Balochistan Economic Report

Background Paper
Balochistan’s Water Sector:
Issues and Opportunities

Dr. Shahid Ahmad

Joint Mission of
World Bank and Asian Development Bank
November 2006
 Table of Contents

1. State of Water Resources in Balochistan 1

1.1. Salient Characteristics of Water Sector 1
1.1.1. Resource Availability in the National Context 1
1.1.2. Resource Availability in the Global Context 3
1.1.3. Resource Availability and Use in Balochistan 4
1.1.4. Water Use by Sub-sectors 7
1.1.5. Potential for Future Development 15
1.1.6. Tubewell Subsidy and Mining of Groundwater 18
1.1.7. Water Fee Assessment and Recovery in Canal Commands 20
1.1.8. Water Rights 24
1.2. Spatial and Temporal Variability 24
1.2.1. Physiography 24
1.2.2. Precipitation 25
1.2.3. Reference Crop Evapotranspiration 26
1.2.4. Groundwater (Tubewells, Wells, Karizes, Springs) 27
1.2.5. Surface Water 30
1.2.6. Floodwater from Hill-Torrents 30
1.3. Water Resources Development in Balochistan 30
1.4. Comparison with Other Provinces 32

2. Issues and Constraints 33

2.1. Key Issues 33
2.1.1. Implementation of the IWRM Policy 33
2.1.2. Tubewell Subsidy and Groundwater Mining 34
2.1.3. Environmental Concerns 37
2.1.4. Participation and Gender 38
2.1.5. Water Entitlements 39
2.1.6. Asset development and Management 42
2.1.7. Water Desalinization 43
2.1.8. Service Delivery 46
2.1.9. On-Farm Water Productivity 47
2.2. Constraints 51
2.2.1. Adequacy and Reliability of Data and Information 51
2.2.2. Financial Constraints 53
2.2.3. Physical Constraints 55
2.2.4. Institutional Arrangements and Constraints 55
2.2.5. Human Resources 57
2.2.6. Spatial Variability 57
2.2.7. Socio-cultural Influences 59

3. Opportunities 61
3.1. Changing Parameters for Provincial Development 61
3.1.1. Focusing the Resource Base – Availability and Use 61
3.1.2. Basin Approach 63
3.1.3. Linking Watershed-Water-Environment 63
3.1.4. Water Entitlements 64
3.1.5. Participation and Gender 65
3.1.6. Environmental Concerns 65
3.1.7. Irrigation and Energy Nexus 66
3.1.8. Innovative Technological Options 72
3.1.9. High Performance Institutions – Balochistan Water Resources Management
Authority 72
3.2. Federal and Provincial Government’s Current Water Policies 76
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 3.2.1. Current Water Policies – National and Provincial 76
3.2.2. Need for Shift in Formulation of Water Policies and Water Institutions (Federal-
Provincial Relations) 80

4. Current and Proposed Investment Plan 82

4.1. On-going Projects Funded under the Federal PSDP 82
4.2. New Projects under the Federal PSDP 83
4.3. Proposed Mega Projects for Water Development in Balochistan 83
4.4. Current and Planned Investments by Federal and Provincial Governments 85
4.5. Proposed Investment Plan under the Balochistan Economic Mission Report 85

5. Recommendations 87
5.1. Short-term Actions 87
5.1.1. Tubewell Subsidy 87
5.1.2. Service Delivery 87
5.1.3. Water Productivity 88
5.2. Measures for Management and Development of Water 88
5.2.1. Building High Performance Institutions – BWRMA and Basin Water Boards 88
5.2.2. Asset Development and Management 89
5.2.3. Water Desalinization 89
5.3. Financial Implications 89
5.4. Geographically Differentiated Policies 90
5.5. Federal Vs Provincial Priorities 90
5.6. Reference to International Best Practices or Relevant International
Experiences 90
5.6.1. Water Security and Global Impacts 90
5.6.2. Efficient Water Resource Use 90
5.6.3. Environmental Resources and Development 91
5.6.4. Increasing Productivity of Water Consumed in Agriculture 92
6. References 93

Annexure I. Agro-ecological and Climatic Zonation of Balochistan 96

I.1. Physiographic Regions 96
I.1.1. High Mountains 96
I.1.2. Low Mountains 96
I.1.3. Piedmont Plains 97
I.1.4. Kharan-Chagai Desert 97
I.1.5. Coastal Zone 97
I.2. Agro-climatic Zones 97
I.3. Agro-ecological Zones Adopted for the ADB TA Grant Study 98
Annexure II. Promising Crops and Water Efficient Cropping Patterns for
Balochistan Based on Water Productivity Ranking 100
II.1. Spatial Variation in Mean Reference Crop Evapotranspiration 100
II.2. Spatial Variations in Mean Rainfall 101
II.3. Water Productivity and Profitability of Crops 102
II.3.1. Coastal Areas of Balochistan 102
II.3.3. Highlands of Balochistan 103
II.3.4. Plains – Canal Commands of Balochistan 103
II.3.5. Deserts and Arid Zones outside the Indus Basin 104
II.4. Ranking of Crops for Promising Cropping Patterns 104
II.4.1. Canal Irrigated Areas of the Indus Basin 104
II.4.2. Minor Perennial Irrigation Schemes 104
II.4.3. Groundwater Irrigation System (Wells, Tubewells, Springs, Karaizes) 105
II.5. Promising Crops and Cropping Patterns 105
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 Balochistan’s Water Sector: Issues and Opportunities

1. State of Water Resources in Balochistan

1.1. Salient Characteristics of Water Sector

1.1.1. Resource Availability in the National Context

Pakistan is now classified as a water short/tress country, as the per capita water availability is
around 1246 m3/year, considering the mean annual Indus River flows and floodwater available
outside the Indus basin as a criterion (Table 1). The country is going to be a water scarce country
after 2017, when the per capita water availability is going to be less than 1000 m 3/year.
Table 1. Population, water and storage availability in Pakistan and Balochistan.
Parameter Pakistan Balochistan
Population 1998 (millions) 132.35 6.57
Population 2006 (millions) 156.7051 7.9432
River Flows (billion m3) 181.43 10.904
Floodwater outside Indus basin (billion m3)5 27.10 15.74
Floodwater outside basin but drained to Indus River System (billion m 3)6 -13.21 -7.35
Total Available Water (billion m3) 195.29 19.29
Geographical Area (million ha) 79.61 34.72
Water Availability per Capita (m3/person/annum) 1246 2429
Water Availability per ha (m3/ha/annum) 2453 556
Total Designed Live Storage Capacity (billion m3) 22.957 0.238
Storage Availability per Capita (m3/person) 146 29
Storage Availability per ha (m3/ha) 288 7
Source: GOP (1998); IPD (2006a); GOP (2005a); GOP (2005b); World Bank (2005).

The per capita water availability in Balochistan is around 2429 m 3/year, which is almost double
than the national per capita water availability primarily due to the extremely low population
density in the province. In contrast, the per capita water availability in the other three provinces is
around 1183 m3/year, which is less than the national and provincial average. Therefore, due to the
vast geographical area and the low population density in Balochistan, the per capita water
availability alone can not be used as a criterion for assessing the water availability.

The other criteria of water availability per unit area indicated that around 556 m 3/ha/annum are
available in Balochistan compared to 2453 m 3/ha/annum in Pakistan. In contrast, the water
availability in the other three provinces is around 3921 m3/ha/year, which is much higher than the
national average. Thus spatial water availability in Balochistan is less than one-fourth (23%) of
the country’s water availability and around 14% from that of other three provinces. This poses
serious constraints for management of water which is so thinly distributed in space.

The situation is rather worst for the per capita storage availability in the province of Balochistan.
The per capita storage availability in Pakistan is around 146 m 3/person compared to 29 m3/person
in the province of Balochistan, which is almost one-fifth of the national per capita storage
availability. Comparing on area basis, the storage availability in Pakistan is around 288 m3/ha

1 based on estimates made for Pakistan by the NIPS, 2006.

2 based on estimates madefor Balochistan by the NIPS, 2006.
3considering 177.70 billion m3 (144 MAF) of average annual river flows at rim stations and 3.7 billion m 3 (3 MAF) of water used by the
Civil Canals at the upstream of the rim stations as indicated in the National Policy of 3 MAF
4 include water share of 3.7 billion m3 (3 MAF) from raising of Mangla Dam.
5 estimated using a runoff coefficient of 26% instead of 18% used by the NESPAK (1998).
6 estimated using the flows currently drained to the Indus basin using the current level of water use.
7include 19.25 billion m3 (15.6 MAF) from designed live capacity of Mangla and Tarbela and 3.7 billion m 3 (3.0 MAF) from raising of
Mangla Dam.
8
Excluding the storage of the Hub dam but included all other dams and designed storage capacity is considered. The water allocation is
63.33% for Sind and 36.67% for Balochistan as per water apportionment agreement (IPD 2006b).
1
compared to 7 m3/ha in the province of Balochistan, which is less than 2.5% of the national
storage availability per unit area. Thus, the storage availability in Balochistan has to be seen in
the areal context as the population is scattered in whole of the geographical area of the province.

The water requirement for various sub-sectors of water use in the province, over the next two
decades (2006-2025), has to be realistically assessed and then related to the balance of water
available for future development. The challenge is to have continued and sustained increases in
agricultural productivity, so that province maintains the contribution of the agriculture sector in
terms of increased employment and enhanced income generation for the ever-increasing
population. Even the province is blessed with vast resources of cultivable land, renewable fresh
water resources and skilled farmers; it would be difficult to sustain the present level of growth in
irrigated and non-irrigated agriculture without the understanding and vision to properly managing
the available water resources, as water is the most limiting factor in development. Land is not a
limiting factor in Balochistan’s agriculture. The development and management of water is
complex, costly and time consuming than any other resource. Therefore, a Vision is essential in
managing this vital and extremely scarce resource in the province.

In summary, land in Balochistan means nothing, whereas water is considered everything as it is a

resource at premium and it adds to the value of land from almost no value to a very highly priced
commodity in areas where ample groundwater or surface waters are available.

There is a consensus among the world’s economic experts that poverty in many countries is
largely attributable to lack of proper utilization of their natural resources primarily water. The
same is true for Balochistan, where rural poverty is to some extent a function of hydrological
endowments (WRRI 2001) and access to infrastructure (ADB-PRM 2006).

Water will remain a critical and a limiting resource for sustained economic development of the
country, in general, and specifically for the province of Balochistan. The Indus Basin Irrigation
System’s (IBIS) network is the largest infrastructural enterprise accounting for about US$ 300
billion of investment (at current rates) and contributing around US$ 16 billion, or nearly 24% to
the country's GDP. Irrigated agriculture provides 90 percent of wheat and small grains besides
nearly 100% of sugarcane, rice, cotton, fruits and vegetables, whereas the Barani (rainfed) and
Sailaba areas contribute only 10 % of wheat and a portion of small grains. It also provides milk,
meat, fuel wood, etc. in addition to crops. Majority of buffaloes are located in the Indus basin
command area. The situation in Balochistan is rather critical as the contribution of non-irrigated
areas is much less than of Pakistan. Thus agriculture sector of Balochistan is dependent largely on
irrigation – 100% of fruits, vegetables, rice and cotton, and major portion of wheat.

Country’s irrigated area has increased from 8.40 million ha in 1947 to 18.84 million ha in 2004-
05 due to construction of large reservoirs, irrigation network and large number of tubewells. Due
to the integrated river basin management of the IBIS, the country now manages the largest
contiguous irrigation system of the world comprising of around 16.4 million ha of the gross canal
command area. The IBIS has 3 hydro-power dams, 68 large dams, 19 river barrages, 12 inter-
river link canals, 45 canal commands (excluding Kachhi, Rainee and Thal canals), and over
9,54,842 tubewells during 2004-05, besides nearly 18,000 km of drainage network to dispose of
agricultural effluent with Outfall Drain taking a sizeable part of the saline effluent to the sea.

The Indus basin irrigated area in Balochistan is receiving around 3.3% of the annual canal
diversions as per Water Apportionment Accord, thus benefiting the least from the Indus basin
irrigation system compared to other provinces (Punjab, Sindh and NWFP receiving 47.6, 41.6 and
7.5% of the total water entitlements, respectively).

Currently, the Pakistan’s agriculture sector uses about 93% of the total water supplies available in
the country. The rest 7% of the available water per annum is used for meeting the demand of
other sub-sectors (domestic, industry and ecosystems) of water use. However, with the country’s

2
population projected to increase by 33% by the year 2025 9, the amount of water required,
particularly for the domestic water use, is expected to increase more than the population growth.
This would place further pressure on water resources available for the country’s agriculture. Thus
future demand of other sub-sectors of water use will be met from the savings of the existing water
losses mainly in the agriculture sector. The situation in Balochistan slightly varies, as about
97.3% of total water supplies are currently being used in the agriculture sector. The population of
Balochistan is projected to increase by 43% in the year 2025 10, which is higher than the
projections made for the country’s population.

1.1.2. Resource Availability in the Global Context

Pakistan is now one of the world’s most water stressed country (Figure 1). The per capita
designed lives storage capacity available in Pakistan is around 146 m3/person, which is higher
than Ethiopia considering the arid regions of the world. The highest is in USA of around 6000
m3/person followed by Australia and China (Figure 2). The storage available in Pakistan is
sufficient for storing flows of 30 days compared to 900 days in the Colorado river of USA, which
is almost sufficient to store 2.5 years flows of the Colorado river in the USA (Figure 3).

Figure 1. Pakistan as one of the world’s most water stressed country (Source: www.UNFP.org)

Figure 2. Per capita storage in different semi Figure 3. Days of average flows, reservoirs
arid countries (Source: World Bank Analysis of ICOLD in semi-arid countries, can store in basins
data) Source: World Bank Analysis of ICOLD and GDRC data)

9 based on projections made by the NIPs for Pakistan, 2006.

10based on projections made by the NIPs for Balochistan, 2006.
3
1.1.3. Resource Availability and Use in Balochistan

Water Resources of Balochistan

Water resources of Balochistan can be broadly classified into two categories based on availability
of water: a) Indus basin irrigation system; and b) outside the Indus basin system (Table 2).

Table 2. Water resources of Balochistan, Pakistan.

Description Water Availability
(MAF) (billion m3) (%)
IBIS-Perennial Surface Water – as per Water Accord 3.87 4.78 17
IBIS-Perennial Surface Water - Share from Mangla 0.36 0.44 2
Raising
IBIS-Non-perennial – Post Accord 4.62 5.70 20
Sailaba -Floodwater 12.76 15.74 57
Groundwater 0.87 1.07 4
Total 22.48 27.73 100
Source: IPD (2006a).

Surface Water Resources

Indus Basin Irrigation System: About 39% of the total annual available water in the province
comprises of flows of Indus River system covering both the perennial and non-perennial flows. The
perennial flow is utilized in the districts of Naseerabad and Jaffarabad through Pat Feeder and Khirther
Canals to irrigate an area of about 0.365 million hectares (0.902 million acres). The two districts
constitute only about 5% of the total geographical area of the province. The present canal capacities
are not adequate to utilize the total allocated flow of 10.9 billion m 3, as per Water Apportionment
Accord, where only 3.77 billion m3 could be utilized. However, after the construction of Kachhi Canal
and Remodelling and Extension of Pat Feeder Canal, the balance perennial and a portion of the flood
flows of 7.1 billion m3 per annum could be utilized bringing additional area of about 0.353 million
hectares (0.872 million acres) under cultivation and increasing the irrigation intensity of the existing
command area of the Pat Feeder canal (Figure 4).

12

10

0
Available Utilized Balance

Perennial Flood Total

Figure 4. Water availability and use (billion m3) in Indus basin part of Balochistan.

The remaining 95% of the geographical area of the province (excluding the area of Nasirabad and
Jafarabad districts) depends upon minor perennial and non-perennial flood irrigation systems for
4
fulfilling needs of all the sub-sectors of water use (domestic, agriculture, mining, industry and
ecosystem).

Floodwater Resources: Floodwater has been assessed to be the largest available resource and
comprise about 57% of the total available water in the province. According to an estimate, out of
the total available floodwater of about 15.74 billion m 3, only 3.70 billion m3, representing 23.5%
of the available resource, is being harnessed through spreading of water using Spate irrigation
systems for ‘Sailaba Farming’ in Balochistan (Figure 5).

The main study to assess the availability and utilization of floodwater was carried out by
NESPAK in 1998 under “Master Feasibility Studies for Management of Hill Torrents of Pakistan
- Balochistan Province”. The Irrigation and Power Department (IPD) has also carried out similar
assessment during 2003. Based on these studies, the assessment has been made in respect of the
availability and utilization of floodwater. The NESPAK study focused on the available water for
further development, whereas the IPD Assessment covers the total availability of water.
Conservation of floodwater therefore offers greater prospects of being developed and can play a
pivotal role in the agriculture and socio-economic development of the province.

Groundwater Resources

The perennial sources mainly comprise of groundwater abstracted through springs, karezes,
tubewells, open surface wells, etc. The groundwater is a very finite source constituting less than
4.0% of the total available water resources in the province (Figure 5). The resource is presently
being exploited beyond sustainable limits in the three major basins (Pishin-Lora, Nari and Zoab
Rivers) and if the present trend continues these basins will be depleted completely with major
environmental catastrophe.

16

14

12

10

0
Floodwater Groundwater

A vailab le U t iliz ed B alance

Figure 5. Floodwater and groundwater availability and use (billion m 3) in Balochistan

The groundwater assessment has been based on the hydro-geological studies carried out by
WAPDA during 1973 to 1985 for the 13 major basins of the province (WAPDA 1993) and further
reassessment studies carried out by Halcrow Rural Management Consultants in association with
the International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences and Halcrow Pakistan (Pvt)
Limited in 1996 (sponsored by Asian Development Bank). The reassessment by the latter was
carried out for only 6 out of the total 13 basins, namely Pishin-Lora, Kachhi River, Porali River,
Nari River, Zhob River and Hamun-e-Lora. The comparative groundwater development potential
of different basins in the light of the above studies is presented in Table 3.
5
Table 3. Groundwater availability in Balochistan province, Pakistan.
Study Reference Hydrologic Basins Water Available
per annum
(million m3)
WAPDA Study Pishin Lora, Kachhi River, Porali River, Nari River, Zhob 346.49
(1973-85) River and Hamun-e-Lora
Dasht River, Mula River, Hamun e Mashkel River, Rakhshan
River, Hingol River, Gaj River, Kaha River and 356.42
Miscellaneous
Total 705.91
Reassessment Pishin Lora, Kachhi River, Porali River, Nari River, Zhob + 196.80
Study by HRM River and Hamun-e-Lora - 109.30
(1996) Dasht River, Mula River, Porali River, Rakhshan River,
Hingol River, Gaj River and Kaha River 356.42
Total 553.32

The systematic hydrologic studies conducted during 1990s indicated that the groundwater potential in
Balochistan to have sustainable abstractions is around 32 m 3/sec (1116 cusecs). The abstraction at the
time of study was around 19 m3 /sec (687 cusecs), thus about 12 m3/sec (429 cusecs) were available
for further development. This shows that 60% of the available potential has already been developed
during early 90s (Table 4). This leaves around 40% of the available groundwater for further
development. In the last 16 years, groundwater abstractions have been increased but there is a
complete lack of data for assessment of groundwater availability for further development.

