In ductile steels with large elongation after fracture, work hardening can be utilised to obtain a material
with higher strength that nevertheless is still sufficiently ductile. Stainless steels in the treatment state
C700 (Table 17) still have an elongation after fracture corresponding to that of an alloyed structural steel
of grade S235, although its yield strength has been increased by more than 50%. The disadvantage lies
in the fact that this increase in strength is lost as heat levels and durations increase. Especially in
austenitic and austenitic-ferritic steels, the strong work hardening creates stronger deforming forces
than in ferritic, half-ferritic and martensitic steels. This requires correspondingly more durable tools and
lubrication.
11.2.5 Shape cutting
With shape cutting, ferritic, half-ferritic and martensitic steels can be equated to alloyed case hardening
steels. It allows for the cutting of quenched and tempered steels with C  0.3% and soft-annealed steels
with C > 0.3%. Austenitic and austenitic-ferritic steels tend to work hardening during cutting. Further-
more, the poor thermal conductivity of these materials may lead to a strong heating of the tool and its
softening by annealing. Carbide alloy tools (tool steels) should be used for machining. Belt saws are
made of speed steel. They should preferably be cooled due to the strong heating. However, soluble oils
must not be used as coolants. There are, however, special emulsions available.
11.2.6 Heat treatments
During all heat treatments, the possible scale formation and possible formation of chromium carbides
must be considered. If cold deformed parts are annealed, the possible formation of coarse grains
during the particular cold forming process must be observed. Follow the recommendations of the
respective technical regulations and standards.
12 Stainless steels in construction supervision
In construction supervision, technical approval Z-30.3-6 (current issue dated April 20, 2009) is
mandatory for the processing of stainless steels. This is published by the Deutsches Institut für
Bautechnik (DIBt - German Institute for Civil Engineering).

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Note During the welding of stainless steels, the user information from the manufacturers of the respec-
tive base and/or filler materials must be observed.
Note A variety of technical information on the processing of stainless steels is provided free of charge by
the informational site “Edelstahl Rostfrei®” (ISER) (www.edelstahl-rostfrei.de).

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13 Question
(1) What minimum chromium content do steels require in order to be highly resistant to rust
corrosion?
 5%
 9%
 10.5%
 12%
 25%
(2) What influence do elements such as nickel, manganese and cobalt have on the formation of the 
region in iron binary systems?
 The  region is unrestricted open.

 The  region is limited by a heterogeneous state field.
 The  region is limited by multiple heterogeneous state fields.
 The  region is closed by a decreasing line of equilibrium.
 The  region is not influenced.
(3) Which transformation course in Figure 11 (content section at 70% by the system Fe-Cr-Ni-Ni) do
austenitic-ferritic steels exhibit according to section 6.4?
 S  S +   S + +   
 SS+++
 SS+S+++
 SS++
 SS+
(4) What is the ` phase?
 An intermetallic compound
 Ferrite with very low chromium content.
 Ferrite with very high chromium content.
 Austenite with a hexagonal elementary cell.
 A LAVES phase.
(5) Why can ferritic stainless steels not be used for high-temperature applications?
 These steels transform completely into austenite at temperatures over 500°C.

 Brittle martensite forms in these materials at temperatures over 780°C.
 In the temperature range of heat-resistant applications, these steels form embrittling pre-
cipitations such as the  and  phases.
 These steels start to melt at temperatures over 723°C.
 The steels were developed exclusively for low temperature applications ( 200°C).

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(6) What is meant by the term “metastable” austenitic stainless steel?
 Such steel consists completely (100%) of austenite.

 Such steel has an austenitic microstructure with low  ferrite content at room temperature.
 Such steel crystallises primarily ferritically at first before transforming almost completely
into austenite.
 Such steel consists completely (100%) of deformed ferrite.
 Such steel can contain amounts (up to 10%) of pearlite.
(7) Which type of stainless steels are characterised by a high hot cracking susceptibility?
 Ferritic steels
 Martensitic steels
 Metastable austenitic steels
 Full-austenitic steels
 Duplex steels
(8) What can be caused by increasing  ferrite content in welded joints of duplex steels?
 They increase the risk of hot crack formation.

 They improve the formability of these materials.
 They increase the risk of embrittlement, coarse grain formation and hydrogen-induced
cold cracking.
 They improve the low temperature toughness.
 They improve the heat resistance of duplex steels
(9) What is the purpose of surface treatment processes after the welding of stainless steels?
 They should compensate for weld depressions.

 They should compensate for differences in colouring caused by welding.
 They should compensate for surface chromium depletions.
 They should eliminate layers such as scales, annealing colours, slag residues and
splatters from the surface.
 They should prepare the surface for a new passivation.
(10) What element must the surface of stainless steels contact during passivation?
 Chromium
 Nickel
 Carbon
 Oxygen
 Nitrogen

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14 Bibliography
Strasbourg, F.W.; H. Wehner:

Schweißen nicht rostender Stähle.
Düsseldorf: Verlag für Schweißen und verwandte Verfahren DVS-Verlag GmbH; 2000
Folkhard, E.:
Metallurgie der Schweißung nichtrostender Stähle.
Vienna, New York: Springer Verlag, 1984
Küntscher, W.:
Baustähle der Welt. Band III: Sonderstähle.
Dilthey, U.:
Schweißtechnische Fertigungsverfahren 2 – Verhalten der Werkstoffe beim Schweißen.
Schuster, J.:
Schuster, J.:
Heißrisse in Schweißverbindungen - Entstehung, Nachweis und Vermeidung.
DVS-Berichte, Band 233
Düsseldorf: Verlag für Schweißen und verwandte Verfahren DVS-Verlag GmbH; 2004
Schulze. G.:
Heidelberg, Dordrecht, London, New York: Springer Verlag; 2009
EN ISO 8249:
Welding – determination of Ferrite Number (FN) in austenitic and duplex ferritic-austenitic Cr-Ni stainless
steel weld metals.
Ausgabe: 10-2000
Leaflet DVS 0943:

Hochlegierte Stabelektroden.
Ausgabe: 08-2006
EN 1011-3:
Schweißen – Empfehlungen zum Schweißen metallischer Werkstoffe. Module 3: Arc welding of stainless
steels.
Ausgabe: 01-2001

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Introduction to wear and protective layers Page 1
Chapter 2.16: Introduction to wear and protective layers
Contents
1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 2
2 Definitions ............................................................................................................................ 2
3 Wear...................................................................................................................................... 4
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 4
3.2 Wear mechanisms (“how”) ......................................................................................................... 4
3.3 Wear types (“in what way”) ........................................................................................................ 6
3.4 Influencing parameters .............................................................................................................. 7
3.5 Wear test ................................................................................................................................... 8
3.5.1 Aims of the wear test ...................................................................................................... 8
3.5.2 Technical-physical wear parameters .............................................................................. 8
3.5.3 Wear data ...................................................................................................................... 9
3.5.4 Wear tests ...................................................................................................................... 9
4 Protective layers ................................................................................................................ 11
4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 11
4.2 Claddings................................................................................................................................. 12
4.2.1 Overview ...................................................................................................................... 12
4.2.2 Welding plated/clad materials....................................................................................... 12
4.3 Linings (internal coatings) ........................................................................................................ 15
4.3.1 Overview ...................................................................................................................... 15
4.3.2 Welding of linings ......................................................................................................... 15
4.4 Coatings (external coatings) .................................................................................................... 16
4.4.1 Overview ...................................................................................................................... 16
4.4.2 Welding coated materials ............................................................................................. 18
4.5 Surface welds .......................................................................................................................... 21
4.5.1 Overview ...................................................................................................................... 21
4.5.2 Welding of surfacing beads .......................................................................................... 22
4.5.3 Weldability of selected base materials.......................................................................... 23
4.5.4 Welding consumables for surface welding ................................................................... 24
5 Question ............................................................................................................................. 26
6 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 28

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1 Introduction
Statistical studies have shown that more than 15% of all technical damage to machines is due to wear.
In heavy industry this figure rises to over 50%. It is difficult to quantify the secondary damages caused
by the failure of wearing parts, which often far exceed the actual damage due to wear. The term “wear”
includes wear (mechanical wear) and corrosion (chemical and electro-chemical wear) as well as ther-
mal and other wearing processes. These wear processes often occur in combination. The corrosion
mechanisms have already been described in detail in Chapter 2.14. This chapter will therefore focus on
wear processes.
Wear always occurs when surfaces interact with each other in relative motion. A tribological system is
formed as a result. Technical applications that involve particularly high amounts of wear include earth-
moving machinery (Figure 1) as well as vehicle engineering (Figure 2).
Figure 1: Two Es1120 multi-bucket excavators at open Figure 2: M1A1 “Abrams” battle tank driving off road in
pit mine in Cottbus Nord (Germany), damage by Iraq, damage by abrasive wear (image: Chad Menegay,
abrasive wear (image: A. Gutwein, Wikimedia) Department of the Army, USA)
2 Definitions
Tribology
Tribology is the science of interacting surfaces in relative motion. It includes the entire field of friction
and wear, including lubrication. Therefore, it also includes corresponding interfacial interactions both
between solids and between solids and liquids or gases.
Tribological system (tribosystem)
A tribological system consists of four elements: the basic body, the counter body, the intermediate
material and the ambient medium (Figure 3). These, together with the sum of all stresses, referred to
as the stress collective, determine the wear behaviour and the wear level.

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Input variables Disturbance variables

Stress collective
Structure of the tribosystem
Surface changes Material loss

(wear phenomenon) (wear quantity)
Figure 3: Illustration of the term “tribological system” according to Czichos
Friction
(Dynamic) friction describes the force that acts against the relative motion. The variable for translation
motions is indicated as the coefficient of friction, which represents the ratio of friction FR to the normal
force FN.
Coefficient of friction
This coefficient of friction µ or f is a measure of the friction force in relation to the contact force between
two bodies. It is dimensionless (Table 1).
Table 1: Examples of coefficients of friction

Rolling fric-
Static friction Sliding friction
Friction tion
µ0 µ
bodies µr
dry greased dry greased
Steel on steel 0.15 – 0.2 0.1 0.1 – 0.15 0.05 0,002
Steel on sintered bronze 0.2 – 0.4 0.08 – 0.13 0.18 – 0.3 0.06 – 0.09 …
Cast iron on cast iron 0.18 – 0.25 0.1 0.15 – 0.2 0.05 …
Rolling bearings … … … … 0,001 – 0,003
Wear
Wear is progressive loss of material from the surface of a solid body (basic body) that is induced by
mechanical causes, i.e. contact motion and relative motion of a solid, fluid or gaseous counter body
(according to DIN 50 320, withdrawn).
Loss variables of tribological systems
Friction and wear are generally regarded as the loss variables of tribological systems. They depend not
only on the material properties but also on the interactions that occur and the parameters of the stress
collective. Even small changes in the system can have a considerable effect on the coefficient of friction
and the amount of wear.
Note Friction and wear are system properties and not pure material parameters. There are always
(at least) two components in interaction, and often an intermediate medium (fluid) too.

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3 Wear.
3.1 Introduction
Note The standard DIN 50 320 is often referenced in the following explanations. This standard has been
withdrawn and replaced by leaflet No. 7 from the Gesellschaft für Tribologie (German Society for
Tribology). Both publications contain important information on the topic of material wear.
Wear causes a loss of material on components. The removal occurs by four wear mechanisms, which
can also occur in combination (Table 2, Table 3):
– Adhesion (fretting phenomenon)

– Abrasion (cleavage),
– Surface breakup (fatigue) and
– Tribochemical reaction (fretting corrosion, effect of oil additives on surfaces).
Different wear types are distinguished. These include:
– Sliding wear
– Rolling wear
– Impact wear
– Oscillation wear
– Grain sliding wear
– Rolling abrasion
Further types of wear are presented in (Table 2, Table 3). This also includes erosion, which is the
removal of a material by flowing media.
3.2 Wear mechanisms (“how”)
The wear mechanisms can be broken down according to the elementary physical and chemical basic
processes that result from the influence of the stress collective on the elements of a tribological system.
Four distinct main wear mechanisms are currently distinguished. These are:
Adhesion (mechanically / interlocking):
Formation and separation of interfaces (e.g. galling)
Adhesive wear occurs under inadequate lubrication. If touching

components are firmly placed on top of each other under high
surface pressure, the contacting surfaces bond together as a result
of adhesion. Sliding then shears off particles on the surface layers.
Holes and scale-like material erosions occur that often adhere to the
gliding surface of the harder partner.
Protective oxidation layers are broken through due to adhesion by the high local pressure at rough spots
on the surface. A local micro galling results. As a result of cold work hardening, the material then
breaks not in the area between the two welding points but rather in adjacent areas.

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Abrasion (micro-cutting):
Material removal by scoring load
Abrasive wear (scraping wear, cleavage wear or erosive wear)

occurs when hard particles of a lubricant or roughness peaks of a
friction partner penetrate the surface layer and scoring and
micro-cutting result. Abrasion may occur especially in systems in
which media are conveyed that contain sharp, hard particles
(e.g. in pipes through which liquids with suspended particles such as
sand are conveyed).
To prevent this wear mechanism, the lubricants must be monitored and replaced if necessary. Further,
similar, pure metallic combinations should be avoided. Hydroabrasion occurs when abrasive solids are
suspended in liquids and cause wear.
Note The material loss resulting from the abrasion is referred to as abraded material.
Surface breakup (delamination, fatigue):
Discontinuities in the surface area due to tribological alternating

stresses.
Surface breakup is caused by changing or repeated mechanical

stresses. That is, microcracks occur and grow in the material layers
close to the surface. Since tensile stresses promote breakup in the
surface, compressive stresses can be introduced as a counter
measure. Suitable methods include shot-peening as well as nitrating
or oxidising the surfaces.
Surface breakup occurs in rolling bearings (for example) due to constant rolling over. The wear, also
referred to as rolling wear, creates dimples.
Tribochemical reaction (tribocorrosion):
Formation of reaction products by tribological stress in chemical

reaction
The formation of intermediate layers, e.g. oxide layers, due to

chemical reactions and their destruction by the motion of
components is referred to as tribooxidation or reaction layer wear.
It almost always occurs together with adhesive wear. This wear
mechanism, which is due to chemical reaction and mechanical
destruction of the reaction layer, is a tribochemical reaction.
A typical example of tribooxidation is fretting corrosion.

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3.3 Wear types (“in what way”)
Wear processes can be distinguished into different wear variants according to their type of motion,
tribological stress or the system structure (especially the involved substances). In practice, they are
differentiated according to the particular tribosystem:
– closed tribosystems such as bearings and seals, (Table 2) and

– open tribosystems such as chutes, gutters or pipe systems (Table 3). In these types, the intermediate
material takes on the function of the absent counter body.
Table 2: Load applications in closed tribosystems

Acting mechanism
Load application Wear type Tribochem.
Adhesion Abrasion Surface breakup
reaction
—
Öl
Sliding wear
Roll wear,
rolling wear
Percussion
wear,
impact wear
Oscillation
wear
Grain gliding
Grain rolling

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Table 3: Load applications in open tribosystems

Acting mechanism
Load applica-
Wear type Tribochem.
tion Adhesion Abrasion Surface breakup
reaction
Cleavage
wear
Fluid erosion
wear
(erosive
wear)
Sliding
(jet-)
wear.
Percussion
beam
erosion
Cavitation
erosion
Drop
impingement
erosion
Key: … not applicable; … less applicable; … applicable
3.4 Influencing parameters
The wear mechanisms and the wear types influenced by them ((Table 2, Table 3)) are determined by a
series of parameters. These mainly include:
– Basic body ................................................ (material, shape, surface),

– Intermediate material ............................... (type, particles size etc.),
– Counter body ............................................ (material, form, surface),
– Type of load .............................................. (magnitude, time curve),
– Type of motion.......................................... (sliding, rolling, impacting),
– Ambient atmosphere ................................ (e.g. air, shielding gas, vacuum) and
– Temperature ............................................. (level, time curve).

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In practice, the wear types are differentiated according to how deeply the erosion process in the friction
system penetrates into the surface of the base material (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Penetration depth of selected wear types into the material surface
3.5 Wear test

3.5.1 Aims of the wear test
Wear tests pursue various aims which can be broken down as follows:
– Optimisation of components or triobotechnical systems regarding wear

– Determination of influences due to wear on the overall design of machinery or components
– Monitoring the wear-dependent functional capability of machines
– Preselecting of materials and lubricants for practical applications
– Quality control of materials and lubricants
– Wear research, damage analysis, diagnostics of operating conditions
– Mechanism-oriented wear test, collection of data for maintenance.
3.5.2 Technical-physical wear parameters
The technical-physical load parameters in a wear process are specified by the following four variables:
– Normal force FN
– Speed v
– Temperature T
– Load application period tB

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In wear tests, normal force FN and, if known, the size of the geometric contacting surface between the
base body and the counter body, i.e. tribological contact area Anom, can be used to calculate average
surface pressure p = FN / Anom. Speed v, which is influential for a wear process, is the relative speed
between the two wear partners. Temperature T refers to the thermal equilibrium of the entire tribological
system. Load period tB indicates the time span during which the tribological loads that lead to wear are
effective. Based on load period tB and speed v, the load path can be calculated.
Under hydroabrasion (hydrodynamic

Machining friction), the two friction partners are
100 completely separated by the intermediate
Mineral wear due to sliding medium (e.g. lubricant) and practically no
more wear occurs. The area of mixed
Coefficient of friction µm
10
Dry-friction (vacuum) friction starts at rising surface pressure p
or decreasing speed v or toughness
Non-lubricated friction (viscosity)  of the lubricant. This then
1 (gases, vapours) transitions into the area of boundary
friction. Wear increases (Figure 5).
Lubricated friction
0,1 (Lubricants)
0,01
Bound
-ary Mixed Hydro-
friction friction abrasion
Figure 5: Friction areas in the extended
(v  ) / p Stribeck diagram
3.5.3 Wear data
Wear data directly or indirectly characterise the change in the shape or mass of a body due to wear.
Because the measured variables do not represent material- but rather system data (see section 2), the
indication of numerical values is only useful if the load system and structure of the tribosystem are
described. In accordance with withdrawn standard DIN 50 321, the following wear data can be used:
Direct variables Amount of wear, relative wear, wear resistance, relative wear resistance
Related variables Wear speed, wear path ratio, wear throughput ratio
Indirect variables Service life due to wear, total service life, throughput amount due to wear
3.5.4 Wear tests
The determination of wear can be made using various mechanical test methods. These methods cover
different types and mechanisms of wear. Many of these tests are standardised for metallic materials in
ASTM rules. However, there are also a number of wear tests that are not standardised (Table 4).

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Table 4: Selected wear test methods (standardised and not standardised)

Standardised processes Non-standardised processes
ASTM no. Short Name Standard Short Name
G65-04 Friction wheel test — Hydroabrasion test
B611-85 Friction wheel test — Hydroerosion test
G73-10 Liquid impingement erosion test — Ring on ring, roller on plate test
G75-07 Miller test — Blow wheel method
G76-07 Solid particle erosion test — Pin-on-roller and roller-on-roller test
G132-96 Pin-on belt / pin-on-table test — Pin-on-disc test
Many of the tests are designed to determine the abrasion behaviour of metallic materials. One of these
is the friction wheel test according to ASTM G65-04 (Table 4, Figure 6).
This involves pressing, for example, grooved

rubber discs (Figure 7) rotating at a defined
speed against the surface of the test specimen
(Figure 8) material using defined normal force
FN. An abrasive (e.g. sand or corundum) is
interspersed into the gap between the specimen
and the disc. The measured variable is usually
the weight loss by the specimen after a certain
number of rotations (glide path) in grams or
kilograms. The modifications to the standard are
variations in pressing force and wear distance.
The mass flow of the abrasive remains
constantly for the different variations.
Figure 6: Schematic experimental setup of the ASTM

G65-04 test
Figure 7: Grooved rubber disc for wear tests to deter- Figure 8: Specimen with weld metal build-up tested in
mine abrasion behaviour friction wheel test according to ASTM G65-04

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4 Protective layers
4.1 Introduction
Depending on the abrasion, i.e. by wear or corrosion or combinations of both, but also for purely
decorative reasons, metallic as well as non-metallic layers are used. A large number of different surface
finishing techniques are available for the generation or application of these layers. These techniques
also include welding, soldering and thermal spraying.
These protective layers can, depending on the requirements, be permanent (e.g. claddings, zinc layers)
or temporary surface refinements (e.g. “shop primers”, see section 4.4). All important processes for
surface finishing are listed in Figure 9.
Figure 9: Processes for Generating Protective Layers
Note Not all of the protective layers listed in this section are wear resistant according to section 3.
However, they adequately protect the material against wear due to their acting mechanism.

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4.2 Claddings
4.2.1 Overview
Protective layers against wear are called armourings (hard-facings). Claddings serve to protect the
base material against corrosion. Usually only the base material as the load bearing cross section is set for
the calculation. The cladding is applied to the base material (usually unalloyed structural or fine grain
structural steels, see Chapters 2.09 and 2.10) by methods such as roll cladding (mechanical, Figure 10),
explosive cladding (thermo-mechanical, Figure 11), overlay welding (thermal, see section 4.5) or by
thermal spraying (thermo-mechanical, Figure 13). Overlay welding is usually performed using submerged
arc strip cladding (Figure 12), MAG and manual meta-arc welding.
Figure 10: Macro-section of a roll cladding Figure 11: Macro-section of an explosion cladding
Figure 12: Micro-section of a surface weld Figure 13: Micro-section of a therm. sprayed coating
4.2.2 Welding plated/clad materials

4.2.2.1 General
When joining clad steels, mixtures between the base and the cladding material occur. The following
problems can result:

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– Embrittlement and formation of cracks in the weld due to hardening or brittle intermetallic phases or
due to cracking (hot cracking mechanism, see Chapter 2.06) in the HAZ.
– Decrease in the weld metal's chemical resistance due to dilution.
In the first case, dissimilar filler material which is compatible with both material partners must be used
for welding, if possible. If this is not possible, joints in which both materials are not welded together are
preferable. The risk of hardening or reduction in chemical resistance can be avoided by over-alloying.
Note Where possible, the component should be accessible from both sides. If access is only possible
from one side, it is helpful if the cladding side is accessible.
Note EN ISO 9692-4 includes recommendations for the joint preparation. EN 1011-5 contains
information on implementing such connections as well as on the selection of base and filler materials in
terms of the machining of cladded steels.
4.2.2.2 Examples of welding claddings
In addition to the plate thickness, the following factors are crucial for the type of joint preparation and the
welding sequence:
– Accessibility of the weld, one-sided and/or two-sided (basic requirement),

– Weldability between base material and cladding (case 1),
– Weldability between base material and cladding only using buffer layer(s) (case 2),
– No weldability between base and cladding material (intermetallic phases form, for example, case 3).
Weldability between base material and cladding is possible

Case 1 e.g. unalloyed structural or fine grain structural steel – stainless Cr-Ni steel
e.g. unalloyed structural or fine grain structural steel – nickel alloy
Accessibility
1. Weld the cladding similarly
from one side
2. Weld remainder in over-alloyed
(usually from the
state or with nickel filler material
base material side)
1. Weld the base material similarly

2. Work out the root of the weld from
the cladding side by grinding
Accessibility 3. Weld the backing run
from both sides (similar base material)
4. Weld the buffer layer
(over-alloyed)

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Weldability between base material and cladding is given due to buffer layer(s)
Case 2
e.g. steel-copper or copper alloy
Accessibility 1. Weld the cladding similarly

from one side 2. Weld the buffer layer (nickel)
(usually from the 3. Weld the base material in
base material side) over-alloyed state

2. Work out the root of the weld from
the cladding side by grinding
Accessibility 3. Weld the backing run
from both sides (similar base material)
4. Weld the buffer layer
(over-alloyed)
No weldability between base material and cladding (intermetallic phases)

Case 3
e.g. steel-titanium, steel-aluminium
Accessibility 1. Weld the cladding similarly

from one side 2. Apply metal strip (similar to base
(usually from the material)
base material side) 3. Weld the base material similarly

2. Weld the backing run after back-
Accessibility gouging
from both sides 3. 3. Apply inset strip
4. 4. Weld the cover/capping strip
similarly (plating)

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4.3 Linings (internal coatings)

4.3.1 Overview
Under some circumstances, lining sheet metals or mouldings are used instead of surface welding as
protective layers. These are referred to as wallpaperings. Compared with conventional claddings
(see section 4.2), this process offers a number of advantages, especially if subsequent linings or
coverings are required for surfaces. Typical applications for wallpaperings are repair and remedial work
on large-volume components of flue gas desulphurisation installations in fossil-fuelled power plants.
Depending on the geometric situation, the linings can be joined to the base material only at the periphery
or by using bores or respectively elongated holes spread over the surface.
4.3.2 Welding of linings
The same principles apply when welding linings as for the production of claddings (see section 4.2). A
suitable welding sequence is to be chosen to avoid unacceptable distortion. The following variants, as
well as others, can be used.
Wallpapering without root face
In this variant, the first support sheet is welded

directly to the prepared wall. Support sheets that

> 30
overlap with each previous sheet are then welded
on. The welds have different functions. Weld on
2 the base material: mounting. Weld on support
sheet: sealing and corrosion protection.
 
Wallpapering with cover strips

> 20
In this method of wallpapering, the support sheets

 or strips are tack welded onto the base material
> 40 walls contacted by the medium. Finally, the
remaining gaps are generously covered with
2
similar strips and are welded tight with fillet welds.
 
Wallpapering on root faces

> 40
>2 In the method “wallpapering on root faces”, root fac-

es (instead of cover strips) from the corrosion-
 resistant material are applied to the base material.
The sheets or strips from the selected corrosion-
ca. 2 resistant material are then welded onto these by fillet
welding with filler material (seal welding).
 

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4.4 Coatings (external coatings)

4.4.1 Overview
Steel structures can be protected from surrounding media against corrosion by inorganic, organic and
metallic corrosion protection systems (rust protection) (see also Chapter 2.14). Coating (e.g. by
painting), hot-dip zinc coating (also referred hot-dip galvanising) and enamelling are the primary
methods used (Figure 14). On the other hand, galvanising is practically unused in structural steels sole-
ly due to the very thin layers (approx. 5 to 25 mμ) that can be created with this method.
In hot-dip galvanising, there is a direct metallurgical correlation between the silicon and phosphorous
content and the thickness of the zinc layer that forms (Sandelin effect, accelerated Fe-Zn reaction, see
Chapter 2.09 and EN ISO 14 713-2). As a result, hot-dipped welding materials in particular exhibit larger
protective zinc layers than the base material does, due to higher Si content (Figure 15). They therefore
have a darker visual appearance. When designing steel structures, it should be ensured for decorative
reasons that as few welded joints as possible are in visible areas.
Figure 14: Structure of a zinc layer on a structural steel Figure 15: Influence of silicon content on the thickness
surface (hot-dip galvanised) of zinc layers (hot-dip galvanised)
The thickness of a zinc coating is a fundamental parameter with regard to the duration of corrosion
protection. The requirements for the minimum thickness of zinc coatings are specified in EN ISO 1461.
However, these minimum requirements are significantly exceeded in most cases due to the technological
processes involved in hot-dip galvanising (Table 5).
Table 5: Common layer thicknesses of zinc coatings (source: Institut Feuerverzinken)

Material thickness in mm Zinc layer thickness in µm
2 60
> 2 to 3 80
> 3 to 6 100
> 6 to 8 120
> 8 to 15 150
> 15 170
The zinc layer thicknesses indicated in the table are mean values commonly used in practice. They are
higher than the minimum coating thicknesses given in EN ISO 1461.

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Metallic coated sheet metals have performance- and processing characteristics comparable to uncoated
sheet metals. These include, for example, strength, formability and with some restrictions, also
weldability. The following metal coatings have proven useful in practice.
Table 6: Examples of industrially established metal coatings

Process Mean coating composition Designation
Zinc Z
Zinc / 11% iron alloy ZF
Zinc / 5% aluminium mixed metal alloy ZA
Hot dipping
55% aluminium / 43.4% zinc / silicon alloy AZ
(aluminium) A
Aluminium / 10% silicon alloy AS
Zinc ZE
Electrolytic deposition Zinc / 12% nickel alloy ZNE
Lead / 7% tin alloy TE
Cast cladding Stainless ferritic and austenitic steels —
A guide for corrosion protection of iron and steel structures (protection against corrosion) and their
connecting devices through the use of zinc or aluminium coatings can be found in EN ISO 14 713-1. This
standard describes different coating processes, structural aspects and fields of application. The
following aspect must be considered in particular when selecting zinc and aluminium coatings:
– General environmental conditions that the metal coating has to withstand/resist

– Local deviations from the environmental conditions, including future changes and any special loads
that can be foreseen
– The required time until the first repair/maintenance of the metal coating under the relevant environ-
mental conditions
– The necessity of additional measures
– The necessity of an additional coating system either directly at the beginning or at a later time as soon
as the duration of protection of the metal coating has expired and the coating needs a first repair to
minimize the maintenance costs
– The availability and costs
Table 7: Corrosivity- categories, -loads and -rates (following EN ISO 14 713-1 and ISO 9223)
Corrosion rate,
Abbre- Corrosivity category C Corrosion average loss in
viation with examples load thickness for zinc
in µm/year
Interior: dry
C1 very low 0.1
Exterior: dry
Interior: occasional condensation
C2 small 0.1 to 0.7
Exterior: rural inland, towns
Interior: high humidity, moderate air pollution
C3 medium 0.7 to 2
Exterior: urban inland, coast with few chlorides
Interior: swimming pools, chemical plants etc.
C4 high 2 to 4
Exterior: industrial inland; coast without splash-water
Interior: mines, industrial caverns
C5 very high 4 to 8
Exterior: high humidity or high chloride load
CX maritime and maritime-industrial environments extreme 8 to 25

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Table 7 gives information on corrosivity

categories of C1 to CX, the corrosive load
and the respective permissible corrosion
speeds (corrosion rates). The loss in
thickness of the zinc coating corresponds to
the values in ISO 9223. The typical
protection times of zinc coatings until the
first repair based on typical corrosion rates
(Figure 16) are presented in Table 7.
Figure 16: Typical protection times of zinc

coatings until first repair based on typical
corrosion rates (source: Institut Feuerverzinken)
Note that steel corrodes 10 to 40 times faster than zinc, whereby the higher values are usually found in
chloride atmospheres. Aluminium coatings suffer no linear loss in thickness as a function of time. These
interdependencies are explained in greater detail in EN ISO 9223 and apply for sheet metals/plates.
Note The data in Table 7 are based on measurements from the period 1990 to 1995. However, in the
past 30 years there has been a considerable decrease in air pollution, especially sulphur dioxide. This
means that the present corrosion rates under the respective environmental conditions are significantly
lower than in the past. In the future, a further reduction in corrosion rates is to be expected due to the
further reduction in environmental pollution.
Note If the time span until the first repair of the coating is lower than the service life required for the
component, the effort of repair and downtime is another aspect. The approach of how to use the corro-
sion protection system selected should be agreed between the steel processor and the user of the cor-
rosion protection system.
4.4.2 Welding coated materials

4.4.2.1 Welding organic coated steels
When welding steels with organic paint coatings, the coating is mainly burned (combusted) and partly
broken down into their chemical components. In addition to the insertion of carbon and hydrogen into
the weld metal which slightly increases the susceptibility to cold cracking (age hardening cracks or hy-
drogen-assisted cracks) (see Chapter 2.06), especially the combustion of the coating leads to a
significant pore formation (Figure 17, Figure 18). Figure 20 provides information on representations of
growth and detachment of gas cavities at the phase interface of solidifying melts, i.e. the pores in the
stage of their formation (fields : low crystallisation speed, fields : high crystallization speed).
The tendency to pore formation when over-welding shop primers can be determined with a special test.
The test conditions for this are defined in EN ISO 17 652-2 (developed from leaflet DVS leaflet 0501).
These are coatings which are applied to freshly blasted steel plates or sections in 15 to 25 µm thick
layers according to the current state of the art. Their purpose is to provide temporary corrosion
protection (rust protection) until the manufacturing process has been completed and to be
over-weldable. The standard lays the basis for a reproducible testing of the tendency to pore formation
when over-welding primers and allows the primers to be compared against each other; it can also be
used for developing pore resistant coatings.

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Figure 17: Pore formation during over-welding of shop primers (fracture test piece)
Figure 18: Pore formation during over-welding of shop primers (macro-section)
The testing is conducted in a special facility (Figure 19) in which the MAG process (shielding gas:
100% CO2) is used to weld together coated and uncoated test pieces (reference specimens) by means
of a fillet weld. Then the specimens are broken and the total pore surface area is measured (the refer-
ence specimens must not exhibit any pores). If the total pore surface area is smaller than 125 mm², the
test according to DASt guideline 006 is regarded as met.


Figure 20: Growth and separation of gas cavities at the
Figure 19: Overlap test piece with restraint for tests
phase interface
according to EN ISO 17 652-2

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4.4.2.2 Welding metallic coated steels
Different situations are to be considered depending on whether welding is carried out prior to or after the
deposition of zinc and aluminium coatings. Welding prior to hot-dip galvanizing or thermal spraying is to
be preferred. After welding, the surface around the weld should be prepared as is required for the entire
structure prior to depositing the corresponding protective coating. Welding should be carried out in such
a way that unequal stresses are avoided in the structure. Slag and other welding residues should be
removed prior to applying the zinc or aluminium coating. The usual preparations for flame spraying are
normally sufficient. Several welding processes leave basic residues that are to be removed by
blasting; this should be followed by washing with clean water prior to applying thermally sprayed
coatings (this does not apply to hot-dip galvanising).
Figure 21: Strong fume and spatter formation during Figure 22: Hot crack phenomenon caused by zinc that
over-welding of zinc layers has intruded into the weld pool
It is recommended that no shop primers should be used because they must be completely removed
prior to hot-dip galvanising or flame spraying. When welding is carried out after hot-dip galvanizing or
thermal spraying, the coating is to be locally removed around the weld prior to welding in order to ensure
a high-quality weld. If the coating is not removed in a sufficient distance to the weld face - 20 to 40 mm
depending on the heat input - one will have to reckon with pore formation, strong spatter and fume
formation (Figure 21) and cracking (Figure 22, see Chapter 2.06). In addition, inhaling zinc fumes may
cause what is referred to as metal fume fever.
After welding, the coating must be locally repaired e.g. by thermal spraying or zinc rich coatings. The
type of repair is to be chosen so that it is compatible with the subsequent coatings. Components that
are composed of dissimilar metals require different surface preparation processes.
In addition to resistance pressure welding, which is commonly used in the sheet metal sector of the
automotive and thin-plate industry, stud shear welding, manual arc welding, TIG welding, plasma
welding and increasingly frequently MAG welding are used, as well as seeing an increasing use of
welding by laser beam in recent times. In contrast with arc processes, this enables higher rates of travel
speed with minimal damage to the zinc layer due to process heat and typically does not require any filler
materials.
The welding speed definitely needs to be reduced compared to non-zinc coated (non galvanized) sheet
metal. The arc deflection (Figure 23) due to the zinc layer can be compensated by using the pulsed
arc technique (see module 1). Along with an optimum torch angle in transverse and especially
longitudinal direction to the weld, also pore formation can be reduced. Using slag producing basic cored
wires reduces spattering compared to solid wires.

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Figure 23: Arc deflection
4.4.2.3 Filler materials for welding metallic coated steels
Especially wire electrodes similar to G2Si1 or G3Si with Ti, Zr or Al fillers are suitable for MAG welding
zinc plated components (according to EN ISO 14 341, see Chapter 2.09). Mixed gases with CO 2 con-
tents of 8 - 18% have proved their worth as shielding gases. Rutile electrodes such as RR and RC types
are preferred (according to EN ISO 2560, see Chapter 2.09) for manual metal arc welding because the
slag solidifies relatively slowly which allows more time for the zinc fume to escape from the weld metal.
In the thin plate area, aside from stainless steels according to EN ISO 3581 or EN ISO 14 343
(types: 29 9, 23 13 2, 23 12 L, see Chapter 2.15), especially wire electrodes on copper base are used for
MIG brazing of seal welds. These include, for example, the types CuSi3Mn1, CuAl7 and
CuAl8Ni2Fe2Mn2 according to EN ISO 24 373 (see Chapter 2.18).
4.5 Surface welds

4.5.1 Overview
Surface welding is the application of a permanently adherent layer onto a workpiece by welding to
protect its surface against
– corrosion (see Chapter 2.14) and erosion and/or

– wear (see section 3)
These protective layers are applied by the liquid phase of the selected filler material. The rate of dilution
is an important quality criterion (see Chapter 2.22) and is primarily determined by:
– the thermal effects of the base material as well as

– the metallurgical reactions between base material, filler materials and auxiliary materials.
A high degree of dilution means a change of the layer composition against the filler material and there-
fore critically influences the properties and resistance of the deposition.
Table 8 provides information on the surface welding processes commonly used now. In contrast to other
processes such as thermal spraying or the rolling and explosive cladding, surface welding has the
following advantages:
– high adhesion between layer and base material (for example for wear protection),
– porosity free and sealed coatings (for example for corrosion protection) and
– economical coating of components with complicated geometries.

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Table 8: Surface welding process according to DIN 1910-100

Term Description
Surface welding with a cladding material that
Surface welding of armouring
should be more wear resistant than the base
(hardfacing)
material
Surface welding with a cladding material that
Surface welding of plating
should be more chemically resistant than the
(weld cladding)
cladding material
Surface welding using a cladding material that
Surface welding of buffer layers
allows for a bond between dissimilar materials that
(buffering)
is suitable for the load
Surface welding using a cladding material with the
Surface welding for moulding
same properties as the base material
4.5.2 Welding of surfacing beads
The surface welding of large-area and thick-walled components is preferably performed via mecha-
nised high speed welding processes (Figure 24, Table 9) which enable the production of thin layers with
low penetration, free of defects, uniform metallurgic bond under industrial production conditions with
high surface output. These include all fusion welding processes, especially the process groups met-
al arc welding, gas-shielded arc welding, SAW and electro-slag welding. Among the resistance
welding processes, resistance roll weld powder surface welding is especially well suited for the
deposition of highly wear-resistant surface welds based on chromium-boron-silicon or comparable alloys.
Due to a residual porosity, this process is, however, less suitable for the creation of corrosion-resistant
protective layers.
Submerged arc
Shielding gas
welding
welding process
welding process
high deposition rates low dilution

Plasma surface welding
Plasma-hot-wire surfac- MIG/MAG surface weld-
with strip-cladding
ing ing
(SAW)
Electroslag surface Plasma MIG surface MIG/MAG tandem sur- TIG hot-wire surface
welding (RES) welding face welding welding
Figure 24: Overview of high speed surface welding processes
Table 9 lists the most important fusion welding processes for cladding and armour welding, including
measures to reduce penetration and typical examples. Figure 25 and Figure 26 contain several technological
options for reducing penetration and thereby reducing dilution (see also the information in module 1).

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Table 9: Overview on the most important surface welding processes

Process Measures to reduce penetration Examples of Application
Smaller cladding works in vessel
Manual metal arc welding Weaving, piggyback method
and valve construction
Corrosion and wear resistant
Application of current pulses, cold
TIG welding surface welding in vessel and
wire feed
valve construction
Corrosion and wear resistant
Application of current pulses, cold
MAG welding surface welding in vessel and
wire feed, weaving
valve construction
Large-scale cladding work in
Negative polarisation, multi-wire weld-
Submerged arc welding vessel, apparatus and valve
ing, weaving, strip welding
construction
Large-scale cladding works in
Electro-slag welding Strip welding
apparatus construction
Since surface welding causes a metallurgical change to the base material, process-related and material
science aspects must be considered before its execution. Answers to questions in this regard are pro-
vided below.
– Is the base material weldable?

– Which welding process is suitable for economic and technical reasons?
– Which filler material is suitable for the existing load?
– Is pre-heating or post-heating required for the base material and/or the filler materials?
– How does the process influence the cost and quality of the deposited weld metal?
Figure 25: Manual metal arc welding Figure 26: TIG surface welding (welding to the left) - low
(piggyback method) dilution due to the weld pool forerun
4.5.3 Weldability of selected base materials
The following information must be noted when assessing the weldability of the base material:
Unalloyed steels and cast steel grades to 0.3% C (magnetic, soft):
– Weldable largely without special precautions

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Alloyed steels and steels over 0.5% C (magnetic, hard):
– Unsuitable for welding (hardening cracking risk)

– Surface welding is possible with prior heating of the workpiece to 200 to 300°C or by apply tough
buffer layers in advance
Hard manganese steel casting and hard manganese steel (non-magnetic):
– Cold weld, cool with water or air

– in complications applications, the application of a preceding buffer layer with type 18 8 6 filler
materials is recommended
unalloyed cast iron, lamellar, globular (magnetic, soft):
– Very poor to no weldability (hardening cracking risk)

– Surface welding is possible with prior application of buffer layers
Chilled-cast iron (magnetic, hard):
– Very poor to no weldability (hardening cracking risk)

– Surface welding can be performed under certain circumstances with appropriate adjustment of energy
per unit length (heat-input) or pre-heating
Austenitic steel and cast steel (non-magnetic, stainless, soft):
– Weldable without special precautions

– Introduce little heat (risk of hot cracking)
Note Before performing surface welding, the area to be welded must be cleaned of any existing
contamination such as dirt and rust using an abrasive disc. It is also important to ensure that the basic
body has no cracks.
4.5.4 Welding consumables for surface welding
The most important and most commonly used welding consumables for surface welding in industrial
practice are standardized in EN 14 700. The field of application of this standard applies to welding
consumables for hardfacing and refers to surfaces of new components, semi-finished products as well
as to repairing or rebuilding of surfaces in components under mechanical, corrosive, thermal or
combined loads. The standard covers the following types of products (Table 10).
Table 10: Symbols for the product form of filler materials for hardfacing
Short character Product form (consumable) Short character Product form (consumable)
E Covered electrode B Solid strip
S Solid wire and solid rod P Metal powder
T Cored wire and cored rod Sintered rod, cored strip and
C
R Cast rod sintered strip
Included are filler materials made of alloyed steel (Fe) as well as nickel, cobalt, copper, aluminium or
chrome alloys. However, unlike the usual practice in European regulations, self-explanatory designations
that contain all the alloying elements that define the properties are not used. Rather, the alloys
designations are assigned by consecutive numbering (Table 12). These can be found in the following
states (Table 11):

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Table 11: States of filler materials for hard depositions

Symbol State Symbol State Symbol State
c stainless n non-magnetisable t heat-resistant
g resistant to sanding p resistant to impact z scale resistant
k work hardenable s cuttable w heat hardened
Table 12: Alloy designations and chemical composition of selected filler materials for surface welding accord-
ing to EN 14 700
Alloy desig- Chemical Composition in mass %
nations C Cr Ni Mn Mo W V Nb Other Base
Fe1 ≤ 0.4 ≤ 3.5 — 0.5 - 3 ≤1 ≤1 ≤1 — — Fe
Fe5 ≤ 0.5 ≤ 0.1 17 - 22 ≤1 3-5 — — — Co, Al Fe
Ni1 ≤1 15 - 30 Balance 0.3 - 1 ≤6 ≤2 ≤1 — Si, Fe, B Ni
Ni3 ≤1 1 - 15 Balance 0.3 - 1 ≤6 ≤2 ≤1 — Si, Fe, B Ni
Co1 ≤ 0.6 20 - 35 ≤ 10 0.1 - 2 ≤ 10 ≤ 15 — ≤1 Fe Co
Co2 0.6 - 3 20 - 35 ≤4 0.1 - 2 — 4 - 10 — — Fe Co
Cu1 — — ≤6 ≤ 15 — — — — Al, Fe, Sn Cu
Al1 10 -35 ≤ 0.5 — — — — Cu, Si Al
Cr 1-5 Balance — ≤1 — — 15 - 30 — Fe,B,Si,Zr Cr
Example designations: - solid wire EN 14 700 S Fe1

- cored wire EN 14 700 T Fe5
Information concerning surface welding for diverse applications and load types is contained in the infor-
mational appendix A of EN 14 700 (largely identical with Guideline DVS 0945, withdrawn).

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5 Question
(1) What does tribology mean?
 It is the science of metalworking machines.

 It is the science of interacting surfaces in relative motion.
 It is the totality of interactions between the atomic lattice components.
 It is all the dependencies in a wear-free alloy system.
 It is the science of non-interacting surfaces.
(2) What is wear?
 Is a progressive loss of material from the surface of a liquid body.

 Is a decreasing loss of material from the surface of a solid body.
 Is a progressive loss of material from the surface of a solid body.
 Is a decreasing loss of material from the surface of a gaseous body.
 It is another designation for the term is “friction”.
(3) Which of the following terms refer to wear mechanisms?
 Adhesion
 Sliding
 Abrasion
 Surface breakup
 Tribochemical reaction
(4) In which wear mechanism does abrasion occur?
 Adhesion
 Sliding
 Abrasion
 Surface breakup
 Tribochemical reaction
(5) In which types of tribosystems can wear loads occur?
 In face-centred-cubic tribosystems.
 In pressurised systems.
 In closed tribosystems.
 In monolithic tribosystems.
 In open tribosystems.

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(6) Which variables define the technical-physical load parameters for a wear process?
 Normal force.
 Lattice structure.
 Speed.
 Temperature.
 Stress length.
(7) What is the difference between armouring and cladding?
 Protective layers against corrosion are called cladding.

 Protective layers against wear are called cladding.
 Protective layers against wear are called armourings.
 Protective layers against corrosion are called armouring.
 There are no obvious differences between armouring and cladding.
(8) Which process can be used to produce linings (internal coatings)?
 Finish welding
 Flood welding
 Shirt linings
 Jacket pockets
 Wallpapering
(9) What problem(s) can be expected when welding over organic shop primers?
 Combustion of coating.
 Formation of hot cracks (type: liquation cracking).
 Formation of lamellar cracks (lamellar tearing).
 Formation of pores in the weld metal.
 Partial splitting of the paint coating into its chemical constituents.
(10) Which are processes for surface welding?
 Hardfacing
 Weld cladding
 Welding-enamelling
 Buffering
 Surface welding for moulding

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6 Bibliography
DIN 50 320:
Wear; terms, systematic analysis of wear processes, classification of wear phenomena.
Ausgabe: 1979-11 (withdrawn)
DIN 50 321:
Verschleiß; Messgrößen (Wear - Quantities).
Ausgabe: 1979-11 (zurückgezogen)
GfT-Arbeitblatt 7:
Tribologie: Definitionen, Begriffe, Prüfung
Gesellschaft für Tribologie, 2002
VDI Guideline 3822 (Part 5):

Schäden durch tribologische Beanspruchungen
Ausgabe: 05-1999
ASTM G65:
Standard Test Method for Measuring Abrasion Using the Dry Sand/Rubber Wheel Apparatus.
Ausgabe: 2010-04
Schuster, J.; Herrmann, J.:

Sonderbaustähle mit erhöhtem Verschleißwiderstand und ihr Verhalten beim Schweißen und Schneiden,
Part 1 and Part 2
Der Praktiker, Düsseldorf, 62 (2010) 12, pp. 478-481
Der Praktiker, Düsseldorf, 63 (2011) 1/2, pp. 28-31
Gräfen, H.;
VDI Lexikon Werkstofftechnik.
Düsseldorf: VDI-Verlag, 1993
Rabinowicz, E.:
Friction and Wear of Materials.
Oxford: John Wiley & Sons, 1995
Popov, V. L.:
Kontaktmechanik und Reibung. Ein Lehr- und Anwendungsbuch von der Nanotribologie bis zur numer-
ischen Simulation.
Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2009
Leaflet 329:
Korrosionsschutz durch Feuerverzinken (Stückverzinken).
Stahl-Informations-Zentrum, Düsseldorf
2009 Edition
N. N.:
Handbuch für das Reparatur- und Instandhaltungsschweißen.
ESAB GmbH Solingen, publication: XA00086830

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Cast irons and steels Page 1
Chapter 2.17: Cast irons and steels
Contents
1 Summary and classification of the materials ................................................................... 2

2 Metallurgical principles ...................................................................................................... 2
3 Cast steel materials............................................................................................................. 5
3.1 Preface ...................................................................................................................................... 5
3.2 Standardisation of the steel casting materials ............................................................................ 6
3.2.1 Cast steel materials for general applications DIN EN 10293 ......................................................... 6
4 Cast iron materials ............................................................................................................ 11
4.1 Overview of the materials......................................................................................................... 11
4.2 Grey cast iron (GJL)................................................................................................................. 11
4.3 Cast iron with spheroidal graphite (GJS) .................................................................................. 12
4.4 Malleable cast iron ................................................................................................................... 14
4.5 Bainitic cast iron....................................................................................................................... 16
4.6 Wear-resistant cast iron ........................................................................................................... 17
4.7 Austenitic cast iron ................................................................................................................... 17
5 Welding processing of cast iron materials ..................................................................... 17
5.1 Weldability of cast iron metals .................................................................................................. 17
5.2 Cast iron welding in standards ................................................................................................. 17

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1 Summary and classification of the materials
This group is distinguished according to steel (< 2.1% C) and cast iron materials (> 2.1% C in the cast
condition).
Following classifications are possible:
 according to the type of solidification

white (system Fe-Fe3C) black (system Fe-graphite)
cast steel grey cast iron
malleable cast iron spheroidal-graphite cast-iron
 or according to the toughness behaviour

Tough Brittle
cast steel grey cast iron
spheroidal-graphite cast-iron malleable cast iron
partially white malleable cast iron
2 Metallurgical principles
It depends on many factors whether the material solidifies black or white. The most important properties
are the chemical analysis and the cooling rate of the melt.
Slow cooling, such as achieved by large mould wall thicknesses or preheating of the mould, acts towards
stable solidification (system Fe-graphite).
A fast cooling has a ledeburite forming effect (system Fe-Fe3C).

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Figure 1: Phase diagram Fe-C (metastable)
Figure 2:
Time temperature crystallisation diagram of
cast irons shows the boundary conditions
for a stable solidification

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Between these two systems also mixed solidification and transformation processes are possible and in
some cases even desirable, e.g. for rolling a hard ledeburitic (white solidified) outer layer with a stable
solidified and ductile core and higher thermal conductivity is desired.
Even so the primary transformation (solidification) to austenite and graphite can be done. Then the
secondary transformation into carbides and perlite can take place. This type is e.g. typical grey cast iron.
The element carbon has the largest influence on the shape of solidification. Silicon is also of great
influence. Both elements have a stabilising effect (graphite-forming). Ni and P, for example, act similar.
The carbide-forming elements like e.g. Cr work toward metastable system.
Influence of silicon on the structure formation of Fe-C casting materials
1560
 +melt
1500
++melt
1440
+ melt
1380
1320
+melt
1260 Melt
+C
Temperature in °C
1200
1140
 +Melt+C
1080
1020
960
+C
900
840 ++C
+
780
720 
650 +C
600
0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 3,0 3,5 4,0

Carbon content in mass-%
Figure 3: Perpendicular section of the ternary-system Fe-C Si with 2.4% silicon
Silicon content [ % ] 0.03 0.93 1.74 2.73 4.68 6.99

Location of the eutectic
4.24 3.90 3.70 3.38 2.79 2.25
concentration (% C)
%C
5,0
ferritic cast
iron
4,0
Grey cast iron
3,0
mottled
ferritic-pearlitic
cast iron
cast iron
2,0
white pearlitic cast
cast iron iron
1,0
0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 % Si
Figure 4: The iron casting diagram according to E. Maurer

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By alloying it is to be considered that the material, as long as a stable microstructure is aimed for, the
material remains hypoeutectic. The eutectic point or also saturation point can be calculated according to
the following formula:
%C
Sc 
4,23  0,31 % Si  0,33  % P  0,40  % S  0,027  % Mn
Sc = 1 eutectic
Sc > 1 graphite and eutectic
Sc < 1 primary austenite and eutectic
3 Cast steel materials
3.1 Preface
Cast steel products are supplied in different alloys. The materials are frequently similar to those of the
rolled and forged products. Compared to these they have often slightly increased C-contents which
improve the casting ability of the material. But there are cast steel products made of materials that
cannot be manufactured by rolling or forging. Cast steel parts have a so-called casting skin, being built in
an oxidic-silicate manner, which gives the material a certain corrosion resistance.
Complicated forms in cast steel are basically manufactured in a cheap way. Another advantage is given
by the independency of strength and toughness values to the direction (quasi-isotropy). This property is
often used, for example in steel construction with junction pieces of tubular structures.
Cast steel materials are generally supplied in the heat-treated state (N or QT), as the cast materials
often do not have sufficient deformation characteristics. The casting ability of cast steels are rather bad
compared with grey cast iron. Therefore cast steel materials show frequently imperfections which then
can be removed by production welding.
In relation to the volume and the way of weld processing, agreements should be made with the client. It
should be noted for which area the component is required.
General and specific technical delivery conditions are comprised in DIN EN 1559 Parts 1 and 2. If a
welding procedure qualification should be required, DIN EN ISO 11970 is to be followed.
The quality levels for castings are specified in the respective test method for non-destructive testing of
steel castings, e.g. DIN EN 1371 Parts 1 and 2 “Liquid Penetrant Testing” or DIN EN 12681
“radiographic examination.”

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Figure 5: Quality grade SP 1 (extract from DIN EN 1371-1:1997-10)
Figure 6: Quality grade SP 5 (extract from DIN EN 1371-1:1997-10)
3.2 Standardisation of the steel casting materials
Cast steel materials are primarily recognised in two classes which are valid for different application are-
as.
3.2.1 Cast steel materials for general applications DIN EN 10293
This standard is valid e.g. for mechanical engineering, vehicle industry, railways, armament, agricultural
machinery, mining industry etc.
It is invalid for pressure vessels at elevated operating temperatures.

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Cast iron and steel casting Seite 7
Table 1: Chemical composition (cast analysis), mass fraction in % (extract from DIN EN 10293:2005-06, correction 2008-09)
Werkstoffe und ihr Verhalten beim

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Cast iron and steel casting Page 8
Table 2: Maximum content for non-defined elements (mass fraction in %) (extract from DIN EN 10293:2005-06)
For the welding fabrication of the materials table A1 gives reference data.
Table 3: Reference data for welding (table A1 from DIN EN 10293:2005-06)
(continued)

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Continuation
3.2.2 Cast steel materials for pressure purposes according to DIN EN 10213
This standard defines the delivery conditions for cast steels products for pressure purposes for general
and for higher temperatures and room temperature applications.
The Appendix of DIN EN 10213 contains information about welding fabrication.

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Table 4: Welding conditions (table A1 from DIN EN 10213:2008-01, the correction 2008-11)

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4 Cast iron materials
4.1 Overview of the materials
Cast iron materials are subdivided into
 cast iron with spheroidal graphite

 grey cast iron
 black malleable cast iron,
 white malleable cast iron.
The listed cast iron types are mostly used as non-alloyed materials.
For special requirements however, e.g. for engine exhaust parts, also low-alloy types (Si Mo) are availa-
ble. For other applications, wear-resistant and austenitic grades are available on the market which are
also standardised. For some time materials are on the market, known as ADI cast materials (Austem-
pered Ductile Iron). These materials are based on a cast iron with spheroidal graphite and have high
strength and toughness properties due to a special multi-stage heat treatment.
4.2 Grey cast iron (GJL)
Grey cast iron is described as a cast iron with lamellar graphite occlusions. The cast iron is regulated in
DIN EN 1561 in the types EN – GJL - 100
- 150
- 250
- 300
- 350.
The strength of the material is thereby dependent on the wall thickness, the graphite contents and graph-
ite distribution. The wall thickness dependence is given by different cooling of the border and core with
the respective microstructure formation (edge perlite, core ferrite).
a) Tensile strength Rm, N/mm2

b) Relevant wall thickness, in mm
NOTE: 1 N/mm2 corresponds to 1 MPa.
Figure 7: Examples of the connection between minimum values of the tensile strength and the rlevant wall
thickness of cast parts of simple shape (from DIN EN 1561:1997-08, Appendix C)

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More particularly prominent properties of these cast iron types are the excellent castability, good thermal
conductivity and excellent vibration absorption.
These properties make the cast iron with lamellar graphite particularly suitable for machine housing and
casings but also for very complex fine shapes.
Unfortunately, the material is relatively brittle and has an elongation at break of up to about 1% only.
4.3 Cast iron with spheroidal graphite (GJS)
Spheroidal graphite cast iron materials have ball-shaped graphite in a ferritic, ferritic-pearlite, pearlitic or
bainitic microstructure matrix. Cast iron with spheroidal graphite is also known as ductile cast iron. The
ball shaped spherical form of graphite is achieved by a special treatment of the poor sulphur containing
melt (e.g. Mg-alloys).
This material finds its application in all areas of technology and especially there whenever, in addition to
the casting properties, higher strength plus toughness properties are required. Cast iron with spheroidal
graphite is also suitable and approved for pressure vessel construction.
Strength and toughness properties are set by the respective matrix microstructure. For this purpose, a
heat treatment may be necessary.
Cast iron with spheroidal graphite is standardised in DIN EN 1563.
The general delivery conditions are given in DIN EN 1559-1 and DIN EN 1559-3. DIN EN 545, 598 and
969 apply for pipes and fittings.
These parts are often produced as centrifugal casting and are used in the field of water and sewer lines,
and gas lines.

