Summary Term 2 Chemistry STPM Prepared by Crystal Goh AI Tuition Centre 0177131326

Period 3
elements Na Mg Al Si P S Cl2
property (P4) (S8)
Type of element Metal Metalloid Non-metal
Structure Giant metallic lattice Giant covalent Simple covalent molecule
molecular lattice
Bonding Strong Metallic bond Strong Covalent Covalent bond in the molecule.
bond Weak Van der Waals forces
between molecules
Melting and High High Low
boiling points
∆ H vap High High Low
Electric Good Increases when Poor
conductivity temperature
increases;

Formulae of oxides P4O10 SO3 Cl2O7

Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O6 SO2 Cl2O

Lattice structure Giant ionic lattice Giant covalent molecular Simple covalent molecule

lattice
o
Physical state at 25 C Solid Gas Liquid

gas

Oxidation state +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7

+3 +4 +1

Acid/ base properties Basic Amphoteric Acidic

Note : Na and chlorine reacts with water, other elements across period reacts with steam.

Elements Reaction of elements with oxygen Reaction with water /steam

Sodium 4Na + O2→ 2Na2O 2Na + 2H2O(l) →2NaOH + H2

Magnesium 2 Mg + O2→ 2MgO Mg + H2O(g) →MgO + H2

Aluminum 2Al + O2 →Al2O3 Al +3 H2O(g) → Al2O3 + 3H2

Silicon Si + O2 → SiO2 Si + 2H2O(g) → SiO2 + 2H2

Phosphorous P4 + 3O2 → P4O6 No reaction

P4 + 5O2 → P4O10

Sulphur S + O2 →SO2 No reaction

2SO2 + O2→ 2SO3

Chlorine No reaction Cl2 + H2O (l)→HCl + HClO

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Formula of Properties of oxides Reacts with Observation

oxides alkali /acid

Na2O Strong Basic Acid Na2O + 2 H2O(l) → 2Na +(aq) + 2 OH— (aq)

dissolves in water Na2O + 2 HCl → 2NaCl + H2O (l)

MgO Basic Acid MgO (s)+ H2O (l)→ Mg(OH)2

Slightly soluble water MgO (s) + 2 H+ (aq) →Mg2+ (aq) + H2O (l)

MgO + 2 HCl → MgCl2+ H2O (l)

Al2O3 Amphoteric Acid and alkali Al2O3 (s) + 6H+ (aq) →2 Al3+ (aq) + 3 H2O (l)

Insoluble water Al2O3 (s) + 3H2SO4(aq) → Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2O

Al2O3 (s) + 2 OH- (aq) + 3 H2O (l) → 2 [Al(OH)4]- (aq)

Al2O3 (s) + 2 NaOH(aq) + 3 H2O (l) →2Na[Al(OH)4]

SiO2 Slightly Acidic Strong alkali SiO2 (s) + 2 OH- (aq) →SiO32- (aq) + H2O (l)

Insoluble water SiO2 (s) + 2 NaOH (aq) →Na2 SiO3 (aq) + H2O

Oxides of phosphorous, sulphur and chlorine, are all acidic. They dissolve in water to give acids.

P4O6 Acidic Alkali P4O6 (s) + 6 H2O (l) → 4 H3PO3 (aq)

P4O10 P4O10 (s) + 6 H2O (l) → 4 H3PO4 (aq)

P4O6 (s) + 12NaOH (aq) → 4Na3PO3 (aq) + 6 H2O

P4O10 (s) +12NaOH (aq) → 4Na3PO4 (aq) + 6 H2O

SO2 Acidic Alkali SO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO3 (aq)

SO3 SO3 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO4 (aq)

SO2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2SO3 + H2O

SO3 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2SO4 + H2O

Cl2O Acidic Alkali Cl2O (l) + H2O (l) → 2 HClO (aq)

Cl2O7 Cl2O7 (g) + H2O (l) → 2 HClO4 (aq)

Cl2O (l) + 2 NaOH (aq) → 2 NaClO + H2O

Cl2O7 (g) + 2 NaOH (aq) → 2NaClO4 + H2O

NaCl and MgCl2 are soluble salts dissolves fully in water.