Table 4. Status of groundwater potential and abstraction in Balochistan

Hydrological Basin Groundwater Groundwater Groundwater available for
potential abstraction future abstraction
(cusec) (cusecs) (cusecs)
Zhob River 125 40 85
Nari River 120 120 0
Kachhi Plain River 95 25 70
Pishin Lora 145 145 0
Mula River 26 10 16
Gaj River 38 20 18
Porali River 155 45 110
Harnai Lora 28 5 23
Hangol River 168 20 148
Dasht River 51 10 41
Rekhshan River 27 5 22
Hamun Mashkel 68 5 63
Other areas 70 35 35
Total 1116 687 429
Source: WAPDA 1973-85; WAPDA (1993).

The assessment of groundwater potential by WAPDA revealed that the total groundwater potential in
Balochistan is around 1.01 billion m3. Considering the current total number of tubewells in Balochisn
of 27,195, the average sustainable discharge of tubewells will be around 1.18 lps (.042 cusecs), if
pumpage is continuous, which is less than the discharge of tubewells having delivery diameter of 50
mm (2 inches). Thus the assessed groundwater potential is less than what is being abstracted from the
aquifer and thus leading to mining of the aquifer. Therefore, in this paper the groundwater potential as
indicated by the IPD of 1.07 billion m3 is used (Figure 5).
Lowering of Water Table and Mining of Groundwater

The lowering of groundwater is a common phenomenon in Balochistan, as farmers are now

pumping beyond the depth of 250 m. The groundwater monitoring studies during 90s indicated a
drop of around 0.23-1.09 m per year in areas of Quetta, Mastung, Mangochar and Pishin. The
6
lowering in the last 16 years was much rapid than the estimates made by WAPDA, rather in the
last eight years, it has been declining even to the extent of 3 m per year in some of the areas of
Mastung, Quetta and Mangochar (Table 5).

Table 5. Groundwater level monitoring of selected districts in Balochistan

Area or Total Area Number of Duration Total Depletion Depletion per Year
Sub-basin (Km2) Tubewells (m) (m)
Quetta 586 2,000 1969-1989 4.60 0.23
Mastung 575 1,400 1975-1989 8.20 0.59
Mangochar 315 325 1976-1990 15.20 1.09
Pishin 3,227 3,800 1976-1989 4.00 0.31
Source: BBWR (1996); WAPDA (1989).

During the year 2003, the consultants carried out detailed groundwater investigation studies in
Quetta sub-basin under the “Quetta Water Supply and Environment Improvement Project “. The
hydrological balance of the sub-basins based on the study indicated a considerable deficit of 36.5
million m3 (Table 6).
Table 6. Hydrologic balance of Quetta sub-basin.
Total Annual Recharge Total Annual Discharge Annual Balance
(million m3) (million m3) (million m3)
61.15 97.65 -36.5
Source: WASA (2003).

The different studies were based on insufficient data and rough assumptions, thus the assessments
revealed considerable variation in results. The assessment studies further revealed that in basins,
namely Pishin Lora, Zhob River and Nari River, the groundwater budget is in considerable
deficit. Sustained efforts are needed to manage and conserve this scarce resource from exhaustion
in the three over-drawn basins by introducing groundwater recharge interventions.

The ADB TA Grant Project is in the process of initiating a study for the re-assessment of basin-
wide availability and use of water resources in Balochistan. This study would provide the realistic
assessment of water availability and use.

1.1.4. Water Use by Sub-sectors

The two major sub-sectors of water use are: a) water for agriculture and b) others minor sub-
sectors of water use. The other minor sub-sectors of water use include: a) water for people; b)
water for livestock; c) water for industry and mining; and d) water for ecosystems. Agriculture is
the largest sub-sector of water use, as it consumes around 97.4% of the total water available to the
province (Table 7). Rest of the 2.6% of the current water is being utilized by the non-agricultural
sectors.

Table 7. Water use by sub-sectors (non-agricultural), Balochistan, Pakistan.

Water Use Sub-sectors Water Use (billion m3) Percent Use
Agriculture Sub-sector 8.575 97.4
Other Sub-sectors 0.23 2.6
Total Water Use 8.805 100
Source: IPD (2004); ADB-PRM (2006); IUCN et al. (2000b).

Water for Agriculture

Irrigation is a provincial subject, whereas the agriculture department has been devolved and now it is
part of the district governments. There was already a lack of integrated planning at the basin level in
the province even prior to the devolution. There is a need to consider watershed-water-farming system
framework for management of water resources at the basin level. Therefore, water management issues
for agriculture were analyzed in an integrated fashion covering all the farming
7
systems (canal irrigation system, minor irrigation schemes, tubewell- irrigation, Sailaba and
Khushkaba). The farming systems approach in agriculture is also essential on the front of
poverty-reduction because poorest-of -the-poor live in Sailaba and Khushkaba farming systems.
The traditional approach of water management looking at surface and groundwater ir-respective
of farming systems could not address the people and their livelihood sources.

Indus Basin Canal Command Area: The Pat Feeder, Khirther and other canal commands of the
Indus basin constitute the second largest water resource after the floodwater, representing
command area of around 0.365 million ha, which is around 31% of the total irrigated area of the
province (Table 8). The area shown under government canals also includes area of Pat Feeder
extension and canals outside the Indus basin.

Table 8. Irrigated land by type of irrigation system, Balochistan, Pakistan.

Type of Irrigation System Irrigated Area (million ha) Percent of Total Irrigated Area
Government Canals 0.55 47
Private Canals 0.08 7
Tubewells 0.37 32
Wells 0.04 4
Others 0.12 10
Total 1.16 100
Source: GOP (2005a).

There are two major canal networks in the Indus basin canal system of Balochistan (Figure 6).
First network includes Pat Feeder Canal system, Uch canal and Manuthi canal covering the canal
command area of around 0.246 million ha, representing 67% of the Indus basin canal command
area in Balochistan. Second network includes the Khirther canal, Rabi channel of Khirther canal
and Escape channel of Khirther canal covering an area of 0.108 million ha. Currently, these two
systems cover 97 % of total canal command area of 0.365 million ha in Balochistan (Table 9).

Figure 6. Indus basin canal and drainage system in Balochistan.

The remodeling and extension of the Pat Feeder canal would provide water for an additional area
of 64,372 ha.

8
Table 9. Salient features of the Indus Basin canal networks of Balochistan
Canal System Designed Discharge Length CCA
(cusecs) (kms) (acres) (ha)
Pat Feeder Canal 6700 171 458,425 185,597
Rabi Channel of Pat Feeder 350 47 50,000 20,243
Khirther Canal 2400 53.65 186,000 75,304
Rabi Channel of Khirther 300 29 42,000 17,004
Escape Channel of Khirther 300 19 38,000 15,385
Uch Canal 700 52 68,876 27,885
Manuthi Canal 605 23 28,671 11,608
Khan Wah 200 16 20,000 8,097
Zeb Wah 100 17 10,000 4,049
Total Current Area 9,01,972 3,65,172
Extension of Pat Feeder 1860 37 159,000 64,372
Total 10,60,972 4,29,544
Source: IPD (2006c).

The construction of Kachhi canal is in progress. It is designed for a discharge of 170 m 3/sec
(6,000 cusecs) to provide total water supply of 2.494 billion m 3 (2.021 MAF consisting of 0.451
MAF as perennial flows and 1.57 MAF as non-perennial flood flows) per annum. Its command
area is around 0.289 million ha with a design cropping intensity of 80.4%. After commissioning
of the Pat Feeder Extension and the Kachhi canal, the current canal command area of the Indus
basin would increase by about 97%. The geographic distribution of the canal command area of
the Kachhi canal is given in Table 10.

Table 10. District-wise command area of the Kachhi canal.

District Command Area
(acres) (ha)
Dera Bugti 1,00,200 40,567
Nasirabad 2,77,900 112,510
Bolan 1,27,400 51,579
Jhal Magsi 2,07,500 84,008
Total 7,13,000 2,88,664
Source: IPD (2006d).

The inefficient water conveyance and application resulted in irrigation efficiency of around 34%
causing problem of waterlogging and salinity. Flood irrigation is practiced for rice, which is
extremely inefficient. The watercourse discharge, length and command area is too big to operate
the system efficiently. The length of the watercourse sometime exceeds 10 kms, which is five-
times the average length of watercourse in the Punjab province.

The TA Grant Project has already initiated a study to evaluate the Mogha Command Water
Management in the Indus basin. The results of the study would be available early next year. The
study is aimed to identify investment needs for Command Water Management, as future
improvements in the Indus basin irrigation system would largely come from enhanced
performance of the water delivery and application systems at the tertiary level.

Minor Irrigation Schemes: There are around 335 minor irrigation schemes covering command
area of around 80,000 ha, representing around 8% of the total irrigated area (Table 8). Out of this,
40 schemes were transferred to FOs under the BCIAP. The IPD is responsible to transfer rest of
the schemes under the BIDA Act.

There are many minor irrigation schemes that would benefit from improved management, operation
and maintenance. The beneficiaries are not organized or trained to maximize the potential of these
schemes. There is relatively little interaction or information exchange among communities on the
options available to them in developing irrigation schemes, or on the lessons learned in funding,
construction, management, operation and maintenance (schemes developed under BMIADP). In
reality, these schemes were not developed with an objective to consider water
9
as an economic good and that water is a finite resource (IWRM principles). Participatory
approach was followed in the process of scheme development and implementation (under
BCIAP) but the other two principles of IWRM were not followed. The Community Irrigation
Support Unit (CISU) developed under IPD lacks appropriate manpower for providing support in
social organization, O&M, book keeping, etc. The communities are still facing difficulty to run
their organizations in a financially sustainable manner.

Another important issue is how to effectively allocate and distribute water among the shareholders so
that command area is optimized and cost-effectivity is improved. These schemes have been in place
since long time and irrigation efficiency is low; therefore, deep percolation losses might have resulted
in recharging the shallow groundwater. The ADB TA Grant Project is going to have a diagnostic study
to evaluate the scope and extent of the potential of shallow groundwater due to aquifer recharge. Cost-
effective ways to harness this resource of water is an issue for the future.

Tubewell-Irrigated Agriculture: The tubewell- and well-irrigated area is around 0.41 million ha
representing 36% of the total irrigated area (Table 8). Thus groundwater is the second largest
irrigated land use system of the province.

Irrigation efficiency of tubewell-irrigated farms ranges 40-70%. Assuming average irrigation

efficiency of 50% means that almost half of the pumped water is used for consumptive water
requirements. The water table in these areas is extremely low and tubewells are pumping water
from deeper depths. Any seepage loss in these areas is not recoverable because it hardly reaches
to the groundwater. Therefore, the loss of irrigation is normally an irrecoverable loss of water. In
addition to the loss of water in tubewell-irrigated areas, there is an added loss of energy. Farms
having unlined watercourses and unleveled fields, there is at least 50% loss of water and energy
(electricity and diesel).

The issues related to the appropriate size of tubewell, layout and design of water conveyance
system and field layout of these farms were never given any due attention. The whole
responsibility of managing the tubewell -irrigated agriculture is left to the farmers, except the
OFWM is providing services for lining of channels and construction of water tanks (DERA
Project in 24 districts financed by World Bank, PM Drought Packages of Rs. 10 million for each
MPA, National Programme of Water Management under President’s Directive covering
remaining 16,463 watercourses). The OFWM has recently started providing pipe-flow irrigation
system instead of the lined channels. This would help farmers and OFWM to introduce high
efficiency irrigation systems like sprinkler and drip irrigation systems. Recently, the OFWM
initiated a pilot project for introducing high efficiency irrigation systems under ASPL-II with a
cost of Rs. 200 million. The Prime Minister has recently approved a National Programme for
“High Efficiency Systems” with a total cost of Rs. 15.0 billions for a period of 5 years. The
precision land levelling equipment was provided under the Japan Assisted OFWM Project, but
the programme still has to be initiated.

Sailaba Farming Systems: The area under Sailaba farming during 2004-05 was around 0.70
million ha, representing 35% of the total cultivated area ( Table 11). According to NESPAK
1998, there is a potential to further increase the Sailaba area to 4.68 million ha with thin
distribution of water. Sailaba farming is a traditional system of watering fields through
harnessing, diversion and control of floodwater, which has been in place since 3000 years BC.
PARC concluded that with the introduction of tubewell technology, the Sailaba system was
neglected and thus it has deteriorated tremendously. The beauty of Balochistan’s Sailaba system
is that the size of the system outside Kachhi plain and Lasbella is small and easy to manage -
highlands systems of Balochistan (PARC 2001).

The system has been deteriorated to the extent that major rehabilitation is needed. It should not be
compared with the minor irrigation schemes and the system has to be rehabilitated in the context
of Spate irrigation. These schemes have to be tackled with the participatory approach being
adopted by the OFWM and the farmers’ managed minor irrigation systems rather than traditional
10
approaches followed by the IPD. The strength of the existing system of having strong community
participation in harnessing, control and management of water should be further capitalized so that
the schemes rehabilitation is economically feasible.

Table 11. Land use of Balochistan, Pakistan.

Land Use Area (million hectares) Percent of Cultivated Area
Geographical Area 34.72 -
Cultivated Area 1.99 -
Irrigated Area 1.16 58
Sailaba Area 0.70 35
Khushkaba Area 0.13 7
Source: GOP (2005a).

Khushkaba Farming Systems: The area under Khushkaba farming during 2004-05 was around
0.13 million ha, representing 7% of the total cultivated area (Table 11). Khushkaba farming is a
traditional system of supplementing incident rainfall with runoff from adjacent fields or
catchments. The technological support was never provided to the farmers because water
management in Khuskaba areas is no-body business, except the research institutions like AZRC,
which is involved in field research. The system has deteriorated to the extent that major
rehabilitation is needed. However, it should be considered as an integral part of the basin water
management strategy.

The research efforts by AZRC have been concentrated to introduce run-off and run-on systems,
which could not be adopted by farmers. The basic reason was that scientists neither tried to
understand the indigenous Khushkaba systems nor made any efforts to improve these systems.
Introduction of any new imported technology is difficult and there is considerable time lag in
adoption of such technologies. The community always welcomes improvements in the indigenous
systems. AZRC is the only institution in Balochistan having mandate, trained manpower and
programme for research related to Khushkaba farming. But there is a need to re-orient the
research programme in collaboration with agriculture and forestry departments to initiate Action
Research responsive to the needs of the clients (line departments and farmers). Recently, with the
assistance of ICARDA-FAO Project financed by USAID, AZRC has initiated field research in
integrated land use (crops, plants, forages, etc.). They are also involved in the introduction of
improved irrigation systems and protected agriculture.

Crops and Cropping Pattern: In the Pat Feeder and Khirther canal commands, rice and sugarcane
are grown. The climate is ideal for cotton in areas having medium- textured soils but rice is
normally grown because of waterlogging. For sugarcane, 24 irrigations are required, whereas 16-
20 irrigations are required for rice. Cotton crop provides highest yield with 5 irrigations and yield
is reduced with over-irrigation. Water productivity is highest for cotton (Rs. per m 3 of water)
compared to other crops. There is a need to have shift from rice-wheat to cotton-wheat cropping
pattern to increase water productivity and to increase the command area.

Similarly, onion and apples are grown in tubewell -irrigated areas, which are high water delta
crops. Irrigations of as much as 40 are reported for onions. Onion is a shallow rooted crop and
frequent irrigations are needed in light textured soils. Apples also require higher number of
irrigations compared to almonds, pistachio, pomegranate, grapes, etc.

Farmers in the Indus basin canal commands are not aware about the value of water because the
Abiana rates are extremely low. The farmers of tubewell-irrigated agriculture are paying only Rs.
4000 per month of electricity tariff, which in certain cases is only 10% of the actual cost of
electricity consumed by the farmers. Therefore, valuation and costing of water is one of the basic
issues affecting water productivity and sustainability of the resource.
The ADB TA Grant Project (ADB 2005a) has completed a study for the identification of
promising crops and cropping patterns for irrigated farming systems of Balochistan, which are
water efficient. The study also provided a list of promising cropping patterns for various agro-
ecological zones of Balochistan. The outcome of the study is presented in Annexure II.
11
Water for Other Sub-sectors

Water for other sub -sectors (non-agricultural) includes water for: a) people; b) livestock; c) industry
and mining; and d) ecosystems. Furthermore, water for people has to be seen in the urban and rural
contexts. The water use by other sub- sectors is around 0.23 billion m 3, which represents around 2.6%
of the total water use per annum. Out of 0.23 billion m 3, around 0.220 billion m3 is contributed by
groundwater, which is around 34% of the total groundwater use in the province (Table 12 ). The
dependence of domestic, industrial and mining sub-sectors in future would be largely on groundwater.
Thus there is an urgent need that the PHED should coordinate with the IPD to develop a strategy for
sustainable development and management of groundwater resources.

Table 12. Water use by source of water for other sub-sectors, Balochistan, Pakistan.
Water Use Sub-sectors Source of Water Amount of Water Use (million m3)
Water for People (Domestic Use) Groundwater 186
Total 186
Water for Industry Surface Water 7.4
Groundwater 14.1
Total 21.5
Water for Mining Surface Water 4.8
Groundwater 16.5
Total 21.3
Grand Total 228.8
Source: IPD (2004); ADB-PRM (2006); IUCN et. al. (2000a,b).

Water for People

Domestic Water Use: Currently, the domestic water use is around 0.186 billion m 3, which is
about 29% of the total groundwater abstracted from the aquifer. Thus the dependence of domestic
water is solely on groundwater. The future demand of this sub-sector would largely have to be
met by reducing the availability of groundwater to the agriculture sector.

Domestic Water Supply: Water for people has to be seen in the urban and rural contexts. Piped
water supply is available to around 25.3% population of the province, if the non-functional
schemes are added the percentage would increase. The piped water supply is further elaborated
for urban (74%) and rural (14.7%). Around 51.6% population is having access to water supply
from improved and protected sources of water (Table 13) . The rest of the population (48.4%) is
still receiving supply from un-improved sources. Around 50% people have access to water supply
at their premises and rest has to travel upto 2 km or more in having access to water supply ( Table
14).

Table 13. Access to water supply based on type of the source and the scheme in Balochistan
Improved and Protected Sources Un-improved and un-protected Sources
Source and Type of Scheme Coverage Source and Type of Scheme Coverage
(%) (%)
Piped Water Supply 25.3 Un-protected Dugwells 13.6
Public Tap 3.2 Un-protected Pond 9.9
Handpump 6.9 River/Canal/Stream 16.7
Donkey Pump/Turbine 2.4 Vander Provided 0.6
Protected Dugwells 10.3 Tanker/Tractor/Donkey Cart 2.7
Protected Pond/Tank 3.5 Bottled Water/Can/Vessel 0
Others 4.5
Total 51.6 Total 48.4
Source: Balochistan MICS, 2003.