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Table 5: Mechanical properties, based on specimens, being made of individual casted and mechanical machined
test pieces (extract from DIN EN 1563:2005-10)

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Table 6: Minimum values of impact energy, measured on samples with V-notch, made from individual casted and
mechanical machined test pieces (extract from DIN EN 1563:2005-10)
4.4 Malleable cast iron
In malleable cast iron a differentiation is made between white and black malleable cast iron. Both casting
types solidify “white” according to the metastable system Fe-Fe3C and receive their different
characteristics by a heat treatment.
Black malleable cast iron is annealed at about 950-1000°C in a neutral furnace atmosphere for approx.
20 h. During this the ledeburite microstructure decomposes into austenite and nodular graphite. By
means of different types of cooling, the matrix microstructure will be set to different strength values.
White malleable cast iron is annealed at 1050°C in an oxidising atmosphere for up to 150 h. This not
only decomposes the ledeburite into graphite and austenite but it also removes carbon by the oxidisation
atmosphere via CO-CO2 reactions. This leads to a pure ferritic edge zone microstructure without
graphite.
For wall thicknesses below 8 mm materials can be manufactured which contain C-contents of 0.3% only
and can therefore be easily welded. Some malleable cast iron types are also appropriate for applications
in the pressure equipment area.

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Table 7: Mechanical properties of decarburised, annealed malleable cast iron (whiteheart malleable cast iron)
(abstract from DIN EN 1562:2006-08)

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Table 8: Mechanical properties of non-decarburised annealed malleable cast iron (blackheart malleable cast
iron) (abstract from DIN EN 1562:2006-08)
4.5 Bainitic cast iron

(ADI) Austempered Ductile cast Iron
ADI materials are high strength and ductile cast irons with nodular graphite which obtain their properties
through a special heat treatment after casting and if necessary after machining. For this reason the cast
part will be austenitised and the austenite will be supercooled to transformation temperatures of 250-400
°C. At this temperature the material transforms into a bainitic-ferritic microstructure of high - strength and
toughness. In this way tensile strengths of 800 to 1400 MPa with elongations of 8 to 1% can be
achieved.
The following materials are standardised in DIN EN 1564:
EN-GJS -800-8
-1000-5
-1200-2
-1400-1
The materials are not suitable for welding.

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4.6 Wear-resistant cast iron
The wear-resistant cast iron types are usually alloyed cast irons which are solidified into the metastable
system. These types are marked according to their hardness e.g.:
GJN – HV 350
GJN – HV 600.
The types are standardised in DIN EN 12513.
4.7 Austenitic cast iron
In the austenitic grades of cast iron there are varieties of lamellar graphite and spheroidal (nodular)
graphite The nodular types outweigh the lamellar ones. These types have an austenitic microstructure
with the respective graphite structure. Main alloying element is nickel (12 – 35%). Beside nickel there are
Cr, Mn, Cu and Si as alloying elements. The carbon content is between 2 and 3% and is present as
graphite.
The materials are standardised in DIN EN 13835.
5 Welding processing of cast iron materials
5.1 Weldability of cast iron metals
For a long time cast iron metals were considered as being not suitable for welding. Nowadays cast iron
metals have a limited weldability and can be mastered with suitable process technology. This is valid for
cast iron with lamellar graphite, for cast iron with spheroidal (nodular) graphite and for malleable cast
iron.
Essential variables to the weldability of cast iron types are:
 high C-content
 embrittlement and low elongation after fracture
 the risk of cracking by residual stresses
 low melting point
 thin melt
 high contents of P and S.
These counteracting properties towards the weldability have been overvalued for a long time and led to a
negative evaluation of the weldability of cast iron.
Over the last three decades however procedures were developed, with which the welding of cast irons is
well controllable today. In the meantime these procedures found also input into standardisation work. All
of this, together with the actual application of processes/procedures in many foundries, shows that the
welding of cast iron is possible today.
5.2 Cast iron welding in standards
The welding of cast irons is covered in the following standards:
DIN EN ISO 1071

Filler materials  Welding consumables - Covered electrodes, wires, rods and tubular cored electrodes
for fusion welding of cast iron - Classification

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DIN EN 1011-8
Welding - Recommendations for welding of metallic materials - Part 8: Welding of cast irons
DIN EN ISO 15614-3

Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials - Welding procedure test -
Part 3: Fusion welding of non-alloyed and low-alloyed cast irons
A further standard for qualification of the welder is currently in progress.
5.3 procedures during fusion welding of cast iron metals
Welding of cast parts is distinguished according to the type and the objective of welding.
Figure 8: Objective of welding

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The welding procedure processing is distinguished between homogeneous filler metal welding and non-
homogeneous filler metal welding. Semi-homogeneous filler metal welding is less common.
Figure 9: Techniques for welding of cast iron metals
Homogeneous type welding takes place at high pre-heating temperature of approx. 600°C with filler ma-
terials which results in a homogeneous-type weld metal. With a proper execution these welds show a
base-material like material behaviour. Non-homogeneous type welding is carried out without pre-heating
or with low pre-heating and usually with NiFe or Ni filler materials. The welds have different properties in
comparison to the base material.
Whereas homogeneous type welding is mainly used for larger welding in the area of the production and
repairing, non-homogeneous type welding is used for smaller welding and also for construction welds.
Table 9: Welding of cast iron castings with homogeneous or semi-homogeneous type filler metal
(abstract from DIN EN 1011-8:2005-02)
(continued)

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Table 9 Continuation.
Table 10: Filler materials with non-homogeneous weld metal EN ISO 1071
short term 1) 1)
E = manual arc welding
Type of alloy Welding process
EN ISO 1071 T = cored-wire electrode
2)
FeC-1 lamellar graphite, GJL O, E O = gas welding
3) 2)
FeC-2 lamellar graphite, GJL E, T with electrode core rod of cast iron
3)
FeC-GF ferritic, GJS E, T with electrode core rod of steel
FeC-GP pearlitic, GJS E, T
Table 11: Welding of cast iron castings with non-homogeneous filler metal
(abstract from DIN EN 1011-8:2005-02)

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Figure 10: Casting defects on an engine block from GJS 500-10 (Plant picture Caspar Hahn)
Figure 11: Weld location after installing into the oven

Pre-heating of the component to approx. 300°C
Welding area approx. 600-650°C (Plant picture Caspar Hahn)

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Figure 12:
Manual metal arc welding of an engine block in
the furnace at approx. 600°C preheat
Filler metal: homogeneous-type casting bar 16
mm
(Plant picture Caspar Hahn)
Figure 13:
Welding of cast iron on a 53 t 9-cylinder
crankcase made from GJS-450-10U, 10 m high
with homogeneous-type filler metal as flux-cored
wire welding
(Plant picture Siempelkamp Gießerei GmbH)

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Figure 14:
Welding of cast iron on a 53 t 9 cylinder
crankcase made from GJS-450-10U, 10 m high
with homogeneous-type filler metal as GMAW
flux-cored wire welding
(Werksfoto Siempelkamp Gießerei GmbH)
Figure 15: Engine block, passenger car GJL 250

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Figure 16: TIG welding Ni filler material 100°C pre-heating at a coupling made of GJL 250
Figure 17: TIG welding Ni filler material 100°C pre-heating at a coupling made of GJL 250

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Copper and copper alloys Page 1
Chapter 2.18: Copper and copper alloys
Contents
1 Preliminary considerations ................................................................................................ 2

2 Definitions ............................................................................................................................ 3
3 Classification according to ISO/TR 15608 ......................................................................... 3
4 Standards for copper materials ......................................................................................... 4
4.1 Selected standards for copper and copper alloys .............................................................................. 4
4.2 Designation codes for copper alloys ..................................................................................................... 5
5 Introduction to the metallurgy of copper materials.......................................................... 7
5.1 Description of the base metal ................................................................................................................ 7
5.2 Selected physical and mechanical properties ..................................................................................... 7
5.3 Production of copper ............................................................................................................................... 7
5.4 Deoxidation und Weldability ................................................................................................................... 8
5.4.1 Hydrogen embrittlement .............................................................................................................. 8
5.4.2 Measures to prevent hydrogen embrittlement.......................................................................... 9
6 Overview of copper materials .......................................................................................... 10
6.1 Technical pure copper........................................................................................................................... 10
6.2 Micro-alloy copper ................................................................................................................................. 11
6.3 Alloyed Copper ....................................................................................................................................... 11
6.3.1 Overview ...................................................................................................................................... 11
6.3.2 (Low) alloyed copper .................................................................................................................. 12
6.3.3 (High) alloyed copper ................................................................................................................. 12
7 Thermal joining of Copper and copper alloys ................................................................ 16
7.1 Applicable joining processes (selection) ............................................................................................ 16
7.2 Filler metals and auxiliary materials for welding and brazing/soldering ........................................ 16
7.3 Shielding- and purging gas, auxiliary materials ................................................................................ 17
7.4 Weldability of copper and copper alloys ............................................................................................. 18
7.4.1 Technical pure copper ............................................................................................................... 18
7.4.2 Copper alloys .............................................................................................................................. 18
7.4.3 Recommendations for filler material selection ....................................................................... 19
7.5 Guidelines for quality assurance during thermal joining .................................................................. 19
8 Questions........................................................................................................................... 20
9 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 22

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1 Preliminary considerations
Copper is one of metals which has already been used practically by mankind in the earliest stages of its
civilisation. As it is found in nature both as pure, solid element and as a compound with other metals, our
ancestors became aware of this red-shining metal. It appears interesting that it was not the pure material
that actually was being used at that time, but an alloy of copper and tin. This alloy is now known as
bronze (tin bronze) and possessed far better mechanical and technological properties than pure copper.
Thus, until the introduction of iron tin bronze was the most important metal, which gave a whole culture
period a name; the Bronze Age (approx. 2,300 to 720 BC). First findings of bronze objects originated
from the Sumerian Royal Tombs of Ur on the Euphrates around 3,000 BC. Also in China copper alloys
(tin bronzes) have been known since 2,200 BC and in Central Europe one assumes the period of bronze
Processing started around 2,500 BC. A magnific example of this is the Nebra sky disk (figure 1).
Figure 1: Nebra Sky Disk around 1,600 BC (picture: Figure 2: coppercable for electrotechnic
S.Habermann, Wikimedia) (picture: SLV Service GmbH)
At the present time copper and its alloys are used mainly because of three important properties of the
base element. These are:
– the excellent electric properties,

– very good heat conductivity and
– Increased resistance to corrosion
Depending on the application, field of application and requirements both pure and purest copper but also
as an alloy with other elements are being used. Among these alloying elements belong among others:
Tin, zinc, nickel, the lead, manganese, aluminium, and more.
Nowadays copper and copper alloys found their application, for example, as current-carriers in the elec-
tro industry, as brew kettle in apparatus construction, as pipelines, as fittings in the installation technik
and as roof covering in the building industry

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2 Definitions
Brass
Alloys with copper as main basic element and zinc as second important alloying element are defined as
Brass. In dependency of the required properties brasses can contain, next to zinc, also additional alloy-
ing elements in limited percentages.
Bronze
Alloys with minimal 60% copper are defined as bronze as far as they are not classified into the brasses.
In this way alloys of copper with tin are defined as tin-bronze, with aluminium as aluminium-bronze, with
nickel as nickel-bronze, with manganese as manganese- bronze, with silicon as silicon-bronze, with be-
ryllium as beryllium-bronze, among others.
3 Classification according to ISO/TR 15608
For welding, copper and copper alloys are classified according ISO/TR 15608 into groups and sub-
groups which are shown in table 1 together with some alloy examples.
Table 1: Group classification according to ISO/TR 15608

Material Standards
Group Sub-group Materials
(examples)
31 Copper with up to 6 % Ag and 3 % Fe EN 13 601

(CuAg0,10)
Messinge
32.1 Copper-Zinc-Alloys, Binary alloys EN 1652
(CuZn36)
32
32.2 Copper-Zinc-Alloys, Multiple element alloys EN 1652
(CuZn38Pb2)
Tin-Bronze
33 Copper-Tin-Alloys EN 1652
(CuSn8)
Nickel-Bronze
34 Copper-Nickel-Alloys EN 1652
(CuNi25)
Aluminium-Bronze
35 Copper-Aluminium-Alloys EN 1652
(CuAl8Fe3)
Neusilber
36 Copper-Nickel-Zinc-Alloys EN 1652
(CuNi18Zn20)
Copper-Alloys, low alloyed (less as 5 % other alloying

37 elements), as far as they are not defined in the groups 31 EN 1652
(CuBe2)
and 36
Other Copper-Alloys (5 % or more of other alloying ele-

No European standar-
38 ments), as far as they are not defined in the groups 31
isation
and 36

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4 Standards for copper materials

4.1 Selected standards for copper and copper alloys
CEN /TS 13388 contains an overview of the standardised materials, their compositions, available prod-
uct shapes of copper and copper alloys as well as suitable filler- and soldering materials in Europe.
CEN/TS 13388: Copper and copper alloys - Compendium of compositions and products
In the national appendix of this standard a comparison can be extracted between the European and the
so far actual defined base material abbreviations and numbering acc. to the DIN standards. Selected
product shapes of copper and copper alloys are given in table 2 to table 5.
Table 2: selected standards for copper and copper alloys - flat rolled products
Standard Title
EN 1172 Sheets and strips for building industry
EN 1652 Plate, sheet, strip and circles for general purposes
EN 1653 Plate, sheet and circles for boilers, pressure vessels and hot water storage units
EN 1654 Strip for springs and connectors
EN 13 599 Copper plate, sheet and strip for electrical purposes
Table 3: selected standards for copper and copper alloys - tubes

Standard Titlel
EN 1057 Seamless, round copper tubes for water and gas in sanitary and heating applications
EN 12 449 Seamless, round tubes for general purposes
EN 12 451 Seamless, round tubes for heat exchangers
EN 12 452 Rolled, finned, seamless tubes for heat exchangers
EN 12 735-1/2 Seamless, round copper tubes for air conditioning and refrigeration
EN 13 600 Seamless copper tubes for electrical purposes
Table 4: selected standards for copper and copper alloys – rods, profiles, wires
Standard Title
EN 12 163 Rod for general purposes
EN 12 164 Rod for free machining purposes
EN 12 166 Wire for general purposes
EN 12 167 Profiles and bars for general purposes
EN 12 168 Hollow rod for free machining purposes
EN 13 601 Copper rod, bar and wire for general electrical purposes
EN 13 602 Drawn, round copper wire for the manufacture of electrical conductors
EN 13 605 Copper profiles and profiled wire for electrical purposes
Table 5: selected standards for copper and copper alloys – Wrought and forgings
Standard Title
EN 12 165 Wrought and unwrought forging stock
EN 12 420 Forgings

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4.2 Designation codes for copper alloys
The international uniform code of base material abbreviation designation for copper and copper alloys
is defined in ISO 1190-1 (table 6 and table 7) In Europe an additionally designation (table 8 to table
10) according to EN 1173 is added to this ISO 1190-1 code. Similar to steel base materials copper base
materials can be designated by a numerical code. The setting of these base material codes follows EN
1412 (table 11)
Table 6: designation of copper and copper alloys according to ISO 1190-1 (selection)
Kurzname nach
Beschreibung
ISO 1190-1
Cu-OFE Oxygen Free Electronic Copper
Cu-PHCE Phosphorus Deoxidized High Conductivity Electronic Copper
Cu-PHC Phosphorus Deoxidized High Conductivity Copper
Cu-HCP High Conductivity Phosphorus Deoxidized Copper
Cu-DXP Deoxidized Phosphorus Copper
Cu-DLP Phosphorus-Deoxidized Copper (Low Residual Phosporus)
Cu-ETP Electrolytic Tough-Pitch Copper
Cu-FRHC Fire-Refined Tough-Pitch High-Conductivity Copper
Cu-FRTP Fire-Refined Tough-Pitch Copper
Table 7: designation of common copper and copper alloys according to ISO 1190-1 (selection)
Kurzname nach Numerisch
Beschreibung
ISO 1190-1 nach EN 1412
Elektrolytisch raffiniertes sauerstoffhaltiges Cu;
Cu-ETP CW004A
Cu: ≥ 99,90 %; O: 0,005 - 0,040 %
Desoxidiertes Cu mit niedrigen Rest-P-Content;
Cu-DLP CW023A
Cu: ≥ 99,90 %; P: 0,005 - 0,014 %
Desoxidiertes Cu mit hohem Rest-P-Content;
Cu-DHP CW024A
Cu ≥ 99,90 %; P: 0,15 - 0,040 %
Hochreines, desoxidiertes Cu mit niedrigem Rest-P-Content;
Cu-HCP CW021A
Cu ≥ 99,95 %; P: 0,002 - 0,070 %
Hochreines, nicht desoxidiertes Copper;
Cu-OFE CW009A
Cu ≥ 99,99 %
Table 1: Designation of copper materials – EN 1173 (Material condition)

… - 1 2 3 4 5 6 - …
X n n n (n) (S)
Additional designation according
mum value of the
treatment - Suffix
Three digit num-
prescribed prop-
binding property
ber for designa-
tion of the mini-
Additional number, if
Typical binding
scribes the property.
Stress-relieve
4-digit number de-
Respectively
Material designation
Number of product -
property
product standard
erties
„S“.
Hyphen
Hyphen
instead
Exception: properties D and M
of 5 or 6
R 3 2 0 S
Delivery state re-
Rm 320 N/mm²
lieved

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Table 9: Designation of copper materials according to EN 1173 (symbols for material condition)
Letter acc. to
Description of typical property
EN 1173
A Elongation after fracture
B Spring bending limit
D Drawn, without defined mechanical – technological properties
G Grain size
H Hardness (Brinell or Vickers)
M As manufactured, without defined mechanical – technological properties
R Tensile strength
Y 0,2 %-yield strength
Table 10: Designation of copper materials according to EN 1173 (symbols for material condition)
Designation example Code Description
Tube EN 13600 - Cu-ETP - D - … D = drawn
Strip EN 1652 - CuZn37 - G020 - … G020 = grain size
Sheet EN 1652 - CuZn37 - H150 - … H150 = Hardness
Rod EN 12164 - CuZn39Pb3 - R500 - R500 = tensile strength
Wire EN 13602 - Cu-OF - A007 - … A007 = elongation after fracture
Strip EN 1654 - CuZn30 - Y460 - ... Y460 = 0,2 % yield strength
Hollow rod EN 12168 - CuZn36Pb3 - M - … M = as manufactured
Strip EN 1654 - CuSn8 - B410 - ... B410 = spring bending limit
Tube EN 12452 - CuZn20Al2As - R340S R340S = material condition stress-relieved
Table 11: Designation of copper materials according to EN 1412

lfd. Designation Code Description
1 Description acc.to ISO/TR 7003 C Copper material
B Material in block shape
W Wrought material
F Filler metal, brazing filler metal
C Base materials as casting products
2 Type of Material
S Scrap
M Pre-alloy
R Refined copper in blank shapes
X Not standardised
3
4 Continuous three digit number (determined by CEN/TC 133) – 000 to 999
(000 to 799: standardised materials; 800 to 999: non-standardised materials)
5
A or B Copper
C or D Low alloyed Copper alloys (LE < 5 %)
E or F Copper special alloys (LE ≥ 5 %)
G Copper-Aluminium-Alloys
H Copper-Nickel-Alloys
6 Material group
J Copper-Nickel-Zinc-Alloys
K Copper-Tin-Alloys
L or M Copper-Zinc-Alloys, two element alloys
N or P Copper-Zinc-Lead-Alloys
R or S Copper-Zinc-Alloys, multi element alloys

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5 Introduction to the metallurgy of copper materials

5.1 Description of the base metal
Copper is a transition metal (chemical element, contains an incomplete d-shell).

The Latin name cuprum originates from aes cyprium (ore from isle of Cyprus) where copper was mined
in ancient times. The pure element is relatively soft, malleable and ductile. It exhibits a very high thermal
and electrical conductivity (table 12). The element has a cubic face centred (cfc) lattice and is diamag-
netic.
5.2 Selected physical and mechanical properties
Atomic Electro-
29 1,9
number negativity
Symbol Cu Appearance of
pure element:
Name Copper (Picture. Wikimedia)
relative Atomic weight 63,54
Electron configuration 2-8-18-1
Tabelle 2: Properties of copper (relatively) compared to iron

100 %
150 %
200 %
250 %
300 %
350 %
400 %
450 %
500 %
50 %
Property Value
(rel. Value)
Property relatively to iron (iron = 100%)
8,92
Density [g/cm³]
113 %
Electric conductivity [A/(V · m) · 10 ]

6 59,1
591 %
Thermal conductivity [W/(m · K)] 401

500 %
Thermal expansion coefficient [10 /K]

-6 11,8
140 %
Melting point (°C): 1.083

71 %
2.567
Boiling point (°C):
80 %
5.3 Production of copper
The copper content of the earth’s crust is about 0,0068 %. It exists as a pure, native metal (solid) but
also as ore (mineral compound). The two most important copper ores are chalkopyrit (CuFeS2) and
chalkosin (Cu2S). Furthermore the sulphide mineral bornit (Cu5FeS4), the oxide minerals malachit
(Cu2[(OH)2|CO3]), azurit (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2 and cuprit (Cu2O) are found. As the copper content of the ores
is about 0,3 to 1 % these ore minerals have to prepared and concentrated before the metallurgical pro-
cessing starts.
The raw copper which is being manufactured out of the sulphide ores (in particular from Chalkopyrit
after melting extraction (Figure 3, left) followed by fire- (Figure 3, middlle) and electro-refining) and out of

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the oxide ores (by reduction refining) is processed generally into copper cathodes (Figure 3, right). Dur-
ing this processing the copper is being purified in the melting phase and or during the electro refining.
During the several processing sequences the intermediate products are in contact with oxygen, e.g.
forced-air-supply (sulphide ores) or contain already an elevated oxygen content (oxide-ores). This oxy-
gen has to be reduced significantly; otherwise the application and processing properties are highly
negatively influenced (cf section 5.4).
Figure 1: Overview of the manufacturing of copper (Source: DKI)
5.4 Deoxidation und Weldability

5.4.1 Hydrogen embrittlement
Copper does not contain oxygen as a pure element but as a chemical compound Cu2O (Copper ox-
idde). In melted copper oxide is fully dissolved but in the solid phase, due to its insolubility, it precipi-
tates along the grain border and to the inner-grain (see figure 4). These precipitations generate an
undesirable embrittlement of the copper.
Note: if the oxygen content in copper elevates over 0,1% the metal cannot be cold-worked anymore. It
could e.g. during bending show a brittle fracturing.
Not only affects (too) high oxygen contents in copper the cold-work- and ductility properties but it also
influences the hydrogen embrittelement effect in a negative way. This material damage can occur
preferentially during the autogenous cutting and welding of copper. The released hydrogen from the oxi-
dation (burning) of the acetylene (C2H2) diffuses into the metal or respectively has already been diffused
into the molten metal and combines with the oxygen of the copper oxide (Cu2O) into water vapour.
Driven by the high temperatures the water vapour tries to expand and causes a destruction of the mate-
rial microstructure due the increasing internal (vapour) pressure. This leads to cracking (see figure 5)
The formation of water respectively water vapour during welding of oxygen containing copper microstruc-
tures is given by the following reaction equation:
Cu2O + H2 = 2 Cu + H2O

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Oxy-fuel torch with

1140 flame
H2-entry
1130
H2O vapour
1120 Start of the
Temperature in °C
precipitation of
copper-oxide
1110 Start of the
precipitation of
copper
1100
1090
1080
1070
1065
1060 3,4 % Cu2O Cu2O
Oxygen containing Microstructure

weld pool cracking
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Cu2O content in %
Figure 4: Binary phase diagram copper copper-oxide (Cu- Figure 5: Schematic representation of the hydrogen
Cu2O) embrittlement.
5.4.2 Measures to prevent hydrogen embrittlement
Nowadays different technological processes are used to improve the resistance of copper against the hy-
drogen embrittlement. Their aim is to reduce the oxygen content (deoxidation) of copper during the metal-
lurgical manufacturing process.
“Poles”
 Deoxidation of the molten copper with natural gas, propane, ammonia, reforming gas o.ä.
 Attainable oxygen content between 0,02 and 0,04%
Deoxidation of the molten copper with phosphor or lithium
 Phosphorous deoxidation causes an impurity of copper having this element, whereby its electrical
and thermal conductivity is reduced.
 Attainable oxygen content < 0,02%
Electrolyse
 Electrolytic dissolving and cathodic separation of copper, separation of impurities like Cu2O in
electrolytic bath as so called cathodic sludge
Vacuum Remelting
 Oxygen is separated due to lower partial pressure via vacuum pumping
 Highest purities in the ppm area achievable.

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6 Overview of copper materials

6.1 Technical pure copper
Technical pure copper can contain, depending on the manufacturing process, either oxygen or no oxy-
gen (oxygen-free). An example of a composition is shown in figure 6
Technical pure copper
oxygen containing Copper Oxygen-free Copper
Not deoxidised Phosphor deoxidised
Electrolytic und fire refined, oxy-

Oxygen-free and free from Deoxidised, with several high
gen containing (< 0,1 %)
de-oxidation parts contents of residual phosphor
(“poles” Copper)
Cu-content:  99,90 % Cu-content:  99,95 % Cu-content:  99,90 %
O-Content: 0,005 – 0,040 % more: — P-content: 0,003 – 0,040 %
(DIN-types) EN-Types (DIN-Types) EN-Types (DIN-Types) EN-Types
(E1-Cu58) Cu-ETP — Cu-OF1 (SE-Cu) Cu-HCP
(E2-Cu58) Cu-FRHC (OF-Cu) Cu-OF (SW-Cu) Cu-DLP
(F-Cu) Cu-FRTP — Cu-OFE (SF-Cu) Cu-DHP
Figure 2: Overviewu of technical pure copper according to CEN/TS 13 388 and DIN 1787 (withdrawn)
As shown in figure 7, even small amounts of phosphor negatively influence the electrical (and therefore
also the thermal) conductivity of technical pure copper. For this reason phosphor deoxidised copper is
less suitable for electrical carriers but for its weldability it is more positive because of the decreased
thermal conductivity which enables a lower required heat-input for melting.
In contrast to this Cadmium (Cd) has nearly no influence on the thermal and electrical conductivity. Even
so, small amounts of impurities (e.g. S- and Bi-precipitations) do have negative influences to the fracture
reduction-area of technical pure copper in the temperature range between 300 and 420°C (Hot Embrit-
tlement, figure 8)
42 2,4
P Fe Co Si Cu 99,90 %
1000 100
Yield strength and tensile strength in N/mm²
Fracture elongation and area reduction in %

900 90
2,3 As
44 Technical 800 80
Cr pure copper
Conductivity in Sm/mm²
2,2
70
Spec. Resistivity in µ cm
46
Be
700 Z
2,1 600 60
48 Mn
500 50
50 2,0
Sb
40
Al
400 A10
52
1,9 Cu 99,25 % 300 30
54 Sn
Ni Rm
1,8 Technical 200 20
56 Pb Re
Ag copper with
10
58 Zn impurities 100
1,7
60
Cd 0 0
20 100 200 300 400 500 600
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1
Temperature in °C
Impurities in weight %
-%
Figure 3: Technical pure Copper – electrical conductivi- Figure 4: Technical pure Copper – mechanical proper-
ty and impurities ties and impurities as f(T)
Soft wrought copper (hot rolled or forged copper) has a minimal tensile strength Rm of 200 N/mm² and a
fracture eleongation of more than 40%. With increasing cold-working the tensile strength of pure copper
can be increased to values above 400 N/mm² and the hardness Brinell (HB) from 50 to over 100, how-
ever the elongations properties do decrease strongly.

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6.2 Micro-alloy copper
The intermediate stage between the technical pure copper and the low alloyed copper is called the mi-
cro-alloy copper, containing very limited amounts of added elements. By adding specific elements to a
maximum content of 1% the:
– Tensile strength,
– Heat resistance,
– Strain hardening and
– Corrosion resistance
of technical pure copper can be improved (cf. Section 6.1) without a significant worsening of the electri-
cal and thermal properties. These alloys include in particular:
– Magnesium copper (e.g. CuMg0,7),

– Silicon copper (e.g. CuSi1),
– Nickel-Silicon-Copper (e.g. CuNi1Si).
In this context the magnesium micro-alloy copper alloys of types CuMg0,4 and CuMg0,7 are applied in
electrical carrier and connection wires, cable harnesses, connector pins, telecommunication cables,
track cables and high speed train track cables. Cadmium copper, being used in earlier days, is not any-
more applied due to health safety reasons.
6.3 Alloyed Copper

6.3.1 Overview
Figure 9 shows the percentage distribution of copper alloys manufactured in Germany.

Brasses (= copper-zinc) alloys are the most manufactured ones followed with great distance by the tin-
bronze alloys (cf. section 6.3.3.2). The so called “red bronze” (=copper-tin-zinc-lead-alloys) is, depending
on its chemical composition, either classified into messing or into bronze. Bronze with tin contents of
20% are known as “bell-bronze”.
Nickel silver Cu-Ni other copper alloys Brasses Copper-Nickel- („Nickelbronze“, cf. section
~2% ~3% ~ 11 % ~ 70 %
6.3.3.5) and Copper-Nickel-Zinc-Alloys, the
so called “Nickel silver“, are clearly less
present.
To the “other copper alloys” belong, e.g.
the (low) alloyed materials (cf. section
6.3.2) and the copper-aluminium-alloys
(“aluminium bronze”, cf. section 6.3.3.4).
Into this part also the several soldering
(tin-)Bronze materials (cf. section 7.2) and the copper-
~ 14 %
silver alloys are included.
Figure 5: Percentage distribution of copper alloys manufactured
in Germany (Source:DKI)

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6.3.2 (Low) alloyed copper
The total percentage of alloying elements, next to copper, for achieving specific properties in (low) al-
loyed copper materials is less than 5%. A selection of such material is given in figure 10.
(low) alloyed Copper
Non hardenable Cu- wrought alloys Warm hardenable Cu- wrought alloys
Mechanical properties (hardness) are present Mechanical properties (hardness) must be attained
without any additional heat treatment by heat treatment (artificial ageing)
Cu-As-P- Al- Cu-Ni-Si-
Cu-Si-Alloys Cu-Mn-Alloys Cu-Be-Alloys Cu-Cr-Alloys
loys Alloys
Silizium- Manganese- Beryllium-

— Nickel-Bronze —
Bronze Bronze Bronze
CuSi3Mn1 (CuMn2) (CuAsP) CuBe2 CuNi2Si CuCr1
Figure 10: (low) alloyed Cu-materials (selection)
6.3.3 (High) alloyed copper

6.3.3.1 Overview
(High) Alloyed copper is classified, independent of the present alloying system (Cu-Sn, Cu-Zn, Cu-Al,
Cu-Ni among others), according to the number of alloying elements and/or to the formation of the
microstructure (see figure 11).
Furthermore the materials can be available as wrought (rolled or forged), as casting and as precipita-
tion alloys (“mechanically” alloyed, see chapter 2.19).
Classification of (high) alloyed copper material
Acc. to number of alloying elements Acc. to formation of microstructure
binary Multiple- homogeneous heterogeneous

Alloys alloys Alloys Alloys
The microstructure of The microstructure of the
Alloy contains, besides
Alloy contains, besides the alloy contains only alloy contains multiple
Cu and the main alloy-
Cu, just only one main one phase phases
ing element, multiple
alloying element (solid solution) (solid solution)
alloying elements
e.g.. -Phase e.g. +2-Phase
Microstructure for-
Alloy corresponds to Alloy does not corre- Microstructure formation
mation depends on the
the present binary spond to the present depends on the number
number of alloying ele-
system binary of alloying elements.
ments.
CuNi25 CuAl9Ni3Fe2 CuZn28Sn1As CuZn40
Figure 6: General classification of (high) alloyed copper materials

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6.3.3.2 Copper-Tin-Alloys (Tin bronze)
Tin bronze comprises alloys of copper with tin as main alloying element (binary system Cu-Sn in figure
12). Their designation as (tin-)bronze is likely derived from the Persian word “birindsch” (copper).
Characteristic material properties are the high strength, deformability, ability for strain hardening, corro-
sion resistance and the sliding properties. The usual copper-tin forged alloys contain, next to copper,
up to 8,5% tin. Widely used are the alloys CuSn6 (CW452K) and CuSn8 (CW453K). Both materials can
be joined by welding with a similar filler metal without any difficulty.
Copper tin casting alloys are often used as bearing bushes in mechanical engineering (see figure 13).
Their high affinity for micro-segregation during solidification is being used for this reason. The remaining
porosities are used in a practical way as lubricating depots. For this reason weld repair is only limited.
For deoxidising these alloys phosphor is added which can be included as an element (0,1 to 0,4%P) into
the material designation. Some alloys contain, next to tin, also zinc.
The filler metals for copper and copper alloys as well as brazing/soldering filler metals of copper tin al-
loys can contain up to 13% Sn (see section 7.2)
Figure 12: Binary system Cu-Sn acc.to MASSALSKI Figure 13: CuSn12Ni2-C-GZ with oxides
6.3.3.3 Copper-Zinc-Alloys (Brasses)
Brasses are alloys of copper with the element zinc (Zn). They represent with approximately 70% the
main part of the copper materials (see figure 9). Their characteristic properties are high strength, de-
formability, ability for strain hardening, corssoision resistance und their sliding properties. They are ap-
plied in, e.g. mountings and coin metal. The usual copper-zinc-alloys contain, whether it is a casting or a
wrought alloy, next to copper 5 to 45% zinc (binary system Cu-Zn-system in figure 14). For improving the
machinability (cutting) these materials can contain some quantities of lead (Pb). Multiple alloys (special
brasses) contain additionally elements of aluminium, iron, manganese, nickel, silicon and/or tin which
mainly serve to improve the tensile strength, the sliding- and corrosion resistance properties. Along
with their good corrosion resistance these alloys are also applied for their good cold-work ability.
The colour of brass is mainly determined by the zinc content. With zinc contents <20% it is brownish to
brownish-red. With contents of >36% it will become light-yellow to white-yellow. Typical casting alloys
are the “yellow-” and “red-brass” with lead as an additional alloying element.

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Zinc dissolves up to 30% into copper as a solid solution (figure 14). These solid solution alloys are des-
ignated as -brass (cubic-face-centred). With increasing zinc content the tensile strength and the yield
strength of the -brass increases. At content levels over 30% β-brass (cubic base centred) develops. At
high temperatures the β-phase consist solid solutions but at lower temperatures however the very brittle
intermetallic phase CuZn exists. Due to its too high embrittlement and thus technically unusable -phase,
contains the intermetallic compound Cu5Zn8.
Most of the copper zinc alloys are not or limited suitable for welding. On the on hand the low evaporating
temperature of zinc (907°C) and on the other hand the lead content of up to 3% (figure 15) can lead to
hot cracking. A weldable brass alloy is CuZn20Al2As (CW702R) which in particular is applied as heat
exchanger tubes in seawater coolers.
Temperature in °C
Zn weight - %
Figure 7: Binary system Cu-Zn acc.to MASSALSKI Figure 8: CuZn37Mn3Al2PbSi witht Pb-particles
6.3.3.4 Copper-Aluminium-Alloys (Aluminium bronze)
Copper-Aluminium-Alloys (so called Aluminium bronze) exhibit a very high seawater resistance. Due
to this applications arise for seawater desalination plants, seawater heat exchangers, pump impellers
and housings for seawater, among others. Multiple alloyed aluminium bronze (next to Cu and Al also
Fe, Ni and/orMn) do have a very good wear resistance against cavitation- and erosion corrosion. Con-
nection to steel they exhibit a very favourable friction value (cf chapter 2.16). For this reason for ex-
ample aluminium bronze is being surfaced on to quenched and tempered materials in mechanical engi-
neering applications. Under unfavourable conditions in connection with steel however it could lead to hot
cracking. It is also to be noticed that steel has a lower density and will float in the weld pool. A possible
result of this is that local, too high hardness of these embedded iron particles results in fretting (wear).
Aluminium bronzes contain 5 to 11% aluminium. Often they are additionally alloyed with the elements
Fe, Ni and if applicable with Mn. The most technically applied wrought alloys are CuAl8Fe3 (CW303G)
and CuAl9Ni3Fe2 (CW304G). As a casting material for example the alloy CuAl10Fe2-C (CC331G) is
being applied (see figure 17).
The TIG- and MIG weld processes are mainly are used for welding purposes while hot cracking can
occur as it can happen with all other copper alloys (cf chapter 2.06). Compared to pure copper, due to
the significant lower heat conductivity preheating is normally not necessary (considering wall thickness)

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Figure 16: Binary system Al-Cu acc.to MASSALSKI Figure 9: CuAl10Fe2-C
6.3.3.5 Copper-Nickel-Alloys (Nickel bronze)
Similar to aluminium bronze the copper nickel alloys have a high corrosion resistance against sea-
water and therefore a similar application area (see section 6.3.3.4). Based upon the formation of an on-
going number of homogeneous solid solutions, the nickel bronzes can contain up to 50% Ni (see figure
16). Depending on the composition colours from reddish to gold-yellow and silver to greenish are possi-
ble. Common applied materials are CuNi10Fe1Mn (Figure 19) and CuNi30Mn1Fe. Cu-Ni alloys are also
applied as coin metals (for example CuNi25 into the one and two Euro coins)
Copper nickel materials have a good weldability and can easily be welded with TIG, MIG and manual
metal arc welding without preheating. However, an outmost cleanliness of the components and the use
of similar filler metal have to be observed. The emerged oxides on the weld seam are very resistant.
That’s why every start- stop has to be ground in order to prevent faults.
Figure 10: Binary system Cu-Ni acc.to MASSALSKI Figure 11: CuNi10Fe1Mn, homogeneous

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7 Thermal joining of Copper and copper alloys

7.1 Applicable joining processes (selection)
Copper and copper alloys can be joined with different thermal joining processes. Their applicability de-
pends on, among others, the actual alloy, the physical-, mechanical- and metallurgical properties. In this
respect table 13 contains a compilation of selected processes regarding their applicability of copper al-
loys. In particular the processes in which the materials to be connected are not melted ( for example
Ultrasonic-friction- and diffusion welding or brazing/soldering) are very suitable for the connecting of
non- or low weldable as well as dissimilar materials.
Tabelle 3: Selected joining processes in dependency of their applicability of the copper alloys
Joining process Application Preheating Technological characteristic
Welding process
required,
Oxy-fuel gas welding widely spread Flux on weld flanks required
300 to 600 °C
less widely required, Filler metals not standardised, limited
Manual arc welding
spread max. 500 °C available, low heat capacity
required, Shielding gas required, high draft sensi-
MIG welding widely spread
max. 600 °C bility, high deposition rates
very widely required, Shielding gas required, high draft sensi-
TIG welding
spread 300 to 600 °C bility, flux on weld flanks useful
required, Exact weld preparation, limited accessi-
Plasma welding widely spread
300 to 500 °C bility due to rel. big torch
Not necessarily Absorption level of alloy determines
Laser welding widely spread
required weldability, weld preparation
Electron beam weld- Not necessarily Weld flanks cleaning, elements with 
widely spread
ing required Tvapour very problematic (e.g. Zn)
Not necessarily Surface condition influences heat con-
resistance welding possible
required ductivity, thin sheet metals
Clean weld areas required, no shielding
Ultrasonic welding widely spread not required
gas or filler metal required
Clean weld areas required, no shielding
Friction welding widely spread not required
gas or filler metal required
Very clean and accurate weld areas of
Diffusion welding widely spread not required
low roughness required
Brazing / soldering processes
very widely Not necessarily Working temperature < 450 °C, Flux
Soldering
spread required required, low strength
very widely Working temperature  450 °C, Flux re-
Brazing required
spread quired, high strength
7.2 Filler metals and auxiliary materials for welding and brazing/soldering
The suitable filler metals for welding copper and copper alloys are listed in EN ISO 24 373 (table 14).
For joining of technical pure and low alloyed copper normally CuSn1 is applied as it enables a high vis-
cosity weld pool and a pore-free weld metal.
CuAg 1 is only applied in those situations where the electrical conductivity of the weld is important. The
weld metal is soft and well deformable.
Copper and copper alloys can also be brazed/ soldered. If the base materials are in a strain hardening
state, normally there is no decrease of the strength when being soldered. With brazing however, de-

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pending on the level of strain hardening and in particular in the area of the braze point, softening and,
under less favourable circumstances, cracking can occur (“welding” in strain hardening area). Brazing
and soldering filler metals are standardised in EN ISO 17672 and EN ISO 3677.
Table 4: Selected standards for filler- and brazing metals and auxiliary materials for copper base materials
Standard Title
Welding consumables - Solid wires and rods for fusion welding of copper and copper
EN ISO 24 373
alloys - Classification
EN ISO 17 672 Brazing – Filler metals
EN ISO 3677 Filler metal for soft soldering, brazing and braze welding - Designation
EN 1045 Brazing - Fluxes for brazing - Classification and technical delivery conditions
7.3 Shielding- and purging gas, auxiliary materials
For preventing an air-oxygen reaction with the weld pool, inert gases like argon but also Ar-He or Ar-
N2-mixtures according to EN ISO 154 175 are applied. Helium, compared to Argon, shows significant
higher heat conductivity and needs a higher arc-bow voltage to assure the required ionisation energy.
Compared to welding with Argon, a hotter weld pool with lower viscosity and a deeper, uniform penetra-
tion arises. Due to the changed weld pool movements, a better degassing and therefore a more pore-
free weld is achieved. By the application of helium additionally the preheating can be reduced or the
welding speed can be increased (figure 20 and 21).
700 700
Argon Argon
600 600
Preheat temperature in °C
Helium
Ar + He
Preheat temperature in °C
500 Nitrogen 500

Nitrogen
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Wall thickness in mm Wall thickness in mm
Figure 12: required preheating temperatures for TIG Figure 13: required preheating temperatures for MIG
welding acc.to DKI welding acc. to DKI

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7.4 Weldability of copper and copper alloys

7.4.1 Technical pure copper
During the weld processing of technical pure copper the metallurgical (fig 22) as well as technological
characteristics (figure 23) are to be observed. The technological characteristics often depend on the
specific properties of the copper element.
Metallurgical characteristics
Solidification
Oxygen content therm. Conductivity therm. Expansion
interval
Problem: Problem: Problem: Problem:
Hydrogen embrittlement Very fast dissipation of the Danger of thermal distor- Sudden volume
with O2-containing Cu welding heat tion change to Tl = Ts
Prevention: Prevention: Prevention: Prevention:
Application of
P-deoxidised Cu, oxygen- Apply P-deoxidised Cu, Adaption of weld prepa-
welding filler ma-
free Cu preheating ration and opening width
terial
Figure 14: Metallurgical characteristics during welding of technical pure copper
Technological characteristics
Width of the HAZ Softening of the HAZ Welding process Work safety
Problem: Problem: Problem: Problem:
Scaling to  heat- Thermal softening of Not all processes are suit- High heat-input = high
input strain hardening able for Cu (SAW) emissions
Prevention: Prevention: Prevention: Prevention:
Protection of HAZ Do not apply strain Choose suitable welding Application of fume ex-
against oxidation hardening Cu process haust equipment
Figure 15: Technological characteristics during welding of technical pure copper
7.4.2 Copper alloys
The in the previous section mentioned characteristics also partly apply to the different copper alloys.
Based upon the existing solidification interval, in contrary to pure copper, no sudden volume changes are
to be expected during solidification.
It becomes problematic if alloying additions with low evaporation temperature, e.g. Zinc (907°C)
during welding are able to volatilize. Furthermore a number of elements (e.g. lead) can build low melt-
ing eutectics which can increase the hot crack susceptibility during welding (cf. chapter 2.06). The
weldability of some selected copper alloys is given in table 15.
Table 5: weldability of selected copper alloys (filler materials, table 16)

Alloy Remark
Only alloys with low zinc-contents are weldable
Cu-Zn, Cu-Zn-Ni Zinc burn-off is problematic (to vs , Zn burn-off is limited)
(brass, Neusilber) Nitrogen as shielding gas component is not recommended
With zinc-contents < 20 % preheating is recommended

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Alloy Remark
Post heating can prevent stress cracking
Cu-Sn Generally good weldability
(Tin-Bronze) Exceptions are phosphor-Bronze and lead containing red brass
Binary bronzes (Cu-Al) are known having better weldability
Cu-Al Multiple bronzes (Cu-Al-Fe) have a lower weldability
(Aluminium-Bronze)
Using TIG alternating current depending on aluminium content
Cu-Ni Good weldability, however tend to pore formation in weld metal due to higher
(Nickel-Bronze) Ni-content
7.4.3 Recommendations for filler material selection
Table 6: Recommendations for filler materials for copper and copper alloys (acc.to LAHNSTEINER)
recommended
Base material Weldability typical Alloys
filler material
Pure copper Cu-OFE, Cu-DLP,
(O2-free, P-deoxidised (+) CuSn1, CuAg1
Cu) Cu-DHP, ...
Brass < 30 % Zn CuSi3, CuAl9Fe

(-)
(Cu-Zn) ~ 40 % Zn Not recommended
Si-Bronze (+) ~ 3 % Si CuSi3
(Cu-Si)
Al-Bronze (+) 5 – 11 % Al CuAl8, CuAl10Fe

(Cu-Al)
Neusilber 20 % Zn, 15 % Ni CuSi3

(-)
(Cu-Zn-Ni) 45 % Zn, 10 % Ni Not recommended
Red brass < Pb-Content CuSi3, CuAl10Fe
(-)
(Cu-Sn-Zn) Pb-containing Not recommended
7.5 Guidelines for quality assurance during thermal joining
Regarding all welding operations, the measures as described in more detail in chapters 4.1 and 4.2 for
quality assurance are generally realised. In contradiction to steel and aluminium only limited special
quality assurance standards are available for copper alloys. That’s why in general for weld processing of
copper and copper alloys the technical guidelines and standards for the joining of metals do apply.
Along with the base material standards this applies in particular for the performance- and qualification
standards. In this way the most important requirements, application ranges, test- and assessment re-
quirements and as well as the certification of the executed welder performances for copper materials
are set in EN ISO 9606-3. The execution of procedure qualifications (arc-welding and gas welding) of
copper base materials is set in EN ISO 15614-6. Also for brazing activities, which are to be subjected
to special quality assurances according to the respective regulations, the manufacturer has to have qual-
ified brazing personnel. In this way EN ISO 13 585 controls the testing of brazing welders and operators
of brazing facilities. In the Guideline DVS®-R 1903-1 the manufacturer’s and personnel requirements are
listed regarding soldering activities of copper in the domestic installation area.

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8 Questions
(1) By which characteristic properties are copper and copper alloys characterised?
 The unlimited weldability.

 The excellent electrical properties.
 The very low density.
 The very excellent thermal conductivity.
 The very good corrosion resistance.
(2) What is brass?
 Alloys with copper as main element and Tin as second alloying element.
 Alloys with copper as main element and Aluminium as second alloying element.
 Alloys with copper as main element and Manganese as second alloying element.
 Alloys with copper as main element and Zinc as second alloying element.
 Alloys with copper as main element and Nickel as second alloying element.
(3) To which base material groups acc. ISO/TR 15608 copper and copper alloys can be classified?
 Material groups 21 to 26.

(4) What is mentioned with the abbreviated designation Cu-DHP acc.to ISO 1190-1?
 Electrolytic refined oxygen containing Cu.

 Deoxidised Cu with low residual P-content.
 Deoxidised Cu with high residual P-content.
 High pure, deoxidised Cu with low residual P-content.
 High pure, not deoxidised Copper.
(5) What can be derived from the condition description R340S acc.to EN 1173?
 It concerns a rod material with a diameter of 340mm which contains a V-thread of type S.
 The yield strength Re is 340 N/mm², in condition „Special“.
 The tensile strength Rm is 340 N/mm², in condition „Annealed“.
 The 0,2-%- elasticity limit Rp0,2 is 340 N/mm², in deformed condition.
 it concerns square rod with the given flange length to be stress relieved.

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(6) How much higher is the thermal conductivity of copper compared to iron?
 up to 100 %.
 up to 200 %.
 up to 400 %.
 up to 500 %.
 up to 600 %.
(7) What is mentioned with Hydrogen induced cracking during welding of oxygen containing copper?
 Atomic Hydrogen recombines into H2 and induces embrittlement during welding.

 Out of Cu2O and hydrogen, water vapour initiates which eases the grain borders.
 Copper-oxide initiates which leads to precipitation hardening by H2 .
 During welding moisture is being separated out of the pure copper.
 The tensile strength is negatively influenced by hydrogen after the welding.
(8) Why is repair welding of copper-tin-casting alloys for bearing bushes only limited applicable?
 These alloys tend to precipitation hardening.

 These alloys können durch den Zinngehalt polymorph umwandeln.
 These alloys tend to strain hardening during welding.
 These alloys can inhibit micro-pores which contain lubrication solvent.
 These alloys are free from any lattice disorders.
(9) Which welding processes are particularly suitable for the joining of non- or low weldable as well
as dissimilar base materials?
 All welding processes are suitable.

 In particular Submerged Arc welding.
 In particular the manual metal arc welding with covered electrodes.
 In particular welding processes which do not melt the base materials to be welded.
 In particular e..g Ultrasonic-, friction-, and diffusion welding as well as soldering.
(10) Why is the weld processing of brass problematic?
 Brass contains zinc which can vaporise during welding.

 Brass contains aluminium which increases the thermal conductivity of the alloy.
 Brass contains zinc which results in a weld pool mixing void.
 Brass contains along with zinc also nickel which is not weldable.
 Brass has a high cold crack susceptibility.

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9 Bibliography
Additional information can be retrieved from the following publications.
DKI-Information print i.004:

Kupfer – Vorkommen, Gewinnung, Eigenschaften, Verarbeitung, Verwendung.
Düsseldorf: DKI, Deutsches Kupfer Institut, 1997

Kupfer-Zink-Legierungen (Messing und Sondermessing).

Kupfer-Aluminium-Legierungen.

Niedriglegierte Kupferwerkstoffe – Eigenschaften, Verarbeitung, Verwendung.

Kupfer-Zinn-Knetlegierungen (Zinnbronzen).

Kupfer-Zinn- und Kupfer-Zinn-Zink-Gusslegierungen (Zinnbronzen).

Schweißen von Kupfer und Kupferlegierungen.
DKI-Informationsdruck i.003:
Löten von Kupfer und Kupferlegierungen.
Schulze. G.:
Metallurgy of welding
Moeller, E.:
Handbuch Konstruktionswerkstoffe – Auswahl, Eigenschaften, Anwendung
München: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2008

Metallurgy and Material Science – Ein Wissensspeicher. Band 1 und 2.
Note: comprehensive information, base material data, leafletts, information prints as well as professional
publications are to be found on the websites of the German Copper Institutes, information- and helpdesk
fort he application of copper and copper alloys: http://www.kupfer-institut.de und http://www.copper-
key.org/

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Nickel and nickel alloys II Page 1
Chapter 2.19-1: Nickel and nickel alloys II
Contents
1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 2
2 Alloying systems ................................................................................................................. 4
3 The most important nickel alloy groups ........................................................................... 5
3.1 Pure nickel ................................................................................................................................................ 5
3.2 Nickel alloys .............................................................................................................................................. 6
3.2.1 System Nickel - Copper ............................................................................................................... 6
3.2.2 System iron nickel (Fe-Ni) ........................................................................................................... 7
3.2.3 System nickel chromium (iron) (Ni-CR-Fe)............................................................................... 7
3.2.4 Systems nickel - (chromium) - molybdenum (Ni-Mo and Ni-CR- Mo) .................................. 9
3.2.5 Heat resistant hardenable nickel alloys................................................................................... 10
4 Increase in strength of the alloys .................................................................................... 13
4.1 Hardening................................................................................................................................................ 13
4.2 Dispersion hardening ............................................................................................................................ 14

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1 Introduction
The names “nickel” and “cobalt” originate from the Freiberg miners, who extracted copper ore in the Middle
Ages. Nickel as a chemical element was discovered by Cronstedt not earlier than 1751. In nature nickel
predominantly occurs as sulphide and as oxide, as well as in connection with arsenic, antimony and silicon.
The most important sulphidic ore deposits are in Canada and Russia, while oxide ore is found world-
wide, mainly in the equatorial belt.
In 2002 Germany imported about 140,000 t of the metallurgical nickel consumed in the western world
which corresponds to around 15% of the world’s consumption and putting it on third place behind the
U.S. and Japan.
Nickel is predominantly an alloying element which is found in about 2000 steels and alloys. In Germany
about 70% of all nickel is used in the steel industry with an absolute figure of 60% for stainless and heat-
resistant steels. For nickel based alloys and non-ferrous metals about 20% are fabricated with, the re-
maining 10% go into the electroplating industry, to battery manufacturers and iron foundries. The largest
consumer on the user side is the chemical and processing industries with 35%, followed by mechanical
engineering, offshore technology and the consumer goods industry (Figure 1).
An overview of the world market for nickel alloys according to product forms can be found in Figure 2.
Work- nickel consumption in Germany in 1000 metric T
90
80
70
1000 metric Ton
60
50
40
30 Steel
20 NE-Steels
10 Galvano-Ind.
Foundries
0
1982 1990 1992 1995 2002
Figure 1: Work- nickel consumption by manufacturing industry in Germany

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SeamlessRohre
nahtlose tubes (4%)
(4 %)
Drähte
Wires (14 %)
(14%)
Flachprodukte (58 %)
Flat products (58%)
Langprodukte
Long products(24 %)
(24%)
Entire market western world 2000: 200,000 t

Thus products (sheet metals, boards, strips): 116,000 t
Long products (members, profiles): 48,000 t
Wires 28,000 t
Seamless pipes 8,000 t
Figure 2: Consumption of nickel alloys per year 2000 acc. to types in the world

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2 Alloying systems
By far the largest share of nickel alloys are solid solution alloys with a cubic-face-centred crystal lattice. Apart from these there are the quantitatively smaller
groups of the high-temperature-resistant, heat hardenable alloys and the high heat resistant, dispersion-hardened alloys (Table 1).
Table 1: Special characteristics of the nickel alloys
SOLID SOLUTION ALLOYS HEAT HARDENABLE ALLOYS DISPERSION-HARDENED ALLOYS
Corrosion-resistant, heat-resistant and Mainly high - temperature Maximum heat resistant (up to about 1180 °C)
(up to approx. 1000 °C)
Cubic-face-centred structure Cubic-face-centred basic structure with Ni3 Quasi-solid solutions with oxide deposits
(Ti, Al, Nb) - precipitations
Moderate strength High creep rupture strength Highest creep rupture strength
Good weldability for Not or limited weldability Not suitable for welding
all procedures (resistance welding possible)
Arc Furnace, Induced furnace, AOD- Arc Furnace, Induced furnace, vacuum furnace, Production powder metallurgical,
and VOD crucible electron beam. - O. hot isostatic pressing (HIP)
All semi-finished product types, Predominantly forgings and shape casting Predominantly forgings
shape casting,
Centrifugal casting

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Nickel and nickel alloys I Page 5
3 The most important nickel alloy groups
3.1 Pure nickel
Pure nickel is a silver bright metal by the ordinal number 28 and the atomic weight 58.71. It has a density
of 8.9 g/cm3. Commercial available pure nickel types have a purity degree of 99.0 to 99.8% (DIN 17740).
For welded components only the materials LC-Ni99 and LC-Ni99.6 are used in which the C-contents is
restricted to max. 0.02%. This C-content remains in solution; higher contents are separated as graphite
and impair ductility (e.g. in the heat-affected zones).
Pure nickel has, like all nickel  solid solution alloys a cubic-face-centred lattice and is not subjected to
any transformation of structure; it cannot be hardened or tempered (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Microstructure of LC-Ni99 (1000:1)
Its Curie point is 360 °C, i.e. pure nickel is ferromagnetic at room temperature and becomes
non-magnetic at temperatures above 360 °C.
In contrast to nickel alloys, pure nickel has a low 0.2-yield strength of approx. 100 N/mm2, a tensile
strength of approx. 400 N/mm2, high elongation and necking as well as high impact strength  also at low
temperatures. It has a good hot- or cold deformability and is easy to fusion-weld. Pure Ni has a high cor-
rosion resistance against numerous salts and alkaline mediums (Table 2).
Table 2: Chemical composition of semi-finished product of nickel and nickel copper alloys (weight in %)
Material
Short name Ni + Co* C Cu Fe Mn Si Ti
number
LC-Ni99 2,4068 > 99.0 < 0.02 < 0.25 < 0.4 < 0.3 < 0.2 < 0.1
LC-Ni99.6 2,4061 > 99.6 < 0,02 < 0.1 < 0.2 < 0.3 < 0.2 < 0.1
NiCu30Fe 2,4360 > 63 < 0.15 28.0 1.0 < 2.0 < 0.5 0
LC-NiCu30Fe 2,4361 > 63 < 0.04 28.0 1.0 < 2.0 < 0.3 0
-34.0 -2.5
* Co < 1.0%

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3.2 Nickel alloys

3.2.1 System Nickel - Copper
The metals nickel and copper are placed side by side in the periodic system of the elements. Copper has
the ordinal number 29 and the atomic weight 63.54. Nickel and copper form solid solutions (Figure 4a) in
any mixture proportion and therefore technically useful alloys. Nickel dominates the colour of the alloys;
the alloy CuNi10 with 10% Ni is silver, for example the new one and two euro coins (with 20% Ni).
Figure 4.a: Binary diagram nickel copper
Nickel copper alloys are characterised by slow diffusion. No equilibrium states arise during cooling from
the melt. Accordingly in the solid state non-homogeneous solid solutions are present (Figure 4b); by
means of hot deforming and annealing a homogeneous solid solution structure is achieved (Figure 4c).
Figure 4b: Microstructure of NiCu30Fe Figure 4c: Microstructure of NiCu30Fe

in the cast condition (200:1) after hot deforming (200:1)

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3.2.2 System iron nickel (Fe-Ni)
Nickel also forms solid solution alloys with iron over a wide concentration range (Figure 5)
The thermal expansion is set via the composition. It is very low for Fe-Ni alloy with 36% Ni. Fe-Ni alloys
with Ni content to approx. 22% have a ferritic structure (cubic body-centred) at room temperature, while
alloys with higher nickel content are austenitic (cubic face centred).
Because of their properties the Fe-Ni alloys are mainly used as physical materials, for example as glass
fusion alloys. In welding-engineering the Fe-Ni (36% Ni) alloys have become of great importance as ma-
terial for diaphragm vessels of liquefied petroleum gas carriers and pipe lines.
Nickel content Figure 5: Binary diagram iron nickel
3.2.3 System nickel chromium (iron) (Ni-CR-Fe)
With chromium nickel produces gamma solid solution alloys over a wide range that feature good corro-
sion resistance, resistance to scaling at high temperatures and by a high electrical resistance (Figure
6a).
Something similar applies to the ternary-system Ni-CR-Fe; the austenitic chromium-nickel-steels are on
the iron-rich side and are joined by the austenitic nickel alloys with increasing nickel content at a range to
about 70% Ni, 20% Cr and 10% Fe (Figure 6b).
To increase the strength of the matrix of these alloys, they are also alloyed with cobalt, molybdenum and
niobium.
The iron-free alloy with 80% Ni and 20% Cr is used as a heating conductor wire and a semi-finished
sheet product for heat-treating furnace, since it is heat resistant, scale resistant and resistant to nitriding
and carbonisation in media which give off nitrogen and carbon.