The rest chlorides are simple covalent molecule undergo hydrolysis form white fume HCl .

Al2Cl6 + 6H2O Al(OH)3 + 6HCl

SiCl4 (l) + 4 H2O (l) SiO2.2H2O + 4HCl

PCl5 + 4 H2O (l) H3PO4 + 5HCl

SCl4 + 4 H2O (l) H2SO4 + 4HCl

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Reactions of the Group 2 elements with air / oxygen gas.

1. Group 2 elements burn in oxygen when heated to form oxides

Equations : 2M (s) + O2(g) 2MO(s)

2Mg (s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)

2Ca (s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s)

2Sr (s) + O2(g) 2SrO(s)

Sr(s) + O2(g) SrO2(s)

Strontium peroxide ( poisonous gas causes nose irritation)

2Ba (s) + O2(g) 2BaO(s)

(The solid s are white solid).

Ba (s) + O2(g) BaO2(s)

Barium peroxide

Peroxides are not stable

Solubility of oxide Group2 in water

BeO(s) + H2O Be(OH)2(s) slightly soluble in water

MgO (s)+ H2O Mg(OH)2(s)

CaO (s)+ H2O Ca(OH)2(s)

Quick lime slacked lime

SrO (s)+ H2O Sr(OH)2(aq) very soluble in water

Strong alkali ( pH=13) BaO2 + H2SO4 → H2O2 + BaSO4

BaO (s)+ H2O Ba(OH)2 (aq)

Strong alkali ( pH =13)

Beryllium chloride is hydrolysed in water exothermically to produce an acidic solution

BeCl2 + 2H2O Be(OH)2 +2 HCl

Beryllium chloride does not conduct electricity in molten form.

Beryllium oxide and beryllium hydroxide are amphoteric.

a. BeO(s) + 2H+ (aq) Be2+ (aq) + H2O (l)

BeO (s)+ 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) [Be(OH)4]2-(aq)

b. Be(OH)2 (aq) + 2H+ (aq) Be2+ (aq) + 2H2O (l)

Be(OH)2 (s)+ 2OH-(aq) [Be(OH)4]2-(aq)

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Thermal Decomposition

MgCO3 MgO + CO2

Mg(NO3)2 MgO + 2NO2 + O2

Mg(OH)2 MgO + H2O

Thermal stability increase down the group.

Explain : the atomic size increase, the charge density increases, higher polarizing power .

Summary of the trend in reactivity

The Group 2 metals become more reactive towards water as you go down the Group.

Element Reactivity reacts with water Equation

Be No reaction

Mg Reacts slowly with water but react Mg + H2O(g) MgO (s) + H2

readily with steam to form MgO and H2 MgO slightly soluble to form Mg(OH)2(s)

Ca Reacts with cold water slowly to form Ca(s) +2 H2O(l) Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2

Ca(OH)2 and H2

Sr Reacts with cold water vigorously to Sr (s) +2 H2O(l) Sr(OH)2(aq) + H2

form strong alkali Sr(OH)2 and H2 pH = 13 strong alkali

Ba Reacts with cold water vigorously to Ba (s) +2 H2O(l) Ba(OH)2(aq) + H2

form strong alkali Ba(OH)2 and H2 pH = 13 strong alkali

Anomalous Behaviour of Beryllium

(a) Due to very small size of the beryllium atom coupled with the fact that it has only two inner shell electrons,

the ionisation energy of beryllium is higher than expected compared to other group 2 elements.

(b) Formation of Be2+ is harder than the rest of Group 2 elements.

(c) Be2+ ion with high charge density able to polarizes any anion that is bonded to form covalent character to the

compound.

(d) Beryllium chloride is a covalent compound while the others chloride are ionic. BeCl 2 is white solid that

sublimes when heated

c. Beryllium chloride is hydrolysed in water exothermically to produce an acidic solution

BeCl2 + 2H2O Be(OH)2 + HCl

d. Beryllium chloride does not conduct electricity in molten form.