Around 49.6% population is having access to water at their premises, with 91.5% in urban areas
and 38.4% in rural areas. In rural areas, 61.6% of population has to travel even more than 2 km
for having access to water for domestic needs (Table 14).
12
Table 14. Access to water supply based on distance to scheme/source of water in Balochistan
Distance to the Source/Scheme Coverage (%)
(kms) Balochistan Urban Rural
On Premises 49.6 91.5 38.4
< 0.5 22.6 6.9 26.8
0.5-1.0 7.3 0.5 9.1
1.0-2.0 10.2 0.5 12.8
>2.0 10.4 0.5 13.0
Total 100 100 100
Source: Balochistan MICS, 2003.

In urban areas, piped water supply is dependent mainly on groundwater resources. The Quetta
basin is deficient in provision of domestic water.

Sanitation: The public sewerage facility is available to around 6.7% population of the province
with further breakdown of 34% in urban areas and 0.8% in rural areas. Considering all sorts of
waste disposal, around 40% population has latrine facility and rest of the population use open
places (Table 15).

Table 15. Sanitation facility available in Balochistan

Type of Sanitation System Coverage (%)
Balochistan Urban Rural
Connected to Public Sewer 6.7 34.0 0.8
Connected to Septic Tank System 3.4 13.6 1.2
Pour Flush Toilet 7.0 13.9 5.5
Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine 1.9 1.2 2.1
Traditional Pit Latrine Closed 19.4 25.5 18.1
Service/Bucket Latrine 1.3 2.0 1.2
Public/Commercial Latrine 0.2 0.4 0.1
Open Places 60.1 9.3 71.1
Total 100 100 100
Source: Balochistan MICS, 2003.

Water Quality and Pipeline Losses: The quality of water is also a concern, as sewage effluents
are affecting both surface and groundwater. The use of raw sewage in peri-urban areas for
cultivation of vegetables is a major source of polluting shallow groundwater with bacteria and
organic and chemical fertilizers. Thus both quantity and quality are the issues in urban areas. The
cost recovery is another issue affecting the water supply services. The faulty pipeline system
during winter is another problem affecting the efficiency of water supply in urban areas.
Groundwater mining in urban centers is a serious concern. The high O&M cost of rural water
supply schemes is a major concern in the rural areas and affecting sustainability of these schemes.

Quetta is the largest city of the Balochistan, where old pipeline network for the domestic water
supply is having water losses of over 40%. The domestic water supply is not metered in Quetta
and other cities. The water meters for domestic water supply are essential for Quetta because
groundwater is being mined and aquifer is heavily overdrawn. .

In rural areas, piped water supply is available to around 14.7% of the population. Rest of the
population collects water from community schemes or from other sources. In Sailaba and Khushkaba
areas, part of the population is collecting water from earthen ponds (low depressions), which are used
for domestic and stockwater. Water born diseases are common because of pollution of water from the
livestock, washing of clothes and growth of obnoxious water plants. During dry spells and prolonged
droughts, the rural women have to travel long distances in search of water.

In the Nasirabad and Khirther canal commands, the groundwater is brackish to marginal in quality.
Most of the rural population is dependent on the canal water stored in earthen ponds. The situation
becomes critical during the period of canal closures, when the ponds are dried and community has
13
to dig the soil to harvest the seepage. Quality of this water is a real concern both for human and
livestock.

Domestic Water Supply in Coastal Areas: In coastal areas, deep groundwater is brackish in
quality; therefore, the dependence of domestic water supplies would continue to be on water
stored in dams. As the depth of freshwater layer is thin, intrusion of brackish groundwater into the
freshwater zone is a common phenomenon in tubewells.

The potential of storage dams is also limited in coastal areas, especially in Gwadar, although IPD
is in the process of rehabilitation of the Akra dam and few additional storage dams are now in the
feasibility stage. Therefore, the option of desalinization of seawater can provide sustainable
source of water for domestic purposes in Gwadar, but its techno-economic aspects demand
systematic feasibility. The current feasibility conducted by the domestic Consultants for the GDA
is incomplete and require further refinement. The private sector companies (based at Karachi) are
currently involved primarily in the installation of desalinization systems for brackish groundwater
having salt contents of much less than the seawater. The DHA Karachi is the pioneer in the
installation of seawater desalinization plant. Their experience can be of higher value for GDA.
However, GDA may note that energy is also a basic requirement for the desalinization plants,
which is currently not available in Gwadar; therefore, the desalinization companies have to
generate their own electricity, which would enhance the overall cost of the plant. Roughly, 2.5
MWatts are needed to provide desalinized water of 1.0 mgd.

Water for Livestock

No information is available regarding stockwater use, as it is included in the water use of other
sub-sectors. It is not easy to estimate the actual use of water by this sub-sector.

In areas around the city and tubewell-irrigated farms, groundwater is available for stockwater
purposes. However, in major part of rangelands, water stored in depressions and earthen ponds is
normally used for stockwater purposes. During the dry spells and prolonged droughts, the
livestock also have to travel long distances in search of water, which results in loss of body
weight of ruminants. During drought of 1998-00, majority of livestock mortality was correlated
with the loss of water in the body. Most of the livestock diseases are water born due to
contaminated waters. Water for livestock is a neglected area even the sector contributes
significantly into the provincial GDP.

Stockwater Quality Standards: The suitability of water for livestock depends on a number of
factors; type, age and condition of the animal, climate, composition of pastures, feed, etc. The
simplest quality criterion for stockwater is expressed in terms of permissible limit for total
dissolved solids, which is tolerable by the livestock without any adverse effect (Table 16).

Table 16. Permissible limits of total dissolved solids (salts) for Livestock
Livestock TDS (mg/L)
No adverse Animal adopt without loss of Loss of production and decline in
effects Production animal condition and health
Beef Cattle <4000 4000-5000 5000-10000
Dairy Cattle <2400 2400-4000 4000-7000
Sheep <4000 4000-10000 10000-13000
Horses <4000 4000-6000 6000-7000
Poultry <2000 2000-3000 3000-4000
Source: Vision (2000).

Even if the salinity is within limits, specific ions such as fluoride, magnesium, sulphate and
bicarbonate, etc. can cause health problems. These relate to the loss of body condition, scouring,
teeth decay and gastro-intestinal problems.

14
Stockwater Requirement: The water requirement of livestock is met primarily through its
voluntary consumption. For livestock, daily water consumption is dependent on a number of
physiological and environmental factors and some of these are: a) size and type of animals; b)
physiological status (i.e., pregnant, lactating or growing, activity level, type of diet and amount
consumed) and c) climatic condition (i.e., air temperature, humidity and water quality).

The water requirement of all the species of livestock based on Livestock Census, 1996 is
calculated by using the daily water requirement. The water requirement (million m 3) of various
species of livestock is presented in Table 17.

Table 17: Water requirement of livestock for Balochistan

Specie Water requirement of livestock (million m3) Average Annual Increase
3
1976 1986 1996 (million m )
Cattle 17.476 29.561 34.263 0.839
Buffalo 00.964 01.840 04.701 0.187
Sheep 20.372 44.610 43.527 1.158
Goats 17.826 29.305 37.616 0.990
Camel 06.190 10.190 09.899 0.185
Pack Animals 03.731 05.590 06.325 0.130
Total 66.559 121.096 136.331 3.490
Source: Ministry of Water and Power (2005); GOP (1996).

Total water requirement of all type of livestock in Balochistan was 136.33 million m 3 in 1996. An
annual increase in the water requirement of livestock was 3.49 million m 3 during the period of
1976-1996. The maximum annual requirement of water was for sheep followed by goats and
cattle. The other livestock species have significantly less water requirement compared to the
above species in the province.

Water for Industry and Mining

The water use by the industrial and mining sub -sectors is around 0.043 billion m 3. Out of this, around
71% is contributed by groundwater. Thus dependence of these two sub-sectors is largely on the
groundwater. The industry is very much limited in the province. However, their need is largely met
from the groundwater. In the Hub area, the industrial water demand is met from the surface water
stored in the Hub dam, which is the largest concentration of industry in the province. The demand for
mining is also met largely from groundwater except in certain areas, where surface water is also used.
The demand for industry and mining would certainly increase in future.

Water for Ecosystem

The water for ecosystem is mainly drawn from the surface water (floodwater and runoff). The
increase in demand for domestic, industrial and agricultural purposes would affect the marshes,
wetlands and the estuaries. Furthermore, the construction of dams would also affect the water
requirement for the ecosystems. Exact water requirement for ecosystems are hardly known. There
are serious environmental concerns due to the disposal of drainage effluents to the freshwater
lakes turning those to saline lakes.

1.1.5. Potential for Future Development

Water Budget of Balochistan based on IPD Data

Total water available in the province is around 27.73 billion m 3 per annum. Out of that, 26.66 billion
m3 are contributed by surface water representing 96% of the total available water resources in the
province. Annual perennial canal water supplies from the Indus River, as per Water Apportionment
Accord, are around 4.78 billion m3. In addition, 0.44 billion m3 will be provided as share of the
Balochistan after commissioning of the Mangla Raising Project. Annual non-perennial canal water
supplies from the Indus River, as 12% of the 47.5 billion m3 of Indus River system
15
floodwater supplies estimated by WAPDA in 1998, are around 5.70 billion m 3. The non-perennial
water is available during flood years and in the brief monsoon season (July to September).
Surface water from other sources (floods and runoff) is around 15.74 billion m 3. Annual
availability of groundwater is around 1.07 billion m 3, representing only 4% of total water
available to the province (Table 18).

Table 18. Water Budget of Balochistan, Pakistan for the year 2004.
Particular Water Water
(billion m3) (million acre feet)
Available Water Resources
Surface Water (Indus River perennial) 5.22 3.87 + 0.3611
Surface Water (Indus River non-perennial) 5.70 4.62
Surface Water (floods and runoff) 15.74 12.76
Groundwater 1.07 0.87
Total Available Water 27.73 22.48
Water Use
Surface Water (Indus River perennial) 4.5712 3.705
Surface Water (Indus River non-perennial) 1.9413 1.57
Surface Water (floods and runoff) 3.70 3.00
Groundwater 0.65 0.53
Total Water Use 10.86 8.805
Balance Available
Surface Water (Indus River perennial) 0.65 0.525
Surface Water (Indus River non-perennial) 3.76 3.05
Surface Water (floods and runoff) 12.04 9.76
Groundwater 0.42 0.34
Total Balance Left 16.87 13.675
Source: IPD (2006a); ADB-PRM 2006; IUCN et al. (2000a,b).

The major part of the groundwater has already been exploited. Only expanding the capacity of the
existing canal network, within the limits of water entitlements to the province posed by the Water
Apportionment Accord, can enhance canal water supplies from the Indus River. Thus the potential
resource available for future development is surface water from floods and runoff. Out of this, the
unutilized potential is of around 12.04 billion m3, which is the largest resource available, representing
71% of total available water for future development. The rest 2% will be available from groundwater
and 27% from Indus River canal supplies (perennial and non-perennial). Thus the future development
potential lies in developing the unutilized surface water constituting 98% of total available water
resources for future development in the province (Table 18).

Reliability and adequacy of stream flow data is a serious concern, as there are significant
variations in the assessment of water resources under different studies (Helcrow, IPD, BCS, etc.).
In this study official data provided by the IPD were used, and comparison was also made with the
ADB-PRM Study and the Balochistan Conservation Strategy (ADB-PRM 2006; IUCN et al.
2000b).

Alternatively, water availability was also assessed using spatial analysis conducted by the WRRI-
NARC indicating average rainfall volume available to the province of around 34.6 and 25.9
billion m3 for the Rabi and the Kharif seasons, respectively, with total of 60.5 billion m 3 per
annum (WRRI 2001) . The 15.74 billion m 3 of surface water from other sources indicates a
runoff-rainfall ratio of 26%, which seems quite reasonable. There are chances of higher stream
flows as surface cover is going to reduce further due to indiscriminate degradation of watersheds.
Wet years are going to provide higher runoff compared to dry years, which should be seen as
potential years to manage the resource for recharging the groundwater. Therefore the assessment
of available water made by the IPD seems realistic.

11estimated share of Balochistan after commissioning of the Mangla Raising Project

12include water allocation of 0.25 billion m3 for remodelling and extension of the Pat Feeder Canal and 0.56 billion m3 allocated for the
Kachhi Canal Project. Both the projects are under construction and thus included in water use as planned usage in the near future.
13 estimated water allocation for the Kachhi canal as non-perennial water during the Kharif season
16
Although, the major source of water availability for future development is floodwater and runoff,
even then highland watersheds, Sailaba (Spate irrigation) and Khushkaba (localized runoff
farming) systems were not given the due priority. Emphasis has been placed on canal water
supplies and tubewell irrigation systems. The obvious reason is higher reliability of the resource
and prevailing approaches of water development in the country.

The availability of floodwater has another dimension, which is an indicator of reduced recharge
to the groundwater in highland watersheds and Sailaba areas. Therefore, issue of floodwater
management is directly linked with recharge of groundwater and thus must be given due attention
considering a holistic approach – managing surface and groundwater in an integrated fashion.
Thus the major issue is to manage floodwater and runoff for sustainable water use (surface and
groundwater) in the province.

Water Balance of Balochistan based on Study Conducted by Ministry of Water and Power

The Ministry of Water and Power conducted study for the “Environmental Concerns” of All the
Four Provinces and for Balochistan the study was aimed to develop water balance model of
Balochistan (Ministry of Water and Power 2005). The water balance for surface and groundwater
is presented in Table 18a.

Table 18a. Overall Water Balance Model of Balochistan Province for the year 2004.
Particular Water Water
(billion m3) (million acre feet)
Inflows into Balochistan
Surface Water (Indus River) 7.76 6.29
Surface Water (Floods and Runoff) 13.42 10.87
Rainfall Falling on Open Water Surface 0.01 0.01
Direct Groundwater Recharge by Rainfall 9.71 7.87
Total Inflow of Water 30.90 25.04
Outflow and Water Use
Net Domestic Water Demand 0.16 0.13
Net Industrial Water Demand including Hub dam 0.03 0.02
Net Surface Water Irrigation Demand 5.92 4.80
Net Groundwater Irrigation Demand 5.63 4.56
Livestock Water Demand 0.11 0.09
Losses not Flowing Back into the System 0.79 0.64
Total Outflow and Water Use 12.64 10.24
Total Balance Left 18.26 14.80

The water balance of Balochistan under this study indicated that total water available to the
province is 30.9 billion m3. Out of which around 12.64 billion m 3 are used leaving balance of
18.26 billion m3 for future development and to meet environmental flows requirement.
The most interesting part of this water balance model is that it gives completely different view of the
groundwater potential and use. It seems that the study has assumed that the data of agricultural
statistics is reasonable that’s why groundwater demand was computed. The recharge is also nine-fold
higher than estimated by WAPDA in 1993. Thus this water balance is also questionable as it represents
altogether different view on groundwater recharge and use in Balochistan.

The water balance includes only 7.76 billion m 3 of water from the Indus river system instead of
10.92 billion m3 allocated under the Water Apportionment Accord (existing and future supplies).
Therefore, the need arise to conduct a systematic study for the re-assessment of available surface
and groundwater resources at the basin level, which is being conducted in the Package
Assignment under the ADB TA Grant Project.

17
Need for Development of Infrastructure

The available potential for further development of water resources in the province is from surface
water, as 4.51 and 12.04 billion m3 are available from the Indus basin and floodwater from the
hill-torrents.

The water availability from the Indus basin indicates that atleast two canals (of the size of the
Kachhi canal) have to be constructed to fully utilize the allocated water as per Water
Apportionment Accord.

The available floodwater from the hill -torrents of 12.04 billion m 3 is almost equal to the live
storage capacity of Tarbela dam. This is clear evidence that Sailaba Farming systems can be
further developed in the province with spreading of water and storage of the excess water in
reservoirs to avoid risks in the dry years. This would also ensure reducing the hazard of out-
migration in the drought years through improved livelihood of rural communities.

1.1.6. Tubewell Subsidy and Mining of Groundwater

Subsidized ‘flat rate’ tariff was introduced nationally to encourage farmers to use groundwater for
increased agricultural production and also to increase consumption of power. It has been
successful to expand the tubewell-irrigated agriculture in upland Balochistan; yet, it promotes
poor use of scarce resource. Farmers in many cases do not pay for the electricity they consume
even at low flat rate.

Federal and provincial legislation exists to license the abstraction of groundwater and to enforce
payment of electricity bills. While further improvements to such legislation are proposed, the
main issue is political will and the ability to enforce it.

Moving from a flat-rate to the imposition of a full-tariff is an obvious way of promoting water
conservation. However, the introduction of a full-tariff to farmers on the Indus plains or southern
valleys of Balochistan would be disastrous, since the tariffs would exceed gross returns. The
imposition of full-tariffs may be feasible only for farmers growing high value fruit or vegetable,
where the return on investment is substantial. Thus the issue is how to implement the revised
tariff, which is acceptable to the politicians, farmers and the government.

The subsidy on electricity is being shared using a factor of 43.24, 28.38 and 28.38 % by the federal
government (including the PM subsidy @ Rs. 0.13 per KWhr), WAPDA and the Government of
Balochistan, respectively. The subsidy provided by the provincial government during the year 2005-06
was around 2.29 billion, which might increase to Rs. 2.51 billion during 2006-07. The complete
removal of subsidy would affect the farmers adversely; as the farmers who are growing field crops and
fodders, their expenditures might exceed the income. However, the farmers who are growing high
value fruits and vegetables might be in a position to share the whole burden, if the subsidy is removed
completely. A gradual and phase-wise approach is needed.

The bill for the electricity tariff is deducted at the source, while transferring the federal budget to
the province. The question to be considered in the analysis for the subsidy is that why the system
of deduction at source has been adopted. The logical answer to this question demands analysis of
the pre-period, when the system of deduction at source was not in practice. There has been large
pending liability of electricity tariff to be paid to WAPDA and due to a matter of convenience; the
system of deduction at source was adopted. The background of this practice is that WAPDA does
not like to deal with the client, who the geographically scattered farmers and not willing to pay
the bills. Therefore, it is a matter of convenience for WAPDA and the electric supply companies
in the province but there are genuine reasons to opt this practice.

Developing a viable solution of this issue demands that electric supply companies should start dealing
with the farmers in a way similar to the one adopted in other provinces. This is the ultimate
18
option to be followed, but it will take long-time and requires dialogue among all the parties
concerned. At present, farmer is supposed to pay a fixed rate of Rs. 4000 per month per tubewell.
Leaving aside the low rate of contribution of farmer towards the overall bill of electricity, the
present option has in-built weaknesses, which includes:

‰ Charge of electricity tariff to farmer is irrespective of size of the prime mover. So small
and large pumping systems both in terms of water and energy use are dealt in a similar
way.
‰ Charge of electricity tariff to farmer is also irrespective of the duration of pumping and
electricity consumed by an individual farmer.
‰ There is no incentive for farmers to be efficient in water and energy use. Farmers are not
aware of the situation of the overall cost of electricity and how the concerned parties
share it. They care for their contribution only, which is around 10% of the total bill of
electricity.
‰ The farmers also complain regarding prolonged periods of load shedding and voltage
fluctuations, which resulted into the loss of their prime movers and excessive O&M.
Thus there is a serious issue of reliability of power supplies. The official figure of load
shedding is around 8 hours, but farmers are of the opinion that it is more than 8 hours.