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Figure 6.a: Binary diagram chromium nickel Figure 6b: Ternary diagram nickel chromium
iron Isothermal section at 650 °C
Higher percentages of chromium improve resistance against high-temperature corrosion by aggressive

components in combustibles (e.g. vanadium pentoxide and sodium sulphate). These mediums destroy
the natural oxide of the alloys with Cr contents up to 20% and cause a general or local corrosion attack
in the temperature range over 650 °C. For such operation conditions the use of rolled and forged alloys
to approx. 30% Cr and cast alloys with 35 to 60% Cr are proven successful.
In more recent times the alloy NiCr29Fe (Alloy 690) with 29% Cr is increasingly used instead of alloy
NiCr15Fe (Alloy 600), because it has a considerable higher corrosion-resistant due to its higher chromi-
um content than NiCr15Fe. Both materials are resistant to numerous reduction and oxidising substances
and are not sensitive to stress corrosion cracking. A type NiCr23Fe with 60% Ni, 23% Cr and 1.35% Al-
uminium (Alloy 601) is resistant to fatigue by quick temperature changes at high temperatures.
The NiCrFe alloys representing the biggest group of the nickel based alloys and next to the types as
mentioned above, further types for special applications are available (Table 3).
Table 3: Chemical composition of semi-finished product of nickel chromium (molybdenum) - alloys

(mass proportions in %)
Short name (Material no.) Ni + Co* C Cr Fe Mo Al Nb Ti
NiCr15Fe 2,4816 > 72 < 0.10 14.0 6.0 < 0.3

-17.0 -10.0
LC-NiCr15Fe 2,4815 > 72 > 0.025 14.0 6.0 < 0.3
-17.0 -10.0
NiCr29Fe 2,4642 > 62 > 0.02 28.0 6.0
-30.0 -10.0
NiCr23Fe 2,4851 > 58 < 0.10 21.0 <18 1 < 0.5
-25.0 -1.7
NiCr21Mo 2,4858 > 38 < 0.025 19.5 Balance 2.5 < 0.2 0.6
-23.5 -3.5 -1.2
NiCr22Mo9Nb 2,4856 Balance < 0.10 20.0 < 3.0 8.0 < 0.4 3.15 < 0.40
-23.0 -10.0 -4.15
* Co > 1.0%

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3.2.4 Systems nickel - (chromium) - molybdenum (Ni-Mo and Ni-CR- Mo)
To increase the corrosion resistance further, the NiCr alloys are added with molybdenum. Two typical
alloys of this type are the materials NiCr21Mo (Alloy 925) with 43% Ni, 21% Cr, 3% Mo, Cu 2%, rest Fe
and NiCr22Mo9Nb (Alloy 625) with 58% Ni, 22% Cr, 9% Mo and 3.5% Nb (Table 3).
By a further increase of the Mo- content a series of most corrosion-resistant alloys are obtained (Table
4).
Table 4: Chemical composition of new nickel molybdenum chromium alloys (following rounded data in % mass
content)
Alloy DIN short name Material no. Ni Cr Mo Fe
B-2 NiMo28 2,4617 69 0.7 28 1.7
B-3 NiMo30Cr 2,4703 68 1.5 28 1.5
B-4 NiMo29Cr 2,4600 68 1.2 27 3
B-10 NiMo23Cr8Fe 2,4710 62 7.5 24 6
The almost chromium-free NiMo alloy NiMo28 (Alloy B-2) with 28% Mo with high resistance to reducing
conditions (e.g. wet hydrogen chloride gas, boiling concentrated hydrochloric acid), is not always re-
sistant to stress corrosion cracking (SCC) under certain conditions due to precipitation of intermetallic
phases (Ni3Mo and Ni4Mo) to. The additional alloying of chromium and iron brought an improvement
here (Table 5).
Table 5: Chemical composition of new NiCrMo alloys (following indications, mean values)
Alloy DIN short name Material no. Ni Cr Mo W Fe Other
C-276 NiMo16Cr15W 2,4819 57 16 16 3.5 max. 7.0
C-4 NiMo16Cr16Ti 2,4610 66 16 16 max. 4.0
C-22 NiCr21Mo14W 2,4606 57 21 13 3 max. 6.0
Alloy 59 NiCr21Mo16Al 2,4605 59 23 16 max. 1.5
Leg. 686 NiCr21Mo16W4 2,4606 58 21 16 3.8 max. 5.0
C-2000 NiCr23Mo16Cu 2,4675 57 23 16 max. 3.0 Cu 1.6
A further development is the alloy C-4 from the 1970s. It is not alloyed with tungsten and the iron content
is reduced. Their corrosion resistance is slightly lower in highly reductive media. Due to its good worka-
bility, in particular weldability, it is frequently specified in European chemical apparatus engineering.
In alloy C-22 (from the 80's) the chromium content was increased in comparison with C-276 and C-4
which resulted in even better resistance in oxidising mediums. In alloy 59 which has been developed in
the 1990s, the Cr content and the Mo content were further increased and the tungsten removed. The
alloy features good workability, high corrosion resistance and high thermal stability.
Alloys 686 and C2000 reached the market in succession and are even higher alloyed than alloy 59. C-
2000 is particularly resistant in sulphuric acid and 686 is generally highly resistant in reducing mediums.

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3.2.5 Heat resistant hardenable nickel alloys
Hardenable nickel chromium (iron) alloys are used as materials for high temperatures applications. With
these alloys the values of tensile strength and yield strength remain at high levels up to approx. 700 °C,
which is shown for the alloy NiCr15Co4Al5Ti (Nimonic 118) as an example (Figure 7). Above tempera-
tures of about 600 °C the short-term heat resistance values for the operation performance characteristics
are not important anymore, but rather creep rupture strength values which are determined by the creep-
ing behaviour of materials at high temperatures as a function of time. In jet engines it is counted on val-
ues of at least 10,000 h, in stationary power-plant turbines and in the weld area values of 30,000 to
100,000 h is expected (1 year has 8,640 h).
Figure 7: Thermal resistance of hardenable alloy Nimonic 118 (short-term values)
Heat-hardening capability is achieved by adding aluminium, titanium and/ or Nb in connection with a

special heat treatment. A solution annealing of the alloys at approx. 1000 to 1150 °C with following fast
cooling, gamma-solid-solutions are generated in which the elements Al, Ti and Nb are present in super-
saturated solution. By ageing 12 to 20 h at temperatures around 720°C finely divided Ni3Al, Ni3Ti and
Ni3Nb as intermetallic phases are precipitated in the microstructure and on the grain boundaries which
are also called `-phase (Figure 8). Therefore the short-term properties increase at room- and elevated
temperatures; elongation after fracture and impact energy values are lower accordingly. The essential
advantage of heat hardening is a high increase of creep rupture strength at high temperatures (approx.
above 650 °C until close to 1000 °C). This is dictated by Al+Ti+Nb content.


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
750:1 750:1
Etchant: Murakamis reagent. Etchant: 5% HF/glycerol at 3V.

Heat treatment 1½ h/1190 °C/ Heat-treatment 1½ h/1190 °C/AC+
furnace cool to 1000 °C/AC. 6 h/1100°C/AC
6000:1 30000:1
Heat-treatment 1½ h/1190 °C/AC+ Heat treatment 1 ½ h/1190 °C/AC+

6 h/1100 °C/AC 6 h/1100 °C/AC
Figure 8: Light-optical and electron-optical microstructure pictures of warm-precipitation-hardened alloy Nimonic

115.

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Bild 9: Ni wrought alloy with defined segregations, 200 subject magnification, etched after Beraha III
Bild 10: Hardenable Ni cast material with ' phases, 500x magnification, etched after Beraha III

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The in the microstructure finely distributed intermetallic `- particles can be brought back in solution
again into the solid solution by a renewed solution annealing.
Hardenable Ni - basis - alloys is to be welded in the state “solution-annealed ”and precipitation then occurs.
When welding in the state “precipitation-hardened” the risk of cold cracking exists due to brittle precipita-
tions on the grain boundaries of the HAZ.
Bild 11: Electron beam weld of precipitation-hardened Ni based alloy with cold cracks on the grain boundaries of
the HAZ, 200 subject magnification, etched after Beraha III
4 Increase in strength of the alloys
4.1 Hardening
Further options for the increase of creep rupture strength consist in a hardening of the base microstruc-
ture (e.g. by adding of up to 20% cobalt; also by a coarse grain formation and the initiation of specifically
oriented grains (Table 6). A vacuum treatment improves the properties at high temperatures (by evapo-
rating low melting trace elements, see Figure 12.)
Table 6: Creep strength of orientated solidified M200 with different microstructure orientation
Time until Time elongation after frac- Creep speed
Microstructure
fracture in h ture in % in mm/m/h
Equiaxed 4.9 0.45 0.0700

Oriented 366 12.6 0.0145
Single crystal 1914 14.5 0.0022

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Al Co Cr Mo Nb Ni Ti Other
Mar-M200 5 10 9 - 1 Rest 2 12.5 W
M 252 1 10 50 10 - Rest 2 B, Zr
Waspaloy 1 13.5 50 4 - Rest 3 B, Zr
Figure 12: Influence of vacuum melting on the creep strength properties of two high-temperature-resistant nickel
alloys
4.2 Dispersion hardening
The process of dispersion hardening for additional increase of the creep rupture strength is relatively
new. Metallic matrix fluxes and metallic oxide fluxes are mixed in an impact (ball) mill with high energy
and then processed through hot isostatic pressing (HIP) into semi-finished products. In contrast to heat
hardening which permits dissolution of the  precipitations above the solution annealing temperature, the
metallic oxide particles are stable up to very high temperatures and enable operating temperatures
above the solution annealing temperature.
With these materials, designated as ODS alloys (ODS = oxide dispersion strengthening), hardening and
dispersion hardening can be combined, by pulverising a hardenable alloy into flux, mixing it as a matrix flux
with metal oxides, followed by hot-isostatic pressing and heat-treatment (Figure 13).
The achieved higher creep rupture strength at high temperatures compared to hardenable alloys are
shown in Figure 14.
Dispersion-hardened alloys are not suitable for welding due to high oxide and nitride amounts, which
lead to extreme pore formation.

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Pre-mixed flux for mechanical alloying Isostatic pressed microstructure of a mechanical al-
(240:1) loyed superalloy (100:1)
A‘
Fine  ‘ in 
ThO2 or Al2O3 in  `
coarse 
A
MC carbides
Microstructure electron-optically enlarged (5000:1)
Figure 13: Pre-mixed flux and microstructure after hot-isostatic pressing of a dispersion-hardened alloy IN 853

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Figure 14: Creep rupture strength B1000 of the dispersion-hardened alloy IN 853 compared to the hardenable
alloy Nimonic 80A and nickel thorium oxide

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Chapter 2.19-2: Nickel and nickel alloys II
Contents
1 Welding of nickel alloys ...................................................................................................... 2

2 Weldability of the solid solution alloys ............................................................................. 3
2.1 Influence of low melting point elements ............................................................................................... 3
2.2 Effects of gases........................................................................................................................................ 4
2.2.1 Oxygen ........................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2.2 Nitrogen .......................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2.3 Gas absorbing filler materials ..................................................................................................... 5
3 Welding consumables / filler materials ............................................................................. 5
4 Fundamentals in the welding of Ni-based alloys ............................................................. 6
5 Welding processes ............................................................................................................. 7
5.1 Oxy-acetylene welding ............................................................................................................................ 7
5.2 Manual arc welding with coated stick electrodes ................................................................................ 7
5.3 TIG welding ............................................................................................................................................... 7
5.4 MIG and MAG welding ............................................................................................................................ 8
5.5 Submerged arc welding .......................................................................................................................... 9
5.6 Plasma welding ........................................................................................................................................ 9
5.7 Laser welding ........................................................................................................................................... 9
5.8 Other processes ....................................................................................................................................... 9
6 Joining of different alloys ................................................................................................. 10
6.1 Austenite-ferrite joints and joining nickel alloys with steels ............................................................. 10
7 Joining of Ni alloys with other non-ferrous metals ........................................................ 13
7.1 Choice of the welding process for joining different materials .......................................................... 14
8 Literature............................................................................................................................ 15

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1 Welding of nickel alloys

With the exception of precipitation hardening and dispersion-hardened alloys, all other nickel materials
can be welded without notable difficulties.
For most solid solution alloys there are suitable filler materials. With the exception of oxy-fuel gas weld-
ing with acetylene and oxygen which is no longer used today, all electric and mechanical welding pro-
cesses are available for use. Usually, nickel materials are welded in soft- or solution-annealed state.
Great cleanliness is necessary for making perfect welds in order to, for example, avoid pores.
To prevent pore formation through nitrogen pick-up while welding, the filler materials are alloyed with
aluminium, Ti and/ or Nb, which bind the nitrogen to solid nitrides. Supersaturated oxygen is bound to
oxides, and supersaturated carbon is bound to carbides. The side effect of nitride formation are the
higher strength values of weld metal in contrast to the base material.
Due to the long solidification interval, all Ni based alloys are more or less prone to hot cracking during
welding. This applies especially for the full-austenitic NiCrFe alloys with relatively low nickel content of
30 to 40%, in particular the alloys X10NiCrAlTi32-20 Alloy (800) and NiCr21Mo. These alloys are prefer-
ably joined using filler materials of higher nickel content (Figure 1).
To avoid hot cracking the stringer bead welding technique with controlled heat input must be performed.
The energy input per unit length must be limited to 5 to 15 kJ/cm, and the interpass temperature should
not exceed a maximum of 150 °C.
Figure 1: Ni weld with cracks

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2 Weldability of the solid solution alloys
2.1 Influence of low melting point elements
Sulphur lowers the melting point of Ni considerably. The eutectic is at 645 °C with a sulphur content of
21.5% (Figure 2). The solubility limit of sulphur in nickel is 0.005%. Higher sulphur contents are separat-
ed as nickel sulphide Ni3S2.
In sulphurous atmosphere, at temperatures between 400 and 800 °C, an eutectic of nickel and nickel
sulphide Ni-Ni3S2 is formed which penetrates from the surface into the grain boundaries and leads to,
under tensile stress and the heat, to the disintegration of the grains, and to cold-brittleness and cracks at
room temperature. The following pictures show damages (Figure 3 and Figure 4a/b).
Figure 2: Section of the binary diagram nickel-sulphur
Figure 3:
Grain boundary damage by nickel - nickel sulphide eutectic in pure
nickel

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Figure 4.a: Cold cracks in a bended test specimen of Figure 4.b: Heat cracks in the right tube bend, caused
pure nickel caused by nickel sulphide dam- by using sulphurous sand during hot bend-
age ing
Extreme cleanness is therefore very important when processing Ni materials. The parts must be free
from oil, grease and other dirt. It is also recommended not to touch the parts with bare hands, but rather
with clean gloves.
Elements like P, Pb, B and Zr have similar characteristics. Flux materials containing boron should there-
fore be avoided during welding of Ni alloys.
2.2 Effects of gases
2.2.1 Oxygen
Annealing in highly oxidising atmosphere damages nickel and NiCu alloys at temperatures above
900 °C. It causes intergranular oxidation.
2.2.2 Nitrogen
In molten state, all metals have a higher solubility for gases than in the solid state. At high temperatures
and sufficiently slow cooling, gases can diffuse from metals even when they are in the solid state if the
solubility decreases while the temperature is falling. In fast cooling processes, such as during the solidifi-
cation of weld metal, the time is often not sufficient for diffusion to take place, and the gas remains in a
supersaturated solution state in the solidified metal, and finally forms pores cooling further down.
Sensitivity to different gases varies depending on the material. In case of nickel, primarily nitrogen leads
to formation of pores, and also oxygen if present in larger quantities (Figure 5). Hydrogen does not
cause pores in nickel and nickel alloys, and the same applies to monatomic shielding gases like argon or
helium.

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a) (10:1)
b) (30:1)
Figure 5 a) Pores in a TIG weld from NiCu30Fe made by using a filler material of the same type without gas absorb-
er.
b) Clean weld metal made by using filler material of titanium as gas absorber.
2.2.3 Gas absorbing filler materials
By applying gas-absorbing elements to the weld metal it is possible to transform the pore-creating gases
into solid compounds. The elements Al, Ti and Nb/Ta have such an effect. These elements bind nitrogen
to nitride, oxygen to oxide and carbon to carbide; therefore they are added separately or in combination
to the filler materials which are intended for nickel materials, in contents below the hardening threshold,
in practice usually around 1.5 to 2.5%.
Pores can be avoided in welds of nickel alloys in this way.
3 Welding consumables / filler materials
For all nickel alloys standardised in Germany there are one or more standardised type-similar filler mate-
rials. Some of these filler materials are also used for various joints between ferritic and austenitic steels
(so-called black and white joints) and also for joints of nickel alloys with steels. Tough at sub-zero tem-
perature steels are often welded with filler materials of type EL-NiCr20Nb and EL-NiCr15FeNb or with
corresponding wires and wire electrodes respectively.
Filler materials of medium nickel content of around 40% require special care, since they are more sus-
ceptible to hot cracking than the higher nickel containing filler materials with over 50% Ni content; the
latter can also be used for welding out-of-position.

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Table 1: National standards for nickel filler materials
Country Standard Title

Germany DIN EN ISO 18274 Filler materials – solid wires, tapes and rods for the fusion welding
of nickel and nickel alloys - Classification
DIN EN ISO 14172 Filler materials - coated stick electrodes for the manual arc welding
of nickel and nickel alloys - Classification
USA AWS A 5.11 Specification for Nickel and Nickel alloys covered welding elec-
trodes.
AWS A 5.14 Specification for Nickel and Nickel alloys base welding rods and
electrodes.
Filler materials are not standardised for most hardenable heat-resistant nickel alloys. As long as those
base materials are alloyed with aluminium, titan or Nb for hardening and are weldable, they can be
joined pores-free without filler materials as well as with similar filler materials.
When welding without filler material, one part of the hardening elements is used for gas absorbing, thus
the short-term strength properties of the weld can be lower than those of the base material at room or
higher temperatures.
This does not necessarily apply to the creep values, as the more coarse grained casting microstructure
of the weld metal can show higher values than the forged microstructure of the base material.
The dispersion-hardened alloys are not suitable for welding.
4 Fundamentals in the welding of Ni-based alloys
A number of basic rules must be observed for the welding of nickel and nickel alloys, to ensure that the
welded joints will possess the same properties as the base material:
 Nickel-based materials must be welded at least with similar materials.

 Nickel-containing materials are welded in a soft-annealed or solution-annealed state, depending on
the operating temperature.
 Scaling, if present, must be removed by sandblasting, grinding or pickling before the welding can
begin.
 The weld flanks, as well as the upper- and lower surface areas of the sheet – at least 25 mm to the
weld flank – must be clean (blank metal), i.e. free from colour markings, painting residues and greases.
Outstanding cleanliness must be ensured!
 The cleaning has to take place using sulphur- and chloride-free detergents. Only tools with stainless
bristles or iron-free grinding wheels may be used for brushing and grinding.
 Pore forming gases (e.g. nitrogen) must be absolutely kept away from the weld pool (gas-shielded
arc welding, active gas welding, deoxidising electrode coverings, avoiding moisture absorption of
electrodes).
 The reaction of the weld pool with gas components that have an oxidizing effect must be avoided,
since the burn-off of particularly oxygen-affinitive elements can lead to the subsequent impairment of
oxidation and corrosion resistance.
 It is important that annealing colours should be removed after welding.

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5 Welding processes
5.1 Oxy-acetylene welding
As mentioned earlier, gas welding with oxy-acetylene flame is practically no longer used. Besides eco-
nomic disadvantages, the process requires gases of high purity and the exact setting of the burner to a
neutral flame is difficult. The heat input is large.
5.2 Manual arc welding with coated stick electrodes
Manual arc welding proved itself very suitable for nickel alloys quite early. For all applications, approved
stick electrodes are commercially readily available. They are also used for different joints. Predominant-
ly, average strong basic stick electrodes are welded with direct current (electrode on the positive pole);
the electrodes are partly coating-alloyed, i.e. important alloying elements for weld metal are located in
the coating and not in the core of the wire. Welding out-of-the-box is possible in most cases nowadays.
5.3 TIG welding
TIG welding is mainly used to weld thin plates and longitudinal and -circumferential welds of pipes of up
to thicknesses of 3 mm, as well as for root-run welding without back run. As shielding-gas, pure argon or
helium is used. Argon hydrogen and argon helium mixtures yield smoother bead surfaces. Helium can
be used, too. The amount of the shielding gas must be sufficiently large to cover the entire weld width
(reference value 8 to 15 l/min.). The welding takes place using direct current, with the tungsten electrode
on the negative pole. Thorium alloyed tungsten electrodes are recommendable.
For longitudinal welds TIG welding is performed mechanically as well, and the filler wire is fed continu-
ously from a coil into the process.

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SFI / IWE 2.19-2
The macrostructure of TIG welds in different nickel alloys is shown in Figure 6.
LC-Ni99
NiCu30Fe
NiMo28
NiCr15Fe
NiCr20Ti
Figure 6: The macrostructure of TIG welds in 1.6 mm sheets of different alloys (10:1)
5.4 MIG and MAG welding

The MIG process is mainly applied using the standardised wire electrodes in case of plate thicknesses of
over 3 mm, and for long workshop welds. The same shielding gases are used as in TIG-welding; argon
helium gas mixtures with small CO2 additions (MAG-welding) as defined in M12 or M13 to DIN EN ISO
14175, have proven to be successful. Also very suitable is a mixture from argon plus 30% helium plus
2% H2 and up to 0.05% CO2; the CO2 addition improves wettability. A further option is a mixture of argon
plus 30% helium and 0.03% O2.
Using a shielding gas of 70% Ar + 25% He + 5% H2 does not cause a firmly adhering oxide film on the
seam surface.
During multilayer welding the grinding of individual beads can therefore be omitted.

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5.5 Submerged arc welding

Fully-automated submerged arc welding is not appropriate for all nickel alloys because there is no ap-
propriate flux available for every alloy; it is used for pure nickel, NiCr(Mo)-alloys and for NiCu alloys; but
not for the types that are high-alloyed with Mo (see DIN EN ISO 14172 and to DIN EN ISO 18274). For
arc cladding, strip electrodes and the corresponding suitable fluxes are used by means of submerged
arc strip welding.
5.6 Plasma welding

Plasma welding is used with the standardised filler materials and argon as plasma gas, as well as argon
or argon hydrogen as shielding gas, for plate thicknesses of up to 10 mm approximately. The micro-
plasma process enables the joining of thin sheets and foils without filler material at low current intensity
(1 to about 20 A) because they can no longer be joined by TIG welding any more due to the unstable
arc.
5.7 Laser welding

CO2 lasers of up to 25 kW laser power are usable for joining components of 1 to 15 mm thickness. For
thin plates of 0.2 mm to 3 mm thickness, neodymium solid-state lasers with 100 W up to 5 kW power are
used. Welding is generally done without filler materials due to the narrow welds with large depths/width
ratio and very small heat-affected zones. An exact edge preparation is required. Gaps between the parts
to be joined must be avoided, or kept small.
5.8 Other processes

Electron beam welding and resistance welding are possible for all nickel alloys; they are predominantly
used with heat resistant and highly heat resistant alloys. Friction welding is used for joining parts that are
symmetrical regarding their rotation, even if they are eventually made from different materials (e.g. weld-
ing of shaft and disc of high-alloyed truck exhaust valves).
Figure 7: EB weld in Nimonic 80A

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6 Joining of different alloys
6.1 Austenite-ferrite joints and joining nickel alloys with steels
With the increasing application of nickel alloys, compounds of these materials with structural steels and
stainless steels are required. These joints must have a clean microstructure and sufficient strength. Usu-
ally for making type-different joints, the filler material which is suitable for the nickel alloy may be used. It
should be remembered that the weld metal becomes 10 to 30% less alloyed because of the dilution with
the low-alloyed material (Figure 8).
Figure 8: Iron content in deposited weld metal of S-NiCr15Ti on steel depending on the number of runs
Nickel based filler metals prevent a de-alloying to great extents. Table 2 contains the filler materials suit-
able for different material combinations. The EL-NiTi3 and SG-NiTi4 pure nickel filler materials are suita-
ble for almost all joints. They should be used above all when copper-alloyed materials are to be joined
with chromium-alloyed materials.

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Seite 11
Table 2: Filler materials according to DIN EN ISO 14172 and DIN EN ISO 18274 for joining different materials
austenitic
Base material LC-Ni 99 NiCu30Fe CuNi30Fe NiCr15Fe NiCr20Ti Unalloyed and
NiCu30Al NiCr23Fe NiCr21Mo NiCr22Mo9Nb NiCr19NbMo NiCr23Co12Mo NiMo28 NiMo16Cr16Ti steels
combinations LC-Ni 99.6 LC-NiCu30Fe CuNi10Fe LC-NiCr15Fe NiCr20TiAl low-alloy steels
(DIN 17440)
EL-NiTi3 EL-NiTi3 EL-NiTi3 ; EL-NiCr19Nb
LC-Ni 99 EL-NiTi3 EL-NiTi3; EL-NiCu30Mn EL-NiTi3 ; EL-NiCr15FeMn EL-NiCr15FeNb ; EL-NiCr19Nb ; EL-NiCr20Mo9Nb SG-NiTi4 SG-NiTi4 EL-NiCr20Mo9Nb
LC-Ni 99,6 SG-NiTi4 SG-NiTi4; SG-NiCu30MnTi SG-NiTI4 ; SG-NiCr20Nb SG-NiCr21Mo9Nb EL-NiMo29 EL-NiMo15Cr15Ti SG-NiTi4 ; SG-NiCr20Nb
SG-NiMo27 SG-NiMo16Cr16Ti SG-NiCr21Mo9Nb
NiCu30Fe EL-NiTi3
EL-NiCu30Mn
LC-NiCu30Fe EL-NiTi4
EL-NiCu30Mn EL-NiTi3
NiCu30Al SG-NiCu30Al
SG-NiCu30MnTi SG-NiTi4
CuNi30Fe
SG-NiCu30MnTi
CuNi10Fe
EL-NiCr20Mo9Nb
NiCr15Fe EL-NiTi3 EL-NiCr20Mo9Nb SG-NiCr21Mo9Nb
EL-NiCr19Nb
LC-NiCr15Fe SG-NiTi4 EL-NiCr19Nb SG-NiCr20Nb
SG-NiCr20Nb EL-NiTi3 EL-NiCr20Mo9Nb EL-NiCr19Nb
EL-NiCr15FeNb (SG-NiTi4)
SG-NiTi4 EL-NiCr20Mo9Nb
EL-NiCr15FeMn (EL-NiTi3)
NiCr23Fe EL-NiCr21Co12Mo
SG-NiCr20Nb
EL-NiMo15Cr15Ti SG-NiCr20Nb
SG-NiCr22Co12Mo SG-NiCr21Mo9Nb
NiCr21Mo EL-NiCr15FeNb EL-NiTi3 EL-NiMo29
SG-NiCr21Mo9Nb EL-NiCr20Nb SG-NiCr21Mo9Nb
EL-NiCr19Nb
NiCr22Mo9Nb SG-NITi4
EL-NiCr20Mo9Nb
SG-NiMo27 SG-NiMo16Cr16Ti
NiCr20Ti SG-NiCr20Nb
SG-NiCr21Mo9Nb
NiCr20TiAl
EL-NiCr20Mo9Nb
SG-
NiCr19NbMo SG-NiCr21Mo9Nb
NiCr19NbMoTi
EL-NiCr19Nb ; EL-NiCr21Co12Mo EL-NiCr20Mo9Nb EL-NiCr21Co12Mo

NiCr23Co12Mo
SG-NiCr20Nb ; SG-NiCr22Co12Mo SG-NiCr21Mo9Nb SG-NiCr22Co12Mo
EL-NiTi3 EL-NiMo29
SG-NiTi4 EL-NiTi3 ; EL-NiMo29 EL-NiCr19Nb EL-NiCr20Mo9Nb EL-NiMo29 EL-NiMo15Cr15Ti
NiMo28
EL-NiMo29 SG-NiTi4 ; SG-NiMo27 SG-NiCr20Nb SG-NiCr21Mo9Nb SG-NiMo27 SG-NiMo27
SG-NiMo27 SG-NiMo16Cr16Ti
EL-NiMo15Cr15Ti
EL-NiTi3 EL-NiMo29
SG-NiTi4 EL-NiCr20Mo9Nb EL-NiMo15Cr15Ti EL-NiMo15Cr15Ti
NiMo16Cr16Ti
EL-NiMo15Cr15Ti EL-NiCr21Mo9Nb SG-NiMo16Cr16Ti SG-NiMo27 SG-NiMo16Cr16Ti
SG-NiMo16Cr16Ti SG-NiMo16Cr16Ti
Similar
EL-NiTi3
austenitische types of
SG-NiTi4 EL-NiCr19Nb ; EL-NiCr20Mo9Nb
Stähle steel
EL-NiCr19Nb SG-NiCr20Nb ; SG-NiCr21Mo9Nb
(DIN 17440) filler
SG-NiCr20Nb
materials
Similar
Unalloyed and EL-NiCr20Mo9Nb types of
low-alloy steels SG-NiCr21Mo9Nb steel filler
materials

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Joints of ferritic and austenitic steels being subjected to loading at increased and high temperatures,
which are welded with a filler material similar to that of austenitic steel, carbon may diffuse from the ferrit-
ic steel into the austenitic weld metal under long-term conditions around 600 °C, because the austenitic
microstructure exhibits a higher carbon solubility compared to ferritic microstructures. So a decarbon-
ised, coarse rod-shape zone is formed in the ferrite, and in the austenite a border zone of chromium car-
bides is formed. This decarbonised zone has a lower strength than the ferritic base material and the car-
bonised zone in the austenite has a higher hardness and a lower ductility. This can be a starting point of
cracks, stress corrosion cracking and intercrystalline corrosion.
Nickel based filler materials with more than 50% Ni prevent a carbon diffusion from ferritic steels into the
weld metal of joints between ferritic and austenitic materials at operating temperatures over 600 °C . In
addition the nickel filler materials have despite their cubic-face centred microstructure, a thermal expan-
sion coefficient which is close to that of ferritic steels (Figure 9). Alternating thermal loading creates
therefore lower stresses on the critical side of the joint, i.e. between ferritic steel and the weld metal.
High stresses between the weld metal and the austenitic base material is more easily absorbed or re-
lieved there, due to the high toughness of the base material and the weld metal.
The less the partner materials to be joined are metallurgical suitable for each other, the more attention
must be paid towards the choice of the welding process. Processes with low heat input and penetration
depth are then favourable.
Figure 9: Thermal expansion coefficient of weld metal from EL-NiCr15Nb compared to non-alloyed steels, ferritic
12% chrome steel and austenitic steels

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7 Joining of Ni alloys with other non-ferrous metals
Ni and Cu are highly suitable for welding with each other, as both metals form a complete line of solid
solutions The different thermal conductivities are slightly problematic. It can therefore be necessary to
pre-heat the Cu material while the Ni material shall not be overheated.
In most other non-ferrous metals, there are huge problems when welding with the usual fusion welding
processes. On the one hand, the melting points are partly very widely spread (e.g. Ni and Al). On the
other hand, in most cases brittle intermetallic compounds are formed which lead to cracks already during
welding.
Figure 10: Phase diagram Ni-Al

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Figure 11: Phase diagram Ni-Ti
7.1 Choice of the welding process for joining different materials
Materials which can be alloyed in arbitrary ratios with each other (e.g. copper and nickel and their alloys)
can be joined practically with all technically usual fusion welding processes.
The less the partner materials of the joint are metallurgical suitable for each other, the more attention
must be paid towards the choice of the welding process; operations with low heat input and therefore
small melt depth of the base materials are favoured. Therefore by using for example electron beam
welding, difficult to weld materials can also be mastered as they cannot be joined by other methods.
If two materials cannot be joined at all for the named reasons using fusion weld technologies, friction
welding can still be used - for rotationally symmetrical parts - in every case. Otherwise soldering or a
mechanical joining process could be an alternative.

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8 Literature
Leaflet DVS 0601, 12/1998 Welding of nickel and nickel alloys.
AD 2000 Leaflet HP 2/1 Process test for joining methods;

Process test for welded joints
AD 2000 Leaflet HP 3 Welding supervisor, welder
AD 2000 Leaflet HP 5/2 Production and testing of joints;

Production test on weld seams, testing of the base
material after the heat treatment after welding
Heubner, U. i.a.: Nickel materials and high-alloy stainless steels.

2. Aufl. 1993. Expert Verlag Ehningen.
Rudolph, G. and Th. Hoffmann Improvement of welding technology and

weldability of nickel alloys.
Metal 41 (1987), H. 10 and 12, pp. 988 and
1210 et seq.

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Aluminium and aluminium alloys Page 1
Chapter 2.20-1: Aluminium and aluminium alloys
Contents
1 Overview .............................................................................................................................. 2
2 Process principles the manufacturing of aluminium ....................................................... 4
3 Pure aluminium ................................................................................................................... 6
4 Alloys ................................................................................................................................... 6

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1 Overview
In 2008 the world-wide aluminium requirement was amounted to approx. 47 million, of which approx. 12
million was allotted to Europe. Germany accounted for around 15 billion euros with approximately 74,000
employees. The automotive and building industry are the main fields of application with a 50% usage of
this material.
In the transport industry, the automotive sector (passenger cars and commercial vehicles) contributes
the highest share. In the year 2010, the average aluminium usage in European car production was ap-
prox. 160 kg, divided between wrought and cast materials. In particular, casting products gain more and
more significance over the final years. In the 10 year’s period from 1990 to 2000 for example, the pro-
duction of cast manufacturing rose from 467,700 to 645,600 tonnes of which more than 70% went to the
automotive industry.

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Aluminium is distinguished by the following properties:
It is a good conductor and also relatively strong. Even without surface protection it is largely resistant to
corrosion and has a wide variety of uses. It is recyclable and can be joined with all standard joining tech-
niques.
Compared with iron, aluminium has the following typical differences:
Table 1: Comparison of the properties of pure iron and aluminium
Characteristics Al Fe
Atomic weight [g/Mol] 26.98 55.84
Crystal lattice cfc Cubic body centred
3
Density [g/cm ] 2.70 7.87
3 3
E-Module Mpa[%] 67  10 210  10
-6 -6
Expansion coefficient 1/K 24  10 12  10
Rp0,2 [Mpa]  10  100
Rm [Mpa]  50  200
Specific heat [J/kgK]  890  460
Heat of fusion [J/g]  390  272
Melting point temperature [°C] 660 1536
Thermal Conductivity [W/mK] 235 75
Electrical Conductivity [m/mm²] 38  10
Oxide Al2O3 FeO / Fe2O3 / Fe3O4
 Melting temperature [°C] 2050 1400 / 1455 / 1600

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2 Process principles the manufacturing of aluminium
Most important raw material for the production of aluminium is the ore bauxite out of which the oxide
Al2O3 (alumina) is being separated hydrometallurgical via the Bayer process.
Figure 1: Principle of the Bayer process
The principle of this circulation process is the extraction of aluminium hydroxide from bauxite with caustic
soda at elevated temperature, separation of the solid residue (red mud) after cooling of the suspension,
partial precipitation of aluminium hydroxide from the then supersaturated aluminate by seed crystalliza-
tion and recycling the liquor after separation of the crystallized hydroxide. The aluminium hydroxide ob-
tained is then thermally dehydrated to oxide.
The process uses two physicochemical properties of the system Al2O3-Na2O-H2O, i.e. the temperature
depending of solubility of aluminium hydroxide in caustic soda solution and the metastability of supersat-
urated aluminate solutions.
The Bayer process has been further improved in recent decades through process optimization so that a
higher productivity can be achieved and the energy consumption could be significantly reduced. There
were in the past other recovery methods developed such as Digestion with the acid, but these methods
have not been applied technically until now.
Due to the strong binding forces of the oxide, aluminium is being separated from the oxygen via the
fused-salt electrolysis world-wide without exception. The energy required is relatively high with a total of
approximately 14 kWh per kg of Al.

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Figure 2: The principle of fusion electrolysis from aluminium
According to the principle of Hall and Héroult, based on the solubility of alumina in molten cryolite
(Na3AlF6), the electrochemical thermal decomposition of the oxide is executed at temperatures between
950 ° and 980 °C and follows:
Al2O3  2Al + 3/2 O2
The technical electrolytic cell anode mainly composed of pre baked carbon anodes while the cathode, at
which the separation of aluminium takes place, consists of the lower shell with heat-insulating refractory
lining and the carbon floor having embedded steel bars for the power supply.
The continuous development of this technique leads to larger cells and higher currents, so that the effi-
ciency of metal extraction and therefore also the power consumption can be further improved.
Alternative procedures exist, such as aluminium chloride electrolysis and also primary aluminium produc-
tion, but they would not normally be used today.
The product made by electrolysis is termed primary aluminium and is usually present at the purities
99.5%, 99.7% and 99.85%. The main accompanying elements are silicon and iron.
Approximate yield 4 t bauxite 2t aluminium oxide and 1 t primary aluminium.
A significant proportion of the total demand for aluminium is covered by so-called secondary alloys,
i.e. the processing of old or returned material. Here, only 5% of the energy applied in primary production
is needed.

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3 Pure aluminium
For special applications, a higher purity metal is required than is available from the normal fusion elec-
trolysis. To obtain this pure aluminium, three-layer refinement electrolysis is used. Here, with the help of
three overlapping molten layers which consist of the primary aluminium to be refined, the electrolyte and
the refined aluminum, electrochemical purities of 99.99% can be achieved.
Even higher purity can be achieved by metal refining electrolysis using aluminium-organic electrolytes or
with the zone melting process.
4 Alloys
A distinction is made between wrought and cast alloys. Materials from wrought alloys must be able to be
formed in cold and hot states. Output products are cast ingots, which are either processed in a rolling or
pressing plant to the corresponding semi-finished products like strips, sheets, plates or profiles.
Furthermore, the alloys are divided into non age-hardenable (NHT) and age-hardenable (HT).
Figure 3: Classification of the aluminium alloys
In the context of Europeanising steel and aluminium material, new European standards were introduced
as a substitute for the relevant national standards.

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Table 2: Overview of standards for aluminium wrought alloys (selection)
Content of the standard DIN EN standard Remarks

Aluminium and aluminium alloys - Terms and
definitions - Part 1: Common Terms
12258-1 Replacement for DIN EN 23134-1 to -4
Systematics
 Numeric system 573-1 National standard DIN 17007
 Alphanumeric system 573-2 National standard DIN 1700
Composition
 All alloys 573-3 Substitute for standard DIN 1725 T.1
 Pure aluminium 573-3 Substitute for standard DIN 1725 T.3
 Welding Fillers 573-3 DIN EN ISO 18273
 Brazing alloys 573-3 DIN EN 1044
Material condition 515

Product forms 573-3 Replacement for DIN 1725 T.1 and T.3
1712
Technical delivery Substitute for standard DIN 1745 T.2
485-1 (> 0.35 mm). For more products EN
Sheet metals (> 0.20 to 200 mm)
standards are in preparation.
Areas of application
 General 573-3 Replacement for DIN 1725 T.1
 Food 602
Mechanical properties
 Sheet metal (> 0.20 to 200 mm) 485-2 Additional EN standards in preparation.
 Forged items 586-2
Special requirements
 Semi-finished products in contact with food 602 Additional EN standards in preparation
Specifications
 Ingot press 486
 Ingots 487
 Rolled products for cans, closures and lids 541
 Discs / raw material for manufacturing of kitchen 851
ware 941
 Discs / material for general applications EN 1396
 Coil coated sheet / strip for general applications
 Plates with rolled patterns EN 1386
 Slug (made from semi-finished) to the extrusion 570

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The material designations are either numbers (DIN EN 573 T1) or alphanumeric (chemical) symbols
(DIN EN 573 T2), respectively.
Alloy designation
Numeric Alphanumeric
(1) Standard abbreviation
(6) (6)
(2) Base metal + delivery form
(3) 1st digit: Series designation
2nd digit: Alloy modification
EN AW-5456A EN AW-AlMg5Mn1 (A) (4) Variant
(5) Main alloying elements
(1) (2) (3) (4) (1) (2) (5) (7) (4) (6) Nominal content
(7) Additional alloying element
The system consists of four numeric digits and corresponds to that of the Aluminum Association, USA,
registered name.
Alloy groups – numerical system
1000 Series Al  99.0% NHT

2000 Series Main alloy element = Cu HT
3000 Series Main alloy element = Mn NHT
4000 Series Main alloy element = Si NHT
5000 Series Main alloy element = Mg NHT
6000 Series Main alloy element = Mg + Si HT
7000 Series Main alloy element = Zn HT
8000 Series Main alloying element = other elements NHT/HT
where NHT stands for non age-hardenable and HT stands for age-hardenable alloys.
The usual alloy designation is:
EN AW-5456A or EN AW-5456A [AlMg5Mn1 (A)].
As an exception the alphanumeric designation can also be selected exclusively:
EN AW-AlMg5Mn1 (A).

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Aluminium and aluminium alloys II Page 1
Chapter 2.20-2: Aluminium and aluminium alloys I
Contents
1 Overview .............................................................................................................................. 2
2 Non-age hardening alloys .................................................................................................. 2
3 Age hardening alloys .......................................................................................................... 4
4 Al-Cu System ....................................................................................................................... 5

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1 Overview
The achievable properties of an aluminium material depend on its chemical composition, its delivery form
(strip, plate, extrusion-profile etc.) and its condition.
The technical processes involved when defining the material properties, in addition to adding alloying
elements, include solidification by cold formation and various heat treatments and their combinations.
2 Non-age hardening alloys
For non-age hardening alloys, strength is reached by solid solution hardening, hardening by secondary
phase precipitations, strain hardening as well as de-strengthening annealing.
With the addition of alloying elements, mainly by adding foreign atoms to the lattice structure, an in-
crease in hardness, tensile strength and yield strength (yield point) is achieved. Elongation and con-
striction are decreased. The table below shows the increase in strength by adding 1 weight % of certain
alloying elements, depending on the ratio of the atomic radii in comparison to aluminium.
Table 1: Influence of adding alloying elements to increase the strength of aluminium through solid solu-
tion formation
 Atomic radius  RP0.2  Rm

rx – r Al in % MPa/wt% MPa/wt%
Si: - 3.8 + 9.2 + 39.6

Zn: - 6.0 + 2.9 + 15.2
Cu: - 10.7 + 13.8 + 43.1
Mn: - 11.3 + 30.3 + 53.8
Mg: + 11.8 + 18.6 + 50.3
The elements Fe, Ni, Ti and Cr and their combinations predominantly form secondary phase precipita-
tions with relatively small solubility in aluminium. The higher the percentage by volume of these precipita-
tions in the microstructure occurs, the higher its hardening effect.
Cold forming increases the formation of new dislocations, that is the increasing the dislocation density,
which leads to an increased strength and hardness.

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Figure 1: Increase in strength with natural hardening materials
De-strengthening annealing is carried out to either fully or partially de-strengthen the material. With a
fully de-strengthening the material reaches the state of soft annealing by complete recrystallisation, a
partial de-strengthening is achieved by a partial recrystallisation or as well by recovery. By these so-
called back annealing, the same tensile strength is maintained but allows for a better deformation behav-
iour.
Figure 2: Solidification / softening

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Furthermore stabilisation annealing treatments are carried out on certain materials, through which a less
sensitive state for intercrystalline corrosion is created.
An aluminium material is defined entirely by the alloying denomination and designation of its condition.
The latter is listed after the alloy denomination and is preceded by a dash.
F Production condition
O Soft annealed
H Cold work hardened
H1x Only cold hardened, without additional thermal treatment
H2x Cold hardened and back annealed; slightly improved deformation behaviour
H3x Cold hardened and stabilised
H4x Cold hardened and enamelled
3 Age hardening alloys

Age hardening materials are predominantly defined in their properties by the heat treatments “solution
annealing - quenching – ageing”.
Solution annealing serves to enrich the solid solution with the alloying components effective for harden-
ing. Through fast cooling, the solid solution enriched with the alloying additions is transferred to the su-
persaturated state.
Figure 3: Depiction of the heat treatment hardening using the Al-Al2Cu system
During the aging process that follows, which can be carried out at room temperature or at elevated tem-
peratures, precipitation from the supersaturated solid solution occurs.

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a) b)
c) d)
Aluminium atom
Foreign atom (e.g. Cu atom)
a) Mixed crystal
b) Coherent precipitation
c) Partially coherent precipitation
d) Incoherent precipitation
Figure 4: Types of precipitation
With coherent precipitation the crystal lattices for matrix and phase correspond to each other. The differ-
ences in the atomic distances lead to so called coherence stresses. Partially coherent precipitations
demonstrate only a partial coherence between the lattice structures. Incoherent precipitations always
have a lattice structure distinctively different from the alloying matrix.
Both the atoms solved and the various precipitation types represent obstacles for the dislocation move-
ment, leading to an increase in strength. The mechanical properties of a material depend on the appro-
priate alloying system.
4 Al-Cu System
In the Al-Cu system the following precipitations occur depending on copper concentration, quenching
speed and aging conditions:
1. The GP I zones (named after their discoverers Guinier and Preston) are disk-shaped accumulations
of Cu atoms in monoatomic layers. Here the case is for coherent precipitations.
2. The GP II zones represent an alternating sequence of overlapping monoatomic aluminium and cop-
per layers and lead to a tetragonal distortion of the lattice. These precipitations are also coherent with
the alloying matrix.
GP I and GP II zones are very finely distributed, obstructing quite effectively the movement of sliding
dislocations and lead to a relatively strong increase in strength. GP I zones are more effective than GP II
zones.

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3. The '- phase is a lamina-like, non-balanced phase based on the tetragonal structure of the interme-
tallic compound Al2Cu and forms partially coherent precipitations. Their distribution in the alloying
matrix is slightly larger and at no times does coherence stresses appear to the -solid solution ma-
trix.
4. The  phase is the stable tetragonal balanced phase Al2Cu.
Figure 5: Schematic diagram of the course of age hardening an Al-Cu alloy
For an Al-Cu alloy with approx. 4% Cu, the GP I zones are formed within just a few minutes after
quenching at room temperature. Annealing at approx. 160°C for a few hours leads to the formation of GP
II zones. Annealing at higher temperatures (240° or 300°C) will form the other two phases mentioned
previously.
So that the specified precipitation processes can take place, a sufficiently high concentration of lattice
vacancies is required, so that the diffusion of the alloy atoms can take place at relatively low tempera-
tures as well. This necessary requirement is based on the concentration of lattice vacancies frozen by
high quenching coming from the solution's annealing temperature.
As aging time increases, so too the size and mean distance between the respective precipitation types,
and in so doing, the mechanism that allows for the obstacles of sliding dislocations to be overcome
changes.
In this way dislocations can either cut or avoid the precipitations, i.e. bulging between precipitations.
Whereas the cutting resistance grows with aging time and thus the particle size increases, the outbreak
resistance drops with aging time and therefore the increasing distance between particles as well.

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Each additional extension of the ageing time leads to a reduction of strength. This process is called
overageing.
Figure 6:
The progression of precipitation hardening as a
function of temperature and time
* T = Temperature
Furthermore for hardenable alloys, a combination of heat treatments that serve hardening, and as well
cold and hot forming, are of great practical importance. By utilising these thermo-mechanical processes,
the strength can be increased further, the hardening behaviour altered, residual stress reduced or the
overall dimensional stability improved.
The following list contains the conditions for hardened alloys.
T1 Quenched directly after warm forming temperature and cold (naturally) aged
T2 Quenched directly after the warm forming temperature, cold formed and cold (naturally) aged
T3 Solution annealed, cold formed and cold (naturally)aging
T4 Solution annealed and cold (naturally) aging
T5 Quenched directly after warm forming temperature, thermal (artificially) aging
T6 Solution annealed and thermal (artificially) aging
T7 Solution annealed and stabilised
T8 Solution annealed, cold formation and thermal (artificially) aging
T9 Solution annealing, thermal aging and cold formed
Tx51 Stress-relieved by stretching
Tx52 Stress-relieved by compressing
W Solution annealed (instable state; the time interval of the cold aging can also be set: W2h)

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Aluminium and aluminium alloys III Page 1
Chapter 2.20-3: Aluminium and aluminium alloys III
Contents
1 Suitability for welding of aluminium materials ................................................................. 2

1.1 Weldability ................................................................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Strength ..................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.3 Corrosion resistance ............................................................................................................................... 8
1.4 Weld porosity ............................................................................................................................................ 9
1.5 Anodising behaviour .............................................................................................................................. 10
2 Summary ............................................................................................................................ 11
3 Weld preparation ............................................................................................................... 13
3.1 Preheating ............................................................................................................................................... 13
3.2 Shielding gases ...................................................................................................................................... 14

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1 Suitability for welding of aluminium materials
Compared with iron, aluminium has the following characteristics in relation to welding:
it has a high oxygen affinity, which leads more or less to the formation of a distinctive oxide skin and/or
inclusions.
It has high thermal conductivity and thermal expansion, leaves signs of high shrinking stresses and
demonstrates a high melting range depending on the alloy.
Furthermore it has high hydrogen solubility in the liquid state, which is reduced immensely at the time of
solidification.
The welding process comprises the following influences on the material:
When melting, additional materials can be added to create an alloy and/or certain alloying elements can
be burned off.
Heat induced by welding, depending on the material and the amount of energy, i.e. distance from the
welding zone, can lead to a type of solution annealing, recrystallisation, aging or recovery. In addition,
the material can also be softened.
From a metallurgical viewpoint the following requirements should be considered when producing a
welded joint:
The material must be suitable for welding, i.e it must not have the tendency to lead to cracking. In addition
the necessary strength must be obtained, while maintaining the required deformation behaviour and
sufficient corrosion resistance, as well as the possible colour activity when interacting with the base metal
while anodizing. Furthermore pores or inclusions can only occur to a limited extent, depending on the
requirements.

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1.1 Weldability
The welding suitability of aluminium, based on the susceptibility of materials, can lead to the formation of
hot cracks. The difference between two types of hot cracking must be noted: solidification cracks and
liquation cracks. The first type of cracking occurs in the weld metal and is based on the solidification
characteristic, i.e. the chemical composition, of the material.
Pure aluminium. No critical temperature range; solid aluminium crystals

after solidification form a secure joint, but have the tendency to lead to
pores or shrinking hollow areas.
Slightly eutectic; critical temperature range; Heat cracking susceptibility

because material is solid but not joined.
Sufficiently eutectic; no critical temperature range; no tendency to crack

because solid aluminium crystals swim in the residual melt.
Figure 1: The different solidification types of aluminium alloys (Source: Aluminium paperback, 14th Edition)

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Figure 2: Relative tendency to crack as a function of the composition used for different binary systems
Figure 3: Relative tendency to crack for two aluminium quaternary systems (Al-Mg-Zn-Cu and Al-Mg-Si-Cu) and
one aluminium ternary system (Al-Cu-Mg).

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Liquation cracks occur primarily in the heat-affected zone and are caused by the remelting of low-melting
eutectic phases with simultaneously occurring thermal stresses.
Metallurgical parameters to be considered include the chemical composition and structural formation of
the base metal.
The relative tendency to crack for a material is influenced by the filler metal. The tendency to crack can
be reduced by suitable base and filler metal combinations.
Therefore in the case of solidification cracks in the welding metal, the susceptibility of alloys with Mg
contents below 3 weight %, like the EN AW-5052 [AlMg2.5], can be improved by selecting a weld metal
with high Mg contents, such as EN AW-5556 [AlMg5Mn], thereby avoiding solidification cracks due to
sufficiently high Mg contents. Addition of a like filler metal leads conversely to a welding metal with
relatively high susceptibility (see Figure 4.)
Concerning liquation cracks, with the help of a Si-rich addition like EN AW-4043 [AlSi5], it is possible to
avoid the formation of cracks close to the melting line of the HAZ. Therefore the hot crack susceptibility of
base metal EN AW-6061 [AlMg1SiCu] welded with EN AW-4043 [AlSi5] is significantly lower than the
combination 6061/5554 welded with a Mg-rich filler metal (see Figure 4).
Figure 4: Relative tendency to crack with selected standard/filler metal combinations of aluminium filler materials

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1.2 Strength
For non age-hardenable and cold formed materials the welding heat input can cause loss of strength at
different levels through recrystallisation and recovery. In addition a coarse grain formation can take place.
The soft state is therefore the lowest influenceable state when welding.
Age-hardenable alloys predominantly lose their strength by growing or re-dissolving of phase precipita-
tions.
The extent for loss of strength is directly tied to the quenching sensitivity of the material. After welding
the cooling speed required for a suitable aging cannot be achieved for most materials, so that the
strength of the base metal cannot be reached any more.
Figure 5: Hardness distribution curves in the HAZ of Figure 6: Hardness distribution curves in the HAZ for
TIG welding 3.2 mm sheets with constant TIG welded seams for the alloy 6061 T6 with
heat input different heat input

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Figure 7:
Hardness profile course of a TIG seam on one 3.2
mm sheet
Alloys of the type AlZnMg, which are self-hardening, follow an exception concerning quenching sensitivity.
These alloys are characterised by a low quenching sensitivity, i.e. the strength achieved after aging is
only slightly affected by the cooling speed.
Therefore, practically the same values of 0.2% yield strength are achieved for the alloy EN AW-7020
[AlZn4.5Mg1] by air cooling as with water quenching. This means that after welding air cooling is just as
sufficient for these materials in order to achieve again the suitable strength values after cold aging.
Figure 8:
Progression of warm and cold aging, using both
water and air cooling from 480 °C, for the alloy EN
AW-7020 [AlZn4.5Mg1]

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In principle, a heat treatment can be applied for adjusting the ultimate strength after welding of the
component. This means the material can be processed in the normal cold aged state and, afterwards
can be warm aged or even solution annealed again. This requires, on the one hand, suitable facilities
and, on the other hand it’s obvious that the possible necessary cooling of the component after solution
annealing leads to corresponding problems, so that in practice limits are set to the practical application
of strength adjustment.
Figure 9:
Hardness distribution curves in the HAZ for the alloy EN
AW-6061-T4 (cold aged) and T6 (warm aged) after
welding (AW) and after renewed aging (PWA)
As with weldability the weld strength is influenced by the filler metal. The ratio between tendency for
cracks and strength behaves contrary in general.
1.3 Corrosion resistance
With welded joints of pure aluminium and non age-hardenable alloys, the corrosion resistance is rarely
compromised. For materials with high Mg-content (> 3.5% Mg) it is worth taking note that corrosion
resistance is not reduced due to microstructural changes that take place because of the heat distribution
when welding. Therefore in the temperature range of 100 – 230 °C anodic precipitations (Al8Mg5phase)
may form on the grain borders, which then impair resistance against stress corrosion cracking or
intercyrstalline corrosion. However for this to take place, the critical temperature range must be maintained
for relatively long periods of times, and these changes should not occur during the usual welding process.
For most age-hardenable aluminium alloys the highest resistance against stress corrosion cracking can
be attained with warm aging or even over-aging. Therefore these alloys and their corrosion resistance
are impaired by welding heat in the HAZ.
A further decrease in corrosion resistance can take place based on the potential difference between
base and filler metal. For example, a 7000 base material: the corresponding HAZ reacts strongly anodic
to the base metal when welded with a 5000 filler metal. The result is an intensified local corrosion attack.

