Full Wave Rectifier.

The scope shows the waveform at TP1(Red) and the output of the rectifier
(Green). The animation shows the effect of varying C from 1.0 uf to 1000 uf on
the ripple voltage of the rectified output.

Vert. 2V/division Horiz. 5 msec/division

To Troubleshoot Rectifier Circuits Click Here!

Regulated Power Supply

To observe operation of circuit below. Click Here!
 For other uses, see oscillator (disambiguation)

Oscillation is the variation, typically in time, of some measure as seen in such examples
as a swinging pendulum. The term vibration is sometimes used more narrowly to mean a
mechanical oscillation but sometimes is used to be synonymous with oscillation.
Oscillations occur not only in physical systems but also in biological systems and in
human

Simple systems
The simplest mechanical oscillating system is a mass, subject to the force of gravity,
attached to a linear spring. The system is in an equilibrium state when the weight of the
mass is balanced by the tension of the spring. If the system is displaced from the
equilibrium, there is a net restoring force on the mass, tending to bring it back to
equilibrium. However, in moving the mass back to the equilibrium position, it has
acquired momentum which keeps it moving beyond that position, establishing a new
restoring force, now in the opposite sense and this time due to gravity. The time taken for
an oscillation to occur is often referred to as being the oscillatory period.

The specific dynamics of this spring-mass system are described mathematically by the
simple harmonic oscillator and the regular periodic motion is known as simple harmonic
motion. In the spring-mass system, oscillations occur because, when at the static
equilibrium displacement, the mass has kinetic energy which is converted into energy
stored in the spring at the extremes of its path.

The spring-mass system illustrates some important and universal principles of oscillation:

• Existence of an equilibrium;
• Presence of some restoring force (or restoring principle in non-mechanical
systems);
• Some form of "momentum" or kinetic energy that maintains motion; and
• Exchange in "energy" between that kinetic and potential energy due to the
restoring force.

The harmonic oscillator offers a model of many more complicated types of oscillation
and can be extended by the use of Fourier analysis.

[edit] Damped, driven and self-induced oscillations

In real-world systems, the second law of thermodynamics dictates that there is some
continual and inevitable conversion of energy into the thermal energy of the environment.
Thus, damped oscillations tend to decay with time unless there is some net source of
energy in the system. The simplest description of this decay process can be illustrated by
the harmonic oscillator.

[edit] Self inducing oscillations

Some systems can be excited by energy transfer from the environment. This typically
occurs where systems are embedded in some fluid flow. For example, the phenomenon of
flutter in aerodynamics occurs when an arbitrarily small displacement of an aircraft wing
(from its equilibrium) results in an increase in the angle of attack of the wing on the air
flow and a consequential increase in lift coefficient leading to a greater displacement
before, at sufficiently large displacements, the stiffness of the wing dominates to provide
the restoring force that enables an oscillation.

[edit] Coupled oscillations

The harmonic oscillator, and the more complicated systems for which it stands as a
simple model, has a single degree of freedom. More complicated systems have more
degrees of freedom, for example two masses and two springs. In such cases, energy is
converted between the respective inertias of each degree of freedom and the several
restoring forces in the system. This leads to a coupling of the oscillations of the
individual degrees of freedom. For example, two pendulum clocks mounted on a
common wall will tend to synchronise. The apparent motions of the individual
oscillations typically appears very complicated but a more economic, computationally
simpler and conceptually deeper description is given by resolving the motion into normal
modes.

[edit] Continuous systems - waves

As the number of degrees of freedom becomes arbitrarily large, a system approaches
continuity, for example, a string or the surface of a body of water. Such systems have an
infinite number of normal modes and their oscillations occur in the form of waves that
have the characteristic that they can propagate.

[edit] Neural systems

Neural oscillations occur in individual cells and cell ensembles. Depending on the
frequency, brain area and behavior associated with neuronal oscillations, a diversity of
functions have been suggested

Oscillators are important in many different types of electronic equipment. For example, a
quartz watch uses a quartz oscillator to keep track of what time it is. An AM radio transmitter
uses an oscillator to create the carrier wave for the station, and an AM radio receiver uses a
special form of oscillator called a resonator to tune in a station. There are oscillators in
computers, metal detectors and even stun guns.
To understand how electronic oscillators work, it is helpful to look at examples from the
physical world. In this article, you'll learn the basic idea behind oscillators and how they're
used in electronics.