Comparison with other Similar Ecologies in the Country

The comparable area to Balochistan’s groundwater irrigation system is the Khanpur and Haripur
area of the NWFP, where farmers are now pumping at a depth of around 76-107 m (250-350 feet)
and paying the full cost of electricity tariff. Their crops are mainly loquat, guava and citrus,
which are of less value compared to cherry and apples. Therefore, these farmers are forced to use
water and energy efficiently. The other extreme is the Soan valley in the Punjab province, where
the turbine and submersible pumps have completely dried the dugwells. These smallholders are
normally growing vegetables and the average land holding is less than 1.0 ha. They have
developed a comparative advantage of early season cauliflower, and three crops of cauliflower
are grown after wheat. Thus the cropping intensity is 400%.

Balochistan Government also has to see the comparative advantage of growing crops that fetch
good prices in the market due to early maturity and at the same time consume less water.

Equity and Poverty Concerns

There were 27,195 tubewells during 2005-06, out of that 15,824 tubewells were electric-operated and
11,371 were diesel-operated. The subsidy on electric tariff is provided to around 58% of the tubewell
owners, whereas rest 42% tubewell owners are deprived from the subsidy, as these are diesel-operated.
It is important to mention that cost of energy for pumped water using diesel-operated tubewells is
around Rs. 33,000 per month (for shallow wells), whereas the electric powered tubewell cost of energy
is around Rs. 40,000 per month (for deep wells). The economic analysis conducted in the TA study
indicated that for comparable situations, the cost of operation of diesel- tubewells is higher than the
electric-operated tubewells. Normally, the diesel-operated tubewells pumped water from shallow
depths but these farmers are now replacing their centrifugal and shallow turbine pumps with deep
turbine pumps due to the lowering of the water table.

In the ADB TA study, comparison of diesel- and electric-operated tubewells was made using
discharge of 3.1 lps (0.11 cusec), pump setting at a depth of 45.7 m (150 ft) and bore depth of
152.4 m (500 feet). The utilization level of 83% was assumed. The operational cost estimated was
Rs. 26881 per ha m (Rs. 3318 per acre ft) and Rs. 17532 per ha m (Rs. 2164 per acre ft) for
diesel-and electric-operated tubewells, respectively.

The subsidy on electric tariff for tubewells is provided to electric tubewell owners, which are
around 7,900 in the province assuming on an average of 2 tubewell per farmer. The total number
of farms in the Balochistan province is around 329,868 according to the 2000 surveys. It is
19
expected that current number of farms will be more due to the division based on the inheritance
laws. These farms are located under farming systems covering: tubewell-irrigated agriculture;
canal-irrigated areas; minor irrigation schemes; Sailaba and Khushkaba farming. In addition to
these farms, there are livestock farmers, which might be in equal number of the crop farmers.
However, the subsidy is provided to only 2.4% of the crop farmers, and depriving 97.6% of the
crop farming community. This creates serious problem of injustice and inequity in distribution of
public resources for the benefits of the population.

Thus there are serious equity concerns in distribution of benefits to the farmers. There is a
genuine reason to document water use and crop production practices of the diesel-operated
tubewell owners that how they are surviving without the subsidy and what is the justification for
providing the subsidy on electric tariff. The tubewell characteristic data of both the electric and
diesel-operated tubewells is needed to justify the government support to electric tubewell owners.

If the subsidy is used for improving management of existing water resources, the benefits will be
transferred to a larger segment of the farming community resulting in reducing poverty and
would provide opportunity for equitable distribution of benefits to a larger segment of the rural
population of the province.

Developing a workable policy requires a professional work, where the complex issue of electric
tariff, its recovery, farmers’ behaviour, law and order situation, WAPDA’s and electric companies
hesitation in dealing directly with the client have to be considered. This is a complex issue and
thus a comprehensive analysis of the situation is required prior to the implementation of a
workable option.

1.1.7. Water Fee Assessment and Recovery in Canal Commands

Abiana Assessment and Recovery

Abiana System in Balochistan: The canal irrigated agriculture in the province of Balochistan
was introduced by the British government, after commissioning of the Khirther canal. They also
notified the Abiana rates to be charged from the farmers for the supply of canal water on the basis
of irrigated cropped area. The Abiana rates were estimated, keeping in view the water required by
the crop, crop growing season length and its priority for the farming community. The Abiana rates
were purposely kept low to encourage: a) colonization; and b) improvement of socio-economic
conditions of the rural communities. These rates were initially different for different canal
systems in the country and in Balcohistan.

After independence the same system of assessment & collection of Abiana continued. Initially, the
total recovery was sufficient to cover the cost of salaries of the staff and the O&M expenditures.

The type of crop and area sown under each crop are assessed by the Revenue Department for the
Pat Feeder canal and jointly by the Revenue and Irrigation and Power Departments (IPD) for the
Khirther canal. The collection and recovery of Abiana in all the canal commands of Balochistan is
the responsibility of the staff of the Revenue Department.

The Balochistan Government is still in the phase of irrigation infrastructure development and
both the major canal networks are either in the remodeling phase or extension is being made i.e.
the Pat Feeder canal network. The Kachhi canal is now in the construction phase. Even after the
construction of Kachhi canal, there will be additional water resources available to Balochistan for
further construction of atleast two canals of the size of Kachhi canal. Out of the total perennial
flows available to Balochistan as per Water Accord and after commissioning of Mangla Raising
Project of 5.22 billion m3 (4.23 MAF), around 4.57 billion m 3 (3.705 MAF) will be utilized after
the completion of the Patfeeder Extension and Kachhi canal. Out of 5.7 billion m 3 (4.62 MAF) of
flood supplies available to Balochistan, only 1.94 billion m 3 (1.57 MAF) will be utilized by the

20
Kachhi canal. Thus, there is an opportunity to impose more efficient and effective methods of
Abiana atleast in the new canal systems (Pat Feeder Extension, Kachhi canal and others).

Assessment of Abiana in Balochistan: The Indus basin canal command area in Balochistan is
around 0.365 million ha (0.902 million acres). The analysis of assessment of Abiana for the Pat
Feeder and Khirther canals revealed that assessment during 2003-04 was Rs. 44.631 and Rs.
24.263 millions, respectively, totaling to Rs. 68.894 millions (Table 19).

Table 19. Assessment and recovery of annual Abiana for Pat Feeder and Khirther Canals
Canal Commands Year Annual Assessed Abiana Annual* Recovery Recovery
(Rs. in millions) (Rs. in millions) (%)

Pat Feeder Canal 1999-00 27.95 9.98 35.7

2000-01 30.59 11.82 38.6
2001-02 37.363 7.016 18.8
2002-03 42.662 4.942 11.6
2003-04 44.631 14.414 32.3
Khirther Canal 1999-00 13.344 4.160 31.2
2000-01 15.012 4.251 28.3
2001-02 18.257 2.186 12.0
2002-03 17.308 1.072 6.2
2003-04 24.263 4.197 17.3
Source: IPD (2006); Revenue Department (2006).

Considering the canal irrigated area of Balochistan of 0.365 million ha (0.902 million acres)
under rice-wheat cropping pattern having the lowest Abiana rates (Rs. 258.16 and Rs. 145.73 per
acre for rice and wheat, respectively) with average annual cropping intensity of 100%, the
potential Abiana assessment comes to Rs. 182.15 millions for 2003-04. The actual assessment of
Rs. 68.984 millions during 2003-04 was around 37.9% of potential assessment, indicating a
possibility of doubling or tripling the assessment within the existing Abiana rates.

Although, the assessment of Abiana in the Pat Feeder canal is made by the Revenue staff, the IPD
also makes its own assessment. There is a difference in assessment by the two departments, as the
IPD has raised an issue that assessment for the year 2003-04 was Rs. 75 millions less than the
assessment made by the Revenue staff (Rs. 68.894 millions). The IPD assessment of Abiana for
the year 2003-04 was Rs. 143.9 millions. The estimated potential assessment made under this
study is around Rs. 182.15 millions, which is close to the IPD assessment of Rs. 143.9 millions.
This shows that the assessment of Abiana can be easily doubled and with some additional efforts
it can also be tripled.

The Abiana assessment for the Khirther canal is made jointly by the IPD and the Revenue
Department. Apparently, there are no issues regarding assessment between the two departments.

The Punjab government was also stuck in a similar problem, where expenditure on assessment and
collection of Abiana was considerable (around 46% of the assessed value of Abiana) in relation to the
amount of Abiana. Taking into consideration of these factors, the Punjab government has introduced a
system of flat rates of Abiana based on the CCA. This has not only reduced the expenditure on
assessment but also created conducive environment where farmers have started implementing
judicious use of water by increasing the cropping intensity and water productivity.

IPD, Balochistan is also facing difficulty in the assessment of Abiana due to the requirement of
staff and problems associated with the assessment, which requires physically visiting each and
every farm, rather every field. The cost of assessment is also a major factor, which is a burden on
both the IPD and Revenue departments.

Recovery of Abiana in Balochistan: The recovery of Abiana during 2003-04 was 27% of the
assessment in Pat Feeder and Khirther canals. The recovery during 2001-02 and 2002-03 was 16.5
21
and 10%, respectively ( Table 16). The recovery of the assessment year of 2003-04 was actually
made during 2004-05, which can be regarded as an improvement either due to the BRMP
conditionality or better performance of the Revenue staff. The BRMP conditionality was to
raise Abiana recovery to 40% of the assessed value during 2004-05. Otherwise, there was no
improvement in the law and order situation of the Balochistan province. The increase from
10% to 27% is considerable and further improvement in the recovery of Abiana is possible.

During 80s and early 90s, the recovery was relatively better. It was close to 90% during 80s
(Figures 7 and 8).

100.0 100
90.0 90
(%)

80.0
Pat Feeder Canal System

(%)
80
Khirther Canal System
70.0 70

Recovery
yRecover

60.0 60

50
50.0
40

Abiana
Abiana

40.0
30
30.0
20
20.0
10
10.0
0
0.0

1965-72

1980-81

1990-91

2000-001

2002-003
1970-71

1980-81

1990-91

2000-01

2002-03

Period (years)
Period (Years)

Figure 7. Recovery rate of Abiana in Pat Figure 8. Recovery rate of Abiana in

Feeder canal system (Source: IPD, 2006e) Khirther canal system (Source: IPD, 2006e)

The low recovery is mainly due to the lack of discipline and lawlessness in the system, where
Abiana collecting agencies cannot enforce regulations. The assessment and collection of Abiana
also has an associated cost (manpower and mobility), which might be more than the present level
of recovery of 27%. Thus there is hardly any collection available for the routine O&M in absolute
terms. This resulted into deferred O&M of the irrigation infrastructure, and the province is now
forced to have development projects for rehabilitation of irrigation schemes. The continued
deferred maintenance would further result into severe deterioration of the irrigation schemes.

The major issues related to Abiana are:

low assessment of Abiana, which is around one-third of the potential assessment due to:
i. reflection of low Abiana crops in place of high value crops;
ii. exemption to the big landowners;
iii. concealment of the area cropped.
low recovery of assessed Abiana which is only 27%;
high cost of Abiana assessment due to enforcement of variable rates based on crops and
cropped area.

Abiana Rates in the Indus basin: The rates of Abiana prevailing in the four provinces were
compared in a study conducted under the National Drainage Programme (NDP). The Abiana rates
used in this study for the Balochistan province were for the year 1999, which are being raised
annually at a rate of 13% since 1999. The comparison indicated that largely the Abiana rates
prevailing in the province of Balochistan during 1999 were lower than the rates prevailing in
NWFP, except for the wheat crop. The Abiana rates for fruits and vegetables in the province were
also lower than the Sindh province (Table 20). However, the annual increase of 13% per annum
in the Abiana rates since 1999 has changed the situation, where the Abiana rates in Balochistan
are now either at par or higher than other provinces.

Abiana rates charged per acre of crop matured in the canal commands of the province are
many-folds lower than the cost of pumped water in the valley. The operational energy cost of
pumped water is around Rs. 20,000 per acre per year for a farm of around 25 acres. Therefore,
the Abiana rates in the province should be seen in the context of both cost and value of water.
22
Table 20. Comparison of Abiana rates of four provinces during 1999 based on the NDP Study
Crops Abiana Rates (Rs./acre)
Punjab Sindh NWFP Balochistan Range
Wheat 59 53 63 70 53-70
Rice 83 89 148 124 83-148
Cotton 83 93 148 126 83-148
Sugarcane 178 182 328 242 178-328
Oilseeds 65 75/53 118 70/56 53-118
Fodders 36 53 87 56/70 36-87
Fruits (Kharif) 113 142 155 99 99-155
Fruits (Rabi) 42 142 155 99 42-155
Kharif Vegetables 113 142 130 99 99-142
Rabi Vegetables 42 142 130 99 42-142

Abiana Rates in Balochistan: The Abiana rates are based on per acre of cropped area and
different rates are fixed for various crops (Table 21). The Abiana rates during 2005-06 for pulses,
coarse grain, maize, kharif fodders are lowest of Rs. 116.59 per acre. The rate for Rabi grain crops
and fodders is Rs. 145.73 per acre. Rates for cotton and rice are almost same. Abiana rates for
sugarcane and fruits are higher because they consume water for whole of the year compared to
seasonal use by other crops.

Table 21. Abiana rates of crops in Pat Feeder and Khirther canal commands in Balochistan.
Major Sub-Classification Abiana Rate 2005-06
Classification (Rs./Acre)
Rice Rice, Water Lotus, Jute, Tobacco 258.16
Cotton Cotton 262.33
Sugarcane Sugarcane 503.83
Wheat Wheat, Barley, Oats 145.73
Gardens Garden, Orchards, Banana, Vegetables 412.22
Misc. Kharif Pulses, Jowar, Bajra, Maize, Fodder, Drugs, Dyes, Melons, 116.59
Crops Soybeans, Chillies and Summer Oilseeds.
Misc. Rabi Crops Oilseeds Winter Crops, Fodders, Rabi Pulses 145.73
Reclamation During Kharif Season 210.28
Forest Plantations 179.05
Local Council Plantations – Kharif 74.95
Local Plantations – Rabi 74.95
Source: IPD (2006f).

The same rate of Abiana for rice and cotton crops is not understandable, because rice consumes many-
fold more water compared to cotton. Sugarcane also consumes around 3 times more water than cotton.
There is a need to rationalize the Abiana rates based on the amount of water consumed by a crop. The
high water delta crops include rice, sugarcane, vegetables, fruits and fodders. However, the experience
of Abiana recovery in Balochistan has shown that the increase in Abiana rates did not increased the
recovery percentage. Therefore, alternate options need to be developed which can help to increase the
recovery and the net income even with reduced rates of Abiana.

Cultivation of rice in the canal-irrigated areas is a major cause for the twin menace of
waterlogging and salinity, which increased the O&M cost of the irrigation system and
productivity has fallen tremendously. According to the World Bank estimates, the loss in
production due to waterlogging and salinity in the Indus basin is around 25%. The situation in
Balochistan is not better than the average situation in the Indus basin.

Recently, the Government of Balochistan has assigned high priority for the cultivation of cotton
by replacing rice. Water productivity of cotton is much higher due to the ecological and crop
characteristics. Increasing Abiana of rice would also help to replace rice with cotton in medium-
textured soils.
23
1.1.8. Water Rights

The Balochs, Pashtuns, and Brahvis are the three major linguistic groups in the province. There
are tribes within these linguistic groups. The tribal culture still persists in the province despite the
efforts made by different government regimes by extending autonomy to different tribes. Water
rights vary from one socio -linguistic group to the other and are governed mostly by the
customary tribal laws. Sometime the water rights are modified according to the availability of
water, as a common property. Under such circumstances local communities act as managers and
take their own decisions based on sharing the common resource.

The laws differ among the three major socio-linguistic groups. Traditionally, there is no
restriction among any of the ethnic groups on the use of water from any source including
tubewells for domestic or stockwater purposes. This does not allow conveying water by channels
or pipes to individual households for domestic purposes. For agriculture, the water rights differ
among each group.

Pashtuns recognize the rights of water users along a stream or river for all uses. There are no such
rights established among Balochs and Brahvis in the central and coastal parts of the province. For
karez development, the Pashtuns recognize that who-so-ever owns the mother well also owns the
water rights and the conveyance tunnel transporting water must pass through his own land. In rare
cases, however, if the tunnel has to pass through land of others, then the owner of the mother well has
to pay compensation to the landowners in cash. The Balochs and Brahvis in the central part of the
province allow construction of a karez on land owned by several people, and in lieu of that they have a
common sharing of water of the karez based on the agreement in lieu of the land value.

The three major ethnic groups agree on the same law for exploiting the groundwater resources
using tubewells or wells. Under this law, the right to exploit and develop the groundwater belongs
to the landowner. Tubewells are individually owned and located at their own farms. Sometime a
tubewell is commonly owned. In such cases, permission is obtained from all concerned, and
water is shared among shareholders, as per their share of investment in tubewell installation. In
the Mekran coastal areas dominated by Balochs, a karez can pass through any body's land without
compensation as a common property. The share of water is in accordance with the investment
made in the construction of the karez.

Purchase of water rights is common and is widely practiced in all the tribes. The rates differ from
location to location based on crops and associated water requirement.

In case of small-scale surface irrigation schemes, generally two different concepts of water rights
are followed. Water right for the irrigation schemes developed by the water users are defined
prior to the undertaking of the scheme and are considered as shares in a joint venture. Thus if any
shareholder is unable to contribute to the collective investment or maintenance of the scheme, his
rights are forfeited. For schemes developed with external assistance like that of the Government,
water rights are defined after the scheme is completed. In such cases, the stakes are high and
bargaining is often done to sell rights.

1.2. Spatial and Temporal Variability

1.2.1. Physiography

The topography of the province varied significantly, as it varies from few meters to over 2734 m
(9000 feet) from the mean sea level (Figure 9). Based on the topographic variability and the
physiography, the province is divided into six agro-ecological zones primarily based on
topography (Figure 10).

24
Figure 9 Topographic map of Figure 10. Agro-ecological zones of Balochistan,
Balochistan, Pakistan (WRRI 2001). Pakistan (ADB 2006a).

The topography has a direct effect on the climate and thus ultimately affects the suitability of
crops for different agro-ecological zones. The topographic limitations pose serious constraints in
terms of variability in temperature and availability of water. However, it also provides
opportunity to use localized micro- climates as a comparative advantage to raise high value crops
and early season vegetables using concept of protected agriculture.