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1.4 Weld porosity
The cause for pores is related to the solidification behaviour of the welded aluminium material or may be
due to gas inclusion, which is the reason in most cases.
Metallurgic pores mainly occur in pure aluminium when the transition liquid to solid occurs so rapidly that
the cavities resulting from solidification can no longer be filled by the remaining liquid metal.
With alloys that have a solidification interval, this phenomenon can also occur when, due to dendrite
formation, the flowing of the liquid residual melt is restrained by the dendrite branches.
Gas inclusions result from gases that cannot escape before the melt turns solid. These gases can come
from shielding gas or the air, and as well can be trapped during movement of material in the welding pool.
The main cause for gas pores in aluminium is however the dissolved hydrogen in the melt. Due to the
high oxygen affinity of the metal, the water that is present is reduced and the hydrogen is released into
the melt. As the hydrogen solubility of aluminium declines with the temperature and even decreases
abruptly at the time of solidification, uniformly distributed pores can result.
Therefore the base material and the filler metal should not introduce any hydrogen and the shielding gas
used must be accordingly clean. Furthermore any grease that is present and the oxide skin must be
removed prior to welding and in general any moisture must be kept away.
Figure 10: Hydrogen solubility in pure aluminium

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Figure 11: Sources for hydrogen with MIG welding (source: Thier)
In addition, deeply distinct pore channels (Wormholes) can result, more or less, from material shrinkage
during solidification of weld ends (end craters). If they do not occur too deeply, they can be completely
removed by remelting the end of joint. To prevent deep pore channels, welding equipment with a “crater
filling program” is available.
1.5 Anodising behaviour
Both grain size variations and different contents of alloying elements can lead to colour deviations when
anodising. As the material is influenced accordingly by the welding process, both by filler metal and heat
input, appropriate precautions need to be taken for decorative requirements of a welded joint.
For avoiding excessive Mg2Si precipitations in the HAZ of AlMgSi alloys, the heat input should be
adapted accordingly and instead of filler metal AlSi5, Mg-rich wire electrodes should be used. In addition
the content of alloy and trace elements in the welding filler material should be kept at a minimum.
The protective effect of the anodising layer is not impaired by colour differences.

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2 Summary
The following overview for the materials EN AW-5052 [AlMg2.5] and EN AW-6082 [AlSi1MgMn]
lists the choice for filler metals as related to the required properties for welded joints.
Table 1: Overview of the choice of filler metals

Alloy Filler material S F U K FA
EN AW-5052 AlSi5 A D C B ---
AlMg4.5Mn0.7 A A B C B
AlMg5Cr (A) A B A C A
AlMg3Mn (A) C C A A B
AlMg3.5Cr B C A B A
EN AW-6082 AlSi5 A C B A --
AlMg4.5Mn0.7 B A A C B
AlMg5Mn B A A C B
AlMg3Mn C B A B B
AlMg3.5 C B A B B
S = Weldability A = best … D = poorly suitable
F = Strength
U = Forming behaviour
K = Corrosion resistance
FA = Colour behaviours when anodizing
Furthermore, a recommended distinction can be taken from the following chart for base and filler metals
used during fusion welding mix materials.

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Table 2: Allocation of primary and filler metal during fusion welding aluminium mix materials
Base metal Al99.90 Al99.5 AlMn1 AlMg1(B) AlMg4.5Mn0.7 AlMg2Mn0.8 AlMgSi AlZn4.5Mn1 Base metal
A Al99.8(A) Al99.0 AlMg2 AlMg5 AlSiMg(A) B
Al99.7 AlMg3 AlSi1MgMn
Filler Al99.8(A) Al9.5Ti Al99.5Ti AlMg5Mn AlMg5Mn AlMg5Mn AlSi5 AlSi5 Al99.90
metals: AlMn1 AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) Al99.8(A)
Al99.7
Al99.5Ti Al99.5Ti AlMg5Mn AlMg5Mn AlMg5Mn AlSi5 AlSi5 Al99.5

AlMn1 AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) Al99.0
AlMn1 AlMg5Mn AlMg5Mn AlMg5Mn AlSi5 AlSi5 AlMn1

AlSi5 AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A)
AlMg5Mn AlMg5Mn AlMg5Mn AlMg3 AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) AlMg1(B)

AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) AlMg5Mn AlMg5Mn AlMg2
AlMg3 AlMg3 AlMg3
Note
AlMg5Mn AlMg5Mn AlMg5Mn AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) Higher alloy filler is usually more
AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) AlMg5Mn AlMg5Mn crack-resistant when welding. If
one of the materials to be joined
consists of Mg-alloy, the filler
AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) AlMg5Mn AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) AlMg2Mn0.8 metal is dependent on this.
AlMg5Mn AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) AlMg5Mn The filler AlSi5 is more appropri-
AlMg3 ate for AlMgSi alloys when con-
sidering weldability, however it
provides lower strength for the
AlSi5 AlSi5 AlMgSi welding joint than AlMg5Mn and
AlMg3 AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) AlSiMg causes higher ozone pollution
AlMg5Mn AlMg5Mn AlSi1MgMn than the latter.
Welding filler material of the type
AlMg, which include certain con-
AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A) AlZn4.5Mg1 tents of zirconium (Zr), can be
AlMg5Mn used for hot crack susceptibility.
The base metals are defined in the standard EN 573-3. A complete description is available according to EN 573-1 or EN 573-2. The filler materials have been regulated
with the international standard DIN EN ISO 18273 for chemical composition and the description for the control of filler materials. The designation is defined as follows:
wire electrode or bar ISO 18273-Al4043 (or AlSi5).

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3 Weld preparation
For welding joint preparation of MIG and TIG welding, the joint preparations as listed in DIN EN ISO
9692-3 apply. When welding a single-layer square butt weld, it is recommended to slightly bevel (“break-
ing”) the sheet edges on the root side in order improve the root profile.
Not chamfered
Chamfered
Figure 12: Root formation (schematically)
The welding faces and the adjacent areas must be grease-free and dry (see also section welding porosity).
In addition, after degreasing and immediately before welding the oxide layer should be removed e.g. with
wire brushes from “white” material. Although a new oxide layer is immediately formed again, this layer is
relatively thin with an evenly thickness.
3.1 Preheating
Pre-heating is necessary if, due to the high thermal conductivity of aluminium, no sufficient penetration
can be achieved. Attention should be paid that no considerable thickness of the oxide layer builds up on
the welding faces due to longer pre-heating intervals or O2-surplus in the fuel gas (preheating flame).
Furthermore, the influence of the pre-heating temperature and time in relation to the material properties
must be taken into account, especially when dealing with age-hardenable alloys along with cold formed
as well as high Mg materials.
Table 3: Reference values for pre-heating temperature and times for the welding of aluminium mix substances
Material Sheet metal or wall thickness range Max. preheating Max. preheating
in mm temperature ˚C time min
TIG MIG
AlMgSi  5 to 12 180 60
AlSi1MgMn ( 12)  20 200 30
AlSiMg(A) 220 20
250 10
1)
AlZn4.5Mg1  4 to 12 140 30
( 12)  16 160 20
2)
AlMg4.5Mn0.7  6 to 12  16 150 to 200 10
AlMg3 ( 12)
1) Longer exposure to temperatures between 200 and 300 °C reduces the capability for self-hardening.
2) Be aware of ICC susceptibility!

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3.2 Shielding gases
For gas-shielded metal arc welding of aluminium, both argon and argon helium mixtures are used,
whereby argon is the most frequently used shielding gas. Helium additives lead to higher arc power
compared with pure argon, and provide for a better weld layout regarding excess weld metal, weld width
and depth or penetration shape. With the same weld penetration, the welding speed can be increased
and the risk for the formation of pores and fusing problems can be reduced.
It is important to note that helium, due to its higher ionisation potential, leads more or less to a more un-
stable arc. Therefore 100% helium is only rarely used as a shielding gas and even then mostly in fully
mechanised procedures. Furthermore, to obtain the same protective effect as with argon, the triple
amount of gas volume is required because of the lower density of He. It should be noted that argon gas
flow meters are also suitable for setting the helium flow rates if the actual required/set shielding gas
amount is determined utilising correction factors.
Table 4: Correction factors for the argon flow meter

Composition of shielding Correction factor
gases
Ar % He %
100 0 1
75 25 1.14
50 50 1.35
25 75 1.75
0 100 3.16
The decision, which shielding gas is used depends on the workpiece thickness, the joint preparation as
well as from cost effectiveness. Table 5 shows the influence of increasing helium added to the shielding
gas argon.
Table 5: Influence of increasing helium content in the shielding gas argon

Composition of Shielding 100 % Ar 100 % He
Gases
Arc characteristics MIG: More instable. TIG: More diffuse
Weld width Increases, weld becomes flatter
Penetration Becomes lower and rounder
Welding speed Can be increased
Susceptibility to lack of fu- Decreasing
sion problems
Susceptibility to porosity Decreasing
Pre-heating Can be reduced or is omitted
Temperature control Workpiece becomes warmer  compensated by higher
welding speed
Shielding gas costs Rising
(regarding total balance!)

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The shielding gases as described and/or gas mixtures are added for particular applications with specific
additives. An additive is understood as the addition of certain components in the vpm area (generally
less than 500 vpm). Depending on gas supplier the additives may contain oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2),
nitrogen oxide (NO) or combinations. Purpose of these additives is to stabilise the welding arc and to
optimize therefore the welding surface (more finely rippled and flatter) as well as to avoid spattering. The
effect of the additive depends on the alloy type of the filler metal and the workpiece's surface under the
welding arc area.
Argon, helium
+ 300 vpm NO
+ 70 vpm N2
Argon 4.6
Material: EN AW-5083 [AlMg4.5Mn0.7], 5.2 mm, 30 cm/min

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Table 6: Glossary
Base materials
2014 AlCu4SiMg 3003 AlMn1Cu
1060 Al99.6 2036 AlCu2Mg0.5 3004 AlMn1Mg1
1100 Al99.0Cu 2219 AlCu6Mn
1350A Eal99.5 (A)
6101 EalMgSi 7005 AlZn4.5Mg1.5Mn
5005 AlMg1(B) 6005 AlSiMg 7020 AlZn4.5Mg1
5050 AlMg1.5(C) 6063 AlMg0.7Si 7021 AlZn5.5Mg1.5
5052 AlMg2.5 6201 EalMg0.7Si 7039 AlZn4Mg3
5454 AlMg3Mn 6351 AlSiMg0.5Mn 7046/7146 AlZn7Mg1
5086 AlMg4 6061 AlMg1SiCu
5083 AlMg4.5Mn0.7 6082 AlSi1MgMn
5456A AlMg5Mn1(A)
5356 AlMg5Cr(A)
filler metals
2319 AlCu6Mn(A) 3003 AlMn1Cu 5554 AlMg3Mn(A)
1080A Al99.8(A) 5654 AlMg3.5Cr
1050A Al99.5 5183 AlMg4.5Mn0.7(A)

4043A AlSi5(A)
1450 Al99.5Ti 5356 AlMg5Cr(A)
4145 AlSi10Cu
5556A AlMg5Mn
4047A AlSi12(A)
Standards / Leaflets:  filler metals DIN 1732 Part 1 (replaced by DIN EN ISO 18273)
 Weld preparation DIN EN ISO 9692-3
 MIG welding of Al; leaflets DVS 0913 and DVS 0933

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Table 7: Comparison DIN EN standards – former DIN standards
DIN EN 573-3 Old DIN standard

Number Short designation Short designation
*)
1098 Al99.98 Al99.98R
1080A Al99.8 (A) Al99.8
1070A Al99.7 Al99.7
1050A Al99.5 Al99.5
1200 Al99.0 Al99
1350A EAl99.5(A) E-Al

2007 AlCu4PbMgMn AlCuMgPb
2011 AlCu6BiPb AlCuBiPb
2014 AlCu4SiMg AlCuSiMn
2017A AlCu4MgSi (A) AlCuMg1
2117 AlCu2.5Mg AlCu2.5Mg0.5
2024 AlCu4Mg1 AlCuMg2

3003 AlMn1Cu AlMnCu
3103 AlMn1 AlMn1
3004 AlMn1Mg1 AlMn1Mg1
3005 AlMn1Mg0.5 AlMn1Mg0.5
3105 AlMn0.5Mg0.5 AlMn0.5Mh0.5

3207 AlMn0.6 AlMn0.6
5005A AlMg1(C) AlMg1
5505 Al99.9Mg1 Al99.9Mg0.5
5305 Al99.85Mg1 Al99.85Mg1
5605 Al99.98Mg1 AlRMg1
5110 Al99.85Mg0.5 Al99.85Mg0.5
5310 Al99.98Mg0.5 AlMg0.5

5019 AlMg5 AlMg5
5049 AlMg2Mn0.8 AlMg2Mn0.8
5051A AlMg2(B) AlMg1.8
5251 AlMg2 AlMg2Mn0.3
5052 AlMg2.5 AlMg2.5

5454 AlMg3Mn AlMg2.7Mn
5754 AlMg3 AlMg3
5082 AlMg4.5 AlMg4.5
5182 AlMg4.5Mn0.4 AlMg5Mn
5083 AlMg4.5Mn0.7 AlMg4.5Mn

5086 AlMg4 AlMg4Mn
6101B EAlMgSi(B) E-AlMgSi0.5
6401 Al99.9MgSi Al99.9MgSi
6005A AlSiMg(A) AlMgSi0.7
6012 AlMgSiPb AlMgSiPb

6060 AlMgSi AlMgSi0.5
6061 AlMg1SiCu AlMg1SiCu

6082 AlSi1MgMn AlMgSi1
7020 AlZn4.5Mg1 AlZn4.5Mg1
7022 AlZn5Mg3Cu AlZnMgCu0.5
7072 AlZn1 AlZn1
7075 AlZn5.5MgCu AlZnMgCu1.5

8011A AlFeSi(A) AlFeSi
*)
Consistency does not correspond to DIN EN identically

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Titanium, magnesium SFI / IWE 2.21
and other metals and their alloys Seite 1
Inhalt
1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 2
2 Definitions ............................................................................................................................. 3
3 Titanium................................................................................................................................. 3
3.1 Classification acc.to ISO/TR 15 608................................................................................................... 3
3.2 Standardisation of Titanium Materials ................................................................................................ 3
3.3 Designation system for titanium materials......................................................................................... 4
3.4 Introduction to the metallurgy of Titanium ......................................................................................... 5
3.5 Overview of titanium base materials .................................................................................................. 6
3.6 Welding of titanium and titanium alloys ............................................................................................. 9
4 Magnesium .......................................................................................................................... 13
4.1 Classification acc.to ISO/TR 15 608................................................................................................. 13
4.2 Standardisation of Magnesium Materials ........................................................................................ 13
4.3 Designation System of Magnesium Materials................................................................................. 13
4.4 Introduction to the Metallurgy of Magnesium Materials ................................................................. 15
4.5 Overview of Magnesium materials ................................................................................................... 16
4.6 Welding of magnesium and magnesium alloys .............................................................................. 20
5 Tantalum.............................................................................................................................. 23
5.2 Standardisation of tantalum base materials .................................................................................... 23
5.3 Designation System for Tantalum Base Materials ......................................................................... 23
5.4 Introduction to the metallurgy of Tantalum Materials ..................................................................... 24
5.5 Overview of Tantalum Materials ....................................................................................................... 25
5.6 Welding of Tantalum and Tantalum Alloys ...................................................................................... 26
6 Zirconium ............................................................................................................................ 27
6.2 Standardisation of Zirconium Materials ........................................................................................... 27
6.3 Designation System for Zirconium Materials .................................................................................. 27
6.4 Introduction to the metallurgy of Zirconium Materials .................................................................... 28
6.5 Overview of Zirconium Materials....................................................................................................... 30
6.6 Welding of Zirconium and Zirconium Alloys .................................................................................... 31
7 Details for Welding Quality ................................................................................................ 33
8 Test questions .................................................................................................................... 34
9 Literature ............................................................................................................................. 36

Schweißen
1 Introduction
Non-ferrous metals like titanium, magnesium, tantalum and zirconium have proven to be unreplaceable
for specific applications similar to copper, nickel and aluminium. However, although their partly excellent
characteristics a large-scale application of pure metals or their alloys is highly limited. The reasons for
this are mainly their partly extreme high pricing which prevents an economic efficiency and the very lim-
ited availability of the heavy metals tantalum and zirconium. Nevertheless, special applications were un-
thinkable without these materials.
Nowadays however, titanium materials do have a widely spread application in aerospace (for example,
almost the complete fuselage of the espionage airplane Lockheed SR-71 has been fabricated out of tita-
nium alloys for reasons of extreme high mechanical and thermal loading during speeds of Mach 3,5),
medical technology (e.g. implants, see figure 2) or spectacles (frames) sectors, magnesium alloys did
already have their application of frame structures in airships (framework of the Zeppelins) at the begin-
ning of the 20th Century. Nowadays, magnesium alloys have their applications in aerospace and more
and more in the automotive industry. Like the boxer engine of the VW-beetle which has been made of a
magnesium alloy containing up to 10% aluminium and new applications in high performance engines. In
contrast with the tantalum and zirconium applications which are just limited to a few specific ones. In
particular the heavy metal zirconium is being used as an alloy (with approx. 90% Zr), due to its high neu-
tron permeability characteristics, for hollow pipes containing uranium fuel elements (actually uranium
oxide) in nuclear reactors
Superconducting zirconium-niobium alloys maintain their characteristics even when high magnetic fields
are applied on them which give them their application of becoming superconducting magnets.
The annual production of tantalum is just around 1400 tons (steel, more than 1,3 billion tons).
Along with their major application as pure element for electronics (e.g. for capacitors with high capacity),
alloys of these elements including up to 10% wolfram are applied as conductive lining in heat exchang-
ers and pumps due their specific corrosion resistance.
Figure 1: espionage airplane Lockheed SR-71A with Figure 2: medical radiografie of a tigh bone with an im-
fuselage made of different titanium alloys (source: Tech. plant of titanium alloys (source: with kind permission of
Sgt. M. Haggerty; U. S. Air Force) A. Pinkernelle)
The in this chapter to be mentioned non-ferrous metals can be classified more or less into two specific
characteristic groups:
– Titanium and Magnesium to the light metals,

– Tantalum and Zirconium to the heavy metals.

Schweißen
2 Definitions
Light metals
Metals and alloys are designated as being light-metals if their density is below 4,5 kg/dm³ (see also
chapter 2.01). Due to their original formation mechanism inside stars, light-metals are widely spread as
bound form in the earth crust (some exceptions like lithium, bore and beryllium)
Heavy metal
If the density of metals and alloys extent the value of 4,5 kg/dm³ they are designated as heavy-metals.
Due to their astrophysical formation mechanism in combination with an increasing atomic weight (>26)
they are partly only available as traces in the earth crust. As a result the total global reserves of the al-
ready found and still to be found metals have the size of a 10 meter square only.
3 Titanium
3.1 Classification acc.to ISO/TR 15 608
According to ISO/TR 15608 weldable titanium and titanium alloys are subdivided into groups and sub-
groups. Table 1 shows some alloy examples being subdivided.
Table 1: Grouping system for titanium and titanium alloys acc.to CEN ISO/TR 15 608
titanium and titanium alloys
Standards
Group Sub-group Type of titanium or titanium alloys
(examples)
Pure (unalloyed) titanium
51.1 Titan mit O2 < 0,20 %
51.2 Titan mit 0,20 % < O2 ≤ 0,25 % DIN 17 850,
51
51.3 Titan mit 0,25 % < O2 ≤ 0,35 % EN ISO 5832-2
51.4 Titan mit 0,35 % < O2 ≤ 0,40 %
Alpha-alloys
Ti-0,2Pd; Ti-2,5Cu; Ti-5Al-2,5Sn; Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V; Ti-6Al-2Sn-
52 DIN 17 851
4Zr-2Mo; Ti-6Al-2Nb-1Ta-0,8Mo
Alpha-Beta-alloys
Ti-3Al-2,5V; Ti-6Al-4V; Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn;
53 DIN 17 851
Ti-7Al-4Mo
Near Alpha-Beta-alloys
Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al; Ti-13V-11Cr-3Al; Ti-11,5Mo-6Zr-4,5Sn; Ti-3Al-
54 DIN 17 851
8V-6Cr-4Zr-4Mo
3.2 Standardisation of Titanium Materials

3.2.1 Selected Standards for Titanium Materials
Table 2 shows an overview of selected national standardised titanium materials, their composition and
product forms.

Schweißen
Table 2: selected national standards for titanium and titanium alloys and their semi-finished products
Standard Title
DIN 17 850 Titanium; chemical composition
DIN 17 851 Titanium alloys; chemical composition
DIN 17 860 Titanium and titanium alloy strip, sheet and plate - Technical conditions of delivery
DIN 17 861 Seamless circular titanium and titanium alloy tubes; technical delivery conditions
DIN 17 862 Titanium and titanium alloy bars - Technical specification
DIN 17 863 Wire of Titanium
Titanium and titanium wrought alloys forgings (hammer and drop forgings) - Technical specifi-
DIN 17 864
cation
Titanium and titanium alloy investment castings and rammed graphite castings; technical deliv-
DIN 17 865
ery conditions
DIN 17 866 Welded circular titanium and titanium alloy tubes; technical delivery conditions
Moreover, these and other base materials have been standardised in numerous Aerospace standards.
Also the ASTM standards contain a broad variety of standards for titanium and titanium alloys (e.g.
B863, B265, B348, B338 u. a.). Frequently, non-standardised commercial titanium alloys with manufac-
turer specific product designations are in service (often promotional invented names).
3.3 Designation system for titanium materials

3.3.1 Pure titanium
Pure (unalloyed) titanium will usually be subdivided according to its oxygen content (see Table 1). With
increasing oxygen percentage and simultaneously increasing iron content the designations are:
– Ti1, Ti2, Ti3 as well as Ti4 acc. to the national standard (DIN 17 850)
or as:
– Titan Grade 1 up to Grade 4 acc. to the international standard (EN ISO 5832-2).
3.3.2 Titanium alloys
DIN-System (national System)
The German DIN System is based on the usual base material designation, comprising a short symbol
and a material number (similar to aluminium, see chapter 2.20). It is common practice to preferentially
designate the base material by its short symbol. Example:
titanium: Base
Short designation: TiAl6V4 aluminium: 6%
vanadium: 4%
3.: Nonferrous-Light metal (Ti)
Base material number: 3.7165
7165: Number type

Schweißen
ISO-System (international System)

The international system for chemical symbol designation of titanium and titanium alloys is based on
standard ISO 2092 Light metals and their alloys – Code of Designation based of chemical symbols).
Selected alloys are listed in special standards (e.g. medical implants in EN ISO 5832-2 and -3). The
chemical designation will be according to Table 1. The numerical designation often follows the US-
system. The alloys will be designated preferably acc. to the ASTM or ASME regulations with sequentially
numbered grade-designation (e.g. titanium grade 12 = Ti-0,8Ni-0,3Mo or titanium grade 23 = Ti-6Al-4V)
3.4 Introduction to the metallurgy of Titanium

3.4.1 Description of the base metal
Titanium is a transition metal (chemical element which possesses an incomplete d-scale). One of its ex-
plorers, the German chemist Heinrich Klaproth, appointed the name Titans according to a Greek race of
gods.
The pure element is glazy white, light, solid, elastic, corrosive- and temperature resistant. Titanium is,
similar to iron, allotropic and has a hexagonal close packed (hcp) base cell (-Titan) up to 882 °C. Up
to temperatures of 1.668 °C it has a body-centred cubic (bcc) base cell (-Titan). The magnetic charac-
teristics are paramagnetic.
3.4.2 Selected physical and mechanical characteristics
Atomic Electro-
22 1,54
number negativity
Symbol Ti Appearance
pure element:
Name Titanium (picture: SLV Halle GmbH)
relative atomic mass 47,867
Electron configuration 2-8-10-2
Table 3: Properties of Titanium in comparison to iron

100 %
150 %
200 %
250 %
300 %
350 %
400 %
450 %
500 %
50 %
Properties Value
(rel. vaule)
Properties relatively to iron (Fe = 100%)
Density [g/cm³] 4,50

57 %
electr. conductivity [A/(V · m) · 10 ]

6 2,5
25 %
therm. conductivity [W/(m · K)] 22

28 %
therm. expansion coefficient [10 /K]

-6 8,6
73 %
Melting point [°C] 1.668

109 %
Boiling point [°C] 3.260

100 %

Schweißen
3.4.3 Fabrication of titanium
The earth crust contains in average around 0,565 % Titanium which results in a ninth place ranking
and consequently its availability is relatively high (fourth most abundant metal). It is explicitly found as a
compound with oxygen.
Important titanium minerals are for example ilmenite (FeTiO 3) or rutile (TiO2). Moreover, the element will
be found in small quantities in other minerals. The fabrication of technical pure titanium will be executed
by the so-called KROLL-processing in which the earlier mentioned minerals are the main basic raw
materials. Enriched titanium oxide (TiO2) will be converted into titanium chloride (TiCl4) and carbon mon-
oxide (CO) by heating in combination with chloride (Cl) and carbon (C). Subsequently the reduction into
elementary titanium will be executed by means of fluid magnesium. If basic alloys have to be fabricated
out of this, the by the KROLL-process generated sponge aluminium must be melted in vacuum arc fur-
naces.
3.4.4 Influence of alloying elements on the microstructure
Pure titanium exists as -shape (hdp) at room temperatures.

By adding alloying elements, the microstructure at room temperature will either not be changed (-
alloys) or changed into microstructures with traces of cubic-centered -fase (Nah--alloys) to micro-
structures with significant shares of  in the -microstructure (+-alloys) or to pure -alloys (Figure 3).
The influences of alloying elements to both phases can be described by alloying equivalents.
-stabilisation property: Aleq = %Al + 0,17%Zr + 0,33%Sn + 10%O

- stabilisation property: Moeq = %Mo + 0,2%Ta + 0,28%Nb + 0,4%W + 0,67%V + 1,25%Cr +
1,25%Ni + 1,7%Mn + 1,7%Co + 2,5%Fe
T T
T


 

 
 
Ti   stabilising
-stabilisierende Ti    -stabilisierende
stabilising Ti   stabilising
-stabilisierende
Legierungselemente Legierungselemente Legierungselemente
alloying elements alloying elements alloying elements
Figure 3: Influence of alloying elements on the microstructure of titanium alloys (schematic)
3.5 Overview of titanium base materials

3.5.1 General characteristics
In case of being contacted with atmospheric oxygen all titanium base materials generate an extreme
resistant protective layer (passive layer) which will be very resistant under many corrosive mediums.
Remarkable is its high tensile strength in combination with a relatively low density. However, tensile
strength properties drop rapidly above temperatures of 400°C.

Schweißen
Highly pure titanium can easily be deformed plastically. It brittles very quickly by interstitial absorption of
oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen at high temperatures and consequently loses its good formability. A se-
lection of advantages and disadvantages are listed in Table 4.
Table 4: Advantages and disadvantages of titanium base materials

Low density and therefore less weight (application for Expensive and complex in production (high material
lightweight construction) price)
Very corrosion resistant thru generating a dense, solid Significant anisotropy (directional dependency of the
oxide layer properties)
Properties by alloying and WB-adjustable (-, --, -
Specific notch sensibility
alloys)
High fatigue resistance (depending on alloy type) High dynamic friction coefficient (problematic for wings)
Mechanical machining is problematic (e.g. low cold
Tensile strength properties similar to tempered steels
workability)
High biocompatibility (e.g. for medical implants) Low heat conductivity
Combinations with other base alloys are very problem-
Suitable for welding and brazing
atic until now
3.5.2 Technical pure Titanium (unalloyed Titanium)
Technical pure titanium has a tensile strength similar to aluminium alloys and shows a very high corro-
sion resistance. Chemical composition of unalloyed titanium acc.to DIN 17850 as well as selected me-
chanical technological values are listed in Table 5.
Table 5: Chemical composition (heat analysis acc.to DIN 17 850) and mechanical properties (annealed
condition) of unalloyed titanium (selection)
Chemical composition in weight-
Base material Mechanical properties
% (max.)
Type
Wkst.- Rp0,2 Rm A5 Z
Symbol Fe O Ti
Nummer N/mm² N/mm² % %
Ti1 3.7025 0,15 0,12 200 290 – 430 24 35
Ti2 3.7035 0.20 0,18 290 390 – 540 20 30
 Rest
Ti3 3.7055 0,25 0,25 380 450 – 550 18 27
Ti4 3.7065 0,30 0,35 490 540 – 740 15 25
3.5.3 (Low) alloyed Titanium
Corrosion resistance improvement in reducing media can be achieved by addition of approx. 0,2%
palladium to the unalloyed titanium grades Ti1 to Ti4.
The mechanical properties will not be influenced by doing this. Such alloys have proven to be effective
specifically in low concentrated salt- and sulphuric solutions at even high(er) temperatures and in oxalic
acid. Table 6 shows some typical alloys.
Table 6: Chemical composition of (low) alloyed titanium (heat analysis) acc.to DIN 17851
Base material Chemical composition in weight-% (max.)
Mat.- Type Pd
Symbol Fe O N C H Ti
Number min. max.
Ti1Pd 3.7225 0,15 0,12
 0,05 0,06 0,013 0,15 0,25 Rest
Ti2Pd 3.7235 0.20 0,18

Schweißen
Ti3Pd 3.7255 0,25 0,25
3.5.4 (High) alloyed Titanium
(High) Alloyed titanium materials will be applied for those situations where tensile strength properties of
unalloyed titanium grades are not sufficient. They will be, as earlier mentioned (see section 3.4.4), classi-
fied acc.to their microstructure:
Alpha-alloys:
Alpha alloys contain high shares of aluminium (Aleq < 9 Gew.-%), have high tensile strength values and
show a very excellent corrsosion resistant at temperatures between 300° and 500°C. They cannot be
annealed (transformation free) but have a good weldability.
Nah--alloys:
Nah--alloys contain only small quantaties of -stabilising elements. They are the classic high tempera-
ture base materials. Their operating temperatures (in uncoated condition) are between 500 and 550°C.
They combine high tensile strengths with high creep resistance and find their application for example in
aircraft gasturbines. Selected alloys are TiAl8Mo1V1, TiAl5, 5Sn3,5Zr3Nb1, TiAl6Sn2Zr4Mo among oth-
ers.
Alpha-Beta-alloys:
These materials are the most researched and tested alloy group. Elements like chrome, copper, iron,
manganese, molybdenum, tantalum, and niobium are maintaining the - microstructure up to room
temperature. Annealing is possible which create high tensile strength values. A disadvantage is the sub-
sequently high brittleness which influences the formability (Figure 4 und Figure 5). The most important -
-alloy is TiAl6V4 (3.7165).
Beta-alloys (metastable):
Metastable Beta alloys contain a higher share of beta stabilising alloying elements. Very high tensile
strengths (Rp > 1.400 N/mm²) can be achieved through heat treatment (precipitation hardening). They
have limited corrosion resistancy and are heat resistant as well as isotropic. Applications can be
found in for example aeronotical combustion chambers and aerospace gas turbines.
Table 7 contains selected mechanic-technological properties of such alloys. It can be recognised that
these properties depend highly on the heat treatment condition of the material.
Table 7: Mechanical properties of selected titanium alloys (values acc.to Otto Fuchs KG)
Base material Mechanical properties (min.)
Typ Heat treatment
Mat.- Rp0,2 Rm A5 Z
Symbol e condintion
Number N/mm² N/mm² % %
TiAl6Sn2
Zr4Mo2Si 3.7145 + hardened 830 900 8 20
TiAl6V6 annealed 930 1.000 8 20
Sn2 3.7175 +
hardened 1.100 1.200 6 15
annealed 830 900 10 25
TiAl6V4 3.7165 +
hardened 1.030 1.100 8 15
TiAl5Fe2,5 3.7110 + annealed 780 860 8 25
TiAl5Sn2,5 3.7115  geglüht 760 790 10 25

Schweißen
TiAl4Mo4
Sn2 3.7185 + ausgehärtet 920 1.050 9 20
Figure 4: „basket weaving microstructure“ of /-Matrix Figure 5: acicular microstructure of /-Matrix of alloyT-
of titanium alloy TiAl6V4 ( - light, lamellar;  - dark) iAl6V4 with intermetallic phases
3.6 Welding of titanium and titanium alloys

3.6.1 General details
Basically, pure titanium and -alloys have a good weldability. If the cooling-down speed will be exceeded
during cooling-down from -- and -alloys, titanium-martensite (α‘-titanium) will be generated. In
contrast to steel, this microstructure is a relatively soft, oversaturated phase which can get dissolved
again by formation of α-titanium with fine embedded β-precipitations during a subsequent tempering.
The β-precipitations generate a tensile strength increase in contrast to the -condition. Cooling down
speeds, like the ones which are typical for welding, from temperature areas above the α-β-transition
temperature, generate an acicular basket weaving microstructure of the -phase (Figure 4 and Figure 5).
The main difficulty during welding titanium base materials is however, the absorption of gases (
The main difficulty during welding of titanium is however that by absorption of gases (in particular oxy-
gen, nitrogen and hydrogen) at elevated temperatures, the material may become brittle.
This is due to the fact that the mentioned elements in small volumes, do not change the hexagonal close
packed crystal structure itself but are deposited at the interstitial locations and subsequently obstructing
the movement of dislocations.
For this reason it is important to have in place a well prepared gas protection sleeve that surrounds
and protects the material to be welded until temperatures below 500 ° C have been achieved. For exam-
ple argon purging gas protection sleeves have proven to be successful. Welding can also be applied in
vacuum or in a protective gas enclosure. Any way, special shielding gas protection fixtures and auxil-
iary equipment should be available (Figure 6 and Figure 7). Besides this, the execution of welding of
titanium and its alloys should be executed in separate working-areas, isolated from the remaining shop
area (“white workshop”). The following must be observed explicitly in case of weld processing of titanium
base materials (inclusive tack welds) independently from the type of welding process:
– absolute cleanliness of all weld seam areas and

– absolute protection of the complete welding joint preventing entrance of the atmosphere or reactive
gases.

Schweißen
Due to these reasons the welding joint flanks have to be machined at all times. Oxides from thermal
cutting processes could generate pores or even embrittlements. Cleaning with fatt-dissolving medi-
ums should be carried out on the weld area and on the filler material immediately before the start of
welding as dust, grease and even hand perspiration could lead to pores or hardening spots.
If good/effective shielding gas protection has been applied the weld surfaces show a very clean,
smooth and metallic white appearance. Existing yellow- or blue shiny colouring areas must be re-
moved at all times, for example with stainless steel brushes, before welding the following weld runs.
3.6.2 Applicable Joining Processes (selection)
Titanium and its alloys can be joined thermically with several fusion processes (Table 8). The amount
of heat input should be limited, specifically during TIG welding as a coarse grain microstructure
arises which lead to loss of ductility. Plasma welding in particular is very suitable because:
– depending on the configuration, plate thicknesses up to 10mm can be welding using a I-joint,
– only up to 5 to 10% filler material is required,
– the welding speed is high and the heat input limited and
– the danger of pores is relatively small.
Table 8: Selected fusion processes for titanium base materials depending on their application
Fusion process Application Remarks
Good suitability for manual and mechanised welding, widely
Very widely
TIG welding spread (accepted) for pressure vessel manufacturing, specif-
spread
ically if mechanising the parts can not be executed
Suitability possible, more economic than TIG welding, how-
MIG welding Not spread
ever no application up till today
Good suitability especially for full automated welding, appli-
Plasma welding Spread cation commonly spread, in particular for welding sheet met-
als with plate thicknesses between 3 and 20 mm.
Good suitability, argon protection is a must, weld metal must
Laser welding Spread
be protected from the Cross Jet Gas
Very good suitability as welding is executed under vacuum
Electronbeam weld- Increasingly
conditions, gas pore sensibility of titanium materials is not
ing spread
relevant
Good suitability, shielding gas not required, application for
Resistance welding Spread
example in aviation and aerospace sectors
Good suitability for joint welding, the timely proceeding re-
quires a protection of the joining zone by argon or helium, the
Friction welding Spread weld strengths reach the base material strengths, also suita-
ble for mixed joints with dissimilar metals, application in avia-
tion and aerospace sectors.
Ultrasonic welding with heat effects is limited to some specif-
Ultrasonic welding Limited spread ic applications, an efficient surface protection against oxida-
tion must be available
Enables the joining with other metallic materials (explosion
Explosion welding Spread cladding). application in aviation and aerospace sectors as
well as apparatus construction
In contrast to other metallic materials, titanium and a number
Diffusion welding Spread
of titanium alloys are specifically suitable for diffusion weld-

Schweißen

ing, considerable experiences using alloy TiAl6V4 are availa-
ble in aviation and aerospace manufacturing.
Note: Mixed joints of titanium and its alloys with other metallic base materials are very problematic
due to the initiation of highly embrittling intermetallic phases.
Figure 6: Shielding gas equipment for welding titanium Figure 7: root protection by different shaped copperrails
(open protection with porous, gas-permeable side walls for welding titanium and titanium alloys.
of copper or messing)
3.6.3 Filler material
The appropriate filler materials for welding titanium and tintanium alloys are defined internationally in
EN ISO 24034 (Table 9). The short-designation is S (Solid wire or rod)
Table 9: Selected standards of filler materials for titanium base materials

Standard Title
Welding consumables - Solid wire electrodes, solid wires and rods for fusion welding
EN ISO 24 034
of titanium and titanium alloys - Classification
Example: solid rod ISO 24034 — S Ti 6402 (TiAl6V4B)

„Ti 6402“ is related to the numerical (acc. to UNS) and „TiAl6V4B“ to the chemical short designation of
the applicable filler material.

Schweißen
Note: There are more filler materials available in respect to the availability of base materials which offers
the possibilty of higher alloy welding (overmatch). This compensates the disadvantage of the lower cor-
rosion resistance of the weld metal due to its cast microstructure.

Schweißen
4 Magnesium
ISO/TR 15608 does not have a specific group- or sub-grouping classification for magnesium and mag-
nesium alloys.
4.2 Standardisation of Magnesium Materials

4.2.1 Selected Standards for Magnesium Materials
Table 2 shows a overview of selected national, European and international standardised magnesium
base materials, their compositions and available product shapes
Table 10: selected national, European and international standards for magnesium and magnesium alloys as
well as for semi-finished materials
Standard Title
ISO 8287 Magnesium and magnesium alloys - Unalloyed magnesium - Chemical composition
EN 12 421 Magnesium and magnesium alloys - Unalloyed magnesium
ISO 3116 Magnesium and magnesium alloys - Wrought magnesium alloys
DIN 1729-1 Wrought magnesium alloys
ISO 16 220 Magnesium and magnesium alloys - Magnesium alloy ingots and castings
EN 1753 Magnesium and magnesium alloys - Magnesium alloy ingots and castings
ISO 26 202 Magnesium and magnesium alloys - Magnesium alloys for cast anodes
EN 12 438 Magnesium and magnesium alloys - Magnesium alloys for cast anodes
Moreover, these and other base materials can be found in many aviation and aerospace standards (e.g..
WL 3.5000 to 3.6299-10, WL 3.5000 to 3.6299-20 etc.). Also the American regulations of ASTM contain
a series of standards for magnesium and its alloys (e.g. ASTM B80, B881, B107, B93 etc.).
4.3 Designation System of Magnesium Materials

4.3.1 General
An independent national designation system (DIN) for magnesium base materials does not exist (any-
more). In Europe cast base materials have been defined in EN 1754:
EN 1754: Magnesium and magnesium alloys - Designation system for anodes, ingots and castings -
Material numbers and material symbols
This is based, similar to titanium (see section 3.3), on the international standard ISO 2092 (Light metals
and their alloys – Code of Designation based of chemical symbols).

Schweißen
4.3.2 Pure (unalloyed) magnesium
The coded designation for pure magnesium exists of the chemical symbol Mg of magnesium followed by
the mass weight in precentages (%) up to two decimals.
– Mg99,75
4.3.3 Magnesium alloys
DIN-System (national System)
The in Germany commonly used base material short-designation acc.to the DIN system of wrought
magnesium alloys, contains a short-designation and a base material number. It is common practice to
identify the base materials with its short-designation. Example:
Magnesium: Base
Short designation (DIN): MgAl6Zn Aluminium: 6%
Zinc: included
3.: Non-iron lightweight metal (Mg)
Numerical designation: 3.5612
5612: Type number
EN-System (European system)
The European system for magnesium alloys is based on the implemented base material designation
containing a chemical and numerical short designation (similar to nickel- and copper short designations,
see chapter 2.18 and 2.29). It is common practice to identify the base materials preferently with its
(chemical) short-designation. Example:
EN: Prefix EN-

M: Magnesium
B: Ingot metal
Short designation (EN, ISO): EN-MBMgAl8Zn1
Mg: Base
Al 8%
Zn 1%
EN: Prefix EN
M: Magnesium
Numerical designation: EN-MB21110
B: Ingot metal
21110: Alloy number
Table 11: Numerical designation of magnesium base materials acc.to EN 1754

lfd. Description Symbol Description
1-3 Prefix EN- European standardised cast material
4 Designation acc.to ISO 2092 M Magnesium base materials
A Base materials for anodes
5 Type of base material B Base materials for ingots
C Base materials for castings
1 Magnesium
2 Aluminium
Numbers for defining the chemi-
3 Zinc
6 cal composition (main alloying
4 Manganes
elements)
5 Silicium
6 Rare earths

Schweißen
lfd. Description Symbol Description

7 Zirconium
8 Silver
9 Yttrium
00 Mg
11 MgAlZn
Numbers for defining the alloy 12 MgAlMn
group 13 MgAlSi
7-8
*) hoher Anteil an seltenen Erdmetallen
21 MgZnCu
(RE = rare earth metals) 51 MgZnRE*Zr
52 MgRE*AgZr
53 MgRE*YZr
9 Alloy group 1 or 2
10 Designation within a sub-group 1 to 9
The short designation (codification) of magnesium alloys is defined in ASTM B275 (Standard Practice for
Codification of Certain Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, Cast and Wrought) acc. to the ASTM-regulations
which follows the chemical composition. Example:
– AS41D – A: 4 % Aluminium; S: 1 % Silicium; Rest Magnesium; level of alloy development: D

Valid is:
A – Aluminium; H – thorium; O – silver; B – bismuth; K – zirconium; R – chrome; C – cupper; L – berylli-
um; S – silicium; D – cadmium; M – manganese; T – tin; E – noble earths; N – nickel Z – zinc, F -iron
4.4 Introduction to the Metallurgy of Magnesium Materials

4.4.1 Description of the Base Metal
Magnesium belongs, just like aluminium, to the alkaline-earth metals. Following aluminium and iron,
magnesium is the third most available metal with a 2,7% share in the earth crust (6th place ranking of
all elements). It was Antoine BUSSY who succeeded in fabricating small volumes of this light metal in
1828.
The pure material has a dull-silver shiny colouring and is approx. 30% lighter than aluminium and reacts
fast with oxygen butt does not generate a corrosion resistant oxide-layer. Magnesium is highly flam-
mable. It is characterised by a low tensile strength and hardness. The metal has a hexagonal cell struc-
ture and its magnetic behaviour is paramagnetic.
4.4.2 Selected physical and mechanical characteristics
Atomic Electro-
12 1,31
number negativity
Symbol Mg Appearance
pure element:
Name Magnesium (picture: SLV Halle GmbH)
relative atomic mass 24,305
Electron configuration 2-8-2

Schweißen
Tabelle 12: Properties of Magnesium in comparison to iron
100 %
150 %
200 %
250 %
300 %
350 %
400 %
450 %
500 %
50 %
Properties Wert
(rel. Wert)

22 %

6 22,7
227 %

200 %

-6 24,8
210 %
Melting point [°C] 650

43 %

34 %
4.4.3 Fabrication of Magnesium
Due to its high chemical reactivity magnesium is only available in a mineral, bonded shape and not as
an element. Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2, magnesite MgCO3, olivine (Mg, Fe)2 [SiO4] and carnallit KMgCl3 .
6 H2O are the most important minerals.
The large-scale production of magnesium is carried out mainly by two different processes. One process
is the thermal reduction of magnesium oxide, like the PIDGEON-processing. The other is the fused-salt
electrolysis of molten magnesiumchloride (similar to aluminium fabrication), like the DOW-processing.
Today’s situation is that approx. 75% of the magnesium is being fabricated by the fused-salt electrolysis
process and 25% by the thermal reduction process. The very worse environmental balance as well as
the high energy consumption for magnesium production should be taken into consideration. 1 Kg mag-
nesium produces between 18 to 45 kg CO2 and approx. 20kWh is needed during the fused-salt electrol-
ysis processing (compare: 1 kg steel produces 1,65kg CO2 and requires 6,31 kWh energy)
4.5 Overview of Magnesium materials

After lithium, magnesium has the lowest density of all technical applicable metals and consequently suits
itself for light-weight applications. Due to its high oxygen affinity an increased fire and explosion risk
exists during treatment or processing. However, with appropriate safety measures it has a good machin-
ability and weldability.
Magnesium alloys are sensitive for bimetal corrosion (see chapter 2.14) and are to be protected
against contacting electrochemical more noble metals for example by isolating intermediate layers.
Also the general corrosion resistance is limited (eventually adding anorganic and/or organic corrosion
protection). Magnesium alloys will mainly be applied in sand-, die- or die-casting base materials. First
until the end of the 20th century, magnesium alloys did find their application more and more as wrought
base materials. In contrast to steel, a weigth advantage of approx. 75% can be achieved depending to its
density. And even in contrast with aluminium it is still approx. 35%. Table 13 shows advantages and dis-
advantages of selected magnesium base materials.

Schweißen
Table 13: Advantages and disadvantages of magnesium materials

Lowest density of construction materials Manufacturing is very expensive
High fatigue resistance Very limited cold-forming properties and ductility
High specific tensile strength Limited high temperature properties
Very good castability Limited cossorion resistance
Very good machinability (very) long solidifying interval (Figure 11)
Good damping properties Creep under high loading (bolt connection)
Very high electromagnetic shielding Low number of application optimised alloys
4.5.2 Technical pure Magnesium
Base materials of technical pure magnesium are not relevant for independent applications. Due to its
hexagonal close packed elementary cell, it is relatively brittle and has a worse cold-formability. The pure
element finds its application for example as nucleus formers for the manufacturing of cast iron with sphe-
roidal graphite (see chapter 2.17), as deoxidiser in nickel or as alloying element in aluminium base mate-
rials (see chapter 2.20)
4.5.3 Magnesium alloys

4.5.3.1 General
Magnesium alloys are differentiated in two main groups. Table 14 defines this in more detail. They are
available as cast- and wrought base materials (Figure 8 and Figure 9).
Table 14: main alloy groups of magnesium base materials

MgAlZn-/ MgAlMn-alloys Mg-alloys with rare earth metals
These alloys are alloyed with rare earth metals like Cer,
These alloys contain 6 to 9% aluminium and 0,2 to 3,5 Yttrium a.o. (up to approx. 5%) as wel as with zirconi-
% Zinc. Both elements highly improve the worse forma- um. Zirconium has a grain refining influence and ther-
bility of the pure magnesium. Aluminium contents over fore a tensile strength improving influence. These
1,5% are affecting the stress corrosion sensibility, so strong desoxidised and consequently very pure base
that components have to be stress annealed. materials do have a comperatively good corrosion re-
sistance.
Aluminium is the classic alloying element for magnesium elevating tensile strengths and hardnesses
(Figure 10). Besides the tensile strength increase alumium also improves the castability of magnesium.
The aluminium content of MgAlZn-alloys (up to 9 %) improves the weldability by grain refinement. Sil-
ver in combination with the rare earth metals strongly improves the heat strength (up to 300°C) and
creep resistancy but on the other hand raises the corrosion tendency. However, rare earth metals like
yttrium, lanthanum, cer und neodymium do reduce the hot-cracking risk and improve weldability. The
most important effect of a manganese input is the strong improvement towards corrosion resistancy.
Zinc improves, just like aluminium, the castability and has an improving tensile strength influence. Unfor-
tunately, similar to aluminium, the tendency of microporosity inclines. Higher contents (> 2 %) are in-
creasing the tendency of hot-craking and deteriorate the weldability. The high(er) zinc containing
alloys (e.g. MgZn4, MgZn6) are therefore very sensitive for hot-cracking. Zirconium has a very effective
grain refining influence. This grain refinement leads to an increase of the tensile strengths without af-
fecting (decrease) the ductility. The addition of silicium worsens the castability. Creep resistancy (heat
strength) could be increased by formation of stable silicides (Mg2Si).

Schweißen
Al
MgAlZn
Zn MgAlMn
Al Mn
MgAlSi
MgAlZn
Si
MgZnCu
Mg Zn Mg
Cu
MgMn MgZnREZr
Zr
Mn
RE MgYREZr
Y
MgREAgZr
Ag
Figure 8: overview of magnesium wrought base ma- Figure 9: overview of magnesium casting materials (RE
terals (acc.to Magnesium-pocketbook) = rare earths)
Figure 10 contains information regarding influences of important alloying elements towards the tensile
strength of magnesium. Solidifcation intervals of selected magnesium alloys are shown in Figure 11.
700
in N mm 2
200
Al 600
°C C
180
strength RRmin N/mm²
Zn
Temperatur inin
500
160
Temperature
Cd
m
400
Tensile Zugfestigkeit
140
Sn
Ni
120 300
Cu
100 200
top : liquidus
oben: temperature
Liquidustemperatur
unten:: melting
bottom Anschmelztemperatur
start temperature
80
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 100
AlloyLegierungsgehalt
content ininweight
Masse-% %
AM20
AM50
AM60
AM70
AS21
AS41
AE42
AZ91
Figure 10: influence of selected elements to the tensile Figure 11: solidification intervals of important magnesi-
strength of Mg (acc.to Mg-pocketbook) um alloys (acc.to Mg-pocketbook)
Tensile strength Rm in N mm2
4.5.3.2 Magnesium Casting Materials
Magnesium casting materials are the most important group of magnesium alloys. Due to their
coarse crystalline microstructure they display a low formability. That’s why they are brittle and are
highly notch sensitive (chapter 2.02). Their tensile strength under solution annealed and tempered
conditions can be improved by alloying with aluminium and/or zinc. A fast cooling after the solution an-
nealing generates a ductility improvement. Table 15 shows the chemical composition and mechanical
properties of selected magnesium alloys. The mechanical-technological properties of these materials
(Table 16) are depending on heat treatment conditions, similar to aluminium materials.