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 (e) Beryllium oxide and beryllium hydroxide are amphoteric.

a. BeO(s) + 2H+ (aq) Be2+ (aq) + H2O (l)

BeO (s)+ 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) [Be(OH)4]2-(aq)

b. Be(OH)2 (aq) + 2H+ (aq) Be2+ (aq) + 2H2O (l)

Be(OH)2 (s)+ 2OH-(aq) [Be(OH)4]2-(aq)

(f) Beryllium can form complexes ions due to high charge and small size of Be 2+ ion.

(g) Aluminium oxide and aluminium hydroxide are amphoteric.

a. Al2O3(s) + 6H+ (aq) 2Al3+ (aq) + 3H2O (l)

Al2O3 (s)+ 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) [Al(OH)4]-(aq)

b. Al(OH)3 (aq) + 6H+ (aq) Al3+ (aq) + 3H2O (l)

Al(OH)3 (s)+ OH-(aq) [Al(OH)4]-(aq)

Group 14 elements

The stability of oxidation state +2 increases down the group. Pb 2+ is more stable than Pb4+ due to inert
electron pair effect. Pb4+ is strong oxidising agent

Chemical properties of group 14 Elements

(a)The reaction with oxygen

All the elements in Group 14, except lead react with oxygen when heated to produce a dioxide

Lead only forms monoxide when heated with oxygen.

C(s) + O CO2
2

Si(s) + O SiO2
2

Ge(s)+ O GeO2
2

Sn(s)+ O SnO2
2

2Pb(s) + O 2PbO (yellow)

2

6 PbO + O2 2 Pb3O4

(yellow) (orange)

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Formula of oxides Acid /base Ionic Equation
properties
CO2 Acidic CO2 + OH─ CO32-+ H2O

SiO2 Acidic SiO2 + OH─ SiO32- + H2O

GeO, SnO , PbO Amphoteric PbO + 2H+ Pb2+ + H2O

PbO + 2OH- + H2O [Pb(OH)4]2-

GeO2, SnO2, PbO2 Amphoteric eg : PbO2 + 4H+ Pb4+ + 2H2O

Diluted any acid
PbO2 + 4HCl PbCl 2 + Cl2 + 2H2O
Concentrated HCl used
PbO2 + 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) [Pb(OH)6]2-(aq)

Thermal Stability

CCl4, SiCl4 and GeCl4 are ( simple covalent molecule )very stable even at high temperature. SnCl4
decomposes when heated to form stanum(II) chloride and chlorine, whereas PbCl 4 decomposes
when it is warmed to form lead(II) chloride and chlorine.

SnCl4 SnCl2 + Cl2

PbCl4 PbCl2 + Cl2 ( bleach the blue litmus paper )

Hydrolysis

All tetrachlorides except CCl4 can be hydrolysed

During hydrolysis, silicon, germanium, stanum and lead atoms of the respective chlorides make use
of their empty d orbitals to form dative bond with water molecules.

After the coordination, the reaction is followed by an elimination of hydrogen chloride molecule.

Example: SiCl4 (l) + 4 H2O (l) SiO2.2H2O + 4HCl

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Tetrachloride of carbon cannot be hydrolysed because central carbon atom can only hold 8
valence electrons ( maximum covalency is 4). The carbon atom cannot expand its octet

because there is no empty orbital at period 2 elements

Group 17 elements

halogens are diatomic molecules ,simple covalent compound . The intensity colour of halogens
getting darker as going down the group and physical state changes gas to liquid then to solid.

The Solubility of Halogens in Water

 All halogens are slightly soluble in water because they cannot form hydrogen bonding with
water. Chlorine and Bromine react with water to give HX and HOX whereas Iodine does
not. Iodine is very soluble in aqueous Potassium Iodide to give triodide ion, I₃⁻.