1.2.2. Precipitation

The rainfall variability is high both in space and time. The variability in the winter (Rabi) season
is higher than summer (Kharif) season, as most of the geographical area of the province receives
winter rains, because of the cold temperate climate. The Rabi season rainfall varies from less than
50 mm to 250 mm, but major area of the province receives rainfall of less than 100 mm (Figure
11). The Kharif season rainfall varies from less than 50 mm to 200 mm, but very little area
receives rainfall of more than 100 mm in the Kharif season (Figure 12).

Figure 11. Mean Rabi season rainfall Figure 12. Mean Kharif season rainfall
in Balochistan, Pakistan (WRRI 2001). in Balochistan, Pakistan (WRRI 2001).

The temporal variability in annual rainfall is extremely high. The probability of annual rainfall
using historical data for the selected 19 stations of Balochistan is presented in Table 22.

The rainfall distribution is highly skewed primarily due to the arid and hyper-arid environment of
the province. The 50% probability means that there is a 50% chance of having higher and lower
rainfall for the given distribution. The annual rainfall at 95% probability is almost one-fifth of the
annual rainfall at 5% probability. This is an extreme variability compared to the variability for
Islamabad, where lowest annual rainfall is almost one-half of the highest annual rainfall. Thus
25
variability increases from humid (100%) to arid climates (upto 500%). Balochistan is largely
located under arid and hyper -arid environments. The coefficient of variation is not computed for
rainfall because it is highly a variable parameter and the probability is the only way of expressing
the variability of the distribution instead of deviation from the average. The coefficient of
variation is often used for the normal distribution.

Table 22. Probability of annual rainfall using historical data of selected locations in Balochistan,
Pakistan
Location Annual Rainfall at given Probability in Percent (mm)
95 75 50 5
Jiwani 29 54 78 166
Bella - 147 213 -
Sonmiani - 64 106 -
Kalat 72 124 174 346
Loralai - 158 226 -
Quetta 98 150 196 344
Zoab 102 182 257 522
Mastung - 105 160 -
Pasni 4 27 69 317
Panjgur 33 54 94 206
Barkhan - 231 317 -
Dalbandin 26 51 74 161
Hernai - 237 323 -
Sibi - 80 127 -
Nuski - 68 111 -
Turbat - 90 139 -
Chagai - 44 79 -
Nuttal - 33 64 -
Wadh - 94 146 -

1.2.3. Reference Crop Evapotranspiration

Mean monthly and annual reference crop evapotranspiration was computed using the method of
Hargreaves and Samani 1985, which is classified as a Radiation Method. The selection of method
depends on: a) availability of reliable climatic data in Balochistan; b) method of computation,
which is in line with the availability of reliable climatic data; and c) the purpose of estimation of
reference crop evapotranspiration. The purpose of estimation of reference crop evapotranspiration
is evaluating the spatial variability in the atmospheric demand; therefore, method suitable for
computation of monthly mean values of reference crop evapotranspiration like the Hargreaves
and Samani 1985 is selected14. Most experts like to use the Penman Combination method, which
is suitable for estimation of daily data, but most of these methods require calibration for the local
conditions.

The long-term historical data of maximum and minimum temperatures of 1960-90 were used for
computing reference crop evapotranspiration for a particular month for the nineteen selected
locations in Balochistan to have wider spatial coverage of the province. The reference crop
evapotranspiration varies from 1465 to 2108 mm per annum for the nineteen locations in
Balochistan representing all the six agro-ecological zones – highlands-I, highlands-II, sub-
highlands, plains, desert and coastal zones (Table 23).

14The major data input required for estimation of reference crop evapotranspiration using Hargreaves and Samani 1985 method is
mean maximum and minimum temperatures, which are normally available, at most of the locations in Balochistan and the reliability of
this data is reasonably high in Balochistan. The other data requirement is the extra-terrestrial radiation needed for the Hargreaves
method, which can be computed using the latitude and longitude information for a particular location, which is also available for
number of locations in the province.
26
Table 23. Mean reference crop evapotranspiration of selected locations in Balochistan, Pakistan 15
Location Reference Evapotranspiration (mm/month) Annual
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 (mm)
Jiwani 92 98 129 147 157 142 135 119 114 130 109 93 1465
Bela 90 97 131 149 160 142 136 120 113 131 108 90 1468
Sonmiani 91 99 133 150 160 141 136 120 114 132 110 92 1478
Kalat 48 59 88 130 176 206 214 199 150 112 61 43 1485
Loralai 56 68 115 156 198 196 183 158 145 123 82 59 1536
Quetta 49 61 94 138 184 217 228 211 157 114 62 44 1559
Zhob 55 70 107 138 187 233 206 187 169 122 65 51 1590
Mastung 48 60 101 140 191 216 220 204 167 121 75 54 1596
Pasni 86 94 144 165 185 167 152 142 144 143 108 88 1620
Panjgur 70 84 128 156 213 205 230 191 159 142 89 67 1735
Barkhan 72 85 136 183 233 226 208 181 171 147 99 73 1815
Dalbandin 65 79 121 172 218 246 261 233 172 141 79 56 1843
Harnai 73 89 148 195 240 235 212 185 176 151 100 74 1878
Sibi 78 93 152 206 256 245 222 193 162 158 108 79 1952
Nuski 65 79 129 180 238 265 262 243 207 157 98 70 1993
Turbat 93 107 171 210 253 230 199 182 172 165 123 95 2000
Chagai 83 99 162 211 271 264 232 202 191 165 114 85 2078
Nuttal 85 100 163 211 271 264 232 202 191 166 116 86 2088
Wadh 88 102 166 212 271 263 231 203 194 170 119 90 2108

1.2.4. Groundwater (Tubewells, Wells, Karaizes, Springs)

Destruction of natural vegetation cover is a root cause of watershed degradation, which poses
serious concerns for managing available water. The removal of vegetation affects the retention of
snow in highlands and interception of rainfall in the lowlands, thus it exacerbates the problem of
flash floods, which are a constant threat to life and property and are more difficult to manage. The
heavy silt loads carried by floodwaters quickly reduce the storage capacity of small reservoirs and
render check and delay action dams ineffective (IUCN et al. 2000a,b). Estimates of early 90s
indicated that vegetation cover has been reduced to about one-third of its historical extent (Gils
and Baig 1992). The recent persistent drought has further aggravated the problem of loss of
surface cover.

Another reason for the reduced recharge is the neglect of the Sailaba and Khushkaba farming and
ineffective management of surface waters, which is a result of the introduction of the tubewell
technology that gained higher priority. These systems used to provide opportunity for natural
recharge through spreading of floodwaters to a larger command area. It is also a fact that natural
recharge systems are always effective than the artificial recharge systems.

There is extreme spatial variability in availability of groundwater and the aquifer characteristics in
Balochistan. The groundwater availability in 13 major basins varies significantly (Figure 13). The
area of each basin varies and thus it affects availability of groundwater in each basin. Groundwater
availability is limited in major part of Balochistan, except deep groundwater is available in some
patches, where aquifer characteristics permit abstraction of groundwater (Figure 14).

Number of tubewells in the province has increased dramatically with the introduction of the
National Electricity Grid system in the 70s. There were around 27,195 tubewells during 2005-06,
out of that 15,824 tubewells were electric-operated and rest 11,371 diesel-operated. The number
of diesel-operated tubewells is being repeated since 2001- 02 primarily due to the lack of data.
The average annual growth rate of tubewells during the last 35 years was around 9.13 and 5.81%
for electric- and diesel-operated tubewells, respectively (Table 24 and Figure 15). The higher
growth rate of tubewells has resulted in lowering of water table and mining of groundwater. The
growth rate of electric-operated tubewells is higher than diesel-operated, which is primarily due
to the subsidy on the electric tariff provided to the tubewells owners in areas where electric power
is available.
15Reference crop evapotranspiration is computed using Hargreaves and Samani 1985.
27
 Figure 13. Major basins of Figure 14. Groundwater potential and
Balochistan, Pakistan. availability in Balochistan, Pakistan.

Table 24. Number and annual growth rate of tubewells, Balochistan, Pakistan.
Year Number of Tubewells Annual Growth Rate (%)
Electric Diesel Electric Diesel
1970-71 743 1575 - -
1974-75 1479 2856 18.8 16.0
1979-80 2910 3674 14.5 5.2
1984-85 4721 3347 10.2 -1.9
1989-90 7504 6621 9.7 14.6
1994-95 8089 8205 1.5 4.4
1999-00 11264 9851 6.8 3.7
2005-06 15824 11371* 7.1 2.8
Average 1970- 9.13 5.81
06
Source: GOP (2005a).
* The number of diesel tubewells is repeated since 2001-02

30000

25000
Electric Tubewells

Diesel Tubewells
20000
(number) Total Tubewells
Tubewells 15000
10000

5000

-71 -73 -75 -77 -79 -81 -83 -85 -87 -89 -91 -93 -95 -97 -99 -01 -03 -05

1 70 1972 1 74 1976 1 78 1980 1 82 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
9 9 9 9

Period (Years)

Figure 15. Growth of electric- and diesel-operated tubewells in Balochistan

Highest numbers of tubewells are in the Pishin-Lora and Nari basins. The Pishin-Lora basin and
the Loralai sub-basin are in deficit. The abstraction of groundwater far exceeds the recharge to the
basin. The Zhob, Nari River, Hamun-e-Lora and Kachhi basins have limited development
28
potential. Basins in the districts of Loralai and Ziarat are also in deficit, with no further
development potential (Table 25). The spatial distribution of Karaizes, wells and tubewells is
presented in Figures 16 and 17 (ADB 2006a).

Table 25. Groundwater development potential of basins of Balochistan, Pakistan.

Basin Resource Sub-basin Groundwater Groundwater Districts
Status Available Development
(Cusecs) Potential
(Cusecs)
Hamun-e- Surplus Western 33.2 16.6 Chagai
Lora Eastern 4.8 2.5
Kachhi Plain Limited Sibi-Dhaddar 32.3 19.0 Sibi
Surplus Kachhi 10.0 10.0
Nari River Limited Loralai -11.6 Nil Loralai, Ziarat
Surplus Duki 8.5 Not Available
Gumbaz 20.0 Not Available
Pishin-Lora Overdrawn Quetta -29.0 Nil Quetta, Pishin,
Mangochar -14.7 Nil Kalat, Mastung
Mastung -9.8 Nil
Pishin -55.5 Nil
Porali Surplus Wad 39 19.6 Khuzdar,
Phat jhat 9.8 4.9 Lasbela
Ornach 10.0 5.0
Bela plain 108.0 54.0
Dureji 90.2 45.1
Saruna 19.5 21.8
Winder Nai 12.0 6.4
Zhob Limited Muslim Bagh Balance Nil Zhob, Qila
Surplus Qila Saifullah Deficit Nil Saifullah
Zhob 11.2 11.2
Mula Surplus 26.0 16.0 Kalat, Khuzdar
Gaj Surplus 38.0 18.0 Kalat, Khuzdar
Hingol Surplus 296.5 148.0 Kalat
Dasht Surplus 51.0 41.0 Kech, Gwadar
Rakhshan Surplus 27.0 22.0 Panjgur
Hamun-e- Surplus 68.0 63.0 Kharan
Mushkel
Source: WAPDA (1973-85); Halcrow Rural Management (1996); IPD (2004).

Figure 16. Community irrigation schemes Figure 17. Wells and tubewells located
using Karaizes in Balochistan, Pakistan. in Balochistan, Pakistan.
A number of studies have estimated that the deficit in the Quetta sub-basin is about 36.5 million
m3 per year and that the aquifer storage will be exhausted in the next 13 years. In spite of the
lowering of water table and groundwater mining, additional tubewells are being installed to meet
29
requirement of rural, urban and agriculture sub-sectors. Reasons for groundwater mining are: a)
continued increase in water demand; b) lack of incentives for efficient water use due to heavily
subsidized electric tariff; c) unsustainable level of groundwater abstraction; e) neglect of natural
recharge systems; and f) ineffective and costly techniques for inducing recharge to the
groundwater (delay action dams).

1.2.5. Surface Water

Canal Commands

The canal commands are restricted in few districts mainly Nasirabad, Jafferabad and Bela.
Therefore, the Indus basin waters are helping the farmers of the Nasirabad and Jafferabad
districts. There are other canal commands located at different places but these canal commands
cover relatively smaller area.

Minor Irrigation Schemes

The minor perennial irrigation schemes are widely spread all over the province especially in the
northern parts of Balochistan. These schemes largely use perennial surface flows, infiltration
galleries and springs (Figure 18). In addition, there are river diversion schemes, where farmers’
are normally practicing surface irrigation for irrigated agriculture (Figure 19; ADB 2006a).

Figure 18. Community irrigation Figure 19. River diversion schemes

schemes using infiltration galleries and in Balochistan, Pakistan.
springs in Balochistan, Pakistan.

1.2.6. Floodwater from Hill-torrents

The largest resource available to the province is the floodwater generated in mountains in the
from of hill-torrents. The floodwater is diverted through the construction of diversion structures
and the diverted streamflow is channelized in an open channel network, where communities are
practicing Spate irrigation. These schemes are well distributed all over Balochistan and farming
communities are managing the smaller systems in the highlands and large systems in the plains –
Kachhi plain, Lasbella plain, etc.

1.3. Water Resources Development in Balochistan

The Irrigation and Power Department has completed in total 1663 schemes till June 2005 (since
the inception of the Department) covering the areas of Indus basin canals, minor perennial
irrigation schemes, flood irrigation schemes, rehabilitation of Karaizes, construction of delay
action and storage dams, and flood protection schemes (Figure 20).

30
 1200 1120 Indus System Pat, Khir, Uch &
Manuthi
1000 Minor Perennial (I) Sch

800 626 Rehab of Karezes

600
400 Flood (I) Scheme
245
200 112 180 D.A / Storage Dams
4
0 4
No.of Schemes - 1663 Flood Prott: Sch

Figure 20. Number of development schemes completed or in operation by Irrigation and

Power Department, Balochistan (ending June 2005 since inception of the Department)

The investment on these schemes was around Rs. 16.217 billion. The major investment was on
Indus basin irrigation system costing around Rs. 10.0 billions followed by minor perennial
irrigation schemes and construction of delay action or storage dams (Figure 21).

Indus System Pat, Khir, Uch

11000 10000 & Manuthi
Minor Perennial (I) Sch
9000

7000 Rehab of Karezes

5000
Flood (I) Scheme
3000 2910.5

1570
D.A / Storage Dams
1000 344 758
339.1 295

Flood Prott: Sch

-1000

Estimated Cost (Million Rs.)

Drainage Sch
Figure 21. Investment made on development schemes as of June 2005 since inception of the
Department of Irrigation and Power.

The investment includes the projects financed by the federal and provincial governments
including the donor financed projects. The investment is predominantly related to the irrigation
infrastructure development, which is obvious due to the reason that available resources to the
province are not yet being fully utilized due to in-adequate infrastructure.
31
1.4. Comparison with other Provinces

In the Water Apportionment Accord, the criteria was given for distribution of 144.81 billion m 3
(117.35 MAF) to the provinces (Table 26), whereas a formula was devised for distribution of
balance river supplies including flood supplies and water from future storages (Table 27).

Table 26. Water allocation to provinces under the Water Apportionment Accord
Province Water Allocation
(MAF) (billion m3)
Kharif Rabi Total Kharif Rabi Total
Punjab 37.07 18.87 55.94 45.74 23.29 69.03
Sindh* 33.94 14.82 48.76 41.88 18.29 60.17
NWFP (a) 3.48 2.3 5.78 4.29 2.84 7.13
(b) Civil Canals ** 1.8 1.2 3.0 2.22 1.48 3.70
Balochistan 2.85 1.02 3.87 3.51 1.26 4.78
Total 77.34 37.01 114.35 95.44 45.68 141.11
** 1.8 1.2 3.0 2.22 1.48 3.70
Grand Total 79.14 38.21 117.35 97.66 47.16 144.81
* Including already sanctioned Urban and Industrial uses for Metropolitan, Karachi
** Ungauged Civil Canals above the rim stations

Table 27. Water allocation formulae for distribution of balance Indus River flows and water from
future storages
Province Water Allocation for Balance Waters (%)
Punjab 37
Sindh 37
NWFP 14
Balochistan 12
Total 100

The balance river flows (flood supplies and water from future storages) will be distributed as per
agreed formulae in the Water Apportionment Accord, where a share of 12% is allocated to
Balochistan. In contrast to this, allocation of water for existing supplies to Balochistan is 4.78
billion m3 (3.87 MAF), which is 3.3% of the total water supplies allocated to provinces in the
Water Apportionment Accord.

The share of Balochistan in the existing water supplies of the Indus basin is lowest as 47.7, 41.6
and 7.4% of water are allocated to Punjab, Sindh and NWFP, respectively. The positive side of
the Accord is that in future share of balance water (Mangla Raising and from future storages)
would be 12% for Balochistan, which seems reasonable compared to the percentage of allocation
under the existing supplies. Thus Balochistan province has to look for future development
projects for utilizing the flood supplies and share from the future reservoirs. Additional irrigation
infrastructure has to be built to utilize this amount.

The Water Apportionment Accord also allows Balochistan to develop water resources of the
streams draining to the right bank of the Indus basin. It is important to mention that hill-torrent
floodwater is the largest resource available to the province. Till to date, the progress in this area
was almost negligible, because around 76% of this water is either drained to the Indus river
system or to the sea from the Mekran basin. This is the future resource for further development of
water in Balochistan.

32
 2. Issues and Constraints

2.1. Key Issues

2.1.1. Implementation of the IWRM Policy

The Balochistan Government recently approved the Integrated Water Resources Management
(IWRM) Policy for the province16. The ADB under the Balochistan Resource Management
Programme (BRMP), initiated a TA Grant Project [(TA 4560 (PAK)] which is financed by the
Royal Government of Netherlands. The purpose of the TA Grant Project entitled “Supporting
Public Resource Management (SPRM) Project” in Balochistan is to provide support to the
Government of Balochistan (GoB) for the implementation of the IWRM Policy through the
conduct of research and planning studies and capacity building through provision of technical
assistance and training in all sub-sectors of water use and by addressing all sources of water.

The major issue in Pakistan and particularly in Balochistan is effective implementation of the
approved policy by all sub-sectors of water use – the line agencies and other related institutions.
The policy advocates the following major policy reform areas for sustainable development and
management of water resources in Balochistan (Box 1).

Basin Approach for integrated water resources management and

development All Sub-sectors of Water Use
o Water for agriculture – crops and
livestock o Water for people
o Water for nature
o Water for industry and mining
All Sources of Water - Surface and groundwater

The basic issue is how to enforce implementation of the IWRM Policy in Balochistan, especially in
the past, effective implementation of policies and strategies could not be achieved. The good example
is the slow implementation of the Balochistan Conservation Strategy (BCS), which was prepared
during 2000. The following reasons hindered implementation of the BCS in the province:

The BCS is a comprehensive document involving number of sectors and thus

implementation was hindered due to lack of effective institutional mechanisms for
planning and implementation of integrated projects required to implement the BCS
recommendations;
The framework of action formulated in the BCS could not be adopted by the line
departments to implement the strategy as part of the routine process of project
formulation in their respective sectors rather emphasis was on introduction of mono-
dimensional and mono-disciplinary development projects, which may not even support
the cause of conserving the resources or improving the environment in the province;
New institutional arrangements were hardly developed or strengthened.