Schweißen
Table 15: Chemical composition (heat analysis) acc.to EN 1753 and mechanical properties of selected mag-
nesium alloys
Chemical composition Mechanical properties
Base material
in weight-% (min. - max.) (min.)
Material Rp0,2 Rm A
Designation Al Zn Mn RE Zr Ag Y
number N/mm² N/mm² %
7,0 0,35 0,1 — — — — 1)
EN-MCMgAl8Zn1 EN-MC21110 90 240 8
8,7 1,0 — — — — —
— 5,5 0,25 — — — — 3)
EN-MCMgZn6Cu3Mn EN-MC32110 125 195 2
— 6,5 0,75 — — — —
— 3,5 — 0,75 0,4 — — 2)
EN-MCMgZn4RE1Zr EN-MC35110 135 210 3
— 5,0 0,15 1,75 1,0 — —
— — — 2,0 0,4 2,0 — 3)
EN-MCMgRE2Ag2Zr EN-MC65210 175 240 3
— 0,2 0,15 3,0 1,0 3,0 —
— — — 2,4 0,4 — 3,7 3)
EN-MCMgY5RE4Zr EN-MC95310 170 250 2
— 0,2 0,15 4,4 1,0 — 4,3
1)
Condition T4; 2) Condition T5; 3) Condition T6 acc. to Table 16
Table 16: Base material condition of magnesium and description acc.to ASTM (selection)
Material condition Description Material condition Description
F Manufacturing condition T5 Cooled down and ageing
T4 Solution annealed T6 Solution annealed and ageing
4.5.3.3 Magnesium-wrought alloys
Besides their low specific weight, magnesium wrought materials display a good hot formability and
machinability. In contrast to magnesium casting materials they are almost free of internal stresses. Af-
ter cold rolling they display a distinctive anisotropic texture which will not be removed even after recrys-
tallisation annealing. Unprotected parts will be oxidised superficial during air contact. They are not re-
sistant to see air. By pickling with HNO3 and potassium dichromate (KaCrO2) a bronze coloured adhe-
sive and dense oxide layer will be generated. Further improvement of the corrosion restistancy can be
achieved by an additional coating. The reasons for today’s comparatively limited application quantities of
wrought materials are the high prices and the lack of experience regarding the manufacturing of starting
materials as well as their further processing into usuable material groups. The chemical composition and
mechanical properties of selected wrought materials acc. to DIN 1729 are listed in Table 17.
Table 17: Chemical composition (heat analysis) acc.to DIN 1729-1 and mechanical properties of selected
magnesium wrought materials
Chemical composition
Base material Mechanical properties
in weight-% (reference value)
Designa- Material Rp0,2 Rm A5 (min.)
Al Zn Mn
tion number N/mm² N/mm² %
MgMn2 3.5200 0,05 0,03 1,2 – 2,0 150 – 170 200 – 230 2
MgAl3Zn 3.5312 2,5 – 3,5 0,5 – 1,5 0,05 – 0,4 150 – 170 230 – 250 10
MgAl6Zn 3.5612 5,5 – 7,0 0,5 – 1,5 0,15 – 0,4 180 – 200 260 – 280 8 – 10
MgAl8Zn 3.5812 7,8 – 9,2 0,2 – 0,8 0,12 – 0.3 200 – 230 280 – 320 6 – 10

Schweißen
4.6 Welding of magnesium and magnesium alloys

4.6.1 General Details
During weld processing magnesium and magnesium alloys are characterised by a number of similarities.
These are:
– generating an adhesive oxide layer which will be created instantaneously,

– the affinity to generate hydrogen induced pores,
– the hot-cracking sensibility depending on the alloy composition (e.g. via zinc),
– the good heat conductivity (preheating of solid blocks from 150 up to 250 °C),
– the weld distortion (as a result of the high thermal expansion coefficients),
– high internal residual welding stresses and
– the risk of fire thru larger machining chips and spatter concentrations.
The weldability will be influenced in particular thru:
– the relatively low boiling point of 1.110 °C (fume generation requires extraction),
– the recoil forces during droplet transition due to the low boiling point during welding with unfa-
vourable settings (vapour pressure) and therefore spatter initiation,
– the hot-cracking sensitivity (solidifcation- and reheat cracking) due to unfavourable heating condi-
tions, missing filler material supply and unfavourable stress conditions and
– insufficient root penetration at the weld start (due to the high heat conductivity)
Magnesium and its alloys can be joined thermically with several fusion processes (Table 18).
Similar to titanium (see section 3.6), the amount of heat input should be limited as otherwise a coarse
grain and embrittled weld metal microstructure will arise which could lead to a loss of ductility. Ox-
ide layers are to be removed (with exceptions).
Table 18: Selected fusion processes depending on their application for magnesium base materials
Modern TIG inverter welding machines are suitable, use of
TIG welding with AC- similar filler materials under argon protection (for thicker
Spread
current plates Ar/He-mixtures), exact torch positioning and accuracy,
small parameter interval
Smaller weld cross-section than welding with AC, risk of hot-
TIG welding with DC-
Limited spread cracking, no spatter initiation, shares of gases and impurities
current
do have a large impact on the weld quality.
Less heat input required as the filler material evaporates eas-
ily, sufficient root penetration must be observed, for thin
MIG welding Limited spread sheet metals the use of modified arc types is preferred, no
pulsed arc mode for thin sheet metals, filler wire surface con-
ditions affects the welding current and wire feeding stability
Optimal welding joint preparation required (grinding of edg-
es), larger parameter interval compared to MIG- and TIG
Increasingly
Laser welding welding, no spatter, contents of gases and impurities of the
spread
base material must be observed (pores and notch initiation),
typical laser joint configuration
Electronbeam weld- Increasingly Suitable for electron beam welding, the low evaporating tem-
ing spread perature and the porosity sensitivity must be observed, the

Schweißen

use of filler material for certain applications (see Figure 12
and Figure 13)
Seamless connections in sheet metal area possible, current
slope programs or impuls programs are advantageous, to
Resistance welding Spread
minimize heat input (risk of hot craking), use of convex eled-
trodes (CuCrZr)
Fusion weldable alloys can be flash welded, existing oxide
layers on surfaces have no influence for the current transi-
Flash butt welding Limited spread
tion, use sufficient large clamping forces, less welding time
required than for steel
Note: with optimal welding parameters and gas-poor materials welds of high quality can be achieved
with fusion welding.
Figure 12 to Figure 15 are showing the influences of different welding parameters to the porosity sensi-
tivity of magnesium casting materials of type MgAl6Mn (AM60)
Figure 12: influence of the shielding gas towards po- Figure 13: influence of the shielding gas towards po-
rosity formation; 100 % Argon (source: SLV München) rosity formation; 80 % Helium, 20 % Argon (source:
SLV München)
Figure 14: influence of the welding speed towards po- Figure 15: influence of the welding speed towards po-
rosity formation; vs = 1,0 m/min (source: SLV München) rosity formation; vs = 1,5 m/min (source: SLV München)

Schweißen
4.6.3 Filler materials
The weldable magnesium alloys are usually welded with similar or higher alloyed filler materials.
– For alloys with the ternary system MgAlZn the filler materials AZ92A and AZ61A are being used de-
pending on the actual magnesium content.
– Due to its specific crack-resistance characteristics the filler material AZ61A is particularly suitable for
welding magnesium wrought alloys containing aluminium.
– Filler materials of AZ92A display a limited tendency for cracking when welding magnesium casting
materials.
– In case of manufacturing composite assemblies of casting and wrought materials all of the above
mentioned filler materials can be exchanged by filler material AZ101.
Alloy MgAl8Zn (3.5812) is also commonly used. The material MG-W68001 has been standardised for
aviation and aerospace construction in Europe. In the USA those filler materials have been standardised
in AWS A5.19 and numerous SAE-standards (Society of Automotive Engineers, USA; e.g. SAE AMS
4391, 4392, 4393, 4394, 4395F, 4396F, 4398, 4399, 4400) (Table 19).
Table 19: Selected standards of filler materials for magnesium base materials
Standard Title
Filler materials for the welding of magnesium and titanium; welding rods; dimensions,
LN 9425-3
weights
Aerospace series - Magnesium alloy MG-W68001 - Filler metal for welding; Wire and
EN 4340
rod
AWS A5.19 Specification for Magnesium alloy welding electrodes and rods

Schweißen
5 Tantalum
ISO/TR 15 608 contains no specific subdivision into groups and subgroups for weldable tantalum and
tantalum alloys.
5.2 Standardisation of tantalum base materials

5.2.1 Selected standards for tantalum base materials
Table 20 contains an overview of selected standardised tantalum base materials, their compositions
and available product shapes
Most of these base materials are standardised in ASTM-regulations. Unalloyed tantalum and tantalum
alloyed with 2,5% wolfram are described in respectively VdTÜV-leaflet 382 and VdTÜV leaflet 507.
Table 20: Selected standards of filler materials for tantalum and Tantalum alloys and their semi-finished
products
Standard Title
Implants for surgery - Metallic materials - Unalloyed tantalum for surgical implant applica-
ISO 13 782
tions.
ASTM B364 Standard Specification for Tantalum and Tantalum Alloy Ingots.
ASTM B365 Standard Specification for Tantalum and Tantalum Alloy Rod and Wire.
ASTM B521 Standard Specification for Tantalum and Tantalum Alloy Seamless and Welded Tubes.
ASTM B708 Standard Specification for Tantalum and Tantalum Alloy Plate, Sheet, and Strip.
SAE AMS 7847C Tantalum Alloy Sheet, Strip, and Plate, 90Ta 10W.
SAE AMS 7848C Tantalum Alloy, Bars and Rods 90Ta 10W.
5.3 Designation System for Tantalum Base Materials

5.3.1 Pure Tantalum
The coded designation of pure tantalum consist the chemical symbol Ta of tantalum, followed by the
mass weight in percentage (%) via one or two decimal places. Example:
– Ta99,95
5.3.2 Alloys of Tantalum
The designation system of tantalum alloys is based acc.to ASTM’s base material code designation con-
sisting a chemical and a numerical symbol (acc.to UNS). It is common to designate the base material
with its (chemical) code designation. Example:
Ta: Basis
Chemical code designation: Ta-2,5W
W: 2,5 %
numerical designation: R05252 UNS-Number

Schweißen
5.4 Introduction to the metallurgy of Tantalum Materials

5.4.1 Description of the base material
Tantalum is a rarely available, ductile, graphite grey, shiny transition metal and is placed into the so-
called “vanadium group”. It was discovered by Anders Gustav EKEBERG in 1802. The metal’s name
Tantalus origins from the family ancestor of tantalite’s (Greek Mythology). It has a very high melting
point (Table 21) and a good corrosion resistance. Under wet-chemical corrosion conditions, Tantalum
is the most stable metal following the noble metals.
In case of contacting atmospheric oxygen the element generates a thin oxide layer (passive layer) result-
ing in a good chemical resistance in most acids (only attacked by media containing fluorides, smoking
sulphuric acid and hot alkaline media). Tantalum reacts with oxygen to tantalum pentoxide (Ta2O5)
above temperatures of 300°C. At very high temperatures it even combines with nitrogen and carbon. The
metal is body-centred cubic and paramagnetic.
5.4.2 Selected Physical and Mechanical Properties
Atomic Electro-
73 1,5
number negativity
Symbol Ta Appearance
pure
Name Tantalum element
(picture chemie-master.de)
relative Atomic mass 180,95
Electron configuration 2-8-18-32-11-2
Table 21: Properties of Tantalum in comparison to iron

100 %
150 %
200 %
250 %
300 %
350 %
400 %
450 %
500 %
50 %
Properties Value
(rel. Value)

212 %

6 7,61
76 %

71 %

-6 6,5
55 %

196 %

167 %
5.4.3 Fabrication of Tantalum
The mass-share of tantalum in the earth crust is only 2ppm. The element is, together with niobium, main-
ly present in minerals like irontantalate (Fe,Mn)(TaO3)2 and are designated according to the dominant
component resulting in either being niobide (Columbite, Pyrochlore) or tantalide (Tapiolite).
.

Schweißen
Initially the niobium- and tantalum oxides will be separated from a concentrated hydrofluoric and sul-
phuric mixture (HF und H2SO4). Followed with a separation of the fluoride mixture through a fluid-fluid-
extraction (uses the different solvabilities of two mixed non-solvable mediums) processing. The final re-
duction into metal will be processed eletrochemically or metallothermically or by reduction of the
oxides, using carbon, which will be easy accessible at temperatures between 1700 and 2300°C.
Alternatively the minerals will be loaded with chlorine and carbon at high temperatures and will addition-
ally be subjected to a fractional distillation processing (the different boiling points of chlorine will be
used). At the end, the reduction into metal is executed metallothermically and this product can be pro-
cessed further by vacuum remelting (electronbeam, arcbow), sintering and cold forming.
5.5 Overview of Tantalum Materials

Tantalum materials (pure element as well as alloys) find their application in chemical construction of ves-
sels, agitators, pipes and heat exchangers, in medical technology as implants and surgical instruments,
as heating coils in high temperature furnaces, heat shields and other component application.
Tantalum materials are characterised by a serie of excellent properties:
– excellent resistance in acids and in many liquid metals, biohervorragende Beständigkeit in Säuren
und in vielen flüssigen Metallen, biocompatible,
– very high melting point (only exceeded by wolfram and rhenium),
– very ductile and relatively well mechanically processable (lubricants necessary for machining),
– good weldability.
5.5.2 Overview of Materials
Table 22 shows the chemical compositions of today’s most often used tantalum materials.
Table 23 contains selected mechanical technological properties. Besides the technical pure tantalum
Ta99,95 in particular three alloys are being applied.
Tantalum-Wolfram-alloy Ta-2,5W:
In contrast with tantalum this alloy has a higher heat resistance and better corrosion resistance in hot
H2SO4. Ta-W-alloys generate a continous serie of solid solution crystalls.
Tantalum-Wolfram-alloy Ta-10W:
In contrast with pure tantalum (Ta) and Ta-2,5, Ta-10W has a significant higher tensile strength under
very high temperature conditions. However, the alloy is characterised by a difficult machining and work-
ability.
Tantal-Niobium-alloy Ta-40Nb:
Tantalum-niobium-alloys find their application in particular as base materials for heating elements and as
heat radiation protection screens. Also Ta-Nb-alloys generate a continous serie of solid solution crystalls.
Table 22: Chemical composition of selected tantalum materials

Material Chemical composition in mass-% (max.)
chemical UNS W Mo Ni Nb Ti C N H O
Ta99,95 R05200 0,05 0,02 0,01 0,1 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,0015 0,015
Ta-2,5W R05252 2,0-3,5 0,02 0,01 0,5 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,0015 0,015
Ta-10W R05255 9,0-11,0 0,02 0,01 0,1 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,0015 0,015

Schweißen
Ta-40Nb R05240 0,05 0,02 0,01 35-42 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,0015 0,020
Table 23: Mechanical properties of selected tantalum alloys (acc. to MatWeb)
Materials Mechanical properties (min.)
Delivery condition* Rp0,2 Rm A
chemical UNS
N/mm² N/mm² %
Ta99,95 R05200 esu, kw, lg 165 - 180 205 - 276 35 - 70
Ta-2,5W R05252 esu 230 - 241 345 - 379 40
Ta-10W R05255 esu 460 - 482 550 - 620 30
Ta-40Nb R05240 esu 193 - 207 275 - 310 25 - 40
`) esu = electron bundle melted; kw = cold rolled; lg = solution annealed
5.6 Welding of Tantalum and Tantalum Alloys

The very good heat conductivity and the very high melting point of tantalum requires specific
measures of weld preparation (preheating) to achieve an optimal heat input and a reduction of the heat
affected zone. Due to the high ductility of tantalum the weld residual stresses are very low.
The selection of welding processes is limited. Besides electronbeam and resistance welding ( e.g.
tantalum wires and folies with extreme short time puls), TIG welding is a safe but complex processing.
It requires a thorough shielding gas protection. Using evacuable shielding gas chambers is better.
When welding with shielding gas flow-streams there is always the risk of oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen
absorption out of the surrounding air which could lead to oxidation and severe embrittlement (Table 24).
Table 24: Oxidations- and embrittlement behaviour of tantalum during heating in different gaseous conditions
Gas at 1 atm Temperature in °C Behaviour
Oxygen  100 Resistant even during extended exposure
≥ 260 Beginning oxidation and embrittlement
Air, 400 blue colorization
Waterdamp 600 grey colorization
> 700 Fast oxidation, into white powder (Ta2O5)
 150 Resistant even during extended exposure
Nitrogen ≥ 200 Beginning embrittlement
> 800 Initiation of nitrides
Increasing embrittlement of grain boundaries by
≥ 100
Hydrogen tantalum hydrogen compounds
> 700 In vacuum total hydrogen release
5.6.3 Filler Materials
The availibilty of filler materials for welding tantalum and tantalum alloys is strongly limited.
This is the reason that it is common use to apply filler materials rods (e.g. acc.to ASTM B365) that are
similar with the base material.

Schweißen
6 Zirconium
Zirconium and zirconium alloys have been classified into groups acc.to ISO/TR 15 608. Table 25 shows
some examples of alloys.
Table 25: Group classification of zirconium and zirconium alloys acc.to CEN ISO/TR 15 608
Zirconium und zirconium alloys
Standardised materials
Group Sub-group Base materials
(examples)
61 Pure zirconium UNS R60701

(Zr99,9)
62 Zirconium with 2,5 % Nb UNS R60705

(Zr-2.5Nb)
6.2 Standardisation of Zirconium Materials

6.2.1 Selected Standards of Zirkonium Materials
Table 26 contains an overview of selected standardised zirconium base materials, their compositions
and available product shapes. Obviously these materials have been standardised in ASTM-Regulations.
Unalloyed zirconium is also standardised in VdTÜV-WB 480.
Table 26: Selected Standards for Zirkonium and Zirkonium alloys and semifinished products
Standard Title
ASTM B350 Standard Specification for Zirconium and Zirconium Alloy Ingots for Nuclear Application
Standard Specification for Hot-Rolled and Cold-Finished Zirconium and Zirconium Alloy
ASTM B351/B351M
Bars, Rod, and Wire for Nuclear Application
Standard Specification for Zirconium and Zirconium Alloy Sheet, Strip, and Plate for Nu-
ASTM B352/B352M
clear Application
Standard Specification for Wrought Zirconium and Zirconium Alloy Seamless and Weld-
ASTM B353/B5353M
ed Tubes for Nuclear Service (Except Nuclear Fuel Cladding)
ASTM B550/B550M Standard Specification for Zirconium and Zirconium Alloy Bar and Wire
ASTM B551/B551M Standard Specification for Zirconium and Zirconium Alloy Strip, Sheet, and Plate
ASTM B553/B553M Zirconium and Zirconium Alloys – seamless and welded tubes
6.3 Designation System for Zirconium Materials
The designation system of zirconium materials is similar to the system of tantalum and tantalum alloys
(see section 5.3.). The designation system is based acc.to ASTM’s base material code designation con-
sisting a chemical and a numerical symbol (acc.to UNS). It is common use to designate these base ma-
terials, similar to titanium alloys (see section 3.3), with a (grade)-number (often also product designations
are being used). This grade number correponds with the last three digits of the UNS-number. Example of
a zirconium-niobium alloy:

Schweißen
– Zr-2,5Nb (UNS - R60705) – Grade 705 or Zr705

6.4 Introduction to the metallurgy of Zirconium Materials
6.4.1 Description of the Base Material
Zirconium is silver-white coloured transition metal and is placed into to the so-called “titanium group”. It
was discovered and named into zirconium (Zr[SiO4]) by Martin H. KLAPROTH in 1789. It has a share of
0,016% of the earth’s crust and is ranked on 18th place. Although it is widely spread it is only available in
limited quantaties. Zirconium is relatively soft and deformable as well as very corrosion resistant.
In case of contacting atmospheric oxygen the element generates on its surface a thin, very solid oxide
layer (passive layer) resulting in an almost inert and unsolvable behaviour in almost all kinds of acids. It
can be processed very easily by rolling, forging, hamering and welding. Due to small amounts of impuri-
ties like hydrogen, carbon or nitrogen the material embrittles very strongly. Similar to tantalum (see sec-
tion 5). Depending on the temperature it displays, just like titanium (see section 3.4.1), two allotropic
modifications. Up to 867°C it has a hexagonal close packed structure (-Zr) and above, up to its melt-
ing point, it displays a body-centred cubic elementary cell (-Zr). It is paramagnetic.
6.4.2 Selected Physical and Mechanical Properties
Atomic Electro-
40 1,4
number negativity
Symbol Zr Appearance pure

Name Zirconium element: (picture:
relative Atomic mass 91,22 wikipedia)
Electron configuration 2-8-18-10-2
Table 26: Properties of zirconium in comparison to iron

100 %
150 %
200 %
250 %
300 %
350 %
400 %
450 %
500 %
50 %
Properties Value
(rel. Value)

83 %

6 2,36
24 %
therm. conductivity [W/(m · K)] 22,7

28 %

-6 4,8
41 %

121 %

135 %

Schweißen
6.4.3 Fabrication of Zirconium
The most important raw material for the production of metallic zirconium is the mineral zirconium
(Zr[SiO4]).
Before further processing it must be transformed into zirconium dioxide at the beginning. This will be
generated by the alkaline disintegration of zirconium by boiling it in a sodium hydroxide (NaOH) melt.
Due to the chemical reaction of carbon and chlorine in the arc, the generated zirconium oxide (ZrO2) will
be transformed into zirconium tetrachloride (ZrCl4) which subsequently will become metallic (still pure)
zirconium through reduction with magnesium under helium atmosphere conditions (Kroll processing).
Finally for processing the pure zirconium, all of it must be transformed once more into zirconium tetra-
iodine (ZrJ4) by adding iodine under vacuum conditions. Additionally, a heating to temperatures of
1300°C results in disintegration into pure zirconium and iodine (VAN-ARKEL-DE-BOER-processing).
Technical pure zirconium often contains small amounts of the very similar element hafnium. For many
applications in reactor technology it is highly important that the zirconium does not contain any hafnium.
Complex separation processes are therefore very import for both metals.
6.4.4 Influence of alloying elements to the microstructure
Pure and purest zirconium displays an alpha-shape (hcp) cell structure at room temperatures. The addi-
tion of alloying elements will either change the microstructure at roomtemperature not at all (-alloy) or
into clear shares of beta in the alpha microstructure (+-alloys) or into a complete beta microstructure
(-Legierungen).
The microstructure configuration depends, similar to titanium, on the actual delivery condition and the
respective volumes. In this way tin, aluminium and beryllium are stabilising the alpha fase where niobi-
um (in particular), iron and nickel are stimulating the precipitation of the beta microstructure (Figure 16
and Figure 17).
Figure 16: binary system of zirconium-niobium acc.to Figure 17: binary system of zirconium-tin acc.to
MASSALSKI (niobium as -„Stabiliser“) MASSALSKI (tin as -„Stabiliser“)

Schweißen
6.5 Overview of Zirconium Materials

Zirconium materials (pure element as well as alloys) find their application in hull pipes for nuclear fuel
elements, for pressure vessel construction, pipe construction, heat exchangers in chemical industry as
well as in medical instruments. Oxygen-free zirconium is often used in explosion cladding applications.
Their excellent characteristics are a.o.:
– a very good corrosion resistance (in particular against oxidising acids),

– a high neutron permeability (however does not tend to neutron embrittlement))
– good mechanical workability, high ductility and good deformability as wel as
– a good weldability (-alloys).
In practice it has been proven that zirconium welded joints are being attacked more strongly near the
weld seam and heat affected zones than the base material.
This sensitisation can be limited or reversed through an appropriate, additional heat treatment at tem-
peratures between 550° and 780°C.
Zirconium does have its limitations regarding corrosion resistancy in case of saltic acids. In the presence
of Cu2+- or Fe3+-ions the element can be attacked via pitting corrosion.
6.5.2 Overview of materials
Table 27 and Table 28 show the chemical composition and mechanical properties of selected zirconium
base materials (technical pure zirconium and zirconium alloys).
Due to its excellent corrosion resistancy against numerous highly corrosive mediums, this metal did
not only find its application in nuclear technology but also in processing technology in which almost
exclusively the zirconium grade 702 (Zr702 bzw. Zr99,2) is being used. This is an unalloyed zirconium
type with limited amounts of hafnium (Table 27) with ductility characteristics which makes it even very
suitable for explosion cladding applications. It has been defined in ASTM-Regulations (Table) as well as
in VdTÜV-leaflett 480.
Table 27: Chemical composition of selected zirconium materials (acc.to MatWeb)

Base material Chemical composition in weight-%
chemical UNS Grade Fe + Cr Hf O Sn Nb Zr
Zr99,9 R60701 701   0,01    ≥ 99,9
Zr99,2 R60702 702  0,2  4,5  0,16   ≥ 99,2
Zr-1,5Sn R60704 704  0,30  4,5  0,18  1.5  ≥ 97.5
Zr-2,5Nb R60705 705  0,20  4,5  0,18   2,5 ≥ 95,5
Zr-2,5Nb R60706 706  0,20  4,5  0,16   2,5 ≥ 95,5
Table 28: Mechanical properties of selected zirconium alloys (acc.to MatWeb)

Base material Mechanical Properties (min.)
Tempera-
Rp0,2 Rm A
chemical UNS Grade ture
N/mm² N/mm² %
Zr99,9 R60701 701 RT 250 - 310 350 - 390 23 - 31
Zr99,2 R60702 702 RT 207 379 16 - 32
Zr-1,5Sn R60704 704 RT 241 413 14 - 22
Zr-2,5Nb R60705 705 RT 379 552 16 - 20
Zr-2,5Nb R60706 706 RT 345 510 20

Schweißen
6.6 Welding of Zirconium and Zirconium Alloys

The weldability of zirconium is similar to titanium (see section 3.6). Due to its allotropic/ polymorphy, the
different zirconium base materials are characterised by different welding behaviours.
– -alloys: ......................good weldability

– +-alloys: ..................limited weldability
– - alloys: ......................poor weldability
In respect to impurities it is even more sensitive than titanium. In case of absorption it displays not only a
ductility loss but also a significant decrease in corrosion resistance.
This is the reason why before welding any of these three types of zirconium materials, basically all flanks
and HAZ must be intensively cleaned in order to get rid of any kind of impurity like grease, oil dirt or
oxide layers.
Depending on the surface conditions of the welding flanks and adjacent surfaces this cleaning will be
executed at the beginning by milling, scraping or brushing with stainless steel brushes followed by a
final cleaning using alcohol or aceton.
After this cleaning the welding should start immediately in order to prevent initiation of new impurities.
Hot-cracks, pores, segregations as well as anisotrophy do not have a major influence. If however,
some porosity arises inside the weld metal, this can effectively be reduced by the following measures:
– increasing the welding current,

– decreasing the welding speed,
– applying a lower preheating,
– increasing the size/width of the shielding gas flow-stream as well as
– cleaning of the filler material and surrounding areas of the weld.
The tensile strength values of zirconium welds are above those of the base material, the ductility- and
elongation values are below. Two possible reasons for this are the cooling-down microstructures of the
weld metal and HAZ as well as a possible absorption of oxygen during welding.
Note: During weld technical processing of zirconium materials the weld pool and the HAZ must be pro-
tected under all circumstances (similar to titanium (see section 3.6) and tantalum (see section5.6) from
gases like oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen as this leads to severe embrittlement (Figure 18).

Schweißen
600 60 270
500 50 Rm 230
Festigkeit (Versprödung) [N/mm²]
HV
400 40 190
Härte [HV 30]

Dehnung [%]
300 30 150
Re
200 20 110
100 10 A 70
0 0 30
0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
Figure 18: Influence of the oxygen content to the
Sauerstoff in Ma sse-% mechanical technological properties of zirconium
Zirconium and its alloys can be processed with the same welding processes as for welding titanium ma-
terials (see section 3.6). TIG welding is however common practice. Due to the small linear thermal ex-
pansion coefficients of zirconium (Table 26), TIG welding of very thin sheet metals and folies will not lead
to thermal distortion and undesirable residual stresses. For resistance welding the same conditions
apply as for titanium materials (see section 3.6) which makes resistance welding basically also suitable
for zirconium materials.
However, electron beam welding is not suitable for tin alloyed zirconium materials like Zr-1,5Sn or Zr-
2,5Sn.
Due to the low evaporation temperature, this element would change into the gas phase inside the vacu-
um environment of the EB-machine and would not be available anymore as an alloying element improv-
ing the corrosion resistancy of the base material. Zirconium and zirconium alloys can be joined with for
example stainless steels through diffusion welding. This combination would not be possible using fu-
sion welding processes due to the initiation of brittle intermetallic phases. Zirconium base materials can
also be joined via brazing.
6.6.3 Filler Materials
The availability of filler materials for zirconium and zirconium alloys are very limited, similar to those for
tantalum (see section 5.6.3). Very common is for example the welding rod ER Zr 2 (Zr99,2) acc.to AWS
A5.24 / A5.24M (UNS: R60702). Therefore for fusion welding it is common practice to apply similar
wires having the same composition as the base material.

Schweißen
7 Details for Welding Quality
Similar to all other weld processing, the mentioned measures for quality assurance as mentioned in
chapter 4.1 and 4.2 are to be applied. In contrast to steel and aluminium there are however only a few
specific standards for quality assurance related to the earlier mentioned metals and alloys.
That’s why some general technical guidelines and standards for joining metals apply for their weld tech-
nical processing. So that according to this, some specific testing- and procedure standards will be used
in addition of the base material standards. In this way EN ISO 9606-5 defines the relevant requirements,
validity ranges, testing conditions, acceptation criteria as well as the verification of the applied (fusion)
welder certification of titanium, titanium alloys, zirconium and zirconium alloys. The execution of welding
procedure qualifications (fusion welding) for titanium, zirconium and their alloys are defined in EN ISO
15614-5.
The resistancy of the non-ferro metals, as mentioned in this chapter, rely on the initiation of dense and
compact oxide layers (passive layers) which define the good corrosion characteristics of the materials.
An oxide layer that has been damaged can restore itself spontaneously under surrounding air conditions
(self-passivating). The excellent corrosion resistancy of titanium, zirconium and tantalum is however not
resistant against all known technical mediums which means that the presence of basic knowledge
related to corrosion behaviour during their application is absolutely necessary.
Very important note: Titanium, magnesium, tantalum and zirconium display a very high affinity to ox-
ygen. That’s why in particular machining chips as well as dust particles can burn explosively due to
their large surface area. Consequences are the specific measures that have to be taken into considera-
tion during the processing of such metals (sand, appropriate fire extinguisher). Under no circumstances
water should be used for extinction metal fires (risk of explosion).
Note: the information as mentioned in this chapter has to be seen as recommendation and do not re-
place any technical regulations or rules of which the latest release is valid.

Schweißen
8 Test questions
(1) Which elementary cell has titanium--alloys at roomtemperatures?
 a cubic body centred elementary cell (cbc).

 a cubic face centred elementary cell (cfc).
 a orthorhombic elementary cell .
 a triclinic elementary cell.
 a hexagonal close packed elementary cell (hcp).
(2) What is the main difficulty for welding titanium base materials?
 Due to rapid cooling a very hard titanium-martensite (‘) can be initiated.

 Titanium materials are not suitable for welding as they transform basically in a polymorph
manner.
 Titanium materials are during welding very sensitive for relaxation cracking.
 During welding titanium materials tend to absorp gases (O, N, H) and consequently will
become brittle.
 Titanium materials are reacting with the argon inside the shielding gas into Ti2Ar (Titanar-
gonite) which leads to severe pores initiation and loss of tensile strength.
(3) Which requirements must be followed unconditionally during weld processing of titanium base
materials?
 All weld areas must be absolutely clean.

 The weld flanks have to be machined at all times.
 the complete weld joint must be protected against access of atmospheric or reactive gas-
es.
 Titanium base materials should only be welded under raised partial pressure (autoclave).
 Titanium base materials must be protected against inert gases.
(4) What should specifically be taken under consideration during melting, casting, welding or machin-
ing of magnesium base materials?
 the high density of these materials.

 their transformation behaviour.
 their high oxygen affinity.
 their increased risk of fire and explosion.
 their high melting- and boiling temperature.
(5) Against which type of corrosion attack are magnesium base materials specifically sensitive?
 against pitting corrosion.

 against bi-metallic corrosion.
 against spongiosis.
 against transcrystalline corrosion.
 against intercrystalline corrosionon.

Schweißen
(6) What should be taken under consideration for weld technical processing of magnesium base ma-
terials with zinc contents of more than 1%?
 these alloys must be preheated.

 these alloys tend to generate martensite.
 these alloys are increasingly sensitive for hot-cracking.
 these alloys must be welded with additional oxygen within the shield gas.
 these alloys must be welded with increased heat input.
(7) Why have thicker plates and components of magnesium alloys to be preheated to 150° to 250°C
before welding?
 to prevent the formation of a martensitic microstructure due to fast cooling.

 to realise a sufficient penetration due to the high thermal conductivity.
 to prevent the formation of a surface oxide layer.
 to prevent a softening of the base material.
 so that the filler material becomes more fluid after melting.
(8) What is the chemical composition of a tantalum alloy with designation Ta-2,5W?
 the alloy contains in average 2,5% tantalum and is characterised by its high hydrogen
content.
 the alloy contains hydrogen (2,5%) and tantalum as base.
 the alloy contains tantalum as base element and is alloyed with wolfram with an average
of 2,5%.
 the alloy contains 2,5% tantalum and is characterised by a wolfram base.
 the alloy contains tantalum as base element and is alloyed with bismuth with an average
of 2,5 %.
(9) Why have tantalum alloys to be preheated before welding?
 these alloys have a tendency for hot-cracking.

 these alloys are characterised by a high thermal conductivity and a very high meting point.
 these alloys display ahigh residual stresses after welding.
 these alloys tend to transform into a hard martensitic phase.
 these alloys are sensitive for stress corrosion attack.
(10) What should be taken into account for the evaluation of the weldability of zirconium base materi-
als?
 their low boiling point and subsequently their high tendency of evaporation.
 their high density leads easily to segregation during fusion welding
 they can not be joined thermically via fusion welding.
 their Allotrophy/Polymorphy (-alloys have a favourable, -alloys have an unfavourable
weldability).
 basically only non-fusion joining processes are suitable.

Schweißen
9 Literature
Additional information can be found in the following publications.
Team of authors:
Segments “Metal”.
Haan-Gruiten: Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel – Nourney, Vollmer GmbH & Co. KG, 2010
Oates, W. R.; Saitta, A. M. (Herausgeber):

Welding Handbook – Volume 4.
Materials and Applications – Part2.
Miami: American Welding Society, 1998
Lütjering, G.; Williams, J. C.:

Titanium: Engineering materials and processes.
Lison, R.:
Welding and Soldering Special Metals and their Alloys Technical book Series: Welding, Volume 118,
DVS-Verlag Düsseldorf
Leaflet DVS 2713:

Welding of titanium.
Published: 05-2003
Mordike, B. L.; Wiesner, P.:

Joining of magnesium base materials.
Düsseldorf: DVS-Media GmbH, 2005
Kammer, C.:
Magnesium-Pocketbook.
Düsseldorf: Aluminium Verlag GmbH, 2000
Moeller, E.:
Pocketbook construction materials – Selection, properties, application.
München: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2008
Leaflet DVS 2901-2:

Flash welding of aluminium, magnesium and their alloys.
Published: 09-2001
Schütze, K. G.:
Special materials – Application areas and application limits.
Schweißtechnik (Soudure), Basel 95 (2006) 9, S. 9-14
Schulze. G.:
Metallurgy of Welding.

Schweißen
SFI / IWE 2.22-1
Joining dissimilar materials I Page 1
Chapter 2.22-1: Joining dissimilar materials I

welding
SFI / IWE 2.22-1
Practitioners entitle all steels with less than about 5% of alloying elements as “black materials”. This is
due to the fact that these materials are usually supplied with a dark scaling layer and that they rust over
time.
On the other hand high-alloyed materials are referred to as "white", because they have a very bright and
shiny appearance, because they do not rust under normal conditions.
If we count the low-alloy (< 5% alloying elements) steels/cast alloys in the iron and steel list, there are
more than 1000. The high-alloyed steels and alloys are more than 500.
For black-and-white compounds we use about 500,000 different possibilities.
Now if it can be noticed that most black and

white connections can be welded success-
fully with several welding consumables, so
there are more than 1 million possibilities
with certainty. How can you get an over-
view here?
A welding connection is, from the perspec-

tive of the chemical composition, divided
into three sections:
1. Base material 1:
2. Weld metal
3. Base material 2:
For the material properties of the whole welded joint the properties of both heat affected zones, along
with the weld metal and base material, are important although their properties are changed by heat input
during welding.
The heat-affected zones are however not characteristic for a black-and-white compound, because they
also occur when welding similar materials. Nevertheless, the welding technology for both steels must be
mastered before attempting a black and white bond.
These are the steps for planning the welding

technology for low-alloy steels. They are
(reduction of high hardnesses in the HAZ) summarised in the chart below.

welding
SFI / IWE 2.22-1
For pre-heating there is only one real reason: the avoidance of hydrogen cracking. Many different formu-
lae are used throughout the world, but the best one seems to be the formula of Uwer, published in SEW
088.
The chemical composition of the base

material is determined by a so-called
“carbon equivalent CET”. Here, the
carbon content of the base material
plays a decisive role.
In the formula of the pre-heating tem-

perature Tp, the wall thickness d in
mm, the inserted amount of hydrogen
HD and the heat input Q in J / cm are
taken into account.
According to a research study by the

SLV, this formula is suitable for practi-
cal use.
A programmable calculator or computer program can be used quickly to determine the recommended
preheating and intermediate temperatures for each individual case.

welding
SFI / IWE 2.22-1
The weld temperature cycle of a point at a distance r from the weld centre can be calculated using the
following formulas.
In particular the cooling time

t8/5 between 800 and 500 °C is
important for the properties of
the HAZ.
The parameters /2 are

collated for submerged arc
welding with constant K3 in
SEW 088.
The K3 dependency on the
preheating temperature takes
into account the temperature
dependency of the base mate-
rial’s thermal conductivity.
In case of using welding processes other than submerged arc welding ( = 1), their relative thermal effi-
ciency have to be taken into consideration.
For two-dimensional heat dis-

sipation the values
    c
are summarised in the con-
stant K2 of SEW 088 .
In case of using welding pro-
cesses other than submerged
arc welding the relative ther-
mal efficiency of the process
is also to be considered again.
It is important to know that for
two-dimensional heat dissipa-
tion the temperature cycle and
cooling time t8/5 are influenced
additionally by the wall thick-
ness.
Once again, in case of using welding processes other than submerged arc welding ( = 1), we need to
take into consideration that their relative thermal efficiency is different.
The transition from the 3-dimensional calculation model to the 2-dimensional calculation in SEW 088 is
retrieved when the transition wall thickness dü used in both formulas brings out the same t8/5. For wall thick-
nesses less than dü the two-dimensional formula delivers the lowest t8/5, with greater wall thicknesses, the
three-dimensional formula. So the smaller value of the two models is to be set as true. This definition has
proven itself in practice.

welding
SFI / IWE 2.22-1
As we have to weld with the same t8/5, which will be explained further on in more detail, for each wall
thickness a new calculation of the welding parameters have to be made in case of a two-dimensional
heat dissipation. In practice therefore, welding with three-dimensional heat dissipation is recommended
in respect to the transition wall thickness (!). The following picture shows the temperature cycle and cool-
ing time t8/5 with the help of a computer program.
The different temperature

cycles apply for distances
rs = 0/0.2/0.4/.../1.8 mm of
the fusion line. Cooling
time t8/5 is practically the
same for all distances.
The peak temperatures
(maximum temperatures)
achieve the melting point
of (low) alloyed materials
of about 1530°C at the
fusion line (rs= 0) .
If the peak temperatures are set as a function of the fusion line distance, then the following picture is
given:
In this example the most

dangerous zone within the
HAZ zones is the approx.
0,7mm width high tempera-
ture zone which is being
heated over 1200°C during
welding.
In this zone the grain form-

ing particles such as AlN,
Nb (C, N). etc. are dis-
solved and grain growth is
going on.

welding
SFI / IWE 2.22-1
The task of welding engineering is now to control the reverse transformation out of this high-temperature
zone by selecting a suitable cooling time t8/5 which enables good material properties.
The following figure shows an overview of the processes occurring in the HAZ during welding operations
A too low cooling time t8/5 leads to

the risk of hardening cracks or hy-
drogen-induced cracking, although
Dissolution of particles such as Al-N, Nb(C,N), V(C,N), TiC
the impact strength of the marten-
Grain growth site of modern steels is excellent
due to their high degree of purity.
Another reason for setting limits to
Softening of the microstructure, tempering effects small values of t8/5 is the worse
deformability of an excessive hard
HAZ.
increasing
Too long cooling times t8/5 leads to a
fall of impact strength and the yield
strength in the HAZ.
It is not possible to offer an overall recommendation of a favourable t8/5 for a specific steel type because
the range of permissible analyses leading to excessive changes of transformation behaviour.
A great help for setting a
favourable t8/5 is the weld-
ing ZTU diagram that has
been determined through
experimentation with the
help of real welding tem-
perature cycles.
This SZTU shows an ex-

ample. The chosen cool-
ing time t8/5 should be
short enough to prevent
precipitation of pro-
eutectoid ferrite, i.e. less
than 11 sec.
Preferable is a transfor-
mation in the low area of
the bainite and on the oth-
er hand the maximum
permissible hardness of
350 HV should not be ex-
ceeded.
This is achieved in this steel analysis with a t8/5 -time of approx 7.5 sec.
A corresponding computer program can be used to determine the most favourable t8/5 -time with a few
clicks of the mouse.

welding
SFI / IWE 2.22-1
We keep t8/5 as short as possible so as to achieve the maximum permissible hardness, because this
shows the best toughness in the HAZ.
In order to determine the

required cooling time t8/5
using the welding parameters
according to the before men-
tioned formulae from SEW
088, it is recommended to
use a computer program
because, for example, graph-
ical determination by hand is
too awkward and time-
consuming.

welding
SFI / IWE 2.22-1
When welding with stick electrodes, the welding (travel) speed is often unknown and even difficult to
determine. On the other hand the run-out length (with the electrode welded weld length) is a suitable
size, in order to control the heat input. An analysis of the digital relationships shows that with a constant
run-out length the heat-input is also constant. If we weld e.g. with higher current we also must, due to the
higher deposition rate of the electrode, weld faster in order to obtain the same run-out length. Then the
heat input per cm weld length is nevertheless constant.
In this case to define a run-out length of 210 mm is correct in order to achieve a cooling time of t8/5 = 7.5
sec.
The correlation between run-out length and the heat input is not dependent on the alloy-type of the rod,
but on the coating type of the electrode. This can be traced back to the chemical slag – weld metal reac-
tions in the end crater for which additional energy is used or is being supplied from.

welding
SFI / IWE 2.22-2
Joining dissimilar materials II Page 1
Chapter 2.22-2: Joining dissimilar materials II

welding
SFI / IWE 2.22-2
For welding of high alloyed steels these basic rules should be observed.
1. No preheating These are explained in detail in

(for what purpose)? previous documents.
In austenitic steels hydrogen-induced
2. Choice of the filler material
cold cracking does not occur. Therefore
(similar, ferrite content)
preheating is unnecessary and
in many cases even harmful.
3. Welding process and its parameters
(weld shape, dilution, hot crack line) The weld metal of chemically-resistant
steels should solidify primarily ferritic in
4. Weld metal in the Schaeffler diagram order to avoid hot cracking. However, it
(Hot crack line, ferrite content) should contain less than about 12%
ferrite in order to avoid a ferrite network.
5. Post-weld annealing
(Caution: IC field)
Figure 1: Basic rules for welding high alloyed steels
A postweld heat treatment should be avoided if possible because of the risk of intercrystalline susceptibility.
The characteristic and crucial point for the black and white connections is the weld metal and not the two
base materials with their heat-affected zones, because they will occur even in similar type welding as
well. Therefore, one can classify black and white connections according to the requirements of the weld
metal.
The table divides the black and white

connections into three groups according
to the type of loading of the weld metal.
In Group II, the weld metal must be

resistant to corrosion. As the black weld
metal does not comply with these
requirements, these can only be used in
claddings.
Figure 2: Classification of black & white connections into type of loading groups

welding
SFI / IWE 2.22-2
Black-and-white connections occur wherever

high-alloyed steels are used. Wherever the
properties of high-alloy steels are no longer
required, low-alloy steels are used instead.
The weld metal connections of Group I is
preferably welded with a filler material of type
18% Cr, 8% Ni, 6% Mn = 1.4370.
Despite fully austenitic primary solidification
this filler material initiates no hot-cracking
unless the manganese content decreases, for
example to excessive dilution, below about
3.5% Mn. Martensite in weld metals is to be
avoided.
Figure 3: Black & white connections of group I
The weld metal for Group II connections

are best produced with chemically resistant
weld metals such as 1.4302, 1.4551,
1.4576
In order to avoid hot-cracking, the weld
metal should solidify primarily ferritic. The
ferrite content should be less than about
12%, in order to avoid a ferrite network
A weld metal of type 1.4370 is unsuitable
due to low corrosion resistance.
Figure 4: Black & white connections of group II
The weld metal for Group III connections is best

produced with nickel-based filler metals.
They prevent carbon diffusion otherwise the low
alloyed material at the fusion line would be
decarburised combined with a simultaneous
formation of a carbide border in the high alloyed
weld metal.
At both high and low operating temperatures, the
thermal expansion coefficient of the nickel-base
weld metal, which lies in between of the low-alloy
and high-alloy steels, reduces the stresses from
differential thermal expansion.
Figure 5: Black & white connections of group III

welding
SFI / IWE 2.22-2
From the requirements of the weld metal, one can derive the appropriate filler material with its chemical
composition and hence its location in the Schaeffler diagram.
From the Schaeffler diagram it must

be clear which target area must be
achieved for the weld metal.
It should be noted that the molten
weld metal is a combination of the
portions of the two base materials
and the filler metal drops (= pure
weld metal).
Figure 6: Target areas for the weld metal
When welding black and white

bonds, welding processes and
welding parameters are favourable if
they lead to a low dilution. Also the
dilution range - depending on the
manual skill of the welder - should be
as small as possible because the
chemical composition of the weld
metal is critically influenced by the
melted base material!
Therefore, e.g. the TIG process is
generally not suitable for black-and-
white connections.
Figure 7: Dilution ranges with various welding processes

welding
SFI / IWE 2.22-2
The formation of the weld metal in terms of its chemical composition is shown in the following picture:
The equations shown allow

the chemical composition
of the weld metal to be
calculated with ease. A
Filler Metal computer program can be
XXFM
FM used for this purpose.
The only significant
inaccuracy of the
calculation is in the
Pick-up or burn-off  X preliminary assessment of
the two dilution values.
Droplets=Pure Weld Metal X PWM  X FM  X These depend on the
welding parameters, the
joint preparation and the
positioning of the electrode.
Base Material 1: Base Material 2:
XWM1  (1 A1-A2 )  (XFM  X) + A1  XBM1  A2  XBM2
Bild 8: Calculate that weld metal - composition
The welding of connections in Group I with filler metals of type 1.4370 is relatively easy when one
considers the dilution with the black material within limits.
Having a too high dilution

with the black base material,
the weld metal slips into the
austenite and martensite
area which possibly leads to
hardening cracks. The
dilution with the white base
material however, is not as
critical.
The austenitic weld metal
should contain however
more than about 3.5% Mn,
otherwise hot cracking may
occur.

welding
SFI / IWE 2.22-2
Group II of the black-and-

white bonds includes
cladding.
The figure shows the
position of the base
material (GW), pure weld
metal (RSG) and weld
metal (SG1) of the
cladding in the Schaeffler
diagram.
If the welding parameters
are correctly adjusted in
terms of dilution with the
base material, the desired
weld metal is obtained, in
this case with 10% ferrite.
When welding a second layer on the first run a low alloy filler material, e.g. type 21% CR, 10% Ni, should
be chosen in order to prevent getting more than about 12% ferrite in the cladding.
If base material and weld

metal are having high
nickel equivalents and
additionally the dilution is
too high, the weld metal
can reach the range of full-
austenitic solidification.
Hot cracking occurs as a
consequence, as the
following picture shows.

welding
SFI / IWE 2.22-2
Hot cracks in an austenitic

solidified SAW-strip cladding.
The example shows that the

issue of the primary ferrite
solidification is more important
than the mechanical residual
stresses of the weld which are
very low for surface welding.
When joining cladding plates the issue of the welding technology depends primarily on from which side
the joint is accessible.
When the joint is accessible from both

sides, the black material is welded first,
as shown here
Subsequently, the cladding is closed.

For the first layer one uses e.g. a filler
material of type 24%Cr, 13% Ni. In
order to achieve low dilutions of just 10
to 15% in the first layer, welding with
stick electrodes in piggy-back
“technology” is to be applied.
Figure 9: Joining of cladding plates
If a second layer is required a filler material of type 21% Cr, 10% Ni is to be used in order to avoid high
ferrite content in the weld metal.

welding
SFI / IWE 2.22-2
Note that the welding direction runs

perpendicular to drawing plane.
During welding, the stick electrode
is not directed towards the base
material, but rather towards the
lower area of the previous weldrun.
By doing this it is possible to
achieve dilutions within the range of
10 to 15% but the welders are
especially to be trained for this!
Figure 10: Piggy-back - welding
If the welded joint is only accessible

from the white side, the picture aside
shows the sequence procedure.
The black material is welded in the
usual way and the high-alloy
cladding is closed in piggy-back
technique.
Postweld annealing should be
avoided if possible.
Figure 11: Bonding of cladding plates

welding
SFI / IWE 2.22-2
Only accessible from the black side When access is only available from the
black side, the high-alloy cladding must
first be welded with the same type.
The problem then arises that it is not
possible to weld on a high alloy material
with a low alloy filler material.
This is because this would yield a high-
alloyed martensitic weld metal with the
risk of hardening cracks and hydrogen
induced cracking.
A possible solution is to weld using nickel-based filler material. This has the disadvantage that the low-
alloy base material cannot be similarly welded, so that e.g. the required yield strength cannot be
achieved.
Only accessible from the black side
An elegant solution is to buttering the

high-alloy plating with pure iron
electrodes. By using piggy-back
welding technology on the high-alloy
plates it is possible to create a weld
metal similar to 10 CrMo 10 which is
easy to control in technical terms. The
following filling layers can then be
welded in a similar way with low-alloy
filler material.

welding
SFI / IWE 2.22-2
When welding Group III joints two criteria are important:
1. Carbon diffusion must be prevented during operation conditions above 300 °C. This is achieved by
using a Ni based filler material and
2. The different expansion coefficients of high- and low-alloyed materials must be considered.
High-alloy materials have an appr.

50% higher expansion coefficient
than low-alloyed materials.
Therefore using a filler material with
a expansion coefficient which lies in
between both material groups is
advantageous. This is the case with
Ni based filler materials. During
temperature changes the
mechanical stresses initiated from
the different expansion coefficients
are distributed over both fusion lines.
Therefore this procedure is also
recommended for low operation
temperatures.
Figure 14: thermal expansion coefficients of different steels
Postweld heat treatments of black-

and-white joints should preferably
be avoided because the stresses
initiated out of the different
expansions due to cooling cannot
be avoided.
On the other hand, stress relief
annealing with the aim of reducing
excessive hardness in the HAZ of
the low-alloy material is often
necessary.
Tube joint 13 CrMo 4-5 with 1.4571, filler material Inconel 182
The sequence of buttering the low
alloyed material, stress relieving
and finally welding the remaining
joint is advantageous in this case.

welding
SFI / IWE 2.22-2
Sample applications according to DIN EN ISO 9692-4
Applicable standard: DIN EN 1011-5, illustration representation acc.to DIN 8553 (withdrawn)
In addition to the plate thickness, the following factors are crucial for the type of joint preparation and the
welding sequence:
- Accessibility of the weld: one-sided or from both sides
- Weldability between base material and cladding is possible
- Weldability between base material and cladding can be achieved by applying buttering layer(s)
- Weldability between base material and cladding is not possible (intermetallic phases).
Case 1: Weldability between base material and cladding is possible

e.g. non-alloyed steel/CrNi steel, non-alloyed steel /Ni steel
1 a) Accessibility from one side (usually from the base material side)
Base material
M
1. Weld the cladding material using similar materials

2. Rest: over-alloyed (or Ni)
Cladding material
1 b) Accessibility from both sides
Cladding material
1. Weld the base material using similar filler materials
2. Grind out the weld root from the cladding side.
3. Welding of the back run (similar with base material)
4. Weld the buttering layer (over-alloyed)
5. Weld the plating using similar materials
Base material

welding
SFI / IWE 2.22-2
Case 2: Weldability between base material and cladding is established via buttering layers.
e.g. steel/copper
Base material
1. Weld the cladding using similar filler materials

2. Weld the buttering layer (Ni)
3. Weld the base material in over-alloyed state
Cladding material Buttering layer

Cladding material
2. Grind out the weld root from the cladding side
3. Welding of the back run (similar with base material)
4. Weld the buttering layer (Ni)
5. Weld the cladding material similarly
Base material
Case 3: Weldability between base material and plating not possible

(intermetallic phases). Steel/titanium; steel/aluminium
Base material
1. Weld the cladding material using similar filler materials

2. Apply sheet metal strip (base material)
Cladding material Strip of sheet metal

Base material
Testing-
and rinsing bore
2. Welding the back run after grinding
3. Apply capping strip
d + 30 min. Capping strip 4. Weld the capping strip using similar filler materials
Cladding material (cladding)
Intermediate material

welding
Destructive testing of materials and SFI / IWE 2.23
Chapter 2.23: Destructive testing of materials and welded joints
Contents
1 Mechanical-technological material testing ....................................................................... 4

1.1 Tasks of mechanical and technological material testing ..................................................................... 4
1.2 Static tensile test at room temperature ................................................................................................... 5
1.2.1 Normative data ............................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.2 Function of the static tensile test ................................................................................................. 5
1.2.3 Stress-Strain Diagram................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.4 Characteristics for the tensile test ............................................................................................... 6
1.2.5 Test procedure (tensile test) ........................................................................................................ 7
1.3 Bending test ................................................................................................................................................ 8
1.3.1 Normative data ............................................................................................................................... 8
1.3.2 Function of the bending test......................................................................................................... 8
1.3.3 Material parameters of the bending test .................................................................................... 8
1.3.4 Test set-up ...................................................................................................................................... 8
1.3.5 Test on welds ................................................................................................................................. 9
1.3.6 Examples of test specimens of welded joints............................................................................ 9
1.4 Weld Bead bend test ............................................................................................................................... 12
1.4.1 Normative data ............................................................................................................................. 12
1.4.2 Function of the weld bead bend test......................................................................................... 12
1.4.3 Test procedure ............................................................................................................................. 12
1.4.4 Test evaluation ............................................................................................................................. 13
1.5 Charpy test ................................................................................................................................................ 14
1.5.1 Normative data ............................................................................................................................. 14
1.5.2 Role of the impact test ................................................................................................................ 14
1.5.3 Characteristics of the impact test .............................................................................................. 14
1.5.4 Test sequence.............................................................................................................................. 15
1.5.5 Absorped impact energy temperature (KV-T- curve) ............................................................. 15
1.5.6 Appearance of the fracture......................................................................................................... 15
1.5.7 Test specimen for the impact test ............................................................................................. 17
1.5.8 Specimen location in welded joints ........................................................................................... 18
1.6 Hardness tests.......................................................................................................................................... 19
1.6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 19
1.6.2 Hardness test according to Vickers .......................................................................................... 21
1.6.3 Hardness test according to Rockwell ....................................................................................... 22
1.6.4 Hardness test according to Brinell ............................................................................................ 24
1.6.5 Hardness tests (macro hardness) on welded joints ............................................................... 25
1.6.6 Conversion of hardness values ................................................................................................. 26
1.7 Fatigue strength tests .............................................................................................................................. 27
1.7.1 Normative specifications............................................................................................................. 27
1.7.2 Short description .......................................................................................................................... 27
1.7.3 Characteristic values of the fatigue strength test.................................................................... 27

welding
1.7.4 Endurance test ............................................................................................................................. 28

1.8 Creep rupture tests .................................................................................................................................. 29
1.8.2 Brief description ........................................................................................................................... 29
1.8.3 Selected characteristic values of creep rupture test .............................................................. 29
1.8.4 Method .......................................................................................................................................... 30
1.9 Fracture-mechanics tests ....................................................................................................................... 31
1.9.3 Selected characteristic values of the fracture mechanics ..................................................... 31
1.9.4 Method .......................................................................................................................................... 32
2 Chemical-analytic material testing .................................................................................. 33
2.1 Chemical analysis .................................................................................................................................... 33
2.1.3 Method .......................................................................................................................................... 33
2.2 Hydrogen determining ............................................................................................................................. 34
2.2.3 Method .......................................................................................................................................... 34
2.2.4 Characteristic value of the hydrogen determination ............................................................... 35
3 Corrosion test .................................................................................................................... 35
3.1 Purpose of the corrosion test ................................................................................................................. 35
3.2 Corrosion test with recording of current density potential curves ..................................................... 36
3.3 General corrosion resistance test.......................................................................................................... 37
3.3.3 Method .......................................................................................................................................... 37
3.4 Selective corrosion .................................................................................................................................. 37
3.4.1 Selected test methods ................................................................................................................ 37
3.4.2 Testing for susceptibility to intercrystalline corrosion ............................................................. 38
3.4.3 Test for susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking ................................................................. 39
3.4.4 Test of the susceptibility to pitting corrosion............................................................................ 40
4 Metallographic material testing........................................................................................ 41
4.1 Preface ...................................................................................................................................................... 41
4.2 Specimen preparation by grinding and polishing ................................................................................ 41
4.3 Specimen preparation by etching .......................................................................................................... 42
4.4 Microscopes .............................................................................................................................................. 43
4.4.1 Optical microscopes .................................................................................................................... 43
4.4.2 Electron microscopes.................................................................................................................. 43
4.5 Examination of welds .............................................................................................................................. 45
4.5.2 Macrosections .............................................................................................................................. 45
4.5.3 Microsections ............................................................................................................................... 45
5 Material test certificates.................................................................................................... 46
5.1 Normative specification ........................................................................................................................... 46

welding
5.2 Types of test ............................................................................................................................................. 46

5.3 Types of material test certificates .......................................................................................................... 47
6 Test questions ................................................................................................................... 48
7 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 50

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1 Mechanical-technological material testing

1.1 Tasks of mechanical and technological material testing
Through the testing of materials with scientific or practical testing, key properties of the materials can be
determined and the corresponding material parameters can be described. These material values are the
basis for:
– Examination of the materials at the location of the material manufacturer,

– Checking the guaranteed quality of the purchased materials,
– Determining the technological production properties of the materials using work specimens,
– Determining the allowable stresses of the materials by the technical designer for the strength analy-
sis and
– Testing of components and entire structures according to the required operating conditions.
Typical material parameters for material properties are mapped in Table 1. In Table 2 non-destructive
testing methods; static, dynamic and technological processes are listed.
Table 1: Material properties and material characteristics

Material properties Characteristic Testing procedures
Yield strength, yield point
Load-carrying capacity Tensile testing
Tensile strength
Elongation at break
Tensile testing
Ductility (plasticity) Necking
Bending elongation Bending test
Toughness (ductility) Notched bar impact energy Notched bar charpy test
Energy (absorption) Fracture toughness fracture mechanics
Hardness HV Hardness test according to Vickers
Hardness HB Hardness test according to Brinell
Hardness
Hardness test according to Rock-
Hardness HRB, HRC
well
Table 2: Classification of the non-destructive test methods

Classification criteria Testing procedures
Tensile testing
Compression test
Bending test
Static test methods Shearing test
Torsion test
Time-fracture test
Static measurement of hardness
Testing with impact loading
Dynamic testing Testing with dynamic loading
Dynamic measurement of hardness
Technological cold tests
Technological material tests
Technological hot tests

welding
1.2 Static tensile test at room temperature

1.2.1 Normative data
Original materials Welded joints

Testing procedures EN ISO 6892-1 EN ISO 5178, EN ISO 4136
EN ISO 6892-1 EN ISO 5178
Specimen shapes
DIN 50125 EN ISO 4136
1.2.2 Function of the static tensile test
The purpose of the tensile test is to determine one or more strength- and deformation characteristics in
compliance with certain conditions. Here, a tensile specimen is generally stretched to the breaking point
and the required tensile force is recorded. Since the tensile test has a special significance in the as-
sessment of base materials and in the examination of welded joints, the experimental conditions must be
defined as precisely as possible, so that different laboratories always come to clear and comparable re-
sults.
1.2.3 Stress-Strain Diagram
Stress-strain diagrams are drawn up during tensile testing. A schematic example of such a diagram with
the characteristic parameters is shown in Figure 1. Figure 2 shows a continuous and a discontinuous tran-
sition.
Figure 1: Schematic representation of a stress-strain diagram

welding
Discontinuous transition
Stress [N/mm² or MPa] Continuous transition
Stress [N/mm² or MPa]

ReH Rm Rp0,2
Strain [%] Strain [%]
Figure 2: Visual representations of the stress-strain diagram
1.2.4 Characteristics for the tensile test
Stress  (Strength parameter)

The stress  (nominal stress) is, at every moment of the tensile test, the tensile F
σ
force F in relation to the initial cross-section S0. S0
Yield strength Re (Strength parameter)

The yield strength Re is the stress at the moment that the tensile force, with in-
creasing elongation, equals or falls for the first time. If a noticeable drop occurs in Fe
Re 
the tensile force, a differentiation must be made between the upper and lower S0
yield point (ReH, ReL).
Yield strength Rp (Strength parameter)