The Basics
One of the most commonly used oscillators is the pendulum of a clock. If you push on a
pendulum to start it swinging, it will oscillate at some frequency -- it will swing back and forth
a certain number of times per second. The length of the pendulum is the main thing that
controls the frequency.
For something to oscillate, energy needs to move back and forth between two forms. For
example, in a pendulum, energy moves between potential energy and kinetic energy.
When the pendulum is at one end of its travel, its energy is all potential energy and it is
ready to fall. When the pendulum is in the middle of its cycle, all of its potential energy turns
into kinetic energy and the pendulum is moving as fast as it can. As the pendulum moves
toward the other end of its swing, all the kinetic energy turns back into potential energy. This
movement of energy between the two forms is what causes the oscillation.
Eventually, any physical oscillator stops moving because of friction. To keep it going, you
have to add a little bit of energy on each cycle. In a pendulum clock, the energy that keeps
the pendulum moving comes from the spring. The pendulum gets a little push on each stroke
to make up for the energy it loses to friction. See How Pendulum Clocks Work for details.

Electronic Oscillators
Energy needs to move back and forth from one form to another for an oscillator to work. You
can make a very simple oscillator by connecting a capacitor and an inductor together. If
you've read How Capacitors Work and How Inductors Work, you know that both capacitors
and inductors store energy. A capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field,
while an inductor uses a magnetic field.
Imagine the following circuit:

If you charge up the capacitor with a battery and then insert the inductor into the circuit,
here's what will happen:
• The capacitor will start to discharge through the inductor. As it does, the inductor will
create a magnetic field.
• Once the capacitor discharges, the inductor will try to keep the current in the circuit
moving, so it will charge up the other plate of the capacitor.
• Once the inductor's field collapses, the capacitor has been recharged (but with the
opposite polarity), so it discharges again through the inductor.
This oscillation will continue until the circuit runs out of energy due to resistance in the wire.
It will oscillate at a frequency that depends on the size of the inductor and the capacitor.

Resonators
In a simple crystal radio (see How Radio Works for details), a capacitor/inductor oscillator
acts as the tuner for the radio. It is connected to an antenna and ground like this:

Thousands of sine waves from different radio stations hit the antenna. The capacitor and
inductor want to resonate at one particular frequency. The sine wave that matches that
particular frequency will get amplified by the resonator, and all of the other frequencies will
be ignored.
In a radio, either the capacitor or the inductor in the resonator is adjustable. When you turn
the tuner knob on the radio, you are adjusting, for example, a variable capacitor. Varying the
capacitor changes the resonant frequency of the resonator and therefore changes the
frequency of the sine wave that the resonator amplifies. This is how you "tune in" different
stations on the radio

GMrunalini

1. A) Explain the word Transistor.Clearly show the biasing arrangement of a PNP and
NPN transistor for conduction.
B) A Transistor has alpha = 0.9.if IE =10mA, find the values of beta,IB ,IC.

Ans: Meanwhile back to our transistor tutorial and figure 3 depicting a schematic of a
PNP transistor and an NPN transistor.

For both PNP and NPN transistor to make them work in the region of conduction EBJ
should be forward biased and CBJ should be reverse biased.

A diagrammatic representation with voltage source is required.

TRANSISTOR BIASING :
The emitter/base junction is forward biased.
The collector/base junction is reversed biased.
There is an explanation of biasing on one of the diode junction pages.

The middle diagram shows the two junctions as two diodes.

Of course, you can't make a transistor like this but it helps to understand the forward and
reverse biasing.
The anodes are positive with respect the cathodes for forward biasing.
They are negative with respect to the cathodes for reverse biasing.

The bottom diagram shows the junctions being correctly biased using just one battery.

Note that there is 0.6 volts across the base/emitter junction when it is forward biased, for
a silicon transistor. (0.3 volts for a germanium one).

A bipolar junction transistor, (BJT) is very versatile. It can be used in many ways, as an
amplifier, a switch or an oscillator and many other uses too. Before an input signal is
applied its operating conditions need to be set. This is achieved with a suitable bias
circuit, some of which I will describe. A bias circuit allows the operating conditions of a
transistor to be defined, so that it will operate over a pre-determined range. This is
normally achieved by applying a small fixed dc voltage to the input terminals of a
transistor.