Cl2 + H2O HCl + HClO

Br2 + H2O HBr + HBrO
I₂ (s) + I⁻ (aq) I₃⁻ (aq)

HClO decompose to form HCl and O2

Chemical Properties of Halogen

(a) Reaction with hydrogen : Formation of Hydrogen Halides

F₂(g) + H₂(g) 2HF (g)

Even in dark and fluorine in solid state

hv
Cl₂(g) + H₂(g) 2HCl (g)
Pt
Br₂ (g) + H₂ (g) 2HBr (g)

250ºC

Pt
I₂ (g) + H₂ (g) 2HBr (g)

400ºC

Stability of the Formation of product HF > HCl >HBr >HI ( hence enthalpy change of formation HF is the
most exothermic)

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Thermal Stability of Hydrogen Halides
1. From the enthalpy change of formation and the bond dissociates energy, the thermal
stability of hydrogen halides decrease in the order
HF > HCl > HBr > HI
bond length increase
All the hydrogen halides decompose to their elements on heating.
2HX(g) → H2(g) + X2(g)

Reaction of Halides Ions with Silver Ion in Aqueous Solution

Halides ion react immediately with silver ion in aqueous solution to produce silver iodide
precipitate.

Ag⁺ + X⁻ AgX

Silver Halide AgCl AgBr AgI

Colour of Precipitate White Creamy Yellow Yellow
Silver Chloride and Silver Bromide dissolve in aqueous ammonia whereas Silver Iodide does not.

AgX (s) + 2NH₃ (aq) Ag(NH₃)₂⁺ + X⁻

Diammine silver(I) ion

Reaction Between Halide Ions with Lead (II) Ions in Aqueous Solution

Halides react immediately with Lead (II) ions to form Lead (II) Halides precipitates.

Eg : Pb2+ + 2Cl⁻ PbCl₂

Lead (II) Halides PbCl₂ PbBr₂ PbI₂

Colour Precipitate White White Yellow
Note : Formation of Precipitate is through double decomposition reaction.

CaF₂(s) + H₂SO₄ 2HF + CaSO4

2NaCl(s) + H₂SO₄ 2HCl + Na2SO4

concentrated sulphuric acid is strong enough to oxidise the hydrogen bromide to bromine and
hydrogen iodide to iodine.

Example: Br⁻ + H₂SO₄ HBr + HSO4-

2HBr + H₂SO₄ Br2 + SO2 + H2O

I⁻ + H₂SO₄ HI + HSO4-

2 HI + H₂SO₄ I2 + SO2 + H2O

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 Note

Combining these last two half-equations gives:

(a) Redox Reaction

1. 2Br⁻ + Cl₂ Br₂ + 2Cl⁻
2. 2I⁻ + Br₂ I₂ + 2Br⁻
3. I₂ + 2S₂O₃²⁻ 2I⁻ + S₄O6²⁻

Cl⁻ Br⁻ I⁻
Conc. H₂SO₄ Acid HCl HBr + Br₂ HI + I₂
Conc. H₂SO₄ Acid + MnO₂ Cl₂ Br₂ I₂
Conc H₃PO₄ Acid HCl HBr HI

(b) Reactions which involve disproportion

1. Cl₂ + 2NaOH NaCl + NaClO + H₂O
2. 3Cl₂ + 6NaOH 5NaCl + NaClO₃ +3H₂O
3. 3OCl⁻ ClO₃⁻ + 2Cl⁻
4. Cl₂ + H₂O HCl + HOCl
5. Br₂ + H₂O HBr + HOBr
6. 4KClO₃ KCl + 3KClO₄

Homogeneous catalysis. (Reactants products and catalyst are in the same phase):

Oxidation of iodide ion by peroxydisulphate ions in aqueous solution.

Fe²⁺ (aq) / Fe3+(aq)

2I⁻ (aq) + S₂O₈²⁻ (aq) I₂ (aq) + 2SO₄²⁻ (aq)

Without catalyst, this reaction is almost not feasible, as both the anions will repel each other.

Mechanism:

S₂O₈²⁻ (aq) + 2Fe²⁺ (aq) 2SO₄²⁻ (aq) + 2Fe³⁺ (aq)

2Fe³⁺ (aq) + 2I⁻(aq) I₂ (aq) + 2Fe²⁺ (aq)