Fp
Yield strength Rp is the stress in a certain non-proportional elongation (e.g. R)p0.2. Rp 
S0
Tensile strength Rm (Resistance value)

Tensile strength Rm is the stress that results from the maximum tensile force Fm in Fm
Rm 
relation to the original cross - section S0. S0
Young's modulus (Elasticity characteristic value)

Young's modulus is the quotient of the tensile force F in relation to the original σ
cross-section S0 and the elongation in relation to machine measuring length LE0 in E
the area of elastic deformation. ε
Strain  (Strain characteristic value)

L  L0
The strain  is the ratio of length variation L - L0 to the initial measuring length L0. ε  100%
L0
Elongation after fracture A (Strain characteristic value)

welding
The elongation after fracture A is the remaining length variation referred to the ini- Lu  L0
A  100%
tial measuring length L0 after fracture of the tensile test piece. L0
Reduction of area Z (Strain characteristic value)

Reduction of area Z is the largest remaining cross-section change referred to the S 0  Su
Z  100%
initial section S0 after fracture of the test piece. S0
1.2.5 Test procedure (tensile test)
The test procedure for the tensile test is shown in Figure 3. As can be seen, during the run there is a
more or less pronounced specimen elongation, resulting in a necking for plastic materials, followed and
ending with the fracture of the test specimen (Figure 4). Brittle materials, such as the cast iron rupture
without any are deformation .
Test piece prior to the

tensile test
Test piece during the

tensile test
Test piece after tensile

test
Figure 3: Appearance of a test piece before, during and after the tensile test
Figure 4: Tensile test piece after tensile testing with necking and fracture

welding
1.3 Bending test


Testing procedures EN ISO 7438 EN ISO 5173
Specimen types EN ISO 7438 EN ISO 5173
1.3.2 Function of the bending test
The bending test (formerly technological bending test) serves for testing the bending behaviour (plastic
ductility, shielding ability) of metallic materials. It can be carried out for both the base materials and for
welded joints. The specimen shape is guided by the geometry of the base material to be tested. It can
have a round, square, rectangular or polygonal cross-section. In principle, the test specimen is plastically
deformed at room temperature by bending to a certain bending angle without changing the direction of
loading. If the bending reaches an angle of 180°, the test is called folding test. Out of the welded joints
the test specimens may be extracted in a transverse or longitudinal way. In this way either one of the
surfaces or the cross sections of the welded joint are tested under tensile loading.
1.3.3 Material parameters of the bending test
Bending angle α (strain characteristic value)

The bending angle α is the angle by which a test specimen, out of the horizontal
position, can be bent to the moment that a first distinctively visible crack (> 3 mm) α
occurs. It is being measured in loaded specimens during bending.
Bending B elongation (strain characteristic value)

The bending B strain is the remaining elongation length referred to the initial Lu  L0
measuring length L0 after reaching the desired bend angle. It is particularly in- εB   100%
L0
tended for welded joints (weld metal, heat affected zone).
1.3.4 Test set-up
The basic test set-up for the bending test is shown in Figure 5. The test force has to be applied so slowly
that an uninfluenced plastic deformation of the material is possible. In case of dispute, a test speed of (1
± 0.2) m / s is to be used.
In Figure 5:
D Is the diameter of the bending mandrel

L Is the length of the test piece
l Is the distance between the bearing rollers
a Is the thickness of the test piece
α Is the bending angle

welding
a
D D

a
Figure 5: Set-up for the bending test
1.3.5 Test on welds
The aim of the bending test on welded joints is to determine the elongation of the outer fibre (bending
strain) in addition to the bending andle a. In this context, the execution of the welded joint significantly
affects the achievable bending angle. Irregularities such as pores, inclusions, lack of fusion, undercut,
etc. are usually responsible if the required bending angle is not reached. This is, among others, depend-
ing on the following factors:
– Shape and composition of the specimens, such as, specimen dimensions, surface finish, ratio of the
tensile strength of the weld metal to the tensile strength of the base material.
– Test set-up and execution, such as the location of the root, span, mandrel diameter and strain rate
(speed of deformation).
1.3.6 Examples of test specimens of welded joints
In EN ISO 5173 the basic test specimen shapes are defined as listed below:
– Transverse bend test specimen

– Side bend test specimen
– Longitudinal bending test specimen and
– Face bending test specimen
When loadings are to be applied transverse to the weld, transverse bend test specimens are used. Here,
the bending strain can be calculated as the percentage (%) ratio of the measuring length elongation to
the original measuring length. In contrast, the side bend test will be able to visualize even very small
irregularities such as layers- and sidewall lack of fusion over the entire weld thickness. This test is par-
ticularly suitable for thicknesses above 10 mm. Finally, the longitudinal bending test applying a longitudi-
nal load to the weld is defined for testing the ductility of butt welded joints of dissimilar materials.
Table 3 shows all the shapes specified in EN ISO 5173 and describes their application. As can be seen,
all the specimens can be classified according to the above basic shapes. The short name is extracted
out of the English name. Examples of selected specimen shapes can be found in Figure 6, Figure 7 and
Figure 8. The names used are those given in EN ISO 5173. Figure 9 shows a side bend test in the initial
and tested condition.

welding
Table 3: Specimens according to EN ISO 5173
Short name Test piece shape Description
Specimen in which the surface under

strain is the side which has the greater
Transverse Face Bend test specimen for a Butt weld
TFBB width of the weld or the side from which
(Figure 6)
the weldin arc was first applied, suitable
for transverse butt weld specimens
Specimen for which the surface in ten-
sion is the side opposite to that of the
TRBB Transverse Root Bend test specimen for a Butt weld face butt weld bend test specimen, ap-
plicable to transverse butt weld speci-
mens
Transverse Side Bend test specimen for a Butt weld Specimen for which the surface in
SBB
(Figure 7) tension is a cross-section of the weld
Specimen whose direction is parallel to

Longitudinal Face Bend test specimen for a Butt weld
LFBB butt weld direction, applicable to face
(Figure 8)
and root bend specimens
Specimen whose direction is parallel to

LRBB Longitudinal Root Bend test specimen for a Butt weld butt weld direction, applicable to face
and root bend specimens
Specimen for which the cladding is in

Face Bend test specimen for Cladding without a butt
FBC tension, applicable to both transverse
weld
and longitudinal specimens
Specimen for which the cross-section of

the cladding overlay is in tension, appli-
SBC Side Bend test specimen for Cladding without a butt
cable to both transverse and longitudinal
weld
specimens

tension or for which the cross-section of
FBCB Face Bend test specimen for Cladding with a Butt weld
the cladding overlay is intension and
which contains a butt weld

tension or for which the cross-section of
SBCB Side Bend test specimen for Cladding with a Butt weld
the cladding overlay is intension and
which contains a butt weld

welding
Lt r r
r
ts Figure 6: Transverse
t face bend test specimen for a
butt weld (TFBB)
Lt r
b
Figure 7: Transverse
side bend test specimen for a
ts
butt weld (SBB)
r
Lt
Lf
b Ls
Lf
ts Figure 8: Longitudinal
bend test specimen for a butt
t
weld (LFBB and LRBB)
For transverse bend testing of butt welds, the test specimen shall be taken transversely from the welded
joint of the manufactured product or from the welded test piece in such a way that after machining the
weld axis will remain in the centre of the test specimen or at a suitable position for testing. For longitudi-
nal bend testing of butt welds, the test specimen shall be taken longitudinally from the welded joint of the
manufactured product or from the welded test piece.
Figure 9: Transverse side bend test specimen for a butt weld (SBB) left: not tested, with marked weld shape;
right: tested, recognisable with weld (bending angle 180°)

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1.4 Weld Bead bend test


Testing Procedures SEP 1390 only testing of base materials
Test specimens SEP 1390 only testing of base materials
1.4.2 Function of the weld bead bend test
The task of the weld bead bend test is to determine the crack absorbing/stopping capability of a base
material. It will be examined whether an initiated crack in the weld metal is being absorbed/stopped dur-
ing the continued loading of the heat affected zone or the base metal.
It is valid for weldable structural steels with minimum values of the yield point between 235 to 355 N/mm²
with a thickness  30 mm.Products with thickness over 50 mm are to be machined to 50 mm.
1.4.3 Test procedure
The weld bead bend test is conducted at room temperature. The specimen is placed (Figure 10) into the
bending device, so that the weld bead is located in the tensile zone (Figure 11), and will be constant
slowly bended until fracture, but maximum up to 60°. It should be noted that the welding bead is not test-
ed, but the crack absorbing/stopping ability of the heat-affected zone of the base material. Therefore
cracks must be initiated in weld metal.
Figure 10: Schematic view of the weld bead bending test

welding
Figure 11: Bending device for bending former before and after testing
1.4.4 Test evaluation
The weld bead bend test is passed if at least one crack appears in the heat affected zone or a crack is
running from the weld metal into the heat affected zone and the specimen is not broken up to the bend-
ing angle of 60°. The specimen shall be deemed broken, if the distance between middle of the weld run
and the end of the crack is larger than 80 mm. If no initial crack occurs in weld metal, the test has to be
assessed as invalid.
Typical results of the evaluation of weld bead bend tests (passed, invalid, failed) are shown in Figure 12.
Figure 12: Evaluation of results of the bead bend testing (left: passed, centre: invalid, right: failed)

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1.5 Charpy test


Testing Procedures EN ISO 148-1 EN ISO 148-1
Test specimen EN ISO 148-1 EN ISO 148-1, EN ISO 9016
1.5.2 Role of the impact test
The role of the impact test is to determine the toughness, i.e. the deformation capacity of a metallic ma-
terial under impact loading (energy absorption). The test is used e.g. for quality tests of materials. It al-
lows the assessment of the fracture behaviour under specified load conditions.
The impact test does not provide characteristic values for the strength analysis; evenso no direct con-
clusion can be given regarding the result of the impact test towards the lowest operating temperature of
a material in a component.
According to experience ductile steels are characterized in the impact test through a large deformation
capacity of (high energy absorption) where brittle materials are characterized by a low deformation ca-
pacity (low energy absorption).
1.5.3 Characteristics of the impact test
Impact energy KVx (toughness characteristic value)

Impact energy KVx (V-notch) or KUx (U-notch) is proportional to the
required impact energy for fracturing of or to the plastic deformation
KVx, KUx
of a notched impact test specimen. The index x is for the radius of
the finn of the pendulum impact hammer, e.g. 2 (2mm).
Impact strength ak (toughness characteristic value)

Impact strength ak corresponds to required impact energy KVx for
fracturing or for plastic deformation of an impact test specimen rela- KVx
ak 
tive to the test specimen cross-section [(h - 2) In w] (this characteris- h - 2  w 
tic value is no longer used).
Shear fracture percentage (toughness characteristic value)

The shear fracture percentage arises from measuring the length and
percentageShear fracture 
the width of the cleavage fracture portion of the fracture area. (i.e the
fraction with “crystalline” appearance) and the determination of the
percentage shear fracture portion by subtraction the percentage 100% - percentagecleavage fracture
cleavage fracture portion from 100%.
Lateral expansion LE (ductility characteristic value)

Lateral expansion LE (lateral widening) is a measure for fracture
resistance of a material. It results of the sum of maximum upsetting LE = A max side1 + A max side 2
amax measured for the respective side of the joint specimen, for
which the two fracture sides are to be cut and measured.

welding
1.5.4 Test sequence
A notched bending test specimen is broken by an impact with a hammer swing at a specified tempera-
ture. The notch in the test piece conveys by narrowing the deformation area and by the formation of a
multi-axial stress state, the tendency of brittle fracture. The fast loading of the test piece (impact with a
striking velocity of 5 to 5.5 m/s) increases the tendency of brittle fracture. The testing equipment is
schematically shown in Figure 13.
Weight Hammer
Scale Upper-shelf
Pendulum rod zone
Absorped energy KV
Blade
Pivot
h2
Transition
zone
h1 Test specimen
Lower-shelf
zone
Testing support
Temperature T
Figure 14: Schematic representation of the
Figure 13: Schematic presentation of charpy test curve of the absorped impact energy versus tem-
perature
1.5.5 Absorped impact energy temperature (KV-T- curve)
The absorped impact energy temperature curve, also known as the impact temperature curve (KV-T-
curve), shows the energy absorped as function of the test temperature for a given shape of specimen
(Figure 14).
In general, the curve is obtained by drawing a fitted curve through the individual values. The shape of the
curve and the scatter of the test values are dependent on the material, the specimen shape and the im-
pact velocity. In the case of a curve with a transition zone, a distinction is made between the upper-shelf
zone, transition zone and the lower-shelf zone. (Figure 14).
The transition temperature, Tt , characterizes the position of the steep rise in the absorbed ener-
gy/temperature curve. The transition temperature Tt is the temperature at which:
– a particular value of absorbed energy is reached, e.g. KV8 = 27 J

– a particular percentage of the absorbed energy of the upper-shelf value is reached, e.g. 50 %
– a particular portion of shear fracture occurs, e.g. 50 %, and
– a particular amount of lateral expansion is reached, e.g. 0,9 mm.
1.5.6 Appearance of the fracture
The fracture appearance relates to the appearance of the fracture surface being viewed macroscopically.
Therefore, depending on the exposed fracture mechanism, a distinction is made between the following
morphologies:
– Area with shear fracture appearance (fibrous, i.e. matt), cf. Figure 15, left
– Area with cleavage fracture appearance (crystalline, i.e. shiny), cf. Figure 15, right

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The higher the shear fracture portion, the higher the impact strength of the material. The fracture area of
most impact test pieces according to Charpy shows both sliding fractures and cleavage fractures next to
each other.

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The designations used for fracture appearance “matter or fibrous fracture appearance” and “shear frac-
ture” are frequently synonymously used. The other opposite designation is often marked as “cleavage
fracture” and “crystalline fracture appearance.” It can be concluded that by shear fracture in a proportion
from 0% to 100% there is a cleavage fracture.
Figure 15: Fracture types of impact test pieces (left: Shear fracture; right: Cleavage fracture)
1.5.7 Test specimen for the impact test
The normal specimen is 55 mm long and has a square cross-section of 10 mm side length. In the middle
of the test piece length a V- or U-notch is to be added (Figure 16, Figure 17). If it is not possible to take
out a normal test piece from the material to be tested, undersize test pieces with widths of 7.5 mm, 5 mm
or 2.5 mm are to be used.
l w
l/2
90°
h-5
h
r=1 90°
Figure 16: Notched test specimen shape according to Charpy (left: V-notch V; right: U-notch U)
Figure 17: Notched test specimen shape according to Charpy (left: V-notch V; right: U-notch U)

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1.5.8 Specimen location in welded joints
In EN ISO 9016 a system is defined for impact test pieces that uses letters to describee the type, posi-
tion and notch orientation and numbers to show the distance (in mm) of the notch from reference lines
(RL) (Table 4). The test specimen shall be taken from the welded joint such that its longitudinal axes are
at right angles to the weld length.
Table 4: Scheme for the denomination of the position of the notched test specimens in welded joints
1st character 2nd character 3rd character 4th character 5th character
U Charpy U-notch W Notch in weld S Notched face a Distance of the b Distance between
metal parallel to the centre of the the weld joint face
surface notch from the side to the nearer
reference line face of the test
V Charpy V-notch H Notch in HAZ T Notch through (if a is at the specimen (if b is at
the thickness centre line of the surface of the
the weld, then weld, then b = 0)
a = 0)
Figure 18 contains examples of the denomination of the notched test specimens according their position
in the weld metal and the heat-affected zone. The symbols a and b stand for the distances from the rele-
vant reference lines as mentioned in Table 4.
VHT 0/b
VWT 0/b
b
b
VWT a/b VHT a/b
b
b
a a
Figure 18: Examples for the denomination of notched test pieces according their position in weld metal and
the heat-affected zone.
Example:
In a notched test piece with denomination VHT 5/2, the V-notch (V) is in the HAZ (H) of the welded joint
perpendicular to the surface of the test piece (T-Position). 5 is the distance (a) from the centre of the
notch to the reference line in mm. 2 is the distance (b) between the surface of the welded joint and the
nearest surface of the test piece in mm.

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1.6 Hardness tests

1.6.1 Introduction
According to Adolf MARTENS (1850-1914), hardness is the resistance that a body uses to oppose the
penetration of another (harder) body.
Hardness cannot be measured directly, but it is derived from primary measuring values (e.g. testing
force, penetration depth, compression area). Depending on hardness test methods, the hardness value
is determined as follows:
– from the testing force and a geometyric parameter identifying the hardness indentation, e.g. the
penetration depth,
– solely by a length characterising the hardness indentation or
– by another material response, e.g the cutting ability.
Hardness values can only be compared if they have been determined by the same test method with
identical test parameters. A defined hardness value can only be characterised by the following criteria:
– definition of hardness value (e.g. depth/area of compression, among others),

– geometry and material of the penetrating body,
– level and the exposure duration of the test force and the way how it is applied and
– composition and surface quality of the test piece.
The selection of the appropriate hardness test method also depends on the material and hardness of the
test piece, the shape, dimensions, weight and accessibility of the test piece, the job definition (e.g. serie
or hardness progression test) and also on the permitted measurement uncertainty (Table 5).
Table 5: Overview of the procedure for the hardness test

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In case of metals, mainly test methods with static application of force are used (Table 6). A penetration
body/ indenter (spherical, cover, pyramid) made from steel, carbide alloy or diamond is pressed perpen-
dicular into the surface of the test piece as it rests on a solid underlayment. The test force is applied
smoothly with a defined application and impact time. In many test methods, the indentation is geometri-
cally measured after load force release. The length measurement values (penetration depth, diagonal,
diameter) and the testing force are used for the calculation of the hardness values. The sequence in pre-
ferred hardness test methods in practice are given as follows :
– VICKERS,
– BRINELL and
– ROCKWELL.
Table 6: Hardness test methods for metals

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1.6.2 Hardness test according to Vickers

Testing procedures EN ISO 6507-1 EN ISO 9015-1, EN ISO 9015-2
Specimen type irrelevant irrelevant
1.6.2.2 Short description
A diamond indenter in the shape of a straight pyramid, having a square base with an angle α of 136°
between opposite faces, is pressed into the surface of the test piece and the diagonals d1 and d2 of the
remaining indentation in the surface are measured after the test force F has been removed (Figure 19).
Depending on the test force, the VICKERS process is divided into Vickers hardness test (macro), low-
force Vickers hardness test and Vickers microhardness test (Table 7). The advantages and disad-
vantages of the hardness test are shown in Table 8.
Table 7: Classification of the hardness test according to VICKERS in line with test force
Area Test condition Test force in N Standard
Macro area  HV 5  49,03 EN ISO 6507-1
Low-force area HV 0.2 to HV 5 1.961 to 49.03 EN ISO 6507-1
Micro area < HV 0.2 < 1.961 EN ISO 6507-1
Figure 19: Principle for determining Vickers hardness
Table 8: Advantages and disadvantages of the hardness test method

High level of effort required to achieve a sufficient
Almost no limit to the application of the process by
weld surface quality and to measure the involved
the hardness of the test piece
diagonal lengths
It is possible to test thin plates/tubes, small test
pieces and/or Inspection surfaces, thin hardening Sensitivity of the diamond indenter for damaging
and galvanised layers
As test indentations can be kept very small, the In case of small test indentations, hardness de-
functionality of the components to be examined is pendency on shape deviations of the indenter and
maintained in most cases. the surface preparation

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Independence of hardness value to the testing Susceptibility to vibrations, especially in the micro
force in the macro area area
No faulty measurement with flexibility of the test Subjective errors by the operator on hardness val-
piece in the direction of the testing force ue
1.6.2.3 Characterisic value of the hardness test according to Vickers
Vickers hardness HV (hardness characteristic value)

The Vickers hardness HV is proportional to the quotient of the 136 
test force F and the surface d² of the indentation, which is as- 2  F  sin
sumed to be the same straight pyramid with square base and HV  0,102 2  0,1891  F
the same angle α of that of the indenter. d 2
d2
1.6.2.4 Designation example
230 HV 10 /20
Dwell time in s (omitted for standardised dwell time )
Code number for the test force (corresponds to F in N x 0.102)
Code letter of the hardness test method (HV = hardening acc. to VICK-
ERS)
Hardness value
1.6.3 Hardness test according to Rockwell


Testing procedures EN ISO 6508-1 Not commonly used except with tough material coatings
1.6.3.2 Brief description
The indenter – a diamond cone of with rounded tip or a steel sphere – is pressed into the test piece in
two stages. The remaining penetration depth tb of this indenter is determined under certain conditions.
Rockwell hardness is derived from the penetration depth tb. Hardness after ROCKWELL is reverse
proportional to the penetration depth. Low penetration depths mean high levels of hardening, while high
penetration depths are characteristic for soft materials. The test principle of the Rockwell hardness test is
shown in Figure 20. The advantages and disadvantages of the hardness test method are listed in Table
10 .
The hardness test according to ROCKWELL is applied in different process variants (hardness scales).
These are identified by capital letters. Table 9 contains the scales A, B, C and F. These differ in terms of
the applied test force.
Table 9: Typical process variations of the hardness test according to ROCKWELL

Hardness scale Hardness Specimen applications
HRC 20 to 70 HRC Hardened steels, quenched and tempered alloys
HRA 60 to 80 HRA Very hard materials, for example, carbide alloy

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HRB, Materials of medium hardness, steels with low and medium

35 to 100 HRB
HRF C-contents, copper-zinc alloy, bronze etc.
F0 Fm F0
Reference
plane
h
Initial position Load-carrying position Measuring position
Figure 20: Principle of the hardness test according to ROCKWELL
Table 10: Advantages and disadvantages of the hardness testing process

Little time involved in execution, because the Possibility of failures during the test procedure
hardness value can be read/or is displayed imme- through the permanent displacement of the test
diately after the penetration process. piece and other components lying in the force flow
Limited options for testing of outer zone-hardened
Automation option
specimens due to large testing forces
Low installation costs for the test equipment be- Sensitivity of diamond indenter to damage, possi-
cause no visual measuring instrument is required ble faulty measurements
No operator influence as the hardness value is Influence of the indenter on the hardness test re-
displayed directly sult with conical indenters
1.6.3.3 Characteristic value of the hardness test according to ROCKWELL
Rockwell hardness HR (hardness characteristic value)

For every Rockwell scale the defined rockwell hardness HR is derived h
from a numeric value N from which a quotient of the permanent penetra- HR  N   
tion depth h and the respective scale S is deducted. S
61,2 HR C
Symbol of the chosen Rockwell process
Symbol of the hardness test method (HR = hardening acc. to ROCKWELL)
Hardness value

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1.6.4 Hardness test according to Brinell


Testing procedures EN ISO 6506-1 uncommon
An indenter, a ball made of carbide metal (formerly hardened steel) with diameter D, is pressed into the
surface of a test piece and the diameter d of the indentation is measured after the test force is removed.
Brinell hardness HB (according to standard HBW) is proportional to the quotient of the testing force and
the surface of the indentation. The advantages and disadvantages of the hardness test method are listed
in Table 11.
F
Surface
Initial position Load-carrying position Measuring position
d1 d2
Figure 21: Principle of the hardness test according to Brinell
Table 11: Advantages and disadvantages of the hardness testing process

Due to the large test indentations suitable for
hardness testing on inhomogeneous materials Limitation of the application to a maximum Brinell
when the expansion of the inhomogeneity is small hardness of 650 HBW
in comparison with the test indentation
Suitable for testing large unmachined parts such as
Limitation of testing of small and thin-walled test
forged parts, cast parts, hot-rolled or hot-pressed
pieces
and heat processed parts
No faulty measurement with flexibility of the test Time-consuming measuring of the diameter of
piece in the direction of the testing force indentations
Simple and robust indenters (carbide metal ball Relatively serious damage to the test piece from
 650 HBW, formerly steel sphere  450 HBS) the indenter‘s indentation

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1.6.4.3 Characteristic value of the hardness test according to Brinell
Brinell hardness HB (hardness characteristic value)

The Brinell hardness HB is proportional to the quotient of the testing
force F and the surface of the remaining ball indentation after the 2F
force is removed. The hardness characteristic value is followed by a HB  0,102 
W when a carbide metal ball is used and an S when a steel sphere is π  D(D  D 2  d 2 )
used (HBW, HBS)
250 HB W 10 /3000 /30

Dwell time in s (omitted from 10 to 15 s)
Code for the test force (coresponds to F in N x 0,102)
Diameter of the test sphere in mm
Symbol for the test sphere material (W = carbide alloy)
Symbol for the hardness test process (Brinell)
Hardness value
1.6.5 Hardness tests (macro hardness) on welded joints
Hardness tests on welded joints are usually carried out with the process according to VICKERS (cf. sec-
tion 1.6.2) using test forces from 49 N or 98 N (HV 5 or HV 10), where the choice depends mainly on the
base material specifications. In EN ISO 9015-1 the requirements are given for macro hardness testing
on welded joints. According to the requirements, hardness tests can take place as (row) sequences or as
individual indentations (Figure 22 to Figure 25).
max. 2 mm
HAZ HAZ
width small 11
3
1 5 7
WM
BM 2 BM 2
BM 1 WM BM 1
2 4
6
6
13
Specimen Specimen
Figure 22: Hardness sequences for a butt weld Figure 23: Individual Indentations of a butt weld
The critical area of a welded joint is generally the HAZ. For this reason the standard recommends carrying
out two more indentations in addition to the hardness indentation with the highest value (Figure 22).

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The result of the hardness test gives information regarding the approriate executed weld processing of
the material. If e.g. due to welding too much martensite in the heat-affected zone occurs, a correspond-
ing very hard zone is formed, in which cracks are often initiated. There is a correlation between under-
bead cracks, maximum hardness and martensite content. If the maximum hardness value exceeds a
particular value (acc. to MÜLLER with unalloyed steels 400 HV 10) hardening cracks are to be expected.
1 2
Location of the
BM 1
hardness lines
5
WM
BM 1
11
max. 2 mm
WM
9
13
3
10
7
4
BM 2
BM 2
Specimen Specimen
Figure 24: Hardness sequences for fillet welds Figure 25: Hardness sequences for fillet welds
1.6.6 Conversion of hardness values
It may be necessary to convert the hardness values determined in one process to another process scale.
This is usually the case, if a hardness testing machine is unavailable for the desired purpose or if it has
not been possible to make indentations on the test piece, e.g. for space reasons. Because of local varia-
tions in hardness in many materials, such conversions only give a rough indication of the actual hard-
ness value and should only be used if their correctness is sufficiently assured.
Between the hardness processes according to Brinell, ROCKWELL and VICKERS, as well as between
hardness and tensile strength, empirical conversion ratios exist for certain materials with limited accura-
cy. On the other hand, general conversion ratios do not exist. Details can be found in EN ISO 18265.
The rule of thumb for estimates is as follows:
HB  HV: ........................................................... HB  0.95 • HV

HRB  HB: ........................................................... HRB  176 - 1165 / SQR (HB)
HRC  HV: ........................................................... HRC  116 - 1500 / SQR (HV)
HV  HK: ........................................................... HV  HK (in the small load range)
Rm  HB, HV: .................................................... Rm  c HB (or HV); Rm in N/mm²
In literature the following numeric values for the factor c for estimating the tensile strength Rm are pro-
posed:
– Steel with cbc matrix: ........................................ c  3.5

– Cu and copper alloys (annealed):...................... c  5.5
– Cu and copper alloys (cold-formed:) ................. c  4.0
– Aluminium and aluminium alloys ....................... c  3.7

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1.7 Fatigue strength tests

1.7.1 Normative specifications

Testing procedures DIN 50100 DIN 50100
Specimen types e.g. DIN 50125 e.g. EN ISO 5178, EN ISO 4136
1.7.2 Short description
The fatigue strength test involves testing procedures with periodic variable loading of the specimens.
This involves the determination of the number of cycles under a certain loading until fracture occurs and
and determination of the load limit under below no more fracturing occurs (fatigue strength) or the load
value which leads to a fracture after a certain number of cycles (e.g. 105) (HCF=High Cycle Fatigue).
Based upon the various options for applying the dynamic loading, the fatigue strength tests are differen-
tiated according to different aspects. This results in:
– Classification tests
– Multi-stage tests
– Random tests
– Operating strength tests
Classification tests are characterised by the fact that the load continues to be applied during tests. Gen-
erally the temporal course of load has a sinusoid form. The possible type of loads during the classifica-
tion test are shown in Figure 26.
Load principle
max
2 a =   R =  min / max 0<R<1

min R=0
Stress 
-1<R<0
R =-1
-  < R <- 1
R =- 
1 = R < +
Time t
Compressive pulsating Alternating load Tensile pulsating

load load
Figure 26: Different types of loading during the classification test
1.7.3 Characteristic values of the fatigue strength test
High Cycle Fatigue (HCF) D (N) (fatigue strength characteristic value)

This is the load above the fatigue strength at which a fatigue fracture occurs when the number of cycles
N indicated by the S-N curve is reached

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Fatigue strength D (fatigue strength characteristic value)

This is the largest alternating dynamic stress amplitude around a given mean stress, where a test piece
withstands this load “infinitely often” without fracture and without inadmissible deformation
Fatigue strength under alternating load W (fatigue strength characteristic value)

This is the special case of fatigue strength for a mean stress of zero. The stress alternates between
equally large positive and negative values
Pulsating Fatigue strength Sch (fatigue strength characteristic value)

This is the special case of fatigue strength for a rising and declining load between zero and a maximum
value. The lower stress is zero, the mean stress is equal to the alternating stress amplitude and the fa-
tigue strength under alternating load corresponds to the stress range
1.7.4 Endurance test
The endurance test (according to August WÖHLER, German engineer, 1819-1914) is used to determine
material parameters for dynamic loading . It comprises a series of classification tests (for 6 to 10 speci-
mens) with different stress amplitudes a at a constant mean stress m or constant stress ratio . Be-
cause it is a classification test, the WÖHLER test does not change the load-setting of a specimen as set
prior to the test, during the test. Depending on the aim of the test either the applied stress on the material
to be tested or the applied deformation amplitude of the test equipment can be kept constant. The load
values are applied according to the fracture cycle N until a break occurs; connecting the individual
measuring points yields the so-called Woehler curve (Figure 27).
In case of metallic materials, in particular construction steels, the Woehler curve moves rougly in parallel
to the stress cycle above a specific number of cycles (Figure 27). This limit value of the load, at which no
further fracturing occurs after an infinite number of cycles, is referred to as the fatigue endurance limit D.
The Woehler curve illustrates that alternately-stressed materials have a lower load capacity than statical-
ly loaded ones.
Stress level
Gaussian distribution
Specimen fracture
Fatige-tested specimen
without rupture
log 
S-N curve
log N
LCF HCF
Low Cycle Fatigue resistance
High Cycle Fatigue
Fatigue
Figure 27: Schematic disgram of a stress-number curve

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1.8 Creep rupture tests


Testing procedures EN ISO 204. Can be carried out according to EN ISO 204
1.8.2 Brief description
The single-axis creep rupture test is used to determine the mechanical behaviour of metallic materials
under constant test temperature and constant tensile force in the direction of the test piece axis during
the stress period. The test includes the heating of the test piece to the given test temperature and the
loading of the test piece with a constant tensile force or a constant tensile stress in the directon of
the test piece longitudinal axis for a certain test period. The following can be determined:
– a defined creep strain of the test piece (non-intermittent creep rupture test);
– values for permanent elongation for suitable test periods or up to the fracturing of the test piece (in-
termittent creep rupture test);
– fracture time (non-intermittent creep rupture test and intermittent creep rupture test).
“Constant of stress” means that the ratio of the testing force to the current cross-section remains con-
stant during the test. The results received for a constant stress are usually different from those for a con-
stant test force.
1.8.3 Selected characteristic values of creep rupture test
Creep elongation Af (strain characteristic value)

Creep elongation Af is the proportional increase of the reference length at ΔL rt
the time t (ΔLrt) at a defined temperature, expressed as a percentage of Af   100%
the initial reference length (Lr0). Lr 0
Percentage elongation after fracture Au (strain characteristic value)

The percentage elongation after fracture Au is the permanent increase in L ru  L r0 
the initial reference length (Lr0) after the fracture (Lru - L r0), expressed as Au  100%
percentage of the initial reference length (Lr0). Lr 0
Time reduction of area Zu (strain characteristic value)

The percentage reduction of area Zu is the maximum change to the cross- S 0  S u 
section area after the fracture (S0 - Su), expressed as a percentage of the Zu  100%
original cross-section area (S0). S0
The strength values of creep rupture strength and creep limit are not anymore standardised at present.
However, since they are also very important for the description and evaluation of strength properties of
heat-resistant steels at high temperatures over long periods (100,000 h and higher) and evenso are
listed in various leaflets and tables, they will be defined below.

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Creep rupture strength Rm tT (strength value)

The creep rupture strength Rm t/T at specific test temperature T is the test
stress 0 that leads to fracturing after a certain duration of load t Rm t/T
(e.g.: Rm 100000/550).
Creep limit Rp tT (strength value)

The creep limit Rp t/T at a specific test temperature T is the test stress 0
that leads to a defined plastic strain p after a certain load period t (e.g.: Rp t/T
Rp0.2 1000/350).
1.8.4 Method
During the creep rupture test, the specimen is heated to a prescribed testing temperature T. The speci-
men, clamp and test parts and the transducer should be brought into thermal equilibrium. This state is to
be maintained for one hour before the application of the test force, unless the respective material stand-
ard indicates otherwise. The test force is to be exerted along the test piece axis in such a way as to
largely avoid bending and rotating the test piece. The test force must be applied smoothly and quickly.
The creep test produces the intermittent and non-intermittent test characteristic stress elongation dia-
grams (Figure 28). If the plastic elongation is graphically applied over stress lengths until the test piece
fractures, the so-called time elongation diagrams result (Figure 29).
Fracture
Ap
Au
Stress  [N/mm²]
Plastic Elongation Ap
Ae Ai Af
a
c A p 2/3
t=0 t = t1
A p 1/2
b
A per Ak Ae 1. 2. 3.
t 1/2 t 2/3 tu
Strain  [%]
Load (stress) duration t
Figure 28: Stress-strain diagram of the inter- Figure 29: Linear time elongation diagram (schematic)
rupted creep rupture test
The symbols used in Figure 28 have the following meaning:
Ae Elastic elongation Ai Plastic initial strain/ a Start of removal of the test force
elongation
Af Creep strain/ ele- Aper Permanent strain/ elon- b End of removal of the test force
ongation gation
Ap Plastic strain/ elonga- Ak Non-elastic strain/ elon- c End of application of the test force
tion gation

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1.9 Fracture-mechanics tests


Testing procedures EN ISO 12737, ISO 12135 EN ISO 12737, DVS 2401
Specimen types EN ISO 12737 EN ISO 12737, DVS 2401
Unlike the notch impact test (cf. section 1.5) fracture-mechanics tests enable quantifiable information to
be derived about how quickly an existing crack expands and when a critical crack length is reached
that will trigger a brittle fracture. Thus, all fracture-mechanics tests first require a respective specimen to
be oscillated until a suitable/usable crack has been developed.
During the fracture-mechanics evaluation the imperfections to be recorded are converted into defects
(type, geometry) and are treated as cracks. This means, for example, that a crack in a welded joint leads
to an increase of the local loading (stress) in the vicinity of the crack tip. This increase can be described
by arithmetical parameters (stress intensity factor K, crack tip  expansion and/or. CTOD, energy
release speed etc.). These load parameters are compared to material parameters (fracture toughness
Kc, critical crack ctip expansion, critical cracking resistance Rc, critical J integral etc.). Crack propaga-
tion occurs when the load (stress) value exceeds the corresponding material parameter.
It can application-orientated be subdivided as follows:
– The linear-elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) are particularly suited for brittle materials. It is
based exclusively on elastic deformations (nominal stress concept).
– The elastic-plastic fracture mechanics (EPFM) or flow-crack mechanics is particularly suited for
ductile materials. It also includes plastic deformations (CTOD concept, J integral).
Fracture mechanics is a process that creates a relation between a crack characteristic value and
material parameters in order to derive conditions for crack propagation.
1.9.3 Selected characteristic values of the fracture mechanics
Stress intensity factor KI (toughness characteristic value)

The stress intensity factor KI is a measure for the intensity of the
stress field in the near vicinity of the crack-tip which is subjected K I      a  Y( a /W )
to a defined crack-tip-opening (crack opening type I, Figure 30).
It depends on the applied external stress, the size and geometry Y = geometrical factor (e.g. from table
of the test piece as well as on the crack length. books)
Critical stress intensity factor, fracture toughness KIc (toughness characteristic value)
The critical stress intensity factor KIc is the resistance of a mate-
rial against crack propagation in the event that the stress state K IC   c    a  Y( a /W )
near the crack-tip can approximately be described by the state
of plane strain and that the plastic strain is limited to a small Y = geometrical factor (e.g. from table
material area (c- critical). books)

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Ductile fracture parameters J integral (toughness characteristic value)

The J-integral is a line independent integral around the crack-tip which  u 
describes, even with a large plastic zone, the state at the crack tip (Figure J    W  dy  Ti i ds 
31).

 x 
1.9.4 Method
The fracture toughness (KIc, KIIc or KIIIc) is determined experimentally, as an important characteristic
value of the linear-elastic fracture mechanics of metallic materials in the state of plane strain under in-
creasing load according to EN ISO 12737 using specially oscillated specimens (Figure 30). Using a re-
corder or other suitable measuring instruments the force is registered in function of the notch opening
displacement. A defined deviation from the linear increase of the diagram is used to determine the force
which corresponds to a crack propagation of max. 2%. If certain validity criteria are met, the fracture
toughness can be calculated using this force. If a sharp crack exists, this material parameter character-
ises the resistance of a material to fracturing under a defined three-axis tensile stress state. For simplifi-
cationpurposes, the crack opening type I according to Figure 30 (i.e. KIc) is assumed when calculating
fracture toughness.
The KIc value determined in this way is regarded as a lower limit value of fracture toughness at the rele-
vant test temperatures. Under cyclic or constant loading, crack propagation can also occur at KI values,
which are lower than the KIc value.
Crack propagation under cyclic or constant loading can be influenced by the ambient temperature and
the ambient medium. Hence, when applying the KIc value to the design of components, differences be-
tween lab test conditions and use conditions must be considered.
An important characteristic value of the elastic-plastic fracture mechanics, i.e. the flow fracture mechan-
ics, is the J integral (JIc, JIIc or JIIIc) (Figure 31). In simple terms, it indicates the difference between po-
tential energies of two otherwise identical bodies, whose crack length varies by Δa.
The CTOD concept (Crack-Tip-Opening-Displacement), as a further model of the elastic-plastic fracture

mechanics, is based on a correlation between the crack opening displacement at crack tip and the stress
on these. It is postulated that when introducing the crack extension, the crack opening displacement
achieves a critical value.
y

Figure 30: Types of stress (left: type of load I; crack opening mode; centre: Figure 31: Schematic
type of load II; longitudinal shear crack; right: type of load III; transverse crack diagram of the J integral

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2 Chemical-analytic material testing

2.1 Chemical analysis

not standardised (laboratory test-
Testing procedures not standardised (laboratory testing provision)
ing provision)
not standardised (laboratory test-
Specimen types not standardised (laboratory testing provision)
ing provision)
The qualitative and quantitative chemical composition of metallic materials can in principle be deter-
mined in two ways. These are:
– (wet) chemical-analytical processes and

– spectrometric-analytical processes.
Even though the (wet) chemical processes were still widely in use up to a few years ago (e.g. pit testing,
gravimetric analysis, solution volumetric analysis, photometry etc.), these have been almost completely
replaced with various spectrometric processes. Of these, the optical emission spectrometry (OES,
sparks spectrometry – Figure 32) has proven successful, since this provides extremely precise qualita-
tive and quantitative results quickly and economically.
2.1.3 Method
In optical emission spectrometry, an arc is ignited between a metallically uncovered and flat polished test
piece and an electrode (Figure 33). The radiation emitted in this process is broken down by means of
special prisms into its spectral components. As every alloying element (just like all other elements) is
distinguished by a characteristic line spectrum, this can be identified uniquely via photomultipliers or
modern CCD lines. If the intensity of the radiation is being determined additionally, information on the
concentration of the element in the analysed specimen can be derived from this.
Figure 32: Modern emission spectrometer (Pic- Figure 33: Specimen holder with specimen and
ture: SPECTRO Analytical Instruments GmbH) specimen retention system

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2.2 Hydrogen determining


Testing procedures — EN ISO 3690
Specimen types — EN ISO 3690
Hydrogen is absorbed by metals mainly in the molten state and can no longer escape completely at high
solidification speeds, as are typical e.g. for welding. This forcibly dissolved hydrogen often leads to an
embrittlement of the material and can, under certain circumstances and even a long period after welding
has ended lead to the formation of hydrogen-supported cold cracks. Appropriate measures to avoid
damage caused by hydrogen presuppose therefore the reliable determination of the H2 content in welded
joints. Since hydrogen in steels cannot be determined using emission spectrometry (there are no ap-
proved reference specimens, as the element is volatile), other processes must be used to verify its con-
tent. In practical material testing, the following methods in particular have become established:
– cold extraction and

– hot extraction.
Strictly speaking, the term “extraction” is incorrect, as the hydrogen leaves the specimens independently
and is not “removed”. “Swapping out” would be a more appropriate term.
Figure 34: Hydrogen cold extraction (mercury method); left: initial state; centre: degassing 72 h;
right: ventilated, after degasification
2.2.3 Method
2.2.3.1 Cold extraction
For the filler material to be tested an individual weld bead is applied on a test piece set-up of unalloyed
steel (carbon ≤ 0.18%, sulphur ≤ 0.02%) . This test piece set-up consists of a inlet piece, the actual test
piece and the run-off weld tab. The specimen is quenched immediately after welding and then stored at -
78 °C or lower until analysis. During cold extraction to EN ISO 3690 the specimens are aged under mer-

welding
cury in a “Y-tube” at room temperature until the calculated hydrogen volume has stopped rising for two
consecutive days (Figure 34). This is also known as the mercury method and is a generally approved
process and is frequently used because it does not require a lot of machinery. Crucial disadvantages are
the time-consuming hydrogen analysis, the strong diffuse of results and the potential hazards of mercu-
ry.
2.2.3.2 Hot extraction
Hot extraction measuring methods, which use a thermal conductivity detector (TCD), are generally divid-
ed into two categories. Carrier gas hot extraction (CGHE) is more important for material testing labora-
tories. Here the specimen is heated to a relatively high temperature (up to 400 °C) and the diffusible hy-
drogen escaping from the test specimen is measured continuously. On the one hand, the carrier gas
conducts the effused hydrogen to the thermal conductivity detector and on the other prevents air from
entering the system. With this arrangement, a continuous measurement of the emerging hydrogen is
possible. The hydrogen extraction takes place with this process within a short period of time (15 to 20
min.). The disadvantages though are the relatively high procurement costs and the fact that the speci-
men dimensions are limited by the size of the required quartz tube.
In the second category of hot extraction, the test piece is set in a suitable trapping chamber, which is
heated to a relatively low temperature (usually between 45 °C and 150 °C). The quantification of the
trapped hydrogen occurs then in a separate step, usually using a gas chromatograph.
2.2.4 Characteristic value of the hydrogen determination
Diffusible hydrogen HD (volume characteristic value)

Diffusible hydrogen HD is the volume of hydrogen dissolved in a specimen
HD
unit of metal, which can then leave (effusing) this again under defined
in ml/100 g weld metal
conditions (time, temperature, pressure).
During the evaluation of the results obtained from the individual processes for hydrogen determination
(diffusible hydrogen), particular attention is to be paid to the respective test conditions. Direct compari-
son is only possible if conditions are identical. Hence the furnace temperature has a significant effect on
the measurable hydrogen content. e.g during carrier gas hot extraction, since at temperatures above
400°C additional hydrogen traps can be opened.
3 Corrosion test
3.1 Purpose of the corrosion test
The main purpose of the corrosion test is to determine the resistance of test pieces to corrosive attacks
in order to be able to draw conclusions regarding the choice of suitable materials, or to deduce
measures for corrosion protection. The majority of corrosion tests are carried out as comparative tests.
A general distinction is made between two basic types of corrosion test:
– Tests under conditions of use (natural tests) and

– Tests on laboratory conditions (lab tests).
A further classification of the different types of corrosion tests can be carried out according to the
testduration. This results in:

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– Long-term corrosion tests,

– Short time corrosion tests and
– High-speed corrosion tests.
Long-term corrosion tests are carried out under practical, natural conditions. They are therefore char-
acterised by a high degree of certainty in predicting the effectiveness of the selected corrosion protec-
tion, for example. Short time corrosion tests are carried out under more stringent quantative conditions
than long-time tests. The main aim is to be able to compare the corrosion protection value of different
materials with each other. In contrast, high-speed corrosion tests are used to monitor quality. They are
carried out under a fast working corrosive agent (test medium).
3.2 Corrosion test with recording of current density potential curves
A process widely used in the laboratory for the verification of electro-chemical corrosion attacks is the
recording of current density potential curves (CPC) with the aid of special galvanic measuring cells
(Figure 35). These enable:
– the corrosion current density to be determined in the active state,

– the electro-chemical parameters to be determined for the characterisation of the passivation behav-
iour,
– the material behaviour against pitting corrosion to be determined as well as
– testing for susceptibility to intercrystalline stress- and fatigue crack corrosion.
Figure 36 shows a schematic current density potential curve with its specific areas (active, active-
passive, passive, transpassive). A complete CPC represents the overlap of all anodic and cathodic part
processes of corrosion. The potential of the electrode to be tested (working electrode) is measured
against the reference electrode (e.g. Ag/AgCl), while the current flows to the opposite electrode (Pt)
(Figure 35). The choice of the measurement cell (reference electrode) suitable for the CPC to be pre-
pared depends on the respective measuring problem.
V active
aktiv
active
aktiv passive
passiv transpassive
transpassiv
passive
passiv
Current
density I
A
Imax
Opposite electrode
Me+
Reference electrode
Workiing electrode
(Pt)
I Passiv
Passive
Potential U
e- URuhe UU UU U Durchbruch
Rest Passiv11
Passive Passiv22
Passive breakpoint
Metal Deck-
Surface
Metall- korrosive
SurfaceDeckschicht verhindert Surface
layer prevents Deckschicht-
layer
dissolution schicht
layer -
auflösung weitere
further Metallauflösung
metal dissolution durchbruch
breaking
bildung
formation
E
Figure 36: Schematic diagram of a current density-

Figure 35: Schematic diagram of a galvanic
potential curve
cell for recording current density-potential curves

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3.3 General corrosion resistance test


Testing Procedures EN ISO 9227 EN ISO 9227 possible
Salt-spray tests are used to compare the corrosion resistance of metallic materials with or without constant
corrosion protection or with temporary corrosion protection. The are mainly usable for the verification of flaws,
such as pores and other damages, in certain metallic layers and organic coatings as well as anodic oxide
layers and transformation layers. They are not intended as a comparative test, in order to classify different
materials according their corrosion resistance. Different agents (test mediums) can be used.
The neutral salt-spray test (NSS, neutral salt spray) applies for metals and their alloys, metallic coat-
ings; transformation layers; anodic oxide layers as well as organic coatings on metallic materials.
The acetic acid salt-spray test (ASS, acetic acid salt spray) is particularly usable for testing decorative
coatings of copper-nickel-chrome or nickel-chrome. It is also appropriate for testing anodic layers on
aluminium.
The copper-accelerated acetic acid salt-spray test (CASS, copper accelerated acid salt spray) is par-
ticularly used to test decorative coatings of copper-nickel-chrome or nickel-chrome. It is also appropriate
for checking anodic coatings on aluminium.
3.3.3 Method
In this type of corrosion test, specimens (referred to as working standards) are placed in a chamber for a
defined test time and exposed to a permanent salt spray fog. After the test period of between 2 and
1,000 hours, the corrosion products are cleaned off and they are weighed to exactly 1 mg. The deter-
mined mass loss is divided by the area of the stressed surface area of the working standard, in order to
obtain the mass loss (in g/m ²) of the metal for every square metre of the working standard (surface-
related mass).
3.4 Selective corrosion

3.4.1 Selected test methods
The numerous test methods to establish the susceptibility of metallic materials to selective corrosion can
be used to determine the following parameters, depending on the respective corrosion type and the test
objective:
– Change of mass and dimensions of the test piece.

– Change of mechanical properties of the test piece.
– Change of the surface condition and appearance of the test piece.
– Depth of pitting with non-uniform corrosion.
– Change of microstructure of the test piece.
– Change of composition of the test equipment.

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Table 12 contains a summary of test methods for the verification of susceptibility in relation to selective
corrosion (intercrystalline corrosion – and stress corrosion cracking – SCC).
Table 12: Selected test methods for selective corrosion (steels, Al, Cu, Mg alloys)
Type of pitting Material Test equipment and conditions
Stainless steels (aus- STRAUSS test (copper sulphate boil test)
tenitic, duplex) HUEY test (nitric acid boil test)
Ni-Mo and Ni-CR-Mo Boiling test with Fe-sulphate-sulphuric acid solution; with
Intercrystalline
alloys Ni-Mo alloys in nitric acid
Cu alloys Sulphuric acid/nitric acid with the addition of NaCl
Al alloys Agitating test at room temperature with NaCl addition
Non-alloyed and low Calcium nitrate test (also applicable for alloy steels, then
alloyed Steels however inter and transcrystalline), boil-bend tests
SCC
intercrystalline Cu alloys Mercury nitrate test
Agitating or alternating immersion test at room temperature
Al alloys
with the addition of NaCl and H2O2
SCC Stainless steels (aus-
Magnesium chloride test
transcrystalline tenitic, duplex)
SCC Test medium for dipping specimen comprising ammoniac
Cu alloys
trans and inter- Cu carbonate solution
cyrstalline Mg alloys Test medium of NaCl and K2CrO4
Stainless steels (aus-
transcrystalline FeCl3 test (ageing at defined temperatures)
tenitic, duplex)
3.4.2 Testing for susceptibility to intercrystalline corrosion


Testing procedures EN ISO 3651-1, EN ISO 3651-2 EN ISO 3651-1, EN ISO 3651-2
Specimen types EN ISO 3651-1, EN ISO 3651-2 EN ISO 3651-1, EN ISO 3651-2
The most frequently performed test of austenitic and ferritic-austenitic stainless steels for the verification
of intercrystalline corrosion is the STRAUSS test. Steels with Cr contents below the resistance limit are
naturally not influenced in the STRAUSS test. The test allows a sensitive analysis of chromium depletion
in the area of the grain boundaries, because the microstructure areas whose Cr content does not reach
the resistance limit of min.12% become active during the test and dissolve preferentially, whereas the
remaining areas remain passive.
Contrary to the STRAUSS test, not only chromium-poor areas are selectively exposed in the HUEY test,
but also other microstructures that only become vulnerable under the conditions reproduced in this test.
The test is therefore particularly suitable for verifying resistance to local corrosion in highly oxidising ac-
ids. The process only applies to austenitic and ferritic-austenitic stainless steels, which are delivered as
rolled, forged and cast products or in the form of pipes and for use in a highly oxidising medium (e.g in.
concentrated for acid). Steels containing molybdenum should only be tested with this test if the opera-
tional behaviour of the relevant steel in nitric acid is to be examined.

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3.4.2.3 Method
A specially prepared test specimen (e.g. welded) is immersed in a boiling solution for a defined time (20
 to 5 h) according to EN ISO 3651-2. This can involve copper sulphate (CuSO4) and 16% sulphuric acid
(H2SO4) (STRAUSS test), copper sulphate and 35% sulphuric acid or iron (III) sulphate and 40% sul-
phuric acid. This test piece is then bent and its convex side is examined for cracks due to intercrystalline
corrosion at a magnification of around 10 under the stereomicroscope. In case of doubt, a lengthwise
cross-section of the test pieces can be tested metallographically in order to prove intercrystalline corro-
sion and determine their penetration depth.
If, in particular, corrosion by nitric acid is to be expected, also a specially prepared specimen is weighed
before testing and immersed over 5 time periods of 48 hours each, in 65% boiling nitric acid solution
(HUEY test according to EN ISO 3651-1). The criterion for the evaluation of the susceptibility against
intercrystalline corrosion is in this case the mass loss, which is determined after each time period by
weighing.
3.4.2.4 Characteristic value of resistance to intercrystalline corrosion after HUEY
Corrosion rate rcorr (speed)

Corrosion rate rcorr is the speed of the material removal in millimetres 87600 m 10000 m
rcorr  rcorr 
per year (mm/a) or in grams per square metre per hour (g/(m² h). S t ; S t
t Duration of acid corrosion test, in h M Average mass loss per time period, in g
S Original specimen surface, in cm ²  Density of the specimen in g/cm ³
3.4.3 Test for susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking


Testing procedures DIN 50915; EN ISO 7539-1/9 DIN 50915; EN ISO 7539-1/9
Specimen types DIN 50915; EN ISO 7539-1/9 DIN 50915; EN ISO 7539-1/9
The testing of metallic materials for susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking can take various forms. On
the one hand, material-specific test mediums are used, and on the other the respective specimen must
be exposed to a defined higher stress or a continuous slow elongation as well as to increased tempera-
tures and/or electro-chemical stimulations. Here it is important that all methods are controlled in such a
way that changes to the damage mechanism are avoided.

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3.4.3.3 Method
To test non-alloyed and low-alloyed steels for intercrystalline stress corrosion cracking, locally cold de-
formed and elastically stressed specimens (boil bend specimens - BB specimens) are boiled in liquid
calcium nitrate solution and examined for cracks. The test surface is always the surface subject to ten-
sion. On unwelded specimens the test surface remains unmachined. The test duration is 200 hours. At
intervals of two to three days, the specimens are examined for visible surface cracks.
Stainless steels are subjected to the magnesium chloride test in order to examine their susceptibility to
stress corrosion cracking. In this process, specially pre-stressed specimens (e.g. by tensile or bending
stress) are boiled in a 42% boiling MgCl2 solution for a defined period.
3.4.4 Test of the susceptibility to pitting corrosion


Testing procedures ASTM G 48; EN ISO 17864 ASTM G 48; EN ISO 17864
Specimen type ASTM G 48; EN ISO 17864 ASTM G 48; EN ISO 17864
Regular methods for corrosion test which are based on the analysis of mass losses, cannot be used to
verify the susceptibility of stainless steels to pitting corrosion. The reason for this is that the mass loss
associated with hole formation is very small. It is therefore better to simulate conditions that lead to the
hole formation. This can be achieved by ageing in a suitable, chloride-containing corrosive medium. If
holes caused by corrosion can be found, the material is susceptible.
3.4.4.3 Method
To determine the critical pitting temperature (CPT), specimens with defined dimensions are aged in a
6% FeCl3 solution at given temperatures for up to 72 hours. If no pitting corrosion is found after the test
period, the procedure is repeated either at a higher temperature (50 °C) or with a step by step increase
of the test temperature (5 K increments), until corrosion holes can be detected (Tmax = 85 °C).
According to EN ISO 17864 and ASTM G48, the critical pitting temperature can also be determined po-
tentiostatically, e.g. depending on the chloride ion content.

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4 Metallographic material testing

4.1 Preface
Metallography is a subsection of metal science. It establishes the relationships between the phase dia-
grams, the microstructure built-up and the characteristics of metals and alloys. Hence it is a fundamental
method of microstructure examination. It includes the visual examination of the microstructure via micro-
scopic evaluation of test results, with the intention of a qualitative and quantitative description. It encom-
passes the type, shape, size, arrangement and amount of the microstructure. For this a perfectly pre-
pared macro- and in particular a micro-section is required, which has a representative, edge-sharp and
flat surface.
4.2 Specimen preparation by grinding and polishing
The success of each metallographic inspection highly depends on careful sample taking. Sample taking
methods that cause strong material changes are to be avoided. The microsection may not display any
changes during its production, such as deformation, heat influences, scratches and smudges.
The mechanical preparation is divided into two steps – grinding and polishing. The specimen can be
processed both by hand and automatically on water-cooled fixed or rotating slabs. Grinding and polish-
ing always take place in several steps with decreasing surface roughness.
The production of macro-sections usually involves special sandpapers; and the grain parameters depend
on the material under examination. Thus graining parameters up to 500 are used for relatively hard ma-
terials, for example, while finer grain parameters (up to 1,200) are used for soft metals like aluminium.
A gross or fine grinding is sufficient for the fabrication of the macrostructure. Contrary to this, after
grinding on rotating slabs, microsections are additonally polished with aluminium or diamond paste until
a microscopically scratch-free area results.
Figure 37: Manual metallographic wet grinder Figure 38: Semi-automatic metallographic wet
grinder
Examples of manual and semi-automatic metallographic wet grinding and polishing machines can be
seen in Figure 37 and Figure 38.