For implementation of the IWRM Policy, new institutional arrangement is essential in line with
the policy and reforms. Thus, establishment of the Balochistan Water Resources Management
Authority (BWRMA) was proposed as part of the policy. Later on a PC-II was approved and IPD
executed a study through consultants to conduct feasibility, prepare Draft Act and formulate PC-I
for the establishment of the BWRMA. The following actions are still to be taken:

Approval of BWRMA Act by the provincial Cabinet, a brief has recently been submitted
to the Chief Minister’s Office, GoB;

16The Draft IWRM Policy was presented to the Provincial Cabinet of Balochistan and it was approved 9th March 2006. The Chief
Secretary, Government of Balochistan notified the Policy on April 12 th 2006 and Secretaries of all the relevant line departments and
heads of the institutions were advised to implement the Policy in sub-sectors of water related to their sector.
33
 Approval of the BWRMA PC-I by the CDWP, although it has been submitted to the
Planning and Development, GoB;
Establishment of the Authority after promulgation of the Act.

Without establishing the BWRMA, it is not possible to implement the Policy as it addresses
number of sub-sectors of water use and all sources of water. In addition, currently the water
allocation, water regulatory and water development tasks are being addressed by the line
departments in their respective sub-sectors of water use. No institution deals with integrated
aspects thus resource depletion and degradation is increasing rapidly.

Box 1. IWRM Policy Thrust Areas (GOB 2006)

The IWRM Policy thrust area entitled ”Electric Tariff for Tubewells” was dropped and a Ministerial
Committee chaired by the Minister Planning and Development was constituted to formulate
recommendations for Tubewell Subsidy for the approval of the provincial Cabinet. The fifteen policy
thrust areas identified in the approved IWRM Policy for Balochistan are:

Water availability and potential for development

Water resources assessment and monitoring
Managing water demand
Linking water development with IWRM approach
IWRM for agriculture
Adjusting crops and cropping pattern with water availability
IWRM for other sub-sectors (non-agricultural) of water use
Environmental water management
Cost recovery of irrigation infrastructure
Cost effectivity of water conservation interventions
Promoting inter-provincial cooperation
Fostering participation
Institutional restructuring and strengthening
High efficiency irrigation systems
Groundwater development and management

Policy and reforms are outlined under each of the policy thrust areas, which are being implemented by
all sub-sectors of water use. Along with the policy and reforms, themes for research and feasibility
studies and areas of capacity building have also been identified. Financial support, as a grant, for the
Technical Assistance to support the implementation of the IWRM Policy has been provided by the Royal
Government of Netherlands. The Department of Irrigation and Power, Government of Balochistan is the
implementing agency for the IWRM Policy.

2.1.2. Tubewell Subsidy and Groundwater Mining

Background

The issues related to Tubewell Subsidy are highlighted in the ADB Report on IWRM in
Balochistan and were included in the Draft IWRM Policy for Balochistan, but the provincial
Cabinet approved the IWRM Policy except the Policy Thrust area related to Tubewell Subsidy.
The issues highlighted in these documents were updated and reproduced as under:

‰ The farmers’ share of electricity tariff is fixed at Rs. 4000 per month per tubewell,
whereas the share of GOP/GOB depends on the total bill minus the farmers share. Almost
one-third of the farmers even do not pay their nominal share.
‰ The average cost of electricity per tubewell is around Rs. 40,000 per month, thus farmer
is paying around 10% of the average electric bill. GOP, WAPDA and GOB representing
43.24, 28.38 and 28.38%, respectively, share the subsidy. The GOB share of 28.38%
roughly comes to Rs. 2.29 billions during the year of 2005-06.
‰ There is a resistance from farmers to remove the subsidy, as they still think that there is a
need to provide subsidy so that they can grow high value orchards by pumping deep
groundwater.
34
 ‰ Farmers do not have the feel of the value of groundwater and they are still involved in
wasteful use of precious resource even after eight years of persistent drought, lowering of
water table, groundwater mining and drying of springs and Karezes.
‰ The total electric subsidy of Rs. 8 billon (shared by GOP, WAPDA and GOB) is being
provided to farmers (around 7900 tubewell owners), which is a major distortion in the
policy and resulted in inequity in allocation of financial support to a smaller segment of
the society. Diesel tubewell owners of current 11,371 numbers are deprived, as they are
not receiving any subsidy and their diesel fuel expenditure is around Rs. 33,000 per
month per tubewell. There is no information available that how diesel-operated tubewell
owners are surviving and still making their livelihoods.

It is pertinent to recall that while signing the Balochistan Resource Management Program
(BRMP) Loan, the Government of Balochistan agreed inter alia to the following reforms related
to the restructuring of agricultural tubewell subsidy as Tranche release conditions:

agricultural tubewell subsidy will be restricted to tubewells operational before 1 st January

2005 and will not be extended to tubewells installed after this date;
the subsidy will be fixed in nominal terms per working tubewell to equate the subsidy
being incurred by GoB in FY2003-04. The balance outstanding against an electricity bill
will be borne by the farmer;
Criteria and procedures for approving replacement tubewells qualifying for the subsidy
will be put in place; and
The Irrigation and Power Department (IA) with WAPDA, will announce a survey to be
undertaken to determine the number of tubewells to be eligible for the restructured
subsidy.

As part of the review of the implementation status of the BRMP for the release of 2 nd Tranche,
Asian Development Bank Review Mission held a meeting with the Chief Secretary, Additional
Chief Secretary, Secretary Finance, Secretary Irrigation & Power and Project Director, BRMP on
January 27th 2006 at the ADB Pakistan Resident Mission in Islamabad. The relevant extracts from
the Aid Memoir of the Review Mission are reproduced below:

a. During the review mission the Government of Balochistan informed ADB that the cap of
subsidized electrical tubewells will not be higher than 15,206 tubewells. This number is
in accordance with the overall number of operational tubewells by October 2005. The
Mission notes that this is a deviation from the agreed action.
b. Agreement between the Mission and GoB. During Review Mission it was agreed upon
that GoB, after cabinet approval will furnish a notification which states (i) that the
number of subsidized tubewells will be capped at 15,206 electric (agricultural) tubewells
and that (ii) these numbers have to be reflected in the FY 2006-07 budget documents.
GoB shall provide detailed information on the tubewell subsidy on 1 st January 2005 and
on 31st October 2005 (recognizing the tubewell subsidy for 15,206 tubewells). It was also
agreed that a study on the tubewell subsidy will be undertaken to comprehensively
analyze the issue and to present its findings before the cabinet to facilitate their approval
of the capping of the subsidy. The proposed study will be financed under the TA Grant
(TA 4560). The formal notification of capping of subsidy after approval from the Cabinet
shall be issued by 30th April 2006.
In pursuance of the Provincial Cabinet decision of 9 th March 2006, the Government of
Balochistan vide Notification NO. US(CAB)1-492/2005/S&GAD/1509-1515 dated 22 nd March
2006 constituted a Cabinet Committee on “Tubewell Subsidy” with the following TORs:

Review the Agriculture Tubewell Subsidy with reference to the commitments made with
donors under BRMP Loan Agreement;
To assess the sustainability of Agriculture Tubewell Subsidy and its implications on
provincial exchequer; and
35
 Prepare report and recommendations for presenting before the Provincial Cabinet.

Actions Taken by the IPD

Based on the agreed actions as per the Aid Memoir and in the light of the decision of the
Provincial Cabinet of March 9th 2006, the following actions have been initiated:

i. IPD has completed a survey of 11,000 electric tubewells out of 15,824 tubewells currently
operating under the subsidy regime and data has been transferred to a computerized database
with the assistance of the ADB TA Grant Project. A number of Policy Briefings were also
issued on the subject by the TA Grant Project (Ahmad 2006a,b,c,d,e)
ii. A consultant was engaged by the TA Grant Project to thoroughly review the issue of the
tubewell subsidy and prepare a report with the following objectives in mind (Box 2
presents the main findings):
a) to what extent are the current tubewell subsidy operations in consonance with the
commitments made by the Government of Balochistan with the Asian Development
Bank under the Balochistan Resource Management Program?
b) not withstanding the BRMP tranche requirements, is the tubewell subsidy sustainable
in the long run in the backdrop of the existing growth trends and the resource
availability scenarios?
c) is the tubewell subsidy an equitable instrument in using the public resources for
meeting the requirements of the agriculture sector?
d) what is the opportunity cost of not capping the tubewell subsidy, in terms of missed
opportunities in other social sectors, like education and health?
e) what would be the situation like, if for instance, the Federal Government and W APDA, or
any one of them were to withdraw from the increasingly expensive subsidy regime?
f) does an open ended subsidy provide opportunities for wastefulness, inefficiency and
corruption, including any possible overcharging by WAPDA?
g) What is going to be the impact of the capping of the subsidy on the existing electric
tubewell owners?

Box. 2. Main Findings of the Studies on Tubewell Subsidy (ADB 2006a,b)

The main findings of the study related to the subsidy on agricultural tubewells are:

a) The tubewell subsidy has the potential of growing very fast and undermining the fragile fiscal
position of the province. This is based on historical growth (and future growth expectations) in
number of tubewells, monthly loads, and tariff rates, as well as non-payment issues and threats based
on subsidy sharing agreement. During the fiscal year 2004-05, the subsidy portion of the GoB was
over Rs. 2.0 billion. The linear projections have shown that it would double in the next 10 years.
b) The subsidy is poorly targeted and is not designed to reach or help the poor. In fact, the subsidy is
redistributing income in favour of the poor, away from small landholders and non-landholding poor
and towards the larger and richer landowners. Better subsidy arrangements can be designed for the
purpose at a much lower cost. The analysis of the landholding data of Agricultural Census revealed
that 69% tubewell-irrigated area is owned by farmers having more than one tubewells. Out of this
28% area is owned by farmers having more than 4 tubewells. Furthermore, investment needed for
deep electric tubewells ranges between Rs. 1.5 to 2.5 million per tubewell. Thus poor farmers can not
afford to install an electric tubewell, and their access to electricity is also limited.
c) The subsidy has poor allocative and efficiency outcomes in terms of both electricity and water usage.
For water this exacerbates the problem of the tragedy of the commons and can create severe water
shortages for local communities. In terms of electricity, the subsidy imposes costs on the rest of the
society as well as the environment. The lowering of water table and mining of groundwater in the
districts of Quetta, Pishin, Mastung and Loralie is so severe that in future pumping of deep
groundwater will not be economical for irrigated agriculture. The inter-generational issues for
availability of groundwater will be severe to the extent that in certain parts of the province even
water supply for domestic use will be restricted. The mining of groundwater is so severe that
recharge in these areas is now almost negligible because of lowering of the water table. The drought
is still persisting in major parts of the province.
d) The subsidy leads to significant over-billing by QESCO rendering the subsidy that much more
36
 ineffective and inefficient. The tubewell survey conducted by the Irrigation and Power Department
revealed that out of the analyzed data of 4507 tubewells, it appears that the total over-billing
covering total population of 15404 tubewells is around Rs. 2.0 billion. The over -billing is almost
equal to the WAPDA or GoB portion of the subsidy. Thus in reality WAPDA is not contributing
anything in real terms in sharing the subsidy. However, this is a potential area for future
improvement in introducing any discipline in power supply management and billing by the QESCO.
e)The subsidy crowds out other more important and necessary development related expenditures. The
GoB provides tubewell subsidy of approximately Rs. 2 billion per annum to farmers. The current gaps
in health, education and safe drinking water can be narrowed down significantly if GoB diverts the
savings in subsidy towards the completion of the projects related to health, education, or water sector.
The subsidy portion of the GoB is almost one-fourth of the total annual development expenditure in
the province.

The province clearly has a subsidy that is not sustainable, is poorly designed and executed and is draining
the resources of the province. There can hardly be any argument for not capping the subsidy.

The real issue is how to get the government support for capping the subsidy and how to implement
such a decision in the province, when there is a violent opposition from the Action Committee of the
Tubewell owners. Political will is lacking for enforcing such a decision in the future.

2.1.3. Environmental Concerns

Disposal of drainage effluents from Pat Feeder and Khirther canals into the outfall drains is now a
growing concern between Balochistan and Sindh provinces, because these effluents need transit
from Sindh province prior to its disposal to the sea. The effluents in the Kharif season are usable
for crops, but the quality of the Rabi season effluents is brackish. Farmers to meet their shortfall
in canal water supplies use part of the Kharif season effluents. The brackish water can be used for
production of salt-tolerant grasses and forest plants. The province is importing fuelwood from
Punjab and Sindh provinces and its demand is growing. Therefore, drainage effluents can provide
an economic opportunity to grow variety of salt-tolerant fuelwood species. Thus the major issue
is to have a shift in the concept of disposal of drainage to the safe utilization of effluents.

There is a growing fear that both surface and groundwater may be polluted, particularly in areas
where agricultural activity is being intensively pursued. The indiscriminate use of agrochemicals
on fruit and vegetables is likely to result in polluted shallow groundwater aquifers, besides health
related problems. The demand for off-season vegetables is growing and they are the major
consumers of agricultural pesticides.

The impact of industrial discharges on freshwater and marine ecosystems has not been
investigated in detail, but the experiences from other parts of Pakistan give cause for concern.
There are no water treatment plants, and the raw sewage is generally discharged into water
streams, which is used by the peri-urban farmers to grow vegetables. Experience in other parts of
the country revealed that treatment plants are not feasible due to high O&M cost. Therefore, the
issue is to have cost-effective ways for treating effluents.

The federal and provincial governments and their Environmental Protection Agencies have yet to
formulate action plans to control water pollution problems linked to agricultural, industrial and
domestic uses. However, the PEPA performance has been reasonable on this front so far.

The issues related to environmental concerns, as described in the IWRM Policy of Balochisan are:

‰ The province is facing acute shortage of water even then the drainage disposal system is
being built to dispose it to the outfall drain. The concept of drainage as disposal of
effluents is not relevant to the province of Balochistan, as no water can be categorized as
wastewater because of the acute aridity and shortage of water in the province The quality
of drainage effluents is reasonable to grow fuelwood and forage plants, even the quality
of these effluents during the Kharif season is classified as freshwater.

37
 ‰ Sewage from urban areas is being disposed into storm-water streams, which is being
leached down and polluting the shallow groundwater. Use of shallow groundwater in
large urban areas is not safe for human consumption.
‰ No treatment system has been installed in the urban areas of the province. Even in other
provinces, metropolitans and municipalities are facing difficulty in paying the O&M cost
of the treatment system. Most of the installed treatments systems are either not functional
or hardly operated. The basic reason is the high O&M cost due to energy intensive
systems.
‰ Farmers are growing vegetables using raw sewage and even they are growing root and
tuber vegetables, which directly absorb the effluents. The agriculture and environment
departments could not even disseminate the message of growing safe vegetables using the
raw sewage.

2.1.4. Participation and Gender

The participatory water management has already been started in the province under the BCIAP,
where minor irrigation schemes have been transferred to the Water Users Associations (WUAs)
after organizing them into a formal institution and capacity building of the office bearers. But the
participation is still limited either in provision of labour, cost sharing and transfer of schemes.
Participation of WUAs is limited at the time of planning and design of schemes. The participatory
scheme development process is hardly developed or implemented in the province where the right
of the water users is accepted in the selection and design of the schemes with desired level of
capital investment and the O&M cost. The O&M cost is a serious issue because most of the
transferred schemes to the community fail because of the higher O&M cost. For example, the
pumped groundwater supply schemes when handed over to communities could not be sustained
because of the extremely high O&M cost especially the electric bill.

Project interventions at the village level have brought about changes in the role of women in the
water sector. Still, cultural factors continue to have an impact on the nature and scope of activities
that can be developed and implemented for women in irrigation schemes. The strict separation of
men and women in much of rural Balochistan, clearly structured and defined roles, the low social
and economic status of most rural women, restricted mobility and lack of decision-making power
influence the extent to which women are involved in these activities. Communities have limited
experience with women being involved in village-level decision- making, and both men and
women need to be convinced of its importance. Women cannot take full control of potable water
supplies due to their restricted mobility. This prevents them from becoming actively involved in
O&M activities (ADB-PRM 2006; IUCN 2000f).

In addition to the involvement of women in the O&M of the water supply schemes, their
involvement is essential to maintain hygiene and quality of water inside the house. IWMI
research in the southern Punjab, ecology similar to Balochistan Pat Feeder canal commands,
indicated that majority of chances of polluting water is from inside the house instead from the
supply sources. The situation is not different in Balochistan. Thus women involvement has to be
viewed beyond the O&M and cost recovery (ADB-PRM 2006).

Although the small- scale initiatives taken by the NGOs and the Area Development Programmes
were having success in mobilizing the women, but still their participation is very much limited
and dependent on the will of the men. The major issue is what should be the effective entry point
in fostering participation of women. In fact, women programme is hardly seen in the context of
local cultural and traditional norms, which is essential for Balochistan due to the strict tribal
society culture of the province in describing the role of women.

The involvement of women in water quantity and quality management has to be seen in the
overall context of water-poverty- environment. However, identification of the effective entry
point will be the key for success in this critical and difficult area.

38
The issues related to participation and gender, as described in the IWRM Policy of
Balochistan are:
‰ Participation of water users is still limited as they are hardly involved in the selection of
the schemes and at the time of planning of such schemes. They have never been asked to
give their opinion regarding the design and development of the schemes in terms of its
capital cost and O&M expenses. Farmers’ capacity in O&M cost is very limited, as they
can’t pay for major repairs and electric tariffs.
‰ The existing water users’ institutions are not autonomous in administrative and financial
matters. Such autonomy is essential for sustainability of these institutions.
‰ Women role in managing water is very much limited. They are hardly involved in the
planning, development and management of water schemes. Their role will also be limited
in the near future due to sharply defined roles for men and women. Even then women are
involved in water hygiene and environmental health but their capacity is extremely
limited. They do not have the basic awareness and motivation.

2.1.5. Water Entitlements

The World Bank’s Pakistan Water Strategy highlighted that the “most fundamental of the
instruments which affect water management are those which define who is entitled to do what
with water”. At the apex level, there is the Indus Waters Treaty which defines the water that
belongs to Pakistan. One of the great virtues of the Treaty was that by the clarity of definition,
and the permanent nature of the rights so established, it motivated both India and Pakistan to
focus on how they would use the water that was theirs (and not on endless distracting haggling
about what water they should have). Recent differences on “differences” which have arisen in the
interpretation of the Indus Waters Treaty have confirmed the foresightedness of the framers of the
Treaty (who set up well-defined mechanisms for dealing with these) but have also suggested that
there is room for modernizing the bilateral dispute resolution mechanism so that questions can be
resolved in a more predictable and time-bound manner by the Indus Waters Commission.