Bias design can take a mathematical approach or can be simplified using transistor
characteristic curves. The characteristic curves predict the performance of a BJT. There
are three curves, an input characteristic curve, a transfer characteristic curve and an
output characteristic curve. Of these curves, the most useful for amplifier design is the
output characteristics curve. The output characteristic curves for a BJT are a graph
displaying the output voltages and currents for different input currents. The linear
(straight) part of the curve needs is utilized for an amplifier or oscillator. For use as a
switch, a transistor is biased at the extremities of the graph, these conditions are known as
"cut-off" and "saturation".

B)
Alpha = 0.9
IC /IE = 0.9
IC = IE * 0.9
=9mA

Beta = alpha / (1- alpha)

= 0.9/(1-0.9) = 9

IB = IC / BETA
=1 mA
2. Sketch the input and output characteristics of transistor in CE configuration. on the
output characteristics indicate the cut-off,saturation and active regions and state the
biasing requirements.

Ans:

2. CE configuration

IC

RL Vout

IB
Vi IE
VEB VCE
Fig 3.11:CE configuration

In this configuration the input is connected between the base and emitter while the output
is taken between collector and emitter. For this configuration IB is input current and IC is
the output current.

1. Current amplification factor (β)

It is the ratio of d.c. collector current to d.c. base current.

i.e., β = IC / IB
2. Relationship between α and β

IC
We know that α =
IE

IC
α=
IB + IC

divide both numerator and denominator of RHS by IC, we get

1
α=
IB
+1
IC

1 ( IC / IB = β )
α=
1
+1 β
β α=
1+β

Also we have
α(1 + β) = β
α +αβ = β
α = β −αβ
α = β(1 −α)
α
β=
1 −α

Derivation of Total output current IC

We have I C = α I E + I CBO

β
IC = I E + I CBO
1+B

βI E + (1 + β) I CBO
IC =
1 +β

Ic = βI B + (1 + β) I CBO
Transistor Characteristics
1. i/p characteristics

IB
VCE=10V VCE=5V

VEB
Fig 3.11: i/p characteristics

Input characteristics is a curve between EB voltage (VEB ) and base current (IB ) at
constant VCE. From the graph following can be noted.

1. The input characteristic resembles the forward characteristics of a p-n junction

diode.
2. For small changes of VEB there will be a large change in base current IB. i.e., input
resistance is very small.
3. The base current is almost independent of VCE.
4. Input resistance , Ri = ΔVEB / Δ IB V CE = constant

2. Output characteristics

IC
(mA)
Active region
30 μA
20 μA
10 μA
IB =0μA
Cut-off region
V CE(volts)
Fig 3.12: Output characteristics
It is the curve between VCE and IC at constant IB. From the graph we can see that,
1. Very large changes of VCE produces a small change in IC i.e output resistance is
very high.
2. output resistance Ro = ΔVCE / ΔIC │IB = constant
Region between the curve IB =0 is called cut-off region where IB is nearly zero. Similarly
the active region and saturation region is shown on the graph.
3. A) Define alpha and beta of a transistor and derive the relationship between them
B) Sketch the input characteristics of transistor in CC configuration.
Ans:A)
Relationship between α and β

IC
We know that α =
IE

IC
α=
IB + IC

divide both numerator and denominator of RHS by IC, we get

1
α=
IB
+1
IC

1 ( IC / IB = β )
α=
1
+1 β
β α=
1+β

Also we have
α(1 + β) = β
α +αβ = β
α = β −αβ
α = β(1 −α)
α
β=
1 −α
B)the input characteristics of common collector stage is driven by the equation
VCE = VBE + VCB.
In order to draw the input characterisitics the output voltage in this case vce is held
constant and vbe is also constant the forward diode drop the input voltage is nothing but
vce-vbe, if this condition is violated zero current flows through the transistor.

Ib

Vce = constant
 Vcb
4. Find the dc current gain for comment emitter amplifier circuit with a base current of
20microA and collector Resistance is 5.6Kohms and VC=7V and VCC = 15V
Find also the ac voltage gain for an input of +/- 50mV.assume that this variation in the
input voltage corresponds to a +/-10microA change in the base current.

Ans:
VRC = VCC – VC
15-7 = 8 V

IC RC = 8
IC = 1.43mA
Beta = IC / IB = 71.5
Change in IC = Beta * change in base current
= +/- 0.715mA
Change in output voltage = +/- 4
Voltage gain = 80