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4.3 Specimen preparation by etching
An unetched microsection area seems to have a uniform microstructure. No differences in the micro-
structure of the materials are apparent because the light is almost equally reflected. In this context, mi-
crostructures with high hardness or hardness differences are an exception, since they can be trans-
formed over the course of the polishing process into a relief formation. A finished prepared microsection
area must therefore be contrasted for visualisation of the microstructure. Due to this, the components of
a microstructure in the prepared plane are made distinguishable to the eye.
The processes of metallographic etching are among the most important ways to contrast microstructure.
These are very numerous and can vary a great deal. Thus methods exist that do not change the micro-
section area by visual “etching” (dark field, phase contrast, polarisation, differential interference con-
trast) as well as processes that change the microsection plane. The latter are subdivided into electro-
chemical and physical etching. Hence the methods of classic etching (solution-etching, precipative
etching, tempering etching) can be classified as electro-chemical etching techniques. Physical etching
methods are characterised by interference layers (e.g. by evaporation deposition), ion etching and ther-
mal etching. The handling of a microsection test piece during wiping etching, a type of the solution etch-
ing, is shown in Figure 40. It should be noted that all metallographic work have to be in compliance with
the strictest occupational safety principles.
Figure 39: Handling of a specimen during manual Figure 40: Handling of a microsection specimen
polishing during wiping etching with etchant according to ADLER
(solution etching)
The pitting of the etching solution and therefore the height of the surface relief generated depend on
three main parameters. These are:
– the concentration of the etching agent and its chemical energy,

– the etching duration and
– the temperature of the etching solution.
The etching times are measured in terms of seconds and hours. Etching time and etching temperature
are related. Increasing the etching temperature reduces the etching time. Depending on the etching task
and the microsection preparation (cf section 4.2 and DIN V 1739) the classic etching agents can be dif-
ferentiated according to reagents that render the macrostructure visible (e.g. ADLER solution) and in
etching agents for developing the microstructure (e.g. 3%-Nital).

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4.4 Microscopes
4.4.1 Optical microscopes
The most important tool in the examination of metallographic microsections is the optical microscope
(incident light microscope – Figure 41; stereomicroscope – Figure 42). The optical structure comprises
two separate optical systems: the eyepiece that is turned towards the eye and the lens that is turned
towards the object. The lens creates a real, enlarged intermediate picture of the object, which is in-
creased by the eyepiece working as a magnifying glass and which is viewed subjectively by the eye or
captured on a screen or a photographic plate, film or CCD chip. The microscope magnification indicates
how many times larger the object appears when viewed through the microscope than it would at normal
visual range (250 mm).
Figure 41: Metallographic incident light micro- Figure 42: Metallographic stereomicroscope
scope
4.4.2 Electron microscopes
Visible light is an electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths between 390 and 760 nm. Therefore ob-
jects that are smaller than this (in practice < 1 µm) can no longer be photo-optically resolved.
The wavelength of moving electrons as they are applied in electron microscopes depends, according to
the wave-particle-mechanism and the DeBROGLI equation, on the speed of the particles escaping from
the cathode. It is reverse proportional of the anode voltage. The higher the selected anode voltage, the
lower the resulting wavelengths. Thus, for example, a voltage of 1,000 V yields a wavelength of 0.0387
nm. This is just one ten-thousandth of the wavelength of light. A further increase of the anodic voltage
means that the wavelength of the emitted electron beam can become even smaller. In practice, the max-
imum magnification that can be achieved with the electron microscopes is approx. 300,000x.
The two most important basic types of electron microscopes are currently the transmission electron
microscope (TEM, Figure 43) and the scanning electron microscope (SEM, Figure 44). Numerous
other modifications and special designs exist.
In regular transmission electron microscopes, the accelerated electrons are used for imaging after they
have passed through the object. Thus, the examined objects must be very thin (electron transparency). For
current common acceleration voltages or electron energies these are measured in 10s of nm and 100s of
nm. A TEM is very similar in stucture to a television tube (Figure 43).

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Cathode
- Cathode
“Electron gun“
+ Anode
Condenser Anode
coil Condenser
coils
High vacuum
High vacuum
Object
Objective
coil Scanning
generator
Objective coils Control and

Intermediate evaluation
image
Observation Primary electronics
Projection
microscope electron
coil
beam
Detector for
Secondary secondary
electrons electrons
Final
Object
picture
support Object
Figure 43: Schematic diagram of a trans- Figure 44: Schematic diagram of a scanning electron
mission electron microscope microscope
In case of scanning electron microscopes, similar to the transmission electron microscopes, an electron
beam is generated and deflected via magnetic lenses and focussed. The difference from the latter con-
sists in the fact that the test specimen is not examined radiographically, but that the surface area is
scanned by the electron beam point by point, line for line (“scanning”). This excites the atoms in the test
piece and the escaping secondary electrons are collected, aplified and displayed on a screen. This
makes it possible to illustrate object areas with high depth of focus in three-dimensions. Scanning elec-
tron microscopes permit magnification of up to approx. 100,000x.
Figure 45: Examples of SEM absorption on the fracture areas (left: cleavage fracture; right: ductile fracture)
Both types of electron microscopes are used in materials engineering. Thus TEMs are used to visualise
lattice microstructure imperfections, for example dislocations. In addition, they can also be used for the
structural examination of very fine microstructures, such as martensite and intermediate stages (bainite).
SEMs are optimally suited on the other hand for presenting fracture areas and similar three-dimensional

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microstructures (Figure 45). If electron microscopes are extended with special detectors (e.g. X-Ray
spectroscopes; EDX, WDX) then the visible microstructures can also be chemically analysed.
4.5 Examination of welds


Testing Procedures nicht relevant EN 1321, DIN V 1739
Specimen types nicht relevant EN 1321
4.5.2 Macrosections
Macrosections can be evaluated with the naked eye, through a magnifying glass or a stereomicroscope.
On macrosections of welds, the layer structure (Figure 46), the penetration ratio, the heat-affected
zone , the segregations and the location and type of imperfections or irregularities, for example,
cracks, pores (Figure 47), slag, lack of fusion are recognisable.
Figure 46: Macrosection through a multi-pass Figure 47: Wormhole in a welded joint on unkilled
welded joint of fine grain structural steel old steel
4.5.3 Microsections
Micro-sections are examined on reflected-light microscopes with a magnification from 50:1 to 2,000:1.
Defects on the polished, unetched microsection, such as microcracks, micropores and microcavities
can be detected, as can non-metallic inclusions and slags. An etched microsection of a welding spec-
imen continues to display the microstructure of the base material, the microstructural changes in the
heat-affected zone and in the weld metal. Out of the type, shape, size and amount of the crystalline mi-
crostructure conclusions can be taken in relation to the mechanical properties of the welded joint (Figure
48 and Figure 49).

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Figure 48: Coarse-grained microstructure in the Figure 49: Dendritic microstructure in the weld
area of the HAZ of a non-alloyed structural steel metal of an austenitic CrNi steel X2CrNiMo17-12-2
S235JR
5 Material test certificates

5.1 Normative specification

Testing procedures EN 10204 EN 10204
in accordance with the respective in accordance with the respective
Specimen type
test standard test standard
5.2 Types of test
Test certificates are issued by a manufacturer or dealer. A manufacturer is understood as an organi-

sation that produces the products according to the requirements of the order with the properties accord-
ing to the product specification.
A manufacturer changes properties.
On the other hand, a dealer is an organisation that receives products from a manufacturer and passes
these on without further processing, or if processed, then without changing the properties stipulated in
the order.
A dealer does not change ANY properties. It only passes the products on.
The results documented in the test certificate can be from non-specific or specific tests.
Non-specific tests are understood as test procedures deemed suitable by the manufacturer in order to
determine whether products that are manufactured according the same product specification and pro-
cessing, meet the requirements contained in the order.

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Non-specific tests do not have to be performed on the products of the respective (specific) delivery.
On the other hand, specific tests are tests that are carried out on the products to be delivered or on test
units prior to delivery according to the product specification in order to establish whether the products
fulfil the requirements determined in the order.
Specific tests have to be performed on the products of the respective (specific) delivery.
5.3 Types of material test certificates
The regulations currently define the following four types of material test certificate:
– Certificate of compliance with the order “2.1”

– Test report “2.2”
– Inspection certificate “3.1”
– Inspection certificate “3.2”
If the certificate is marked “Plant” or. “2.X”, it includes the results of tests, which were conducted by
personnel who are commissioned by the manufacturer and who can belong to manufacturing depart-
ment. It is based on non-specific tests.
Certificates of tests that are carried or supervised by personnel who are independent of the manufactur-
ing department are marked “Acceptance” or “3.X”. They are based on specific tests.
Certificate of compliance “2.1”

Document in which the manufacturer certifies that the products supplied comply with the requirements
of the order, without mentioning any test results.
Test Report “2.2”
Document in which the manufacturer certifies that the products supplied comply with the requirements
of the order. The results of non-specific tests are indicated.
Inspection certificate 3.1

Certificate issued by the manufacturer to confirm that the products supplied fulfil the requirements de-
termined in the order, including the test results. The test unit and the execution of the test are specified
in the product specification, the legal regulations and the technical rules and/or the order The certificate
is verified by an inspector appointed by the manufacturer who is independent from the manufacturing
department.
Inspection certificate 3.2
Certificate in which both an inspector, independent of the manufacturing department, appointed by the
manufacturer and also an inspector appointed by the client or an inspector named in the official regula-
tions, confirm that the supplied products meet the requirements stipulated in the order, including details
of the test results.

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6 Test questions
(1) Which mechanical-technological material parameters describe the elongation behaviour?
 The impact energy.

 The impact strength.
 The yield point.
 The elongation after fracture.
 The reduction in area.
(2) How is the tensile strength defined?
 Elongation, which results from the maximum tensile force referred to the initial cross-
section.
 Stress, which results from the average tensile force referred to the final cross-section.
 Elongation, which results from the maximum tensile force referred to the end cross-
section.
 Stress, which results from the maximum tensile force referred to the initial cross-section.
 Energy, which results from the maximum tensile force referred to the initial cross-section.
(3) What purpose does the bead bending test serve?
 Determination of the weld metal toughness by bending the specimen.

 Determination of the weld metal strength by bending the specimen.
 Determination of the crack absorbing/stopping capability of the base metal.
 Determination of the crack absorbing/stopping capability of the weld metal.
 Determination of the deformation capacity of the weld metal.
(4) What is the impact energy?
 An elongation characteristic value.

 A toughness characteristic value.
 A characteristic value which is proportional to the impact energy.
 A characteristic value that is proportional to the elongation behaviour.
 A hardness characteristic value.
(5) Which statements are correct for the hardness test according to VICKERS?
 The testing force influence is static.

 The indentation is measured in its depth.
 The indentation is measured optically.
 The specimen is a steel cone.
 The specimen is a diamond pyramid.

welding
(6) What are the advantages of the hardness test according to ROCKWELL?
 Particularly suited for testing thin specimens or thin layers.

 Simple non-contact, optical measurement of hardness indentations.
 Less time required for execution.
 Possibility for automation.
 No operator influence on the test result.
(7) Which statements are correct for the WÖHLER test?
 The WÖHLER test determines creep rupture strength.

 The WÖHLER test determines fatigue strength.
 The WÖHLER test is a classification test.
 The WÖHLER test is a multi-stage test.
 With the WÖHLER test, the load set at the start is not changed.
(8) Which characteristic values can be determined in the creep rupture test?
 A specified creep elongation.

 The toughness behaviour at elevated temperatures.
 Values of the permanent elongation at suitable test durations or up to fracture.
 The number of cycles up to fracture.
 The time until fracture.
(9) With which material test method fracture toughness can be determined?
 The tensile test.

 The Charpy test.
 The test methods for creep testing.
 The test methods for fracture mechanics.
 Metallographic material testing.
(10) What is the purpose of electro-chemical etching in the production of macro and microsections?
 The specimen surface is contrasted.

 The specimen surface is levelled.
 The specimen surface is mechanically changed.
 The specimen surface is electro-chemically dissolved.
 The specimen surface is roughened by deposits.

welding
7 Bibliography
Blumenauer, H.:
Werkstoffprüfung. [Materials testing]
Leipzig/Stuttgart: Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie, 1994

Metallografie.

Metallurgie und Werkstofftechnik – Ein Wissensspeicher. Band 1.
Leaflet DVS 2401:

Bruchmechanische Bewertung von Fehlern in Schweißverbindungen. [Fracture-mechanics evaluation of
imperfections in welded joints.]
Issues: 1982 and 2004
Schuster, J.; Schulze, E.; Sonntag, G.:

Schweißnahtprüfung mittels metallographischer Methoden - Teil 1: Entwicklung und Arbeitsweisen.
[Weld testing using metallographic processes - Part 1: Development and working methods.]
Schuster, J.; Schulze, E.; Sonntag, G.:

Schweißnahtprüfung mittels metallographischer Methoden - Teil 2: Auswertung, Mikro- und Kleinlasthär-
teprüfung. [Weld testing using metallographic processes - Part 2: Interpretation of test results, micro and
thin load hardness test.]
Colliex, C:
Elektronenmikroskopie – Eine anwendungsbezogene Einführung. [Electron microscopy – An application-
oriented introduction.]
Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Scientific book company], 2008
Schuster, J.:
DIN EN 10 204:2005 and its successors – Re- or post-certification on structural steels
through destructive material testing.
N. N.:
Härte prüfen mit Zwick. [Hardness testing with Zwick.]
Pamphlet FP 303.1.1109 from Zwick/Roell

welding
Construction and design

SFI / IWE
Topic overview
Module 3: Construction and design
Chapter Topic
3.01 Basic theory of structural systems
3.02 Fundamentals of the strength of materials
3.03 Joint design for Welding and Brazing
3.04 Basics of weld design
3.05 Behaviour of welded structures under different types of loading
3.06 Design of welded structures with predominantly static loading
3.07 Behaviour of welded structures under cyclic loading
3.08-1 / -2 / -3 / -4 Design of cyclically loaded welded structures I / II / III / IV
3.09 Design of welded pressure equipment
3.10 Design of aluminium alloys structures
3.11 Introduction to fracture mechanics
© 2015 GSI - Gesellschaft für Schweißtechnik International mbH Construction and design
SFI / IWE 3.01
Basic theory of structural systems Page 1
Chapter 3.01: Basic theory of structural systems
Contents
1 Preface ................................................................................................................................. 2
2 Basic terms .......................................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Force ........................................................................................................................................ 3
2.1.1 Definition ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.1.2 Combination of forces .................................................................................................... 3
2.1.3 Resolution ...................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Moment .................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2.1 Definition ........................................................................................................................ 5
2.2.2 Combination and resolution of moments ........................................................................ 6
3 Static equilibrium ................................................................................................................ 7
4 Terms for bearings and connections (joints).................................................................... 8
5 Static determination of support structures ....................................................................... 9
6 Basics of structures .......................................................................................................... 10
6.1 General classification.............................................................................................................. 10
6.2 Bending beam ........................................................................................................................ 10
6.2.1 Plane loading ............................................................................................................... 10
6.2.2 Spatial loading.............................................................................................................. 12
6.2.3 Example: Beam with individual load ............................................................................. 13
6.2.4 Example: Beam with linear load ................................................................................... 18
6.3 Bars ........................................................................................................................................ 21
6.3.1 The basic element ........................................................................................................ 21
6.3.2 Trusses ........................................................................................................................ 21
6.4 Other supporting elements ..................................................................................................... 26
7 Question ............................................................................................................................. 27
8 Exercises............................................................................................................................ 29
8.1 Beam with a central single load .............................................................................................. 29
8.2 Beam with symmetrically arranged single loads...................................................................... 30
8.3 Clamped beam with single load at cantilever arm end ............................................................ 31
8.4 Clamped beam with constant linear load ................................................................................ 32
8.5 Truss ...................................................................................................................................... 33
9 Literature ............................................................................................................................ 34
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1 Preface
Structures regardless of whether they are welded or not, are subject to loads. This leads to internal
stresses. To protect these structures from destruction, they must possess sufficient strength and stiff-
ness to withstand this loading. Load is fundamentally a material-technical problem and is presented in
Chapter 3.02. Stress can be determined experimentally or out of engineering mechanics. How this stress
is ultimately determined is also described in Chapter 3.02. However some preliminary considerations are
necessary being under consideration in the following.
Mechanics is a part of physics that deals with the motion and forces of bodies. Technical mechanics rep-
resents the link between mechanics and technology. An important part of engineering mechanics is stat-
ics. It deals with the equilibrium of forces and moments on bodies. The balance of forces and moments
on a body is manifested by the body being at rest or moving at constant speed. Through the known ex-
ternal applied forces and moments as well as the opposing internal forces and moments, as the holding
opposing forces and moments of the body can be determined. These are the fundamentals for design
and dimensioning of general constructions like buildings, machine elements or vehicles, pipelines and
tanks and the welded joints they contain.
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2 Basic terms
2.1 Force
2.1.1 Definition
If a body with a mass of m is accelerated, force F is required. If both the mass m and the acceleration a
are known, then required force F can be determined [1, 2].
F  ma (1)
with m... mass [kg]

a... Acceleration [m / s²]
F... Force [kg m / s²]
Because this discovery was made by British physicist Sir Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727), the unit of force is
named after him.
[1 N] = [1 kg·m / s²]
A force is characterized by the magnitude, the (line of) direction and the point of application and can be
represented mathematically and treated as a vector. It is uniquely determined by the points specified in
Figure 1.
Body
magnitude
 the magnitude,
Line of action  the line of action,
 the direction of the line of action
Direction ( )
Figure 1: Representation of a force
A force F can be moved along the line of direction without affecting the body of mass m. However, later
we will see that the point of application of a force becomes important for determine the stress of individ-
ual structural components
2.1.2 Combination of forces
For subsequent calculations, it is often useful to combine forces or to split them into directional compo-
nents.
The combining of forces takes place in the same way as with vectors. If several forces act upon one
point or if their lines of action intersect in one point these forces can be replaced by one resulting force
as far as their static action is concerned. This resulting force can be determined graphically or arithmeti-
cally.
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Two forces create a “parallelogram of forces” or a “polygon of forces”:
Figure 2: Parallelogram of forces
It is important to note that only force Fres will be considered in the following calculations. It has the same
effect as the forces F1 and F2.
In order to determine Fres it is necessary to combine always two forces before combining them with the
remaining force(s). This process is illustrated in figure 3.
Figure 3: Combining of several forces
If several forces intersect at a point, it is possible to determine the resultant force via a force polygon
(Figure 4).
Figure 4: Polygon of forces
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Force Fres can be moved on its line of action without changing its effect on the body. The effect is ex-
pressed in an accelerated motion of the body in the direction of the force Fres. The acceleration can be
determined by transposing Formula 1.
Fres
a
m . (2)
2.1.3 Resolution
A force can be resolved in two directions in the plane. The resolved forces have a common point of in-
tersection (Figure 5). Displacement of forces resulting from the resolution is possible along their line of
direction. The effect on the body will be the same as that of the initial force F. The resolution of a force F
in perpendicular forces F1 and F2 is often very useful.
Figure 5: Force resolution in two directions
2.2 Moment
2.2.1 Definition
A moment arises when two equal but opposite directed forces with parallel lines of action are applied
(figure 6, left). Being applied on a body with mass m this will result in a rotating acceleration instead of a
straight line acceleration movement.
Figure 6: Creation of a moment
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The moment M is calculated as follows.
M  Fe (3)
with F... Force [N]

e... Distance of lines of action of [m]
M... Moment [Nm]
It is often necessary to indicate the moment in relation to a specific point (Figure 6, right). This doesn’t
change anything in the calculation of moment M. But in addition with the force-situation as shown on the
left side, a linear accelerated motion is added to the existing accelerated rotation. The right angle be-
tween the line of action of the force F and the distance e must always be observed! Another representa-
tion of the moment may be helpful to avoid confusion with forces (Figure 7).
Figure 7: Representation of a moment
Another view is possible in the form of an arrow. This arrow would point vertically from the plane of the
sheet and would have a double head (see example Figure 12).
2.2.2 Combination and resolution of moments
Similar to a force, a moment represents a vector in the mathematical sense of the word. Therefore the
procedures for the combining and resolution of moments are identical to those of forces.
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3 Static equilibrium
A body can only be at rest when no forces and moments are acting on it or when they neutralize them-
selves i.e., when they are in a static equilibrium. For a body loaded in the plane the conditions of equilib-
rium of the forces are given by three independent formulas. The number of three formulas or equations
is due to the horizontal-, vertical and rotational movement of the body around an axis perpendicular to
that plane (Figure 8).
Figure 8: Body loaded in the plane
The basic equilibrium relationships for a plane are:
 Fhi  0 ,  Fvi  0 ,  Mi  0 (4)
In reference to the coordinate system as shown in figure 8, these equilibrium relationships can also be
written as follows:
 Fxi  0 ,  Fzi  0 ,  Myi  0 (5)
Using the formulation in this way is useful because it can be transferred into the spatial situation. The
spatial situation has 6 degrees of freedom since the body can both move in the x, y and z-direction and
rotate around these axes. If a spatially loaded body is in static equilibrium, the following three equations
are added to the equilibrium relationships of formula 5.
 Fyi  0 ,  Mxi  0 ,  Mzi  0 (6)
These equations make clear that understanding the resolution of forces and moments in the corresponding
directions is of great importance.
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4 Terms for bearings and connections (joints)
Technical constructions not only require bearings for supporting but also connections (joints) between
components or groups of components. Bearings and connections are defined based on the resuming
degrees of freedom (movement capabilities) of the body after being applied. The following tables show
the possibilities for bodies loaded in the plane. The common used supports in Technique are the roller
bearing, pin bearing and the fixed bearing. The fixed bearing prevents any degree of freedom. Hinges
are primarily used for joints.
Table 1: Properties of bearings (support)

Sliding bearing Fixed bearing Restraint
Symbol
(grey - restrained body)
Movement possibilities (degrees of freedom)  

Reaction forces and moments (restraints)   
Number of reactions (valence) 1 2 3
Restraint, Restraint,
transversely dis- longitudinally dis-
placeable placeable
Symbol
Movement possibilities (degrees of freedom)  

Reaction forces and moments (restraints)  
Number of reactions (valence) 2 2
Table 2: Properties of connections (joints)

Hinge Cross joint Longitudinal joint
Symbol
Movement possibilities
(degrees of freedom)   
Joint forces and moments
(restraints)   
Number of joint forces and mo-
2 2 2
ments (valence)
The same approaches can be employed for spatially loaded bodies. However under these circumstanc-
es 6 possible movements respectively 6 bearing-/ joint reactions are to be considered.
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5 Static determination of support structures
Using the equilibrium relations given by the formulas (5) and (6), only statically determinate systems
(constructions) can be calculated. Statically indeterminate (incomplete) constructions or assemblies of
constructions are movable. Statically indeterminate (surplus/ redundant) constructions or assemblies can
only be calculated via the individual bodies. The following formula is used to identify the state of determi-
nacy:
n  a  z  3s (7)
with a... Number of support reactions

z... Number of intermediate reactions
s... Number of bodies in the static system
and n < 0... System statically indeterminate (incomplete)

n = 0... System statically determinate
n > 0... System statically indeterminate (surplus, redundant)
The following examples illustrate this approach.
a=1+2=3
z=2
s=2
n = 3 + 2 - 3 ∙ 2 = -1
i.e. Statically indeterminate (incomplete)
a=1+2+1=4
z=2
s=2
n=4+2-3∙2=0
i.e. Statically determinate
a=1+2+2+1=6
z=2
s=2
n=6+2-3∙2=2
i.e. Statically indeterminate (surplus, 2x)
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6 Basics of structures
6.1 General classification
The previously encountered topics were loaded bodies (structures). In order to obtain information about
stresses in these structures certain assumptions have to be made. The following will focus on two struc-
tural elements: the bending beam and the bar.
6.2 Bending beam

6.2.1 Plane loading
A bending beam is a linear element. That means it is substantially larger in one direction than in the oth-
er directions. The external applied loads are transferred through the bending beam into the supports,
where they initiate the support reactions.
Before we proceed any further it is first necessary to define a conceptual tensile-fibre. In this concept it is
assumed that the tensile-fibre is located at the bottom of the beam given the applied loads from above
are compressing the upper part of the beam and pulling (tensile) on the lower part. Figure 9 represents
such a beam. The height of a beam is often represented as a thick line and the tensile-fibre as a dashed
line (lower picture).
Figure 9: Bending beam
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In order to determine the load transfer in a beam we cut the beam imaginary along a cutting line. In order
to prevent the separated parts from moving or twisting, opposite forces and moments have to be applied
on each side of the separated parts at the cutting line location. These virtual forces and moments are
called the “internal forces and moments” and are in equilibrium at the imaginary cutting line. See figure
10: definition of the external and internal forces at the cutting line.
 The normal force N is pointing away from the edges of the cut. This prevents a mutual displace-
ment of the beam components in the longitudinal direction.
 The bending moments M are plotted so as to be positive when the components of the bending
beam are also pulled by the tensile fibre. It prevents rotation of the beam components toward one
another about the axis perpendicular to the plane.
 The lateral force V is plotted on the right cut edge of an element in the direction of the tensile fi-
bres. This prevents displacement of the beam components relative to one another transversely to
the longitudinal direction.
Figure 10: Definition of the external and internal forces at the cutting line
The number of cuts depends on how many beam sections are given where stable, continuous loads are
applied. In each case a cut between two different loads (forces and moments) is required (Figure 11).
Figure 11: Example of required cuts on a bending beam
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6.2.2 Spatial loading
In the case of spatial loading, 6 movement possibilities must be prevented at a cut. The Figure 12 shows
the 6 cut variables required at a cutting edge.
Figure 12: Definition of cut variables in on the spatial system
A difference must be made between the orientation of the variables at the cutting line / edge.. Whereas,
the forces parallel to the cutting surface are designated transverse forces (Vx, Vz), the force applied ver-
tically to the cutting surface is designated the normal force (Nx). The moments oriented in the cutting
plane are bending moments (My, Mz). The moment oriented perpendicularly to the cutting plane is the
torsional moment Mx. This torsional moment may also be referred to as Mt. Moments are being depicted
with double arrows.
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6.2.3 Example: Beam with individual load
In the following example, an even, statically determinate structure is specified.
Figure 13: Beam example 1, static system with load
We are looking for the bearing reactions and internal forces. First both the bearings must be replaced by
the unknown bearing reactions (figure 14). For applying the equilibrium relationship the force F must be
resolved into its components: perpendicular FQ (Fq) and longitudinal FL to the beam.. This can be per-
formed as described in Section 2.1.3 or by using the trigonometric functions.
FL  F  cosα  50kN  cos60  25kN
FQ  F  sinα  50kN  sin60  43.3kN
Figure 14: Beam example 1, unknown support reactions and force resolution
The beam is statically determinate because three equilibrium relationships are available for determining
the three unknown bearing reactions. For example the horizontal force equilibrium can be used as a
starting point Here and in the following equilibrium relationships, it is irrelevant in which direction the pos-
itive direction is determined.
H = 0, : 0  FAH  FL
FAH  FL  25kN
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A continuation of the vertical equilibrium cannot be executed at this point, as the two unknown variables
FAV and FBV cannot be calculated via an equation. Here it is useful to formulate the moment equilibrium,
wherein one of the two variables is not applied because the lever arm e = 0. For example bearing A
could act as the fulcrum.

M = 0, A: 0  FQ  L1  FBV  L1  L 2 
FBV (L1  L 2 )  FQ  L1
FQ  L1 43.3kN  4m
FBV    24.7kN
(L1  L 2 ) 4m  3m
Finally, the calculation of the reaction force FAV can be made based on any point using the moment equi-
librium or by using the vertical force equilibrium. Now we can continue with the vertical force equilibrium
calculation.
V = 0, : 0  FAV  FBV  FQ
FAV  FBV  FQ  24.7kN  43.3kN  18.6kN
Figure 15 shows the intermediate result.
Figure 15: Beam example 1, an intermediate solution following calculation of the support reactions
In the following the internal variables (forces and moments) are being determined between support A
and the applied external force F. For this reason a cut is made at any point between the two locations
and variable x is introduced.
Figure 16: Beam example 1, internal variables at cutting location between bearing A and external force F.
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It’s possible to determine the internal variables using both the left and the right system. Both cases yield
the same internal variables. In the following the left system is considered as the internal variables can be
determined more easily (Figure 17).
Figure 17: Beam example 1, left system after cutting between bearing A and external force F
The following equilibria and solutions can be formulated and specified:
H = 0, : 0  FAH  N
N  FAH  25kN
V = 0, : 0  V  FAV
V  FAV  18.6kN

M = 0, M: 0  M  FAV  x
M  FAV  x linear function with start and end values:
Mx  0  0kNm
Mx  L1  4m  18.6kN  4m  74.4kNm
Intermediate values of internal variables can be specified at any point of the left system. In Table 3, this
is shown as an example of x at a distance of 1 m.
Table 3: Beam example 1, internal variable values for the left system
x [m] M [kNm] N [kN] V [kN]
0.0 0.0 -25.0 18.6
1.0 18.6 -25.0 18.6
2.0 37.2 -25.0 18.6
3.0 55.8 -25.0 18.6
4.0 74.4 -25.0 18.6
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As a single force F acts on the beam, no function curves of the internal variables can be specified over
the entire beam length. Therefore, the beam must also be cut between bearing B and external force F.
Figure 18: Beam example 1, internal variables between bearing B and external force F
Again it would be possible to determine the internal variables using the left or the right system. As using
the right system is being considered easier for determination of the internal variables we use this system
(figure 19)
Figure 19: Beam example 1, right system after cutting between bearing B and external force F
The following equilibria and solutions can be formulated and specified:
H = 0, : 0  N
N  0  0kN
V = 0, : 0  V  FBV
V   FAV  24.7kN

M = 0, M: 0  M  FBV  x
M  FBV  x linear function with start and end values:
Mx  0  0kNm
Mx  L2  3m  24.7kN  3m  74.1kNm
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Intermediate values of internal variables can be specified at any point of the right system. In table 4 this
is shown with an X-interval of 1m.
Table 4: Beam example 1, internal variable values for the right system
0.0 0.0 0.0 24.7
1.0 24.7 0.0 24.7
2.0 49.4 0.0 24.7
3.0 74.1 0.0 24.7
The exact solution for bending moment under force F is M = 74.23 kNm. These differences (see table 3
and 4) are due to the rounding error created by the splitting of the external F into a horizontal and vertical
component and the determination of the bearing forces. FAV and FBV.
The results can also be represented graphically. Figure 20 shows one possible form.
Figure 20: Beam example 1, graphical representation of the internal variables
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6.2.4 Example: Beam with linear load
This example is intended to demonstrate how to deal with linear loads. This model is widely used for
determine the stresses resulting from the weight of the beam only. The beam in Figure 21 serves as an
example.
Figure 21: Beam example 2, static system with linear load
The load over the entire beam length represents a function with a constant load curve. In this particular
case, it is a function with a constant curve. The focus of the linear load is at half the beam length due to
the constant curve.
Figure 22: Beam example 2, unknown bearing reaction forces
The horizontal equilibrium of forces gives the horizontal reaction force FAH.
H = 0, : FAH  0
With the moment equilibrium at bearing B, the bearing force FAV can be determined.
L
M = 0, B: 0  FAV  L  q  L 
2
L kN 6m
FAV  q  4   12kN
2 m 2
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The vertical equilibrium of the forces can then be applied to determine the vertical support reactions.
V = 0, : 0  q  L  FAV  FBV
kN
FBV  q  L  FAV  4  6m  12kN  12kN
m
The result is clear. As no load is present in the horizontal direction, the horizontal bearing force FAH on
bearing A is also zero. Furthermore, over its length of 6 m, the beam accumulates a total load of 24 kN
from the linear load q. This must be distributed evenly on the vertical bearing forces.
We can now continue calculating the internal variables. As no other point loads or moments interrupt the
continuity of the linear load, only one cutting line is required.
Figure 23: Beam example 2, left system of the cutting line
A horizontal equilibrium of forces means that the normal force N = 0.
H = 0, : N0
From the vertical equilibrium of forces, it follows
V = 0, : 0  V  FAV  q  x
V  FAV  q  x
and
x
M = 0, M: 0  M  FAV  x  q  x 
2
x
M  FAV  x  q  x 
2
The evaluation of the equations of the internal variables is given in table 5 and in figure 24.
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Table 5: Beam example 2, internal variables over the entire beam length
0.0 0.0 0.0 12.0
1.0 10.0 0.0 8.0
2.0 16.0 0.0 4.0
3.0 18.0 0.0 0.0
4.0 16.0 0.0 -4.0
5.0 10.0 0.0 -8.0
6.0 0.0 0.0 -12.0
Figure 24: Beam example 2, graphical representation of the internal variables
The maximum value of bending moment M occurs at x = 3 m. Without any further derivation, this can be
calculated from the formula
q  L2
max M  (8)
8
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6.3 Bars
6.3.1 The basic element
In comparison with the bending beam, the bar has only the normal force Nx as internal variable (Figure
25). Such support members (=bars) only exist because additional assumptions must be made, which are
described in section 6.3.2.
Figure 25: Bar normal force Nx
6.3.2 Trusses
6.3.2.1 General
The basic elements for trusses are always bars. That these bars transmit only normal forces is given for
the following conditions:
 the system lines (centroidal axes) meet the bars at the joints (=nodes),
 the connection of the bars in the nodes are frictionless pivots,
 the loads are applied at the nodes
 the bearings are also constructed at the nodes.
The Figure 26 shows an example of a truss.
Figure 26: Example of a statically determinate truss
Although a realistic implementation of such a truss is not possible considering the conditions as men-
tioned above, a theoretical model assumption can be established sufficiently for making accurate stress
calculations in many constructions.
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There are several ways to calculate the normal forces in a truss. This may include the addition and re-
solving of forces as described in Sections Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. and
2.1.3, or by equilibrium relationships which can be formed at the nodes. As two equilibrium relationships
per node are always available, two unknown variables can always be determined. The unknown bar
forces should first point away from the bar into a longitudinal direction. If the forces are subsequently
determined to be positive, they are tensile normal forces otherwise compressive normal forces.
6.3.2.2 Example
In the following example, a plane, statically determinate truss is specified.
Figure 27: Truss example
The truss has five nodes and seven bars. The load in node 2 and the support distances from the load
application are identical to those in the example given in Section 6.2.3. It follows that we can also trans-
fer the reaction forces (Figure 28).
Figure 28: Truss example, force resolution and reaction forces
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A first simple situation is given at node 3 since one known force is available and the two unknown normal
forces in bars S2 and S7 can be determined with the two equilibrium equations. For this purpose the
angle between the bars S2 and S7 is first required and can be determined as follows
 H   2m 
β  arctan      53
 0.5  L 2   1.5m 
As force F3V is acting externally upon the truss, it becomes an internal force if it is directed along the line
of action in the opposite direction.
Figure 29: Truss example, internal forces at node 3
The vertical equilibrium then gives:
V = 0, : 0   F3V  N7  sin   
F3V 24.7kN
N7     30.9kN (Compressive normal force)
sin β  sin 53
Force N7 is negative. Therefore, a compresive normal force is present in bar S7.
The normal force N2 in the bar S2 can then be determined by the horizontal equilibrium of forces.
H = 0, : 0  N7  cos  N2
N 2   N7  cosβ   30.9kN cos53  18.6kN (Tensile normal force)
In bar S2, the normal force N2 is a normal tensile force, as it is positive.
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The graphic determination of the (internal) normal forces in the bars S2 and S7 is shown in Figure 30.
Figure 30: Truss example, graphical determination of the internal forces at node 3
In the additional calculations for analyzing the normal forces in the bars it is advisable to start determin-
ing the unknown normal forces N3 and N6 of bars S3 and S6 because of the known normal force N7 at
node 5. The proceeding of the truss analyzing will be according to the formal procedure showing the
normal force direction pointing away from the bar and taking into account the attached sign in any further
calculation (Figure 31).
Figure 31: Truss example, internal and normal forces at node 5
With the vertical equilibrium, N6 can be determined.
V = 0, : 0  N7  cos    N6  cos  
N6   N7   30.9kN  30.9kN (Tensile normal force)
The force N6 is positive. Therefore, a tensile normal force is present in bar S6.
The horizontal force equilibrium gives N3.
H = 0, : 0  N3  N6  sin   N7  sin 
N3  N6  sin   N7  sin 
N3  30.9kN  sin37   30.9kN sin(37)  37.2kN (Compressive normal force)
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The graphical determination is shown in Figure 32.
Figure 32: Truss example, graphical determination of the forces at node 5
If the procedure is continued through node 4 and node 1, all of the remaining unknown normal bar forces
can then be determined. This leads to the following result.
Table 6: Truss example, result

Bar Normal force Comment
1 -6.4 kN Compressive normal force
2 +18.6 kN Tensile normal force
5 26.2 kN Tensile normal force
6 +30.9 kN Tensile normal force
Figure 33: Truss example, result
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6.4 Other supporting elements
In addition to the bending beam (girder) and the bar, there are additional elements for modelling which
have a rather low priority for the engineering practice of weld testing. This should nevertheless be men-
tioned for the sake of completeness. For this reason we must first differentiate in terms of component
dimensions. Linear bearing structures are substantially larger in one direction than in the other two direc-
tions.
Table 7: All cutting variables in linear bearing elements

Ropes Bars Beam, girder
Only tensile normal forces Tensile and compressive normal forces All cut variables
Plane load bearing structures have larger dimensions in two directions than in the third. Sheets are load-
ed in their plane area and plates are loaded in the direction of the smallest dimension. Shells are thin,
flat or curved and can be loaded in any way. While sheets and plate calculations are more likely to be
used for girder fabrication, shell models are used for modelling containers and piping.
Table 8: Plane load bearing elements

Sheets Plates Shells
Volume-shaped elements may have similar dimensions in all three directions. Such approaches are par-
ticularly necessary when calculating using the finite element method (FEM) and require no further con-
sideration here.
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7 Question
Up to three correct answers are possible.
(1) Force in a mechanical sense arises from:
 rotation of a mass
 rectilinear uniform motion of a mass
 acceleration of a mass
 deceleration of a mass
 movement of a mass at variable speed
(2) Force is determined by
 its magnitude
 its point of application
 action line
 direction
 the elongation of a mass
(3) Which of the following cutting variables can found be in a beam?
 Normal force N
 Bending moment M
 Lateral force V
 Torsional moment Mt
 Linear load q
(4) Which of the following cut variables can be found in a bar?
 Tensile normal force N

 Bending moment M
 Lateral force V
 Torsional moment Mt
 Compressive normal force N
(5) How many support reactions does a bearing possess in a 2D situation (plane)?
 0
 1
 2
 3
 6
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(6) How many degrees of freedom does a restraint possess in the case of a plane?
 0
 1
 2
 3
 6
(7) How many support reactions does a sliding bearing possess in the case of a plane?
 0
 1
 2
 3
 4
(8) How many degrees of freedom does moment hinge possess in the case of a plane?
 0
 1
 2
 3
 4
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8 Exercises
8.1 Beam with a central single load
given:
determine: bearing reactions

cutting variables (including graphical representation)
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8.2 Beam with symmetrically arranged single loads
given:

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8.3 Clamped beam with single load at cantilever arm end
given:

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8.4 Clamped beam with constant linear load
given:

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8.5 Truss
given:
determine: Normal force N for the left diagonal and the left upper horizontal bar
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9 Literature
[1] Goeldner, H.; Holzweißig, F.: Fundamentals of engineering mechanics. 9th edition, Specialized Publish-
ers, Leipzig, 1984
[2] Gross, D., Hauger, W., Schröder, J., Wall, WA: Engineering Mechanics 1 - Statics. 11th edition, Springer-
Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, 2011
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Fundamentals of the strength of materials Page 1
Content
1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 2
2 Basic Terms ......................................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Stresses .................................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Distortion (elongation, sliding) ............................................................................................................... 5
3 Material behaviour, material parameters ........................................................................... 7
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 7
3.2 Hooke's law for the uniaxial stress state .............................................................................................. 7
3.3 Modulus of elasticity ................................................................................................................................ 7
3.4 Poisson's ratio µ ....................................................................................................................................... 8
3.5 Shear Modulus G ..................................................................................................................................... 9
3.6 Material parameters for determination of deformations ..................................................................... 9
3.7 Characteristic material parameters for strength analysis .................................................................. 9
4 Stresses due to inner forces ............................................................................................ 11
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 11
4.2 Beams under free bending subjected to normal- and transverse forces ...................................... 11
4.2.1 Stresses due to normal forces ................................................................................................ 11
4.2.1.1 Determination ............................................................................................................. 11
4.2.1.2 Cross-Section values ................................................................................................ 12
4.2.2 Normal stresses due to bending moments ........................................................................... 13
4.2.2.1 Determination ............................................................................................................. 13
4.2.2.2 Cross-Sectional Parameters .................................................................................... 14
4.2.3 Normal stress due to normal force and bending moment................................................... 18
4.2.4 Shear stress due to transverse load (shear force)............................................................... 20
4.2.4.1 Determination ............................................................................................................. 20
4.2.4.2 Cross-section dimensions ........................................................................................ 21
4.2.5 Shear stresses due to torsion ................................................................................................. 23
4.2.5.1 Warpage of cross-sections....................................................................................... 23
4.2.5.2 Differentation between open- and closed cross-sections.................................... 24
4.2.5.3 Torsion of closed cross-sections ............................................................................. 24
4.2.5.4 Torsion of open cross-sections................................................................................ 27
4.3 Joined areas under restraint conditions ............................................................................................. 31
5 Test examples .................................................................................................................... 33
5.1 Deformation of a rod .............................................................................................................................. 33
5.2 Angular distortion of a rectangular component ................................................................................. 33
5.3 Normal- and shear stresses in a T-beam ........................................................................................... 34
5.4 Box-girder with open and closed cross-section ................................................................................ 40
6 Test questions ................................................................................................................... 42
7 Literatur .............................................................................................................................. 45
© 2015 GSI - Gesellschaft für Schweißtechnik International mbH Konstruktion und Gestaltung
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1 Introduction
The aim of material strength mechanics is, on the one hand, to establish which loads S (stresses) arise
in a component due to effects F (forces), and on the other, to determine the components’ load (stress)
resistances R (strength). It must always apply, that the loads (stresses) do not exceed the load (stress)
resistances (strength).
S
S  R or written differently  1
R
with S = Load (stress)
R = Strength
In reality there is always a scattering of load resistance (strength) and loads (stresses) which makes it is
impossible to define a specific load (stress) exactly. And on the other hand the base material strength
characteristics scatter around a mean value which is being used for calculations.
In figure 1 this practical situation is displayed in a normal distribution according to Gauss (German math-
ematician, astronomer, geodesist and physicist, 1777-1855). According to this there is no 100% safety
against failure of a construction. However, it can be set in a way that the crossing of both curves in a
specific area will only occur with a low probability. In the following chapters the different safety concepts
regarding this behaviour will be explained.
Stresses (load) Stress resistance (strength)
Figure 1: Distribution of stresses (load) and stress resistance (strength)
The types of loads which are involved are forces, moments (see section 3.01) and deformations but also
referenced values like stresses and elongations which will be described in the following chapters.
By means of strength-related design of overall constructions (like steel constructions, cranes, vehicles,
machinery) or separate components (like shafts, vessels, pipes, containers) their safety and availability
should be ensured for the total operating time. Simultaneously an economic (material- and time-saving)
manufacturing of the construction or component must be given. The requirements of safety and econom-
ics often result in conflicting situations for the designer, like over-dimensioning with the goal of increased
safety makes the construction uneconomical and emphasizing on economics would jeopardize operating
safety.
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2 Basic Terms
2.1 Stresses
Mechanical stress expresses the influence of a force on specific area.
F
σ
A
with F… Force [MN], [kN], [N]

A… Area [m²], [cm²], [mm²]
σ… mechanical stress [Pa], [MPa], [N/mm²], [kN/cm²], [N/m²]
leading to the already given unit. The mechanical stress is designated in unit [N/m²] (Newton per square
metre). Common are also units like [N/mm²] (Newton per square millimetre) or also in [kN/cm²] (Kilo new-
ton per square centimetre)
These units are being preferred as they define the strength values of common structural steels in a good
way. However, in materials engineering also often the unit [MPa] (Mega Pascal) is being used (Blaise
Pascal, French mathematician, physicist, writer and philosopher, 1623 - 1662).
A conversion can be done as follows:
106 Pa = 106 N/m² = 1 MPa = 1 N/mm² = 0,1 kN/cm²
The stresses can be orientated perpendicular or in longitudinal direction to a virtual sectional surface. If a
force is applied in a transverse direction to the virtual sectional surface, it should be resolved in a way
that the stress components are orientated into a perpendicular and parallel direction to sectional surface
(Figure 2). Stresses that apply perpendicular to the respective sectional surfaces are designated as
normal stresses and can only be tensile- or compressive normal stresses. Normal stresses are symbol-
ized by the Greek letter  (Sigma). Stresses that apply tangential to the respective sectional surfaces
are designated as shear or shearing stresses and are symbolized with the Greek letter  (Tau).
Figure 2: Normal- and shear (shearing) stresses
If the sectional surface has been chosen in a way that only normal stresses apply then the stresses are
called principal stresses. For the easiest way this situation is shown in Figure 2.
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If the given the object as shown in figure 3 is not moving an equilibrium must exist (see section 3.01).
The normal stresses in x- and y-direction are in equilibrium. The same is valid for the shear stresses
otherwise the element would turn. All of this results in the fact that the shear stresses on the connected,
perpendicular planes have the same value but must be orientated as opposites.
Figure 3: Equilibrium of stresses
A beam will serve as a characteristic example of normal- and shear stresses (Figure 4 and Figure 5).
If this beam is composed of three sections with no connections between them, the sections can slide
freely which can be seen at the ends of the beam (Figure 4). In each section normal stresses are gener-
ated (upper Compressive, below Tensile). The bearing capacity is low as every section carries the load
proportionally.
Figure 4: Composed beam without shear coupling
If the gliding of each section is being prevented by a shear coupling a more bearing capacity cross-
section is established. Normal stresses can be divided over the total height. However, shear stresses are
arising at the connecting surfaces (Figure 5).
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Figure 5: Composed beam with shear coupling
In the way the shear stresses are generated at the connected contacts is characteristic for the shear
stresses in each sectional surface. Without inner connection the sliding of separate base material seg-
ments would occur.
2.2 Distortion (elongation, sliding)
Under the influence of external forces all bodies and components undergo changes in their shape, i.e.
changes to their geometrical dimensions. This mechanism is called distortion in mechanics of materials.
Distortion can either be the change in length to the initial length (=strain) or otherwise the angular
change to the initial rectangular angle which is called shearing strain. [1, 2]
l

l
with l  initial length  m  ,  cm  ,  mm 
l  change in length  m  ,  cm  ,  mm 
  strain    ,  µm / m  ,  mm / m 
Note:
Strain is associated with normal stress
Figure 6: change in length due to force loading
In the situation of an applied normal stress the elongations (deformations) in relation to the length of the
body is called strain and is the ratio of a change in length to the initial length. The unit of strain is cm/m
or mm/m or can even be given in percentage (%) or per mill (‰). The Greek letter  (epsilon) is used to
symbolize strain.
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In the situation of applied shearing stresses the faces of the body show changes in the angles of the four
initially perpendicular faces. These angle-changes (the unit is radians, dimensionless) i.e these angular
shape deformations define the shearing strain or are often indicated in percent (%) or per mill (‰).The
Greek letter  (gamma) is used to symbolise shearing strain.

  * 
2
with   constant   3,1415    ,  rad 
  angle of shearing strain   ,  rad 
  shearing strain    ,  rad 
Note:
Shearing strain is associated with shearing stress-
es
Figure 7: angular change under shear loading
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3 Material behaviour, material parameters

3.1 Introduction
Material behaviour refers to how a material responds to external loads. On the one hand external loads
are resulting in strains (deformations) of the material on the other internal loads cause stresses in the
material. Strains and stresses are thus directly related to each other. Material parameters are needed in
order to make statements regarding the behaviour of the material and thus also regarding the behaviour
of a structure under load.
3.2 Hooke's law for the uniaxial stress state
The relationships between the influences (internal forces) caused by the applied loading and the result-
ing deformations initiate material laws which characterizing the material properties. Based on the shape
of the loading- and the unloading curve for metals a distinction is made between a) linear-elastic, b) non-
linear elastic and c) elastic-plastic material behaviour (Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden
werden.).
Figure 6: Material characteristics with loading and unloading curves
In the case of metals, a distinction is made, based on the shape of the loading and unloading curve, into
 elastic material behaviour
 elastic-plastic material behaviour
In case of elastic metal material behaviour no deformation remains after complete unloading whereas in
case of elastic-plastic behaviour a permanent deformation remains after unloading.
3.3 Modulus of elasticity
For strength calculations the linear-elastic material behaviour (=loading and unloading curves are linear
and identical) is extremely important (see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).
This material behaviour is characterised by the fact that the stresses and deformations are proportional
to one another during each loading phase.
This relation (proportionality) was first discovered by the English physicist Robert Hooke (1635-1693),
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The modulus of elasticity is expressed in units of stress and identifies the relationship between strain and
stress in the linear elastic range. Hooke’s law for uni-axial stress conditions:
  E 
with E  elasticity modulus  Pa  ,  MPa  ,  N / mm²  , kN / cm²  ,  N / m ² 
  s train    ,  µm / m  ,  mm / m 
  mechanical stress  Pa  ,  MPa  ,  N / mm²  , kN / cm²  ,  N / m² 
Hooke's law is one of the main propositions of the material strength theory because on the one hand, the
deformations resulting from known loads or stresses can be calculated using the modulus of elasticity
and on the other from the appearing deformations the applied stresses and loads can be calculated.
In English-speaking regions the proportionality constant E is referred to as the modulus of elasticity or

Young’s modulus (T. Young: English physicist, physician and Egyptologist (1773-1829)). The modulus of
elasticity E corresponds to the spring constant of the elastically loaded material and can be interpreted
geometrically as the gradient of the straight line referred to as Hooke's straight line in the - diagram
(see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).
The modulus of elasticity is a material-specific quantity and is determined primarily by the bonding forces
and the nature of the atomic lattice and only slightly depends on the material condition (microstructure)
for a material group. Modules of elasticity are usually specified as a fixed value for the individual material
groups.
3.4 Poisson's ratio µ
When a load is applied to a body, the body not only deforms in the direction of the load but also in any
transverse direction of the load. The signs for longitudinal and transverse deformation are different, i.e.,
tensile stresses result in transverse contraction and compressive stresses in transverse expansion. In
the linear-elastic range of the transverse expansion q is proportional to the elongation l. After introduc-
ing the proportionality constant  (My) Poisson's law results (S.D. Poisson, French mathematician (1781-
1840)):
εq   μ  ε
with  q  transverse strain   
  longitudinal strain   
µ Poisson's ratio   
The dimensionless proportionality constant  is referred to as the transverse contraction or Poisson's

ratio and expresses the relationship between the transverse and longitudinal strains in the uniaxial stress
state.
In English literature the symbol  (nu) is commonly used for Poisson's ratio. Poisson's ratio has values
between 0.25 (completely isotropic plastic behaviour) and 0.5 (fully plastic state). For metals, the  val-
ues for linear-elastic behaviour are between 0.25 and 0.40.
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3.5 Shear Modulus G
There is also a proportional relationship between the shearing stress  and the deformations (angular
distortion)  in the linear-elastic range which is described by the elasticity law for shearing stress:
  G 
with G  shear or sliding modulus  Pa  ,  MPa  ,  N / mm²  , kN / cm ²  ,  N / m ² 
.
  angular distortion    ,  µm / m  ,  mm / m 
  shear stress  Pa  ,  MPa  ,  N / mm²  ,  kN / cm²  ,  N / m ² 
The constant G is called the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus of the material and is expressed in the
units of the stress (similar to the E-modulus). The modulus of shear can be interpreted geometrically as
the gradient of the straight line in the linear-elastic range of -  diagram (shearing stress / deformation
diagram).
A relation exists between the above described theoretical elasticity material constants E,  and G for iso-
tropic materials in which only two of the three constants are independent.
E
G
2 1   
The shear modulus of steel can be calculated now using E = 210,000 N/mm2 and  = 0.3 gives
G = 80,769  81,000 N/mm2.
3.6 Material parameters for determination of deformations
Table 1 displays an overview of material values of some typical construction materials
Table 1: material values of some typical construction materials

Density  Elasticity modulus E Poisson’s ratio µ
Base Material
[kg/dm³] [N/mm²] [-]
Steel 7,85 190.000 - 210.000 0,30
Grey Iron 7,20 80.000 - 120.000 0,25
Titanium 4,60 110.000 - 125.000 0,36
Aluminium/Al-Alloys 2,70 70.000 - 75.000 0,33
3.7 Characteristic material parameters for strength analysis
The stress-strain curve determined in the uniaxial tensile testing of standard tensile specimens provides
the most important information about static strength and toughness characteristics. The test stress
F

A0
over the elongation we obtain:
L

L0
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A0 is the original cross-section and L0 is the measured length (DIN EN ISO 6892-1 [3]). A distinction is
made between metals of strengthened material (without yield range) and those with a high yield range.
Figure 1a: Stress-strain diagram for a Figure 9b: Stress-strain diagram for an
non-alloyed ferritic steel aluminium alloy
Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.a shows the - diagram of unalloyed steel with
a high plasticity. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.b shows the - curve (work-
ing line) of a strengthened material, in this case as a departure point for a high-strength aluminium alloy.
The situation is similar for alloy steels, including those with prior strengthening (and in some cases sub-
sequent strengthening), including e.g. for cast iron.
For structural design mainly material characteristics are being used within the elastic range. For base
materials showing a clear plasticity, often the yield strength is being used by technicians and is desig-
nated as ReH (Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.a). In design however, another
designation has been incorporated. As strength values show a scattering (see paragraph Fehler! Ver-
weisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.) a minimum yield strength value with corresponding prob-
ability is being provided. For steel construction this probability is for example 95%. The designation f y ,k
is being retrieved from the terms “yield” for the index y and index k is associated with the situation that
no safety values are involved.
Tensile strength Rm is often being used in some design verifications and accordingly designation f u ,k will
be applied. The index “u” is being retrieved from “ultimate strength”.
The proceedings for strengthened materials (Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.b)
are similar. The smooth transition from elastic to plastic behaviour is being considered by allowing a
0,2% plastic deformation (Rp0,2) for ferritic base (cbc) materials and allowing a 1,0% plastic deformation
(Rp1,0) for austenitic base (cfc) materials
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4 Stresses due to inner forces

4.1 Introduction
For the determination of mechanical stresses due to inner forces (see also section 3.01) the following
situations must be distinguished:
 Beams under free bending, subjected to normal- and transverse forces and
 areas under restraint conditions.
Although the differences will be explained in the following it can be said that the differences are mainly
within the shear stress distributions.
For a better understanding, once again the definition of the inner forces/ moments and the associated
coordination system are shown in figure 7.
Figure 8: Definition of inner forces and moments
4.2 Beams under free bending subjected to normal- and transverse forces
4.2.1 Stresses due to normal forces
4.2.1.1 Determination
Figure 9: Stresses in x-direction due to normal force
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Subjected to normal force loads normal stresses will arise which are uniformly distributed over the cross
section and have a positive sign in the case of tensile stress and a negative sign in the case of compres-
sive stress.
The normal stresses are calculated according to:
Nx
σx 
A
with N x  inner normal /axial force  N  ,  kN  ,  MN 
A cross-section area  mm²  ,  cm² 
 x  Normal stresses in x-direction  Pa  ,  MPa  ,  N / mm²  ,  kN / cm²  ,  N / m² 
4.2.1.2 Cross-Section values
For rectangular shaped composed cross-sections the total area can be calculated via:
A   Ai    bi  ti 
with Ai  separate cross-section areas  mm²  ,  cm ² 
A total cross-section area  mm ²  ,  cm² 
bi  width of the separate cross-section areas  mm  ,  cm 
ti  thickness of the separate cross-section areas  mm  ,  cm 
For other cross-section shapes, like circular- or annular sections, the formula for area-calculation can be
retrieved from Table 2.
Table 2: Examples of area-calculation
 2
A d
A a 2
4
a
A  r2
r

A  (D 2  d 2 )
R
A  ab
r
4
b
D
d
A    (R 2  r 2 )
a
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4.2.2 Normal stresses due to bending moments