The Pakistan Water Strategy further elaborated that in a system mostly dependent on a single
river, clarity on entitlements at the next level down – between provinces – was equally important
and, in many ways, equally disputatious. Starting in 1935 there were a series of high-level
commissions constituted first by the British and then Pakistani governments to try to get a lasting
agreement on the division of the Indus system waters among the provinces. After many failed
attempts, in 1991 agreement was reached on the provincial entitlements to waters of the Indus
basin. This Water Accord is a great achievement since it defines, unambiguously and in
perpetuity, the shares of available water which can be used by each of the provinces. It is worth
re-counting the bases for the Accord.

The basis for entitlements was prior existing uses: “the record of actual average system uses
for the period 1977- 1982 would form the guideline for developing a future irrigation pattern.
These ten daily uses would be adjusted pro-rata to correspond the indicated seasonal
allocations of the different canal systems and would form the basis for sharing shortages and
surpluses.” This meant that “the existing uses of water supplies to the provinces, which they
have so far been getting as ad hoc allocations, remain untouched”.
The Accord specifies an automatic process for adjusting entitlements depending on
availability. “These ten daily uses would be adjusted pro-rata to correspond the indicated
seasonal allocations of the different canal systems and would form the basis for sharing
shortages and surpluses.”
In case a province was not in a position, for the time being, to make full use of its
allocation, that surplus may be used by another province without acquiring a right to it.
The provinces were, in law, given freedom by the Accord to use their allocation in any
way that they want: “there would be no restrictions on the provinces to undertake new
projects within their agreed shares” and “the provinces will have the freedom within their
allocations to modify system-wide and period-wise uses”. In practice, however, the fact
39
 that provincial entitlements were explained as aggregates of specified historical uses in
different canal commands meant that the Accord was thus implicitly specifying the
distribution of the provincial shares to each of the existing canal commands, allocations
which, in Punjab at least, are followed to this day. Similarly the historic allocations within
each canal command among the distributaries is also defined historically and followed and
similarly down to the outlet level, below which the Warabandi system specifies shares.
What this implies is that in major parts of the Indus basin irrigation system there are, in
fact, well- defined entitlements at all levels, from the international, through the inter-
provincial, down to canal commands, distributaries and outlets and ultimately to each
farmer on a watercourse.

The Balochistan share as per Accord is 4.78 billion m 3, which is around 3.3% of the total water
apportioned among the provinces of 144.81 billion m 3. This is an indicator that the largest province of
Pakistan having geographical area of around 43.6% of the country’s area is having the lowest water
entitlements, even NWFP is allocated around 4.9% of the total apportioned water. However, the
Accord allocated 12% of share of water from future reservoirs or distribution of floodwater to the
province of Balochistan. This provides an opportunity to the province for further development of
Indus water resources. It is expected that the province needs to develop atleast two new canals of the
size of the Kachhi canal to fully utilize their entitled water from the Indus basin (Box 3).

Box 3. Water Apportionment Accord 1991

Surface water developments after the final commissioning of the Tarbela Dam Project in 1977, were
almost stalled due to the non-resolution of the inter-provincial water dispute. The country underwent a
one and a half decade long crisis related to irrigation supplies and hydropower generation before
reaching consensus. Load-shedding and irregular agriculture produce was observed during this period.
An inter-provincial agreement became essential to solve the longstanding dispute of canal water uses,
shares in the river supplies and surplus flows in the form of floods, etc.

An agreement called the “Apportionment of the Water of the Indus River System between Provinces” was
arrived upon, which had two important features:

It protected the existing uses of canal water in each province.

It apportions the balance of river supplies, including flood surpluses and future storages among
the provinces.

The Water Apportionment Accord was agreed upon on March 16, 1991 at Karachi in a meeting of the
Chief Minister’s of the four provinces along with several provincial representatives. The accord allocates
the share to provinces as per Table 28.

Table 28. Apportionment of water to provinces as per Accord 1991

Province Water Allocation
(MAF) (billion m3)
Kharif Rabi Total Kharif Rabi Total
Punjab 37.07 18.87 55.94 45.74 23.29 69.03
Sindh* 33.94 14.82 48.76 41.88 18.29 60.17
NWFP (a) 3.48 2.3 5.78 4.29 2.84 7.13
(b) Civil Canals ** 1.8 1.2 3.0 2.22 1.48 3.70
Balochistan 2.85 1.02 3.87 3.51 1.26 4.78
Total 77.34 37.01 114.35 95.44 45.68 141.11
** 1.8 1.2 3.0 2.22 1.48 3.70
Grand Total 79.14 38.21 117.35 97.66 47.16 144.81
* Including already sanctioned Urban and Industrial uses for Metropolitan, Karachi
* Ungauged Civil Canals above the rim stations

The NWFP/Balochistan projects, under execution, were provided their authorized quota of water as
existing uses.

Balance river supplies (including flood supplies and future storages) was to be distributed as per Table
40
 29.

Table 29. Formula for water distribution for additional water under future water storages
Province Water Allocation for Balance Waters (%)
Punjab 37
Sindh 37
NWFP 14
Balochistan 12
Total 100

Industrial and Urban Water supplies for Metropolitan City, for which there were sanctioned
allocations, was to be accorded priority.
The need for storages, wherever feasible on the Indus and other rivers was admitted and
recognized by the participants for planned future agricultural development.
The need for certain minimum escapage to sea, below Kotri, to check sea intrusion was
recognized. Sindh held the view, that the optimum level was 10 MAF, which was discussed at
length, while other studies indicated lower/high figures. It was, therefore, decided that further
studies would be undertaken to establish the minimal escapage needs downstream Kotri.
There would be no restrictions on the provinces to undertake new projects within their agreed
shares.
No restrictions were placed on small schemes not exceeding 5,000 acres above elevation of
1200 ft.
No restrictions were placed on developing irrigation uses in the Kurram/Gomal/Kohat basins,
so long as these do not adversely affect the existing uses on these rivers.
There were no restrictions on Balochistan, to develop the water resources of the Indus right
bank tributaries, flowing through its areas.
The requirements of LBOD would be met out of the flood supplies in accordance with the agreed
sharing formula.

For the implementation of this accord, the need to establish an Indus River System Authority was
recognized and accepted. It was to have headquarters at Lahore and representation from all the four
provinces.

The system-wise allocation would be worked out separately, on ten daily basis and attached
with the agreement as part and parcel of it.
The record of actual average system uses for the period 1977-82, would form the guideline for
developing a future regulation pattern. These ten daily uses would be adjusted pro-rata to
correspond to the indicated seasonal allocations of the different canal systems and would form
the basis for sharing shortages and surpluses on all Pakistan basis.
The existing reservoirs would be operated with priority for the irrigation uses of the Provinces
The provinces would have the freedom within their allocations to modify system-wise and
period-wise uses.
All efforts would be made to avoid wastages. Any surpluses may be used by another province,
but this would not establish any rights to such uses.

There are no restrictions posed by the Accord on Balochistan to develop water resources of the
Indus right bank tributaries, flowing through its areas. These tributaries bring flash floods and are
being diverted for Sailaba agriculture using the system of Spate irrigation. However, there is a
need to further define the water entitlements considering the following aspects in Balochistan.

The major water resource available in Balochistan is the Sailaba water. Although 1991
Accord allows the province to develop the resource, but the water entitlements among
the 13 major basins of Balochistan and among the communities are not that sharply
defined. The flood water entitlements for environmental needs including the wet bodies
within the province and the coastal areas are also not sharply defined.
The groundwater entitlements for domestic, agriculture and environmental uses are not
defined as the users can exploit the resource in any amount and from any place they like.
Although, there are Water Committees at the district and provincial levels for licencing
the groundwater but their role is largely limited to the authorization for spacing the
tubewell.
41
 The water entitlements for small scale surface and groundwater schemes (minor
perennial surface irrigation schemes, springs, Karezes, etc.) are not precisely defined and
users can abstract any amount of water without considering the environmental or
downstream rights.

2.1.6. Asset Development and Management

The province will continue building new irrigation facility and infrastructure (canals, storage
dams, etc.) to utilize the available water resources (canal supplies and floodwater) for future
development. Presently, the province is using around 39% of the total water available in an
average year. Thus still 61% of the available water resources, primarily of the surface waters,
have to be utilized through the development of new irrigation infrastructure. In addition, the
province has to maintain the existing irrigation infrastructure as a strategy to maintain the assets
for the future generations.

The experience in the province indicated that the irrigation infrastructure developed in the past
could not perform to the extent it should. Furthermore, the scarcity of the resource and the
persistent drought also demand that water resource in Balochistan must be considered as of prime
value and thus advance alternative approaches be considered while designing and constructing
new irrigation infrastructure for agriculture. The canals in Balochistan and Pakistan are still being
designed for continuous-flow and fixed-rotation irrigation system to achieve distribution of water
in a time equity perspective instead of volume equity system. These systems are not designed to
provide water to meet crop water needs rather rationing of water in a water scarce situation. The
in-equity further increases with deferred maintenance and tail-end farmers are receiving almost
half of their allocated share.

The holistic view of water is needed for developing new infrastructure for various sub-sectors of
water use. The following issues may be given due consideration, while developing investment
proposals for future development of water resources in the province.

Resource Scarcity and Persistent Drought – Resource scarcity in time and space is
clearly evident in the province. The persistent drought since the last eight years has
further aggravated the situation. Therefore, value of water is now extremely high due to
extreme scarcity. Even if the cost of the infrastructure is not recovered or charged to the
clients, costing in terms of capital and operational costs is essential so that the
stakeholders realize the value of water.
Basin Approach for Water Management and Development – Basin approach is
needed to have sustainable development of the resource especially for the floodwater,
which is the single largest resource available to the province. This approach is also
essential as water conflicts between the basins are now emerging thus basin level water
management would assist in resolving the inter-basins conflicts in the future. The most
critical is the conflict on the diversion of water from the Mirani dam for the development
of the Gwadar port. The basin wide holistic approach would also result in achieving
sustainability of the new infrastructural development schemes for the development of
water resource in the province.
Stakeholders’ Participation – Stakeholders’ participation is needed genuinely in the
whole process of scheme development instead of currently followed manipulative
approach for the planning or for handing over of the schemes. Even in cases, where
stakeholders are asked to share part of the cost, they are never involved in the scheme
development process rather standard procedures/processes are used for design of the
schemes without considering the capacity of the stakeholders in terms of O&M and
paying such costs.
Infrastructure Cost – The infrastructure cost especially for schemes which are supposed
to be operated by the stakeholders is high. One of the reasons for the high cost is that
communities capacities for sharing the capital and operational costs are never considered
in the scheme development process. The participatory scheme development process does
42
 not exist for all sub-sectors of water use. Even in some of the projects where participatory
process was used, it was never reviewed after the completion of the project to draw
lessons for future adoption. The new infrastructure development in the province is adding
more liability on the government for the O&M cost as communities hardly maintain the
schemes handed over to them.
Operation and Maintenance – Operation and maintenance of the irrigation
infrastructure is still the government responsibility. The recent example of taking over of
850 water supply schemes by the PHE Department is a worst case, where all the non-
functional water supply schemes are transferred to the PHED, as communities were un-
able or not interested in maintaining these schemes. The shift in the approach after
introduction of Social Action Programme (SAP) regarding participatory water supply
schemes in 90s although made some headway but due to the recent turn the province is
now again standing at the pre-SAP position, as all the community managed schemes
(functional and non-functional) will be taken over by the provincial government in the
current fiscal year (2006-07).
Project Vs Programme Approach – The project approach followed for the development
of infrastructure is not sustainable as after handing over of the project the support to the
stakeholders is discontinued and the schemes gradually become non-sustainable in terms
of O&M. The good example is the CISU developed under the BCIAP (financed by the
World Bank) could not be sustained by the IPD, as the O&M funding is extremely low
and there is low priority assigned by the IPD for providing support to the communities.
The donors and the government hardly addressed the issue of sustainability of the
interventions introduced under the development projects. Although, some of the excellent
successes have been made in the projects, but these experiences never had any impact on
the routine of the line departments. This is true since the last 45 years, because all the
experiences gained even during 60s could not be sustained in changing the routines of the
line departments or improving the schemes development process. Rather it has been
deteriorated.

2.1.7. Water Desalinization

For the coastal areas especially for the Gwadar port, freshwater is a major constraint for
development of the urban areas, industrial states and the port. The available information is limited
regarding the feasibility of seawater desalinization in Gwadar and other areas. The concept of
seawater desalinization is given in Box 4.

Box. 4. Seawater Desalinization

Desalination Plants Worldwide: Of the more than 7,500 desalination plants in operation worldwide, 60%
are located in the Middle-East. The world's largest plant in Saudi Arabia produces 128 mgd of desalted
water. In contrast, 12% of the world's capacity is produced in the Americas, with most of the plants located
in the Caribbean and Florida. To date, only a limited number of desalination plants have been built along
the California coast, primarily because the cost of desalination is generally higher than the costs of other
water supply alternatives available in California (e.g., water transfers and groundwater pumping).
However, as drought conditions occur and concern over water availability increases, desalination projects
are being proposed at numerous locations in the state.

Desalination Technologies: Desalination is a process that removes dissolved minerals (including but not
limited to salt) from seawater, brackish water, or treated wastewater. A number of technologies have been
developed for desalination, including reverse osmosis (RO), distillation, electrodialysis, and vacuum
freezing. Two of these technologies (RO and distillation) are being considered by municipalities, water
districts, and private companies for development of seawater desalination in California.

Reverse Osmosis (RO): In RO, feedwater is pumped at high pressure through permeable membranes,
separating salts from the water (Figure 22 and 23 ). The feedwater is pretreated to remove particles that
would clog the membranes. The quality of the water produced depends on the pressure, the concentration of
salts in the feedwater, and the salt permeation constant of the membranes. Product water quality can be
improved by adding a second pass of membranes, whereby product water from the first pass is fed to the

43
 second pass.

Figure 22. Flow diagram of a reverse osmosis system.

Figure 23. Reverse osmosis system

By means of so-called “reverse osmosis”, the plant can change any kind of water – from a polluted well,
river, lake or sea – into perfect drinking water. The polluted water – or pure salt water from the sea – is
forced through a membrane under a heavy pressure (Figure 24), and outcomes many thousands of litres of
perfect drinking water every day.

Figure 24. Reverse osmosis membrane.

The availability of electrical energy is also limited in Gwadar; therefore, desalinization

companies have to install units for power generation using diesel fuel, which will add to the
capital investment. Energy requirement for seawater desalinization plant would be around 2.5
MWatt per mgd. The case study of USA is presented in Box 5.

Box.5. Energy Requirement for Desalinization of Seawater

The energy used in the desalination process is primarily electricity and heat. Energy requirements for
desalination plants depend on the salinity and temperature of the feedwater, the quality of the water
produced, and the desalting technology used. Estimates for electricity use requirements for various
technologies for seawater desalination are given in Table 30.

Table 30. Energy requirement for various systems of desalinization.

Type of System Power Requirement (MWhr/Million US Gallons)
Multistage Flash (MSF) 10.5 – 21.0

44
 Vapour Compression (VC) 30.0 – 45.0
Reverse Osmosis (RO) – single pass 17.4 – 33.0
Reverse Osmosis (RO) – double pass 19.5 – 36.0

In addition to electricity requirements, MSF, MED, and some VC plants also use thermal energy to heat
feedwater (because of the inefficiency of converting thermal energy to electricity, there is a high energy
"penalty" if electricity is used to heat feedwater). For example, in addition to the 10.5 to 21 MWh/mg of
energy required for electricity, the thermal energy needs for a MSF distillation plant is estimated at 810
million Btu/mg (about 78 MWh/mg); for MED plants, the estimated additional thermal energy
requirements are 690 million Btu/mg (about 66 MWh/mg). Consequently, the total energy needs for
distillation technologies are higher than for RO technologies.

Energy use requirements for desalination plants are high. For example, an estimated 50 million kWh/yr
would be required for full-time operation of the City of Santa Barbara's desalination plant to produce
2,500 mg/yr of water. In contrast, the energy needed to pump 2,500 mg/yr of water from the Colorado
River Aqueduct or the State Water Project to the Metropolitan Water District (MWD) of Southern
California is 15 to 26 million kWh/yr. These energy requirements may be compared to the energy use of a
small- to medium- sized industrial facility (such as a large refinery, small steel mill, or large computer
center) which uses 75,000 to 100,000 kWh/yr.

Both RO and distillation plants can benefit from cogeneration plants to reduce energy use. Since
increased energy use may cause adverse environmental impacts, the individual and cumulative impacts of
energy use and production at a proposed desalination plant will require case-by-case analysis.

The desalinization system has to be designed for an open intake from the deep sea (at least one
km away from the coast and around 150 m deep); therefore, the cost of water pumping, cleaning
and conveyance has to be added into the overall feasibility. The cost estimates for desalinized
water are presented in Box 6.

Box.6. Costs of Desalinated Water

The cost to produce water from desalination depends on the technology used and the plant capacity,
among other factors. For example, the cost of desalted water in Santa Barbara ($5,700/mg) results from:
a write-off of the capital cost over a short five-year period, high financing costs, and high energy costs.
The overall costs of water production are about the same for RO and some forms of distillation plants.

Price estimates of water produced by desalination plants in California range from $3,000 to $12,000/mg.
Considering the maximum cost of US$ 12,000/mg, it appears that the cost will be around Rs. 0.20 per litre of
desalinized water in California. As the cost of energy will be much higher than Rs. 0.20 per litre of water in
Pakistan. The costs include capital, operating and maintenance costs. For long-term projects, capital costs
would most likely be amortized over an assumed plant life of 20 to 30 years. Capital costs for RO plants tend to
be lower than for distillation plants. Some of the proposals are for plants that would operate for only a few
years. Operating a plant on a part -time, rather than full-time, basis may be more expensive in the long run
because maintenance and capital costs must be paid while the plant is shut down.

Considering the minimum cost of Rs. 0.20 per litre and requirement of 100 litres per day per person, it
appears that Rs. 600 would be the cost of per capita per month for the supply of desalinized water.
Assuming a family of 8 persons, the monthly cost of desalinized water for the family would be around
Rs. 4800. This is on the higher side considering the current socio-economic situation in the province.
Thus use of desalinized water would be limited for drinking and cooking purposes. A different quality
of water may be provided for other household purposes.

The higher cost of desalinized water also demands that other sources of fresh water (surface and
groundwater) may also be exploited with an objective to keep the cost low. This would require a
systematic survey of the surface and groundwater resources available in the area. Even the
sources of saline groundwater may be exploited having salinity levels of less than seawater. The
cost of desalinizing the brackish groundwater would be lower than the seawater.

45
2.1.8. Service Delivery

The service delivery in both agriculture and domestic sub-sectors of water use is a major issue.
The recovery of water fee in canal command areas of Patfeeder and Khirther canals ranges
between 15-30% in the last few years. The assessment of the Abiana is also low due to many
reasons but mainly because of concealment of the cropped area or assessment based on crops
having lower rates of water fee.