Figure 10: Normal stresses in x-direction due to bending moment
In case of being submitted to bending moment loads a linear normal stresses distribution over the cross-
section will be employed. The normal stress can be calculated via:
My My
σx   z  σ x ,max 
y Wy
with M y bending moment around the y-axis  Nm  ,  kNm 
 y second moment of area / moment of inertia of the cross-section of the applied component
with respect to the main axis y  mm 4  ,  cm 4 
Wy elastic section modulus around the y-axis  mm ³ ,  cm ³
σ x normal stress in x-direction  Pa  ,  MPa  ,  N / mm ²  ,  kN / cm ²  ,  N / m ² 
My
σ x, max 
Wy
Figure 10 Figure 12 displays the resulting stress distribution only for the bending moment around the y-
axis. The same applies for the bending moment around the z-axis. Within the stress calculation formula
the index y is to be exchanged by z for the bending moment as well as the elastic section modulus and
the distance z by y.
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Mz M
σx   y  σ x ,max  z
z Wz
with
M z bending moment around the y-axis  Nm  ,  kNm 
 z moment of inertia around the z-axis  mm 4  ,  cm 4 
y distance between the neutral axis of the total cross-section and
the point of stress calculation in y-direction  mm  ,  cm 
Wz eleastic section modulus around the y-axis  mm ³ ,  cm ³
σ x normal stress in x-direction  Pa  ,  MPa  ,  N / mm ²  ,  kN / cm ²  ,  N / m ² 
4.2.2.2 Cross-Sectional Parameters
The moment of inertia (=second moment of area) is an indication to which extent it has been accom-
plished to move as much as possible available cross-sectional area to the outside. The determination of
this cross-section value is more difficult for the total cross-section than for the total area. As the normal
stress is zero at the neutral axis it is required to determine this location. The determination of the cen-
troid of the area follows equilibrium considerations of fist moments of areas.
Figure 11 shows the proceeding. At first a coordination system y‘-z‘ is to be provided for the determina-
tion of the centroid of area. The selection of cross-section edges would be an advantage, however, this
has been waived for better visualisation purposes in Figure 11.
The determination will be executed with distance ez‘ , just as an example. The sum of the second mo-
ment of area of the different partial areas must be equal to the second moment of area of the total area.
After changing the equilibrium of the second moment of area around the y-axis it follows:
e z' 
S i,y'

 A  z 
i
'
i
A i A i
with
Si,y‘… first moment of area of the different partial cross-sections related to the y-axis
[mm³], [cm³]
Ai… areas of the different partial cross-sections
zi' … distance between the centroid of area of the partial area to the y-axis [mm], [cm]
The different partial cross-sections areas can be calculated according to:
A i  li,y  li,z
with li,y… Length of the partial cross-sections areas in y-direction [mm], [cm]
li,z… Length of the partial cross-sections areas in z-direction [mm], [cm]
Ai… Areas of the different partial cross-sections [mm²], [cm²]
The required dimensions are only, as an example, given for the partial cross-section 3 in Figure 11. Pro-
ceed accordingly for all the other partial cross-sections.
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Figure 11: Determination of the centroid of area
The centroids of area of the three separate cross-sections are located in one line which forwards the
conclusion that the total centroid of area must be located on this line. Therefore the value ey‘ to the z-axis
is known und does not to be determined. If this was not the case, then the proceeding would be similar
to that of distance ez .
Now the second moment of area (moment of inertia) can be determined being composed of two compo-
nents.
Component 1:
As an example for the calculation of the first component, the moment of inertia of partial cross-section 3
of Figure 11 will be used. For the moment of inertia around the neutral axis, located parallel to the y-axis
of the total profile the following is valid:
l 3,y  l 33,z
 3,y 
12
Component 2:
The second component (also called Steiner's term (Jakob Steiner; Swiss mathematician; 1796-1863)) is
composed of the multiplication of the area of the partial cross-section with the square of the distance to
the total centroid of area. These distances are retrieved from the calculation of the centroid of area and
are displayed in Figure 12.
In accordance with the example of partial cross-section 3 the following is valid:
 3,Steiner,y  A 3  z 32  l3,y  l3,z  z 32
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Figure 12: Dimensions for the calculation of Steiner’s term
For rectangular shaped cross-section areas the total second moment of area Iy (total Iy) will be calculat-
ed as follows:
 y    i,y   i,Steiner,y
with Iy … second moment of area (=moment of inertia) of the total cross-section area
[mm4], [cm4]
Ii,y … second moment of area (=moment of inertia) of the partial cross-section ar-
ea [mm4], [cm4]
Ii,Steiner,y … Steiner’s terms of the partial cross-section areas [mm4], [cm4]
For determine the moment of inertia with respect to the z-axis the proceeding is similar. The coordinates
y and z as well as the indexes y and z are to be exchanged.
However, most of the time only the maximum normal stresses are required (to be determined) being
located at the outer edge of the cross-section which resulted in the introduction of another typical cross-
section value. It is called the Elastic Section Modulus W y or W z being determined from the actual mo-
ment of inertia and the distance between the neutral axis and the most outer edge.
y z
Wy  und Wz 
z max y max
with W y … elastic section modulus around the y-axis [mm³], [cm³]

Iy … moment of inertia around the y-axis [mm4], [cm²]
zmax … distance between the neutral axis of the total cross-section and the most outer
edge in z-direction [mm], [cm]
W z … elastic section modulus around the z-axis [mm³], [cm³]
Iz … moment of inertia around the z-axis [mm4], [cm²]
ymax … distance between the neutral axis of the total cross-section and the most outer
edge in y-direction [mm], [cm]
Note: Today’s available static- and construction software programs are able to calculate these values. In
literature or in most profile data list, the formula with the earlier mentioned values are mentioned for the
respective cross-sections of, for example, standardised profiles and pipes.
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Tabelle 3 shows some examples of moment of inertia calculation in respect to the y-axis for different
types of cross-sections.
Tabelle 3: examples of calculating moment of inertia

Cross-section Iy Cross-section Iy
B
b
t
y 1
b  h3
y  (B  H3  b  h 3 )
H
h
h
12 12
z
z s b/2
r4  
r
y y
 (D 4  d 4 )
D
d
4 64
z z
Cross-sections composed of by shear coupling connected partial cross-sections can display very differ-
ent moments of inertia. The example in Table 4 should clarify this.
Table 4: Different cross-section values with equal areas

Cross-section 1 Cross-section 2 Cross-section 3
A1 = 3 · 2 cm · 10 cm = 60 cm² A1 = A2 = 60 cm² A1 = A3 = 60 cm²

A1 : A2 = 1 : 1 A1 : A3 = 1 : 1
I3 = 2 · 10 cm · (2 cm)³ / 12 +
I1 = 10 cm · (3 · 2 cm)³ / 12 I2 = 3 · 2 cm · (10 cm)³ / 12 2 cm · (10 cm³) /12 +
I1 = 180 cm4 I2 = 500 cm4 2 · 10 cm · 2 cm · (6 cm)²
I3 = 1.620 cm4
I1 : I2 = 1 : 2,78 I1 : I3 = 1 : 9,00
W1 = 180 cm4 / (0,5 · 3 · 2 cm) W2 = 500 cm4 / (0,5 · 10 cm) W3 =1.620cm4 / (2 cm + 0,5·10 cm)
W1 = 60 cm³ W2 = 100 cm³ W3 = 231 cm³
W1 : W 2 = 1 : 1,67 W1 : W 3 = 1 : 3,85
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This result should be shortly interpreted. With an applied normal /axial force all three cross-sections are
being exposed to the same normal stress. However, with an applied bending moment the normal stress
in most outer edge of cross-section 2 is 1,67-times and for cross-section 3 3,85-times less than cross-
section 1.
The deflection of a beam with cross-section 2 would be 2,78-times less and for cross-section 3 9-times
less than a beam with cross-section 1. So finally it makes sense to have the available cross-sections
positioned into the most outward location in order to get the highest utilization grade under bending mo-
ment loads. However, there are technical limitations to these considerations due to the buckling behav-
iour of vertical cross-sections under compressive normal stresses. These limitations are explained in
chapter 3.06
It should be noticed that even for the calculation of the quite simple cross-section 3 of Table 4, some
parts, especially during the calculation of the moment of inertia, could be forgotten. Therefore it is wisely
to set up an appropriate table.
Table 5: calculation example of cross-section 3 from Table 4

Area i li,y li,z Ai zi Ii,Steiner,y Ii,y
[cm] [cm] [cm²] [cm] [cm4] [cm4]
1 10,00 2,00 20,00 6,00 720,00 6,67

2 2,00 10,00 20,00 0,00 0,00 166,67
3 10,00 2,00 20,00 6,00 720,00 6,67
└──────┤
∑= A = 60 cm² Iy = 1.620 cm4
 zmax = 7 cm W y = 231 cm³
4.2.3 Normal stress due to normal force and bending moment
Bending moments around the y-axis and axial forces in x-direction evoke similar stresses (normal
stresses) in the same direction of a component. The resulting stress is calculated by addition. Usually
the following can be written:
σ x  σ x N,A   σ x My, y,z   σ x Mz, z,y  .
For a two dimensional loading the last term can be excluded as no bending moment in respect to the z-
axis will be available. From a mathematical point of view a straight line equation along the beam height
arises including a constant and a linear term.
Nx My
σx   z.
A y
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Figure 13: Normal stress in x-direction due to normal/axial force Nx and bending moment My
The zero-crossing of the stress will not go through the neutral axis anymore, as it would be having only
the bending moment. The zero-crossing shifts in dependence of the dimensions of the cross-section and
the geometrical ratio’s.
In the following example the stress distribution will be calculated for cross-section 3 of Table 4 submitted
to:
 a normal/axial force of Nx = 240 kN and

 a bending moment My = 25 kNm
Table 6 shows the result.
Table 6: example of normal stress calculation

Nx My 240 kN 2.500 kNcm
σx   z σx   z
A Iy 60 cm² 1.620 cm 4
240 kN 2.500 kNcm kN

σx   4
 7 cm  6,8
60 cm² 1.620 cm cm²

σx   4
 0 cm  4,0
60 cm² 1.620 cm cm²

σx   4
 7 cm  14,8
60 cm² 1.620 cm cm²
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4.2.4 Shear stress due to transverse load (shear force)

In case of shear force loading the shear stress distribution will follow a quadratic function in the z-
direction of rectangular cross-sections (Figure 15).
Figure 14: Shear stress in x- and z-direction due to shear force on a rectangular cross-section
The shear stress will be calculated as follows:

Vz  S y
 xz   zx 
y l
with xz… shear stress in x- or z-direction [N/mm²], [kN/cm²]

Vz… shear force in z-direction [N], [kN]
Sy… first moment about the axis of the portion of the cross-sectional area located either
above or below the neutral axis [mm³], [cm³]
Iy… moment of inertia of the total cross-section in respect to the y-axis [mm], [cm]
l… width of the cross-section at the location of the stress calculation [mm], [cm]
Due to the fact that shear stresses are able to be distributed over the total width of a separate cross-
section area, (abrupt) stress transitions will occur at (abrupt) width transitions within a profile.
Having a composed profile like for example Figure 15, this applies to the transition(s) from web to
flange(s) because both the width of the web as well as the width of the flange can be used for Iy in the
formula of shear stress calculation.
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Figure 15: Shear stress in x- and z-direction due to shear force on a composed cross-section.
If the calculation will be executed for the specific situation of a rectangular cross-section (Figure 14) in
accordance with above mentioned, the maximum shear stress will be:
Vz
 xz   zx  1,5  .
A
4.2.4.2 Cross-section dimensions
The determination of the first moment of area Sy needs further explanation. Figure 16 shows examples
of applied partial cross-section areas. The centroid of the retrieved area associated with to the location of
the stress calculation, should be used. The distance of this area to the overall centroid of the area is be-
ing used as lever. The first moment of area Sy will be calculated as follows:
S y  A s  e S,z
with AS… area in accordance with Figure 16 [mm²], [cm²]

eS,z… distance of area A to the overall centroid of area [mm], [cm]
Sy… first moment of retrieved area, associated with the verification point and centroid of
area, around the y-axis [mm³], [cm³]
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Location of the shear stress calculation

Figure 16: Areas for the determination of the first moment of area Sy
As an example the stress distribution of cross-section 3 of Table 4 should be calculated being submitted
to:
 a shear force of Vz = 270 kN
Table 7 shows the result.
Table 8: example of shear stress calculation

Vz  S y
 xz   zx  mit S y  A s  e S,z
y l
S y  20 cm²  6 cm  120 cm³
270 kN  120 cm³ kN

 xz   zx   10
1.620 cm  2 cm
4
cm²
S y  20 cm²  6 cm  0,5  10 cm  2 cm  2,5 cm

S y  145 cm³
270 kN  145 cm³ kN

 xz   zx   12,1
1620 cm  2 cm
4
cm²
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4.2.5 Shear stresses due to torsion

4.2.5.1 Warpage of cross-sections
In the following the calculation of shear stresses due to torsional moments will be explained.
It should be noted that specific cross-section types will undergo a warpage due to torsional moments.
Normal stresses will occur in longitudinal direction of the warped profile that have to be determined for
design reasons (Figure 17). The determination of warpage related normal stresses will not be consid-
ered.
Mx
x
y
x
Mx
z z
Figure 17: Warpage and normal stresses due torsional moments
Examples of warpage-free and non-warpage-free cross-section are shown in Figure 18. Out of these
examples it can be concluded that in particular closed profiles are suitable for torsional loading. Open
profiles have additionally the disadvantage of not achieving the torsional rigidity of closed profiles which
will be revealed through larger angular twists.
Non-warpage-free cross-sections
S
M
M=S M=S M S
M=S M=S
Warpage-free cross-sections
S M
M S
M=S M=S M=S M=S
Figure 18: Examples of non- and warpage-free cross-sections [4]; M – Centre point; S – Shear centre
Torsion warping occurs:

 If the warping of the twisted rod cross-section, for example by end plates, is prevented at support
points,
 Through changes in cross section having variable torsional rigidity causing a warping-unit change,
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 Through variable torsion loads resulting in a non-constant torsion moment in the bar ( for example, a
torsion applied along a line)
 If no warp-free cross-section is present or warping on a previously warp-free cross-section is forced
by the exertion of any other rotational axis than it’s shear centre point.
In case of a warp-free cross-section only a twisting of the cross-sections is assumed. This also includes:
 circular and/ or annular cross-sections
 closed polygonal cross-sections with constant wall thickness whose wall centrelines form circular
tangent polygons. These also include all regular polygons, and the circle as a special shape.
 closed polygonal cross-sections with constant lateral wall thickness. For an m corner, the following
m - 1 conditions must be met: r1t1 = r2t2 =  = rmtm, with ti and ri being designated as the wall thickness
or the distance to the centre of rotation.
 thin-walled open profiles with cross-sections composed of rectangles whose wall centrelines all inter-
sect at one point. The individual wall thicknesses may vary here.
4.2.5.2 Differentation between open- and closed cross-sections
Every cross-section reacts differently to a torsional moment. It is very important whether the shear
stresses will be able to “run around” or whether they are “restricted” to the sectional parts of the cross-
section (Table 9).
Table 9: categories of cross-sections

Open cross-section Closed cross-section
Therefore a distinction shall be made between open and closed cross-sections.
4.2.5.3 Torsion of closed cross-sections
The shear stresses in closed cross-sections submitted to a torsional moment will be calculated with the
following formula:
Mx M
  x WT  2  A m  t min
2  A m  t min WT
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mit … Schubspannung [N/mm²], [kN/cm²], [MPa]

Mx… Torsionsmoment [kNm], [kNcm]
Am… durch den Schubfluss eingeschlossene Fläche, bezogen auf die Mittellinien der
Teilquerschnitte [mm²], [cm²]
tmin… geringste Dicke des spannungsumflossenen Querschnitts [mm], [cm]
WT… Torsionswiderstandsmoment [mm³], [cm³]
Figure 19 shows the geometrical dimensions for the determination of the shear stresses of closed cross-
sections submitted to torsion
Figure 19: Geometrical dimensions for determination of shear stresses of closed cross-sections submitted to
torsion
The calculation of the deformations will be executed by using the torsional moment of inertia  T . The
following formula is being used:
.
4  Am2
T 
l
t
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In the following example a quadratic hollow section profile (dimensions: 100 x 100 x 10) is given. The
profile is submitted to a torsional moment of 1,62 kNm = 162 kNcm
Out of these dimensions the following lengths are extracted: 1 to 4 to i =90 mm=9 cm. The constant
minimum wall thickness all around: t = 10 mm = 1 cm. The enclosed area by the shear flow is:
A m  9 cm  9 cm  81 cm2 
The torsional section modulus is:
Wt  2  81 cm2  1 cm  162 cm3
The shear stresses are:
162 kNcm 162 kNcm kN N

   1 2  10 .
2  81 cm  1 cm 162 cm
2 3
cm mm2
The following picture is the result of a finite element method calculation (FEM) in which the decrease of
the shear stresses is being visualized at the corners of the cross-section where the wall thickness in-
creases.
Figure 20: Shear stresses due to torsion of the cross-section 100 x 100 x10
Figure 21 that there are no warping normal stresses in longitudinal direction.
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Figure 21: related normal stresses in x-direction (warpage normal stress)
For an additional comparence of the adjusting deformations the cross-section value  T should be deter-
mined.
l 9 cm
 t  4  1 cm  36
Which lead to
T 

4  81 cm 2 
2
 729 cm 4 .
36
4.2.5.4 Torsion of open cross-sections
The shear stresses of open cross-sections submitted to torsional moments can be calculated according
to the following formula:

Mx
WT
WT 
T
t max
T 
1
3

 η   t i3  li 
with … shear stress [N/mm²], [kN/cm²], [MPa]
Mx… torsion moment [kNm], [kNcm]
WT… torsional section modulus [mm³], [cm³]
IT… Torsional moment of inertia [mm4], [cm4]
tmax… maximum thickness of stress affected cross-section [mm], [cm]
… correction value
ti, li… Geometry acc.to Figure 22 [mm], [cm].
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Figure 22: Geometrical dimensions for shear stress calculation of open cross-sections
The rounded edges of rolled profiles are being taken under consideration by the correction value 
which can have values up to 1,33 for rolled IPE-profiles. For sharp-edge welding profiles   1
The profile from Figure 19 will become an open profile if a longitudinal gap/slot is being applied in one of
the walls of the cross-section. Similar to Figure 22.
The cross-section is then composed out of 5 partial cross-sections. The torsional moment of inertia  T
will be:
T 
1
3

 1,0  2  1,0 cm  5,0 cm  1 1,0 cm  10,0 cm  2  1,0 cm  8,0 cm
3 3 3

1

 T   1,0  10,0 cm 4  10,0 cm 4  16,0 cm 4  12,0 cm 4
3

Subsequently the torsional section modulus will be
12,0 cm4
WT   12 cm3
1,0 cm
The shear stress submitted to a torsion moment of Mx = 162 kNcm will become:
162 kNcm kN N
 3
 13,5 2
 135 .
12 cm cm mm2
The following picture of a FEM analysis of a cut/slotted box-girder is a typical example of shear stress
distribution along the cross-section thickness for the shear stress in z-direction. Maximum shear stresses
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will occur at the upper surfaces of the separate cross-section areas. Near to the neutral axis the shear
stresses are almost zero (compare with figure in Table 9)
Figure 23: Shear stress in cross-section in z-direction
Figure 24 displays the warpage normal stresses in x-direction due to the slots
Figure 24: related normal stresses in x-direction (warpage normal stresses)
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The results of closed and open profiles are being compared in Table 10.
Table 10: Different cross-section values with equal areas

closed cross-section Open cross-section
A1 = 36 cm² A1 = A2 = 36 cm²
A1 : A2 = 1 : 1
I1,T = 729 cm4 I2,T = 12 cm4

I1 : I2 = 61 : 1
W1,T = 162 cm³ W2,T = 12 cm³

W1 : W 2 = 13,5 : 1
Even with equal cross-section areas the open cross-section will be twisted 61 times more than the
closed one. Furthermore 13,5 higher shear stresses will occur. Therefore it can be concluded that closed
profile cross-sections are to be preferred for torsional loading
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4.3 Joined areas under restraint conditions
In areas that have been joined the same stress conditions will occur under loadings of normal force,
bending moments or torsions as the free areas of the beam. The following pictures do illustrate this.
In case of a normal force load, the normal stress distribution will be uniform along the cross-section
height of a joined area. The stress distribution along line 1 of the sheet metal can be retrieved from by
the colour-related stress intensity classification at the bottom of Figure 25.
Figure 25: Normal stresses in a rectangular cross-section under normal force
The force being applied at the top of the bracket plate (Figure 26) introduces a bending moment which
increases linear from the point of application to the rigid connection. The stress distribution along the
height of the bracket plate is linear at the location of the connection. The distribution along line 1 can be
compared with Figure 10.
Figure 26: Normal stresses in a rectangular cross-section under bending
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The existing shear stress distribution due to a transverse force at the location of the joint differs from the
situation of using a free beam due to restrained deformation (Figure 14 and Figure 15) conditions. Figure
27 should clarify this. At a certain distance from the load application point the shear stress state adjust
itself in a way it has been shown in section 4.2.4. The coloured visualisation of the shear stress intensi-
ties along line 1 can be compared with Figure 14. In the joined area with restrained deformation condi-
tions however the distribution will be reversed leading to higher shear stresses at the edges of the
bracket plate (Figure 15, line 2) than in the centre. If the connections getting longer the stress peaks at
the ends remain and around the area of the centre point the shear stresses decrease. A limit has been
reached if the centre area of the cross-section is not anymore involved with stress distribution.
Figure 27: Shear stresses in a rectangular cross-section
For the shear stress distribution along line 2 no simple formula exists like the shear stress formula for
free beam load conditions. Therefore, the following simplified formula is being used:
Vz
 xz   zx  .
A reduziert
The non-involved area (regarding stress distribution) in the centre will be considered by being subtracted
from the total cross-section area leading to the area Areduced . In which way this subtraction is being incor-
porated depends on the specific relevant standard and will be explained in the following chapters.
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5 Test examples
5.1 Deformation of a rod
Question:
Calculate the strain  of a rod of original length l = 1.000 mm which has a length of 1.004,5 mm under
loading conditions.
Solution
l 1.004,5  1.000
   4,5  10 3  0,45%
l0 1.000
5.2 Angular distortion of a rectangular component
Question:
An angle of  = 90,45° is measured of a rectangular component under load conditions. Calculate the
angular distortion  !
Solution
  
   90,45    7,85  10 3  0,785 %
2 180 2
SFI / IWE 3.02
5.3 Normal- and shear stresses in a T-beam
Question:
On the displayed T-beam the following loads are being applied:
 a normal force of Nx = -25,0 kN

 a transverse force of Vz = 24,7 kN and
 a bending moment of My = 74,2 kNm.
Note: the determination of the above mentioned loads is mentioned in chapter 3.01.
Determine the following values!
20
300
M1
a) centre of gravity and cross-section area y
M
b) Second moment of inertia
c) Normal stress at the upper surface
400
d) Normal stress at the lower surface
M2
e) Static Moment
f) Shear stresses of the significant areas
y'
8
SFI / IWE 3.02
Solution:
a)
bi hi Ai = bi ∙ hi zi‘ Ai ∙ zi‘
Area
[cm] [cm] [cm²] [cm] [cm³]
1 30,0 2,0 60 41,0 2.460
2 0,8 40,0 32 20,0 640
∑ 92 3.100
20
300
M1
y
M
3.100 cm³
zs   33,7 cm
z1‘
400
92 cm²
M2
z2‘
y'
8
SFI / IWE 3.02
b)
zi Ai Ai ∙ zi² bi ∙ hi³/12
Area
[cm] [cm²] [cm4] [cm4]
1 7,3 60 3.197 20
2 13,7 32 6.006 4.267
∑ 9.203 4.287
20
300
M1
z1
y
M
z2
 y  9.203 cm 4  4.287 cm 4  13.490 cm 4
400
M2
y'
8
SFI / IWE 3.02
c)
20
300
Nx My M1
zo
-83
  z y
A y
M
 25 kN kN
(N)    0,27
92 cm² cm²
400
7.420 kNcm kN
(M)  4
 ( 8,3 cm)   4,57 M2
13.490 cm cm²
kN kN kN
(N  M)  0,27  4,57   4,84
cm² cm² cm²
y'
8
d)
20
300
Nx My M1
  z y
A y
M
 25 kN kN
(N)    0,27
92 cm² cm²
400
7.420 kNcm kN
(M)   33,7 cm  18,54 M2
337
zu
4
13.490 cm cm²
kN kN kN
(N  M)  0,27  18,54  18,27
cm² cm² cm²
y'
8
SFI / IWE 3.02
e)
20
300
M1
z1
73
y
S y  A S  zi M
A S  30 cm  2 cm  60 cm²
400
z i  42,0 cm  1,0 cm  33,7 cm  7,3 cm M2
S y  60 cm²  7,3 cm  438 cm³
y'
8
20
300
M1
y
M
A S  33,7 cm  0,8 cm  27 cm²
16,85
z2‘
33,7 cm
zi   16,85 cm
400
2
M2
S y  27 cm²  16,85 cm  455 cm³ M2'
y'
8
SFI / IWE 3.02
f)
20
300
M1
z1
73
Vz  S y y
 M
y  t
24,7 kN  438 cm³ kN

 1
400
13.490 cm  0,8 cm
4
cm²
M2
24,7 kN  438 cm³ kN

  0,03
13.490 cm  30 cm
4
cm²
y'
8
20
300
M1
y
M
16,85
z2‘
24,7 kN  455 cm³ kN

  1,04
400
13.490 cm  0,8 cm
4
cm²
M2
M2'
y'
8
SFI / IWE 3.02
5.4 Box-girder with open and closed cross-section
Question:
Determine and subsequently compare the cross-section values IT und WT of a box-girder with:
a) open cross-section and

b) closed cross-section
Split
b)
a)
Solution:
a)
t l t³ ∙ l
Area
[cm] [cm] [cm4]
1 0,3 8,3 0,224
2 0,3 7,7 0,208
3 0,3 8,3 0,224
4 0,3 7,7 0,208
∑ 0,864
SFI / IWE 3.02
n
1
T     ( t i3  li )
3 i1
0,864 cm 4
T   0,288 cm 4
3
Split
T
WT 
t max
0,288 cm 4
WT   0,96 cm³
0,3 cm
b)
t l l/t
Area
[cm] [cm] [-]
1 0,3 8,0 26,7
2 0,3 8,0 26,7
3 0,3 8,0 26,7
4 0,3 8,0 26,7
∑ 107,0
4  A m2
T 
l
t
A m  8 cm  8 cm  64 cm²
4  64² cm 4
T   153 cm 4
107
WT  2  A m  t min
WT  2  64 cm²  0,3 cm  38,4 cm³
Compare
open closed Ratio

IT 0,288 cm4 153,0 cm4 1 : 531
WT 0,960 cm³ 38,4 cm³ 1 : 40
SFI / IWE 3.02
6 Test questions
(1) What is meant with the “elastic-plastic behaviour” of base materials?
 it is cold deformable
 that an imposed deformation can be reversed
 that resistancy will be induced when a foreign body penetrates the material
 that it will be elongated with a temperature increase
 that it cannot reverse a imposed deformation without a remaining deformation
(2) Which of the following influences are to be considered for the determination of normal stresses
due to bending of a beam under static loading?
 internal (inner) stresses

 external loads
 Stress peaks by notches
 First moment of area
 Second moment of area
(3) Determine the second moment of area  y of the displayed beam cross-section?
300 x 20
 79.480 cm4
 33.010 cm4
 84.610 cm4 M y
 25.166 cm4 300 x 10
 44.870 cm4
300 x 20
z
(4) Determine the value of the elastic section modulus W y of the beam as displayed under question
3?
 1.942 cm³
 1.678 cm³
 2.884 cm³
 5.701 cm³
 2.156 cm³
SFI / IWE 3.02
(5) Determine the value of the normal stress on the marked location of the displayed beam(question
3) submitted to a normal force (tensile) of Nx = 1.500 kN and a bending moment of von My = 200
kNm?
M y
 24,0 kN/cm²
 23,5 kN/cm²
 10,0 kN/cm²
 10,3 kN/cm²
 21,3 kN/cm²
(6) Determine the first moment of area Sy of the grey shaded area AFl of the beam of question 3?
300 x 20
 60 cm³
 900 cm³
M y
 1.800 cm³
 960 cm³ 300 x 10
 600 cm³
300 x 20
z
(7) Determine the shear stress at the marked location of the beam of question 3 submitted to a
transverse force of Vz = 250 kN ?
z
 0,2 kN/cm²
 7,3 kN/cm²
 3,6 kN/cm²
 5,7 kN/cm²
 2,5 kN/cm²
M y
(8) Which of the following profile types are favourable for being submitted to a bending load over the
z-axis?
SFI / IWE 3.02
a) b) c) d) e)
z
z z z z
 a)
 b)
 c)
 d)
 e)
(9) Which of the profile types as displayed in question 8 are favourable for being submitted to a tor-
sional loading?
 a)
 b)
 c)
 d)
 e)
(10) Determine the shear stress in a rectangular hollow section 150 x 100 x 10 submitted tot torsional
moment of Mx = 6,3 kNm?
 2,50 kN/cm²
 3,10 kN/cm²
 0,25 kN/cm²
 5,00 kN/cm²
 1,50 kN/cm²
SFI / IWE 3.02
7 Literatur
[1] Göldner, H.; Holzweißig, F.: Grundlagen der technischen Mechanik. 9. Auflage, Fachbuchverlag Leipzig,
1984
[2] Gross, D.; Hauger, W.; Schröder, J.; Wall, W. A.: Technischen Mechanik 2 – Elastostatik. 11. Auflage,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2012
[3] DIN EN ISO 6892-1: Metallische Werkstoffe – Zugversuch – Teil 1: Prüfverfahren bei Raumtemperatur.
Beuth Verlag, Berlin 2009
[4] N N.: Stahl im Hochbau - Handbuch für die Anwendung von Stahl im Hoch- und Tiefbau Band I / Teil 2,
14. Auflage, Verein Deutscher Eisenhüttenleute, Verlag Stahleisen, Düsseldorf, 1986
SFI / IWE 3.03
Joint design for Welding and Brazing Page 1
Chapter 3.03: Joint design for Welding and Brazing
Contents
1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 3
2 Terms ..................................................................................................................................... 4
3 Types of Joint ....................................................................................................................... 6
4 Examples of welded joints ................................................................................................... 7
4.1 Butt welds ............................................................................................................................................... 7
4.2 Fillet welds .............................................................................................................................................. 7
4.3 Other welds ............................................................................................................................................ 7
5 Joint shapes.......................................................................................................................... 9
5.1 Joint shapes for fusion welded joints ................................................................................................. 9
5.2 Shapes for pressure welded joints ................................................................................................... 10
6 Fusion welded joints .......................................................................................................... 11
6.1 Butt welds ............................................................................................................................................. 11
6.2 Fillet welds ............................................................................................................................................ 12
6.2.1 Throat-thickness with fillet welds ......................................................................................... 12
6.2.2 Examples of fillet welds of various executions ................................................................... 13
6.3 Layer structure with melting welded joints....................................................................................... 14
7 Press welded joints ............................................................................................................ 15
8 Joint preparation ................................................................................................................ 16
8.1 Standards for the weld preparation (joint preparation) .................................................................. 16
8.2 Influencing factors for joint preparation ............................................................................................ 17
8.3 Selected joint shapes for manual metal arc welding (Process 111) ............................................ 18
8.4 Selected groove weld for gas metal arc welding (Process 135) .................................................. 19
9 Reference to flanking standards ....................................................................................... 20
10 Principles for symbolic representation .......................................................................... 22
11 Symbols in accordance with DIN EN 22553 ................................................................... 23
11.1 Basic symbols ...................................................................................................................................... 23
11.2 List of symbols for symmetrical welds .............................................................................................. 24
11.3 Supplementary Symbols .................................................................................................................... 24
11.4 Examples for using additional symbols ............................................................................................ 24
11.5 Supplementary symbols ..................................................................................................................... 25
11.6 Note on status of current norms........................................................................................................ 25
12 Definition of reference line system ................................................................................. 25
13 Dimensions of welds ........................................................................................................ 28
14 Main dimensions of welded joints .................................................................................. 29
15 Information in the Tale of the Reference symbols ......................................................... 30
15.1 Specifications of the welding process .............................................................................................. 31
15.2 Summary of the Quality Level ........................................................................................................... 32
SFI / IWE 3.03
15.3 Specification of the welding position ................................................................................................ 33

15.4 Indication of the filler ........................................................................................................................... 33
15.5 Reference specification ...................................................................................................................... 33
15.6 Examples .............................................................................................................................................. 34
16 Question ............................................................................................................................ 35
17 Exercises ........................................................................................................................... 39
17.1 Welding joints....................................................................................................................................... 39
17.2 Graphical Representation .................................................................................................................. 40
18 Literature ........................................................................................................................... 42
SFI / IWE 3.03
1 Introduction
In addition to overview- and assembly plans, the technical drawings for fabrication represent an element
of primary importance in the contract documents between client and manufacturer.
Relevant standards and regulations require that the following indications must be included as well:
- Determination of executing class

- Standards for steel products and means of connection
- Type of test certificates according to DIN EN 10204 [1]
- Steel Grade choice according to DIN EN 1993-1-10 [2]; see chapter 3.05
- Steel products with improved deformation properties perpendicular to the product surface (z-
quality) to avoid lamellar tearing according to [2]; see chapter 3.05
- Tolerance requirements according to EN ISO 13920 [3]
- Symbolic indications such as weld thickness and - length (required welding details)
- Quality standard or acceptance levels for the welds
- Determination of NonDestructive Tests for materials and welding
- Determination of ultrasonic testing of steel flat products according to EN 10160 [4]
- Corrosion protection (surface preparation degree, surfacing system, metallic coating)
The following are important characteristics for fabrication of quality-assured welded joints:
- Welding process
- Welding position
- Material
- Material thickness
- Type of Weld (structural arrangement of the parts to be joined)
- Joint type
- Joint preparation or Type of Groove
- Accessibility
The norm illustrated below includes all important terms (English, French, German) and gives information
about their application in order to prevent misunderstandings.
GERMAN STANDARD September 2005
DIN EN ISO 17659 DIN

ICS 01.040.25; 25.160.40 Substitute for
DIN EN 12345:1999-05
Schweißen -
Mehrsprachige Benennungen für Schweißverbindungen mit bildlichen
Darstellungen (ISO 17659:2002);
Dreisprachige Fassung EN ISO 17659:2004
Welding -
Multilingual terms for welded joints with illustrations (ISO 17659:2002);
Trilingual version EN ISO 17659:2004
Soudage -
Liste multilingue de termes relatifs aux assemblages et aux joints soudés, avec illustrations
(ISO 17659:2002);
Version trilingue EN ISO 17659:2004
SFI / IWE 3.03
2 Terms
Joint
The arrangement of workpieces or their end areas to be welded or which are already welded.
Fusion welding
Welding process with local melting without application of force, with or without filler material.
Pressure welding
Welding process, with which sufficient external force is applied to cause a more or less severe plastic
deformation of contacting surfaces; generally without filler material; local heating enables or eases weld-
ability.
Joint face
Surface area of a workpiece intended to be in contact with or immediately adjacent to another workpiece
to produce a welded joint.
Partial penetration weld

Intentionally not fully penetrated.
Lack of penetration
Penetration is smaller than the target value.
Butt joint
Type of joint where the parts lie roughly in the same plane and are butted against one another.
Parallel joint
Type of joint where the parts lie parallel to each other, e.g. in explosive cladding.
Lap joint
Type of joint where the parts lie parallel to each other and overlap each other.
T-joint
Type of joint where the parts meet each other at approximate right angles (forming a T-shape).
Cruciform joint
Type of joint where two parts lying in the same plane are right-angled orientated towards a third part ly-
ing in between.
Angle joint
Type of joint, where one part meets the other at a specific angle.
Corner joint
Type of joint where two parts meet at their edges at an angle greater than 30 degrees to each other.
Edge joint
Type of joint where two parts meet at their edges at an angle of 0 - 30°.
Multiple joint
Type of joint where three or more parts meet at any required angles to each other.
Cross joint
Type of joint where two parts (e.g. wires) lie crossing over each other.
SFI / IWE 3.03
Weld
Combines the parts of the joint by welding.
Type of Weld
Mainly determined by the type and preparation extent of the joint.
Butt weld
The parts of the butt joint creating a volume and are combined by welding.
Fillet weld
The parts are lying in two different angled planes creating a fillet volume and are combined by welding.
Other welds
Welds which can neither be classified as a butt weld nor a fillet weld, or combinations of both.
Throat thickness
The measurement from the deepest point of either the penetration (fillet weld) or the excessive weld
metal on the root (butt weld) up to the highest point of reinforcement (usually based on a cross section).
Design weld thickness

The weld thickness determined by the technical designer.
Actual weld thickness

For fillet welds: height of the highest isosceles or non-isosceles triangle that can be drawn into the weld
cross section of a welded joint, measured from the root point.
For butt joints: Minimum distance from the workpiece surface to the bottom of the penetration.
Effective weld thickness

The dimension that is responsible for transmitting the load which depends on the shape and the penetra-
tion of the weld.
Leg length
Leg of triangle, which can be identified in the sectional view
SFI / IWE 3.03
3 Types of Joint
Table 1: Types of Joint
Type of joint Location of components Description
The components lie in one plane. They butt

1 Butt joint
against each other.
2 Parallel joint The parts lie on top of each other parallel.
The parts lie on top of each other parallel. They

3 Lap joint
overlap.
The parts meet on each other at right angle

4 T-joint
(forming a T).
Two parts lying in the same plane each meet at

5 Cruciform joint right angles on top of a third part lying between
them (forming a shape).
6 Angle joint One part meets another at an acute angle.
°
7 Corner joint Two parts meet at an any angle > 30 (corner).
Two parts meet at an angle of 0 to 30° against

8 Edge joint
each other.
Three or more parts meet each other at any

9 Multiple joint
angle.
10 Cross joint Two parts lie crossing over one another.
SFI / IWE 3.03
4 Examples of welded joints

4.1 Butt welds
Bulge weld Flash weld
Foil weld Butt weld between flanged plates
Square butt weld Single-V butt weld
4.2 Fillet welds
Fillet weld Double-fillet weld
4.3 Other welds
Partially welded double-bevel butt weld with broad root Single-bevel butt weld with fillet weld
faces
SFI / IWE 3.03
Single-bevel butt weld with broad root face and with fillet Line weld at lap joint (resistance roll seam weld)
weld at angle joint
Projection weld (preparation) and spot weld in lap joint
SFI / IWE 3.03
5 Joint shapes
5.1 Joint shapes for fusion welded joints
Joint shape for square butt weld Joint shape for HY-seam with backing
Joint shape for fillet welds (T-joint) Joint shape for double-bevel butt weld with root face (T-joint)
Joint shape for single-U butt weld Shape for flanged butt weld
Joint shape for a single-V butt weld with broad root face
SFI / IWE 3.03
5.2 Shapes for pressure welded joints
Circular projection Elongated projection
Ring projection Foil butt weld
Spot weld, rolling or squeezing weld
SFI / IWE 3.03
6 Fusion welded joints

6.1 Butt welds
Butt weld Single-V butt weld
Full penetration Partial penetration
HV-Weld in T-Joint
SFI / IWE 3.03
6.2 Fillet welds
Weld penetration
Melted base material
Base material Weld metal
Welding zone
Leg length
Fusion line Excessive weld metal
Weld root Base material
Heat affected zone Root penetration
Fillet weld
6.2.1 Throat-thickness with fillet welds
Total weld Total weld

Effective weld Effective weld
thickness thickness
thickness thickness
Actual weld Actual weld

thickness thickness
Design weld Design weld
thickness thickness
Actual weld thickness greater than design weld thickness Actual weld thickness less than design weld thickness
SFI / IWE 3.03
6.2.2 Examples of fillet welds of various executions
Total weld
Effective weld
thickness Total weld
thickness Effective weld
thickness
thickness
Design weld
thickness / Design weld
Actual weld thickness /
thickness Actual weld
thickness
Convex weld Concave weld

Total weld
Total weld Effective weld
thickness thickness
thickness
Design weld
Design weld
thickness /
thickness /
Actual weld
Actual weld
thickness
thickness
Fillet weld with gap Fillet weld with unequal legs

Total weld
Total weld Effective weld
thickness thickness
thickness
Design weld
Design weld thickness /
thickness Actual weld
thickness
Fillet weld with incomplete penetration Fillet Welds with Deep Penetration
SFI / IWE 3.03
6.3 Layer structure with melting welded joints
Y-seam with root face, welded from one side HV-Weld on T-Joint
Single-V butt weld and capping run Double-V butt weld
Fillet weld
SFI / IWE 3.03
7 Press welded joints
Resistance Butt Weld Flash or friction weld
Stud welding Spot weld
Line weld Double-row, staggered spot weld
Spot weld Projection weld
SFI / IWE 3.03
8 Joint preparation
8.1 Standards for the weld preparation (joint preparation)
DIN EN ISO 9692-1 2013-12 Welding and allied processes - Types of joint preparation –
Part 1: Manual metal-arc welding, gas-shielded metal-arc welding,
gas welding, TIG welding and beam welding of steels
DIN EN ISO 9692-2 1999-09 Welding and allied processes - Joint preparation –
Part 2: Submerged arc welding of steels
DIN EN ISO 9692-3 2001-07 Welding and allied processes - Recommendations for joint prepara-
tion - Part 3: Metal inert gas welding und tungsten inert gas welding of
aluminium and its alloys
DIN 2559-2 2007-09 Edge preparation for welding –

Part 2: Matching of inside diameter for circumferential welds on
seamless pipes
DIN 2559-3 2007-09 Preparation of welds –

Part 3: Matching of inside diameters for circumferential welds on
welded pipes
DIN 2559-4 1994-07 Preparation of welds –

Part 4: matching of inside diameters for circumferential welds on
seamless pipes of stainless steels
DIN 8552-3 2006-01 Joint preparation - Groove forms on copper and copper alloys –
Part 3: Gas welding and gas-shielded arc welding
DIN EN 1708-1 2010-05 Welding - Basic welded joint details in steel –

Part 1: Pressurized components
DIN EN 1708-2 2000-10 Welding - Basic weld joint details in steel –

Part 2: Non internal pressurized components
DIN EN ISO 9013 2003-07 Thermal cutting - Classification of thermal cuts - Geometrical product
specification and quality tolerances
DIN EN ISO 13920 1996-11 Welding - General tolerances for welded constructions –
Dimensions for lengths and angles; shape and position
DIN EN 15085-3 2010-01 Railway applications - Welding of railway vehicles and components -
Part 3: Design requirements
SFI / IWE 3.03
8.2 Influencing factors for joint preparation
- Base material
- Base material thickness
- Welding process
- Position
- Accessibility
- Type of Groove
- Preferable low weld volumes – heat input
- Cutting process
- Cutting precision
Table 2: Joint preparation related to welding process

Welding process Joint preparation Remarks
Shielded Metal Arc Weld-

ing (USA) /
Precise edge outlining often
Manual Metal Arc Welding causes difficulties
SMAW / MMAW
Gas welding
Workpiece must be turned
OFW
Annex required
SAW
Simplest joint preparation
Gas Metal Arc Welding

with CO2 Workpieces must be pre-
cisely adapted
GMAW
SFI / IWE 3.03
8.3 Selected joint shapes for manual metal arc welding (Process 111)
Welding Dimensions (mm)

De- Schematic Workpiece-
Seam Type of Groove thickness ,  b c f
signation weld shape
symbol mm mm mm mm
2 - 1 - -
Square butt 3 - 3 - -
weld 4 - 1.5 - -
5 - 2 ... 3 - -
3...20 60° 2...3 - -

Single-V
butt weld
6...20 60° 0...2 - f=4
Single-V 1=15°
6...20 3...4 - -
butt weld 2=45°
Single v 10...20 60° 2 4 -

butt weld
with broad
root face 10...20 60° 0...2 4 f=4
3...16 50° 2...3 - -

Single
bevel butt
weld with
fillet weld
6...16 50° 0...2 - -
Double-
bevel butt
weld 6...30 50° 2 - s/2
double fillet
weld
Double-
bevel butt
weld with
12...40 45...50° 2...4 2...4 s/2
root face
and double
fillet weld
Single-
bevel butt
weld on 6...16 50...60° 3 - -
angle
joint
Double V
12...40 60° 3 - s/2
butt weld
2/3 Double- 1=60°

12...40 3 - 2/3s
V butt weld
2=60°
SFI / IWE 3.03
8.4 Selected groove weld for gas metal arc welding (Process 135)
Welding Workpiece- Dimensions (mm)

De- Schematic
Seam Type of Groove thickness ,  b c h, f
signation weld shape
symbol mm mm mm mm
0.8...1.5 - 0 - -
2 - 1 - -
Square butt 4 - 2..3 - -
weld
4 - 2 - -
8 - 4 - -
3...20 50° 3 - -
Single-V
butt weld
6...20 50° 0...3 - f=4
10...20 50° 3 4 -
Single v
butt weld
with broad
root face 10...20 50° 0...3 4 f=4
Single-
bevel butt
weld on 6...16 500 3 - -
angle
joint
Double V
12...40 500 3 - h = s/2
butt weld
2/3 1=500
Double- 12...40 3...4 - h= 2/3s
V butt weld 2=500
SFI / IWE 3.03
9 Reference to flanking standards
GERMAN STANDARD March 1997

Welding and allied processes
Symbolic representation on drawings DIN
(ISO/DIS 2553 : 2012) EN ISO 2553
German version prEN ISO 2553: 2012
Reference to other standards:
ISO 128 Technical drawings  General principles of presentation

see: DIN EN ISO 128-20 Part 20: Basic conventions for lines
2002-12
DIN ISO 128-24 Part 24: Lines on mechanical engineering
1999-12 drawings
DIN ISO 128-30 Part 30: Basic conventions for views
2002-05
DIN ISO 128-34 Part 34: Views on mechanical engineering
2002-05 drawings
DIN ISO 128-40 Part 40: Basic conventions for cuts and sections
2002-05
DIN ISO 128-44 Part 44: Sections on mechanical engineering
2002-05 drawings
DIN ISO 128-50 Part 50: Basic conventions for representing areas
2002-05 on cuts and sections
DIN ISO 5456-2 Technical drawings - projection methods -
1998-04 Part 2: Orthogonal representations
ISO 544 Welding consumables - Technical delivery conditions for filler materials
and fluxes - Type of product, dimensions, tolerances and markings
see: DIN EN ISO 544 Welding consumables - Technical delivery
2011-06 conditions for filler materials and fluxes - Type
of product, dimensions, tolerances and mark-
ings
ISO 1302 Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) - Indication of surface texture in

technical product documentation
see: DIN EN ISO 1302 Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) -
2002-06 Indication of surface texture in technical
product documentation
Corrigendum 1 Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) -
2008-08 Indication of surface texture in technical
product documentation
Correction to DIN EN ISO 1302:2002 06
ISO 2560 Welding consumables - Covered electrodes for manual metal arc welding of
non-alloy and fine grain steels - Classification
see: DIN EN ISO 2560 Welding consumables - Covered electrodes for
2010-03 manual metal arc welding of non-alloy and fine
grain steels - Classification
SFI / IWE 3.03
ISO 3098-0 Technical product documentation - Lettering - Part 0: General requirements

see: DIN EN ISO 3098-2 Technical product documentation - Lettering -
2000-11 Part 2: Latin alphabet, numerals and marks
ISO 3581 Welding consumables - Covered electrodes for manual metal arc welding of
see: DIN EN ISO 3581 Welding consumables - Covered electrodes for
2012-04 manual metal arc welding of stainless and
heat-resisting steels - Classification
DIN EN ISO 14343 Welding consumables - Wire electrodes, strip
2010-04 electrodes, wires and rods for arc welding of
stainless and heat resisting steels - Classifica-
tion
ISO 4063 Welding and allied processes - Nomenclature of processes and reference
numbers
see: DIN EN ISO 4063 Welding and allied processes - Nomenclature
2011-03 of processes and reference numbers
ISO 5817 Welding - Fusion-welded joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys
(beam welding excluded) - Quality levels for imperfections
see: DIN EN ISO 5817 Welding - Fusion-welded joints in steel, nickel,
2006-10 titanium and their alloys (beam welding ex-
cluded) - Quality levels for imperfections
Corrigendum 1 Correction to DIN EN ISO 5817:2006-10
2007-10
DIN EN ISO 5817 Welding - Fusion-welded joints in steel, nickel,

2012-01 titanium and their alloys (beam welding ex-
Draft cluded) - Quality levels for imperfections
ISO 6947 Welding and allied processes  Welding positions

see: DIN EN ISO 6947 Welding and allied processes - Welding posi-
2011-08 tions
SFI / IWE 3.03
10 Principles for symbolic representation
Welds are to be shown in accordance with the general rules in the drawings. For the sake of simplicity,
however, it is recommended that a simplified or symbolic representation is being used for common
welds.
The symbolic representation should express all required specifications of the relevant weld each without
using excessive commentary or adding an extra view. If clear representation is not possible using sym-
bols and icons, the welds are to be marked separately and all their dimensions indicated.
The symbolic representation contains one basic symbol that can be supplemented with
- One ancillary and/ or supplementary symbol
- Indication of dimensions
- Some supplementary information (for detailed drawings in particular), such as type of process,
quality levels, execution of the joint, filler- and auxiliary materials.
In order to simplify the drawings to the greatest extent, we recommend adding special instructions or
requirements including all details for as well as joint preparation as for welding processes instead of
providing this information in the component drawing.
Should such instructions not be present, dimensions for joint preparation and/or processes may be in-
cluded near the symbol.
SFI / IWE 3.03
11 Symbols in accordance with DIN EN 22553
All of the following information about symbols complies with standard DIN EN ISO 2553 [5].
11.1 Basic symbols
No. Designation Representation Symbol No. Designation Representation Symbol

Butt weld be-
tween
flanged plates
1 11 Plug weld
(the flanges
are fused com-
pletely)
2 Square butt weld 12 Spot weld
Single-V butt
3 13 Line weld
weld
Steep-flanked
Single bevel butt
4 14 single-V butt
weld
weld
Single-V butt Steep-flanked

5 weld with broad 15 single-bevel
root face butt weld
Single bevel butt Edge weld with-

6 weld with broad 16 out edge prepa-
root face ration
Single-U butt
7 17 Overlay
weld
Single-J butt
8 weld 18 Area weld
(Jot weld)
9 Backing run 19 Inclined weld
Folded weld se-

10 Fillet weld 20
am
SFI / IWE 3.03
11.2 List of symbols for symmetrical welds
Designation Representation Symbol Designation Representation Symbol
D(ouble) V D(ouble)-HY-bevel
butt weld butt weld with root
(X weld) face
D(ouble)-bevel
D(ouble)-U
butt weld
butt weld
(K weld)
D(ouble)-V butt
weld with broad
root face
11.3 Supplementary Symbols
Shape of surfaces or weld Symbol

a) Flat (usually finished flat)
b) Convex
c) Concave
d) Toe shall be blended smoothly
e) Permanent backing strip used

f) Removeable backing strip used
11.4 Examples for using additional symbols
Designation Representation Symbol
Flat single-V butt weld
Curved double-V butt weld
Concave fillet weld
Flat single-V butt weld with flat backing run
Single-Y butt weld and backing run
Single-V butt weld with flat finish
Fillet weld with flat weld toe
SFI / IWE 3.03
11.5 Supplementary symbols
Figure 1: Circumferential weld Figure 2: Site weld
11.6 Note on status of current norms
Since 2012 there is a exisits a draft of norm DIN EN ISO 2553 [6] for the symbolic representation of
welded and soldered joints in drawings for public review and opinion.
12 Definition of reference line system
1 Arrow-line
2a Referrence line (continous line)
2b Referrence line (dashed line)
3 Symbol
Figure 3: Arrow-line position explanation
Figure 4: T joint with one-sided fillet weld
SFI / IWE 3.03
Figure 5: Double T joint with two fillet welds
Figure 6: Weld, executed from the arrow side Figure 7: Weld, executed from the other side
For symmetric welds the broken line is omitted (see Figure 8).
Figure 8: Symmetric welds
Representation Symbolic illustration
embossment
Figure 9: Resistance spot welds with embossments
SFI / IWE 3.03
Figure 10: Resistance spot welds
Figure 11: Fusion spot welds
SFI / IWE 3.03
13 Dimensions of welds
Figure 12: Representation example
Figure 13: Representation of fillet welds
Figure 14: Representation of fillet welds with deep penetration
SFI / IWE 3.03
14 Main dimensions of welded joints
No. Designation Representation Definition Symbol

1 Butt weld s: Minimum size of the workpiece surface
attached to the bottom of the weld pene-
tration, and it cannot be larger than the
thickness of the thinner work piece. (See 6.2.1 and 6.2.2)
(see 6.2.1)
(see 6.2.1)
2 Flanged butt s: Minimum size of the weld surface attached (See 6.2.1 and Table 1,
weld to the bottom of the weld penetration. footnote 1)
3 Through a: Height of the largest isosceles triangle that

fillet weld can be entered in the sectional view.
z: Limb of the largest isosceles triangle that

can be entered in the sectional view.
(See 6.2.1 and 6.2.3)
4 Broken l: Single seam length (without craters)

fillet weld (e): Weld distance
n: Number of welds
a
z (see no. 3)
(see 6.2.3)
5 Staggered L
intermittent (e) (see no. 4)
fillet weld n
a
z (see no. 3)
(see 6.2.3)
6 Slot lap weld l

(e) (see no. 4)
n
c: Hole width (see 6.2.4)
7 Line weld l
(e) (see no. 4)
n
c: Width of the seam
8 Plug weld n: (see no. 4)

(e): Clearance hole
d: Diameter
9 Spot weld n: (see no. 4)

(e): Distance
d: Point diameter
SFI / IWE 3.03
15 Information in the Tale of the Reference symbols
- Welding process
- Quality level
- Welding position
- Filler material
- Other information
The follwing pieces of information shall be distinguished from one another by slashes. A complete speci-
fication for a weld is shown in Figure 15.
Figure 15: Example of a complete weld designation
It is also possible to specify the location of the weld on the drawing by using a substitute symbol.
The substitute symbols are used with the label shown above, mostly in the header area of the drawing.
SFI / IWE 3.03
15.1 Specifications of the welding process
Table 3: Einteilung
Anmerkung: Begriffe, nach denen /B/ und /USA/ stehen, sind Begriffe, die in Belgien oder in den USA verwendet
werden. [7]
Classification Nomenclature Nomenclature
Note: Concepts labeled /B/ and /USA/ are Rating: Terms followed

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Gesellschaft für Schweißtechnik

Welding processes and equipment

Materials and their behaviour during welding

Construction and design

Fabrication, applications engineering

The Welding Engineer‘s Current Knowledge Edition 2015

Welding processes and equipment

© 2015 SLV Duisburg – Branch of GSI mbH

Module 1: Welding Processes and Equipment

1.01 General introduction to welding technology

1.02 Oxy-acetylene welding and related processes

1.03 Electrical engineering, an overview

1.04 The arc

1.05 Power supplies for arc welding

1.06 Indroduction to gas shielded welding

1.07 TIG welding

1.08-1 MIG/MAG welding

1.09 Manual metal-arc welding

1.10 Submerged arc welding

1.11 Resistance welding

1.12-1 Other welding processes

1-12-2 Other special welding processes II

1.13 Cutting, Drilling and other joint preparation processes

1.14 Coating process

1.15 Fully mechanised processes and robotic welding

Welding processes and

1.16 Brazing and (soft) soldering

1.17 Joining processes of plastices

1.18 Joining processes für ceramic and composites

Welding processes and

1 General introduction into the welding technology ....................................................................... 3

Welcome in the world of welding technology and to the course of

International Welding Engineer / Technologist (DVS / EWF / IIW ).

1 General introduction into the welding technology

Description: Welding technology

1.2 History of Welding Technology

From the Sumerians to the Laser

Source: presentation „Forge Welding“ by Stefan Griwenka

Figure 2: Forge Welding

● around 4000 b. Chr. Sumerians: welded Parts (Gold to Gold)

● around 79 b. Chr. Pompeji: Forged welded pipe line

1.3 Application areas of Welding Technology

Figure 3: Added value of welding technology (DVS-survey of 2012)

Welding Technology applications can be found in almost any industry branch.

Cargo Lifter Halle Foundry ladles

Ship construction of Aluminium Viaduct of Millau

1.4 Definitions of metal welding processes acc. to DIN EN 14610

1.4.1 Metal Welding

Fusion Welding Pressure Welding

Common fusion Resistance fusion Resistance pressure Common pressure

- Ultrasonic welding (41)

especially for longitudinal pipe welds:

- RoTating transformer welding (RT)

Figure 5: Overview of Metal Welding

1.4.2 Welding with pressure

Figure 6: Stud welding

Figure 7: Flash welding

Figure 8: HF resistance welding (Bonden)

1.4.3 Fusion welding

Figure 10: Laser welding

Figure 11: TIG-welding

Abbildung 12: Unterteilung des Lötens

Brazing and soldering