For the agricultural tubewell, around one-third of the farmers are not even paying their reduced
share of Rs. 4000 per tubewell per month for the electric bill, which is around 10% of the total
bill of electricity for an average tubewell. Farmers do complain regarding the lack of reliable and
quality power supply due to extended load shedding, power breaks and voltage fluctuations. Thus
provision of reliable and quality power supply is a pre-requisite for introducing any discipline in
the use of power supply and abstraction of groundwater.

The recovery of water fee for the drinking water in urban areas ranges between 25-50% in
different districts of the province. The issues related to service delivery are:

Water a Right or an Economic Good: Currently, water is considered as a right in all the
sub-sectors of water use especially for the domestic purpose. According to the Islamic
concept, the first right on water is for people and second for livestock. Crops have been
given the third right. It is also true in the current framework of the society. The water fee
charged both for domestic and agriculture sectors is basically for the services provided
and not for the cost of water. The basic issue is to decide whether water is a right or it is
an economic good. In the Balochistan’s culture, it will continue as a right and it is not
possible to treat it as an economic good in the short run, especially for the domestic sub-
sector of water use. However, gradually it would lead towards an economic good, if
reliable and dependable service is provided by the state, the people might be ready to pay
for the reliable and quality services. For the agriculture sector, it is possible to charge at
least to meet the O&M requirement of the canal irrigation system.
Cost Recovery in all Sub-sectors of Water Use – There is no culture of cost-recovery of
capital investment in water schemes for agriculture and domestic purposes. Even the
consumers are not paying the full O&M cost of the water supply schemes both for
agriculture and domestic sectors. The financial resources available with the line
departments are extremely limited to have O&M of these schemes. The deferred
maintenance of these schemes ultimately results into major rehabilitation of these
schemes for provision of quality services.
Reliability and Efficiency of Domestic Water Supply Network – The performance of
water supply schemes is very low, as the losses in the supply network is between 30-40%
in Quetta and situation is not better in other cities. The pipeline materials used for water
supply schemes are faulty due to excessive corrosion of iron pipes. The PE pipe is the
right material for safe drinking water. Furthermore, these pipes also perform better in
negative air temperatures during the winter months, when most of the iron pipes are
damaged due to freezing and thawing action. PE pipes are also recommended for
provision of safe drinking water to the urban population. The WASA-Quetta is already
implementing the Greater Water Supply Project, where some of the iron pipe network is
being replaced with the PE pipes.
Reliability and Quality of Power Supply Systems – The reliability and quality of power
supply is one of the major constraints hindering the payment of bills by the consumers.
According to QESCO, the average load shedding for the agricultural tubewells is around 8
hours. The power supply lines are overloaded and the routine management option available
with QESCO is load shedding. But the farmers are of the opinion that the load shedding is
more than 8 hours. As the law and order situation is not conducive in the province due to the
damages made to the main supply lines during March-April 2006 and the farmers for around a
period of two months received supply for around 2-8 hours in certain areas. In addition, there
are frequent power breaks and voltage fluctuations. The
46
 voltage fluctuations are the most serious problem, as farmers can not run their tubewells
rather their prime movers are damaged.
Electric Tariff for Agricultural Tubewells: The total annual subsidy on electric tariff for
agricultural tubewells is around Rs. 8.0 billion. Out of this, the share of the GOB was around
Rs. 2.29 billion for the year 2005-06. The Tubewell subsidy will increase in future due to a
number of reasons: a) increase in the tubewell numbers due to the annual growth rate of
electric tubewells which is around 9.13%; b) increase in the electric tariff; c) lowering of
water table; and d) shifting from diesel to electric tubewells due to continued increase in the
diesel fuel prices. The size of the total annual subsidy at present is around the size of the
provincial PSDP, thus it is not only a financial burden on the GOB rather it is also depleting
the resources for economic development in the province. Introducing discipline in the use of
power in agriculture sector would require capping of the subsidy and freezing the numbers of
electric tubewells eligible for subsidy as a starting point leading towards gradual reduction in
the subsidy. The electric tariff and subsidy has a direct impact in the provision of quality
power supply for agricultural tubewells.
Private Sector Involvement in all sub-sectors of Water Use: Currently, role of private
sector is limited in the development and service sector in the province. The involvement
of the public-sector in the provision of services like the supply of drinking water and
installation of drip irrigation systems in agriculture are the good examples, where private
sector can be encouraged for extended role.

2.1.9. On-Farm Water Productivity

The water productivity is the ultimate aim of irrigated agriculture in Balochistan, where water is
at premium. The increased water productivity should ultimately improve profitability of the
irrigated agriculture, which is the ultimate objective of the farmer. Water productivity is the
objective of the irrigation manager and agriculture experts. Farmers are mainly interested in
profitability of irrigated farming systems. The Case Study of water productivity in Pakistan, India
and USA is presented in Box. 7. The issues related to water productivity are:

‰ Adjusting Cropping Pattern with Water Availability in the Indus Basin - The Tarbela
Study by the WCD revealed that marked increase in cropping pattern of 32, 68, 24, 43,
183 and 119 % was observed during the post-Tarbela period (1976-2003) for wheat,
cotton, rice, sugarcane, fruits and vegetables, respectively. Reduction in area under
oilseeds and coarse grains of 16 and 30% was observed, respectively. The production of
pulses was stagnant during the post-Tarbela period. Increase in area under high water
demanding crops like sugarcane, rice, fruits and vegetables was primarily due to
availability of additional irrigation water from Mangla and Tarbela reservoir during the
Rabi and early Kharif seasons. Other factors, which contributed were power generation,
development of industry and road infrastructure. The increase in area under Rabi crops in
post-Tarbela period was observed for both the Pat Feeder and Khirther canals in
Balochistan.
‰ Tubewell Irrigated Agriculture in Balochistan: The increase in the area under fruits and
vegetables in Balochistan was mainly due to the development of Tubewell irrigated
agriculture, where farmers started installing deep tubewells and the comparative
advantage of micro-climate in different ecological zones was fully utilized. The
introduction of high delta crops like apples, onions, vegetables, etc. was primarily due to
subsidy on electric tariff and the market demand.
‰ Provincial Crop Improvement Programme: The programme is mainly focused on
development of varieties, which are high yielding and disease-resistant. Issues of water
shortage or heat and/or salt tolerance were hardly considered as an objective of varietal
improvement.
‰ Access to Laser Levelling Equipment and Irrigation Services: The access to Laser
leveling by average farmers is difficult, as public sector maintains only few units. Private
sector is not involved in provision of services related to laser levelling. Similar situation
exists for provision of services for installation of sprinkler and drip irrigation systems.
47
Box. 7. Water Productivity

In some areas of the IBIS especially in the Punjab province, secondary salinization and rapidly declining
water tables are symptoms of the water crisis. In many, dried- up rivers and degraded aquatic ecosystems
are the most pressing problem. In the Indus River system very little or no water reaches the sea during 8-
10 months of the year.

In spite of development of water resources in the IBIS, which are intended for food production,
malnutrition persists, mostly in among the poor communities of the IBIS and among major part of the
communities outside the IBIS. Small farmers and the poor are particularly water-deprived and in
situations of water scarcity they are the hardest hit. This is particularly true in regions dubbed
“economically water scarce,” meaning that while there is water available, there are no financial
resources to harness it for use especially outside the IBIS.

Improving the productivity of water used in agriculture is the key to solving these problems (IWMI 2003;
IWMI 2000). Getting more crop per drop enhances food security and makes more water available for
nature, industry and domestic users. It enables to reduce the need for investments in new water storage
and irrigation infrastructure — investments that Pakistan can’t afford from its own resources. By
improving the productivity of water in areas outside the IBIS (Sailaba, Khushkaba, Barani, riverrine)
would contribute to the food security and incomes of some of the poorest-of-the-poor live in these
ecologies. Samllholders of the IBIS also fall in this category.

Many people associate water savings with municipal water use — encouraging domestic users to practice
water conservation and cities to plug up leaking supply systems. While these efforts have localized
benefits, it is important to realize that cities actually consume very little of the country’s water. Even in
large urban metropolitans of Pakistan where most households have easy access to municipal water
supplies, a person uses less than 100 liters of water per day. Compare this to the 3,000 to 5,000 liters of
water required to produce enough food to feed one person per day and to understand why finding ways of
getting more crop per drop is vital to the country’s future.

Another common misperception is that enormous amounts of water are wasted in irrigation — water
‘down the drain’. In fact, much of the waste is recaptured by farmers, used by trees or ecosystems,
recharges groundwater or it flows back into the river system to be used further downstream. The real
problem is that in water-scarce areas farmers as a group has become if anything too efficient at
converting water into crop production resulting in dried-up and polluted rivers. Getting more crop per
drop — improving water productivity — will ensure food security and sustainable agricultural production.
In water-stressed areas, this is often the only option.

The water productivity for crops is low in Pakistan compared to other countries. The comparison of water
productivity of wheat between California, USA, Bhakra India and Punjab Pakistan indicated that water
productivity in Bhakra, India is almost double from that of Punjab, Pakistan, whereas in California, USA,
it is almost three-fold from that of Pakistan’s Punjab (Figure 25). In Balochistan province, the
productivity of wheat is less than that of Pakistan (0.60 kg/m 3). It is estimated that in canal command
areas of Balochistan it is around 0.40 kg/m 3. The low water productivity in Pakistan’s Punjab is an
indicator of potential for improvement in water productivity by three fold. Improving water productivity
would also increase the profitability.

The question to be addressed is that “How much scope is there for improving water productivity in the
IBIS and areas outside the IBIS?” In Pakistan, potential productivity is not realized in part due to
inefficient irrigation management. Considering the productivity of water in more than 40 irrigation
systems worldwide, an IWMI study demonstrated a 10-fold difference in the gross value production (GVP)
per unit of water consumed by crops. Some of this difference is due to environment, or the price of grain
versus high-valued crops. But even among grain producing areas, the differences are large. Improving
performance of poorly managed irrigated agricultural systems should be a high-priority action.

Managing water in agriculture should not exclusively focus on improving the productivity of water diverted to
irrigation, but must also include improving the productivity of the non-irrigated systems outside the IBIS
(Sailaba, Khushkaba, Barani and riverrine). Systems outside the IBIS contribute to about 10 percent of wheat
and around 50% of pulses and coarse grains. It is the primary means of food production in around 77% of the
geographical area of Pakistan. Consequently, any increase in areas outside the IBIS for cereal and oilseed
production would have more effect on poverty reduction and mal-nutrition than a
48
similar increase in irrigated cereal production, as poorest-of-the poor live in these ecologies — people
who currently struggle to farm marginal rainfed lands and are at the mercy of droughts.

8 1.2
7 1
6
0.8
5
4 0.6
3 0.4
2
0.2
1
0 0
Imperial Valley, Bhakra, India Punjab, Pakistan
USA

Tons/ha yield kg/m3

Figure 25. Yield and Water Productivity of Wheat Crop in Imperial Valley, USA, Bhakra India,
and Punjab of Pakistan (IWMI 2003).

‰ Water Use and Precision Irrigation: The water use and precision irrigation are the key
factors for raising productivity of crops per unit of water because water is going to be
scarce in future – crop per unit of water.
‰ Design of New Canals: The water development institutions like WAPDA are still
designing and implementing new canal development projects in a way the country use to
build the irrigation infrastructure in the last century. Alternative irrigation systems based
on sprinkler and drip irrigation could have been considered for new canal development
projects like Kachhi, Thal and Rainee canals. Thus there is a need to consider alternative
approaches for developing new irrigation infrastructure in future, where farmers are given
facility to use canal water for sprinkler and drip irrigation.
‰ Canal Water Allocations: The current authorized canal water allocation of various canal
commands are not in line with the E t requirement or cropping pattern or cropping
intensity. Therefore, there is a need to revise the canal water supply allocations based on
Et, cropping pattern, cropping intensity and soil requirement and the saving of water thus
made can be utilized by the province for developing new projects or allocating water to
commands where gains in water productivity are possible.
‰ Sugar Crops: A research study was conducted for the comparison of sugarcane and sugar
beet in terms of crop water requirement and water productivity. The net crop water
requirement of sugar beet (686 mm) is almost half of sugarcane (1200 mm). Furthermore,
monthly net water requirement of sugar beet during the Rabi growing season never
exceeds water requirement of sugarcane. Productivity of sugar beet per unit of water is
almost double of sugarcane having almost same quantity of sugar as marketable product.
‰ Promising Crops and Cropping Pattern: A study was conducted under the ADB TA
Grant Project, where promising crops and cropping patterns were ranked in terms of
water productivity for the six agro-climatic zones of the province and the districts within
each zone. How to implement such promising cropping patterns is an issue to be
addressed in future. Policy support is needed to implement such interventions or reforms.
‰ Non-Water Factors: The non-water factors affecting water productivity should also be
considered while considering the water aspects like: a) lack of availability of quality
seed; b) timely availability of other inputs; and c) poor crop production practices.
49
Profitability of Irrigated Agriculture

Farmers per say are not interested in water productivity rather their major goal of farming is to
have higher profitability. Thus the real challenge for the water development and management
experts is how to translate water productivity into profitability of irrigated agriculture.

‰ Water Pricing: Water pricing in canal commands of the IBIS is based on area of crop
grown i.e. for wheat water rate is around Rs. 145.73 per acre, whereas cost of tubewell
water to grow one-acre of wheat varies between Rs. 6,000 to 8000 per acre for an average
tubewell having discharge of 7 lps with monthly electric bill of Rs. 40,000. This seems on
the higher side but in fact there is a heavy subsidy on electric tariff and on an average 40
hp prime mover is used by the majority farmers. Thus value of pumped water is many-
fold higher than canal water supplies. Therefore, there is a need to conduct studies for
valuation and costing of canal water in the IBIS and estimate cost of production of wheat
under tubewells without and with subsidy.
‰ Profitability of Wheat Production on Pumped Water: Profitability of wheat production
on pumped water is now questionable because of high cost of pumped water and low
yields of wheat. Water productivity of wheat is low mainly due to low crop yields and
higher levels of water use. The cost of pumped water for wheat exceeds the total cost of
non-water inputs.
‰ Profitability of High Delta Crops: Similar is the case for other high delta crops: a) rice in
the Indus basin irrigated area; b) apples, onions, vegetables in the tubewell irrigated area;
and c) wheat in the Sailaba and Khushkaba area.

The low water productivity in agriculture sub-sector of water use is a major concern to maintain
profitability of the irrigated agriculture in Balochistan and to conserve the scarce resource of
water. The issues to be considered in this area are:

Canal Commands – Water productivity in the Indus basin canal commands has to be
seen from the context of sustainability as rice is a major crop in these canal commands
during the Kharif season which results in waterlogging and salinity. As the drainage
system in general does not perform effectively in the canal commands due to flat gradient
and deferred maintenance, thus water productivity is adversely affected.
Tubewells/Well Irrigated Areas – Without considering the subsidy on electric tubewells, the
value and cost of groundwater is extremely high and it is not economically feasible to grow
high delta crops and even wheat. The productivity of crops is low and water is used
inefficiently, therefore, water productivity is low. Until the issue of electric subsidy is
addressed, it is not possible to advocate to the farmers to improve water productivity, as there
is no incentive for the farmer to be efficient and productive in farming. In contrast to electric
tubewells, the diesel tubewell farmers are normally growing short duration vegetables and
their water profitability is higher even they are paying full cost of the diesel fuel. The study
being conducted under the ADB TA Grant project indicated that they are abstracting much
less water compared to the electric tubewells (ADB 2006c).
Minor Perennial Irrigation Schemes – The minor perennial irrigation schemes are
having smaller command area, but these were designed for flood irrigation. The water use
is inefficient and crop productivity is low. Thus low water productivity is primarily due to
the low value assigned to water. Even in most of the schemes water users are not paying
Abiana even at the modest rate. These schemes should be considered different than the
Indus basin canal command areas. Assigning high value to water would lead to address
the issue of water productivity.
Sailaba Farming Systems – Low priority has been assigned to the Sailaba system; even
the floodwater constitutes around 60% of the total water resource available to the
province. Communities are left on their own, except in certain areas due to the political
pressure some diversion schemes have been developed. Farmers are using traditional
crops, although they need deep rooted crops and plants to utilize moisture from deeper
50
 depths. The inefficient water spreading techniques and low crop productivity result into
low water productivity.
Khushkaba Farming Systems – Lowest priority has been assigned to the Khushkaba
system, even the poorest-of- the-poor live in these ecologies. Communities are left on
their own, as Khushkaba is no body business in Balochistan. No government support is
available to these communities. The risk associated with rainfall and run-off due to
persistent drought, the communities from these ecologies are forced for out-migration and
now most of these farmers are dependent on off-farm income.
Involvement of Private Sector – Improving water use efficiency and crop-production
technology is a basic requirement to improve water productivity in all the farming
systems. There is a lack of support to the farmers in the provision of services for water
and agriculture in the private sector. Recently, some of the renowned national and
international companies are coming forward for initiating Irrigation Support Services for
the farmers in areas of drip irrigation and improved horticultural production.

2.2. Constraints

2.2.1. Adequacy and Reliability of Data and Information

Water Resources Data

Directorate of Planning, Development and Monitoring (DPDM) of the Irrigation and Power
Department (IPD) is maintaining 20 stations for river flow measurements, which are mainly
concentrated in 5 basins out of total 15 large basins. Each basin has 3-4 stations. Majority of
basins do not have any measuring station. The requirement for stream gauging stations is around
50 having one station per 7000 km2.
For measurement of groundwater, automatic water level recorders have been installed at 15
locations. All these recorders are located in the Pishin-Lora basin covering three sub-basins out of
the seven. These three sub-basins include Quetta, Mastung and Mangochar. DPDM-IPD has
planned to install 76 additional water level recorders to strengthen the existing groundwater
monitoring capacity.

DPDM-IPD has also installed 73 climatological stations, out of which 31 are categorized as Class
A, whereas rest are categorized as Class C. Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD)
maintains 14 climatic stations having long-term data, but these are largely located at urban
centers and airports. Therefore, IPD is the agency maintaining larger network of climatic stations
in watersheds.

Adequacy and reliability of both surface and groundwater data is one of the major factors affecting
planning, development and management of water resources. Considering the size of the province and
the importance of the water sector to its economy, the existing two networks of hydro-meteorological
data collection, DPDM-IPD and PMD, taken together are not adequate for the purpose of water
resource planning, development and management using a basin approach. Problems associated with
data are: a) inadequate and lack of well planned spatial coverage of the measuring stations for surface
water flows, groundwater and climatic data; b) inadequately trained technical manpower; c)
differences in instrumentation and measurement techniques; d) lack of timely data processing and
analysis; and e) discontinuity in records. One of the outcomes of this has been the need to periodically
reassess the water resource availability (i.e. ADB and FAO TAs for the re-assessment and monitoring
of groundwater), and to rely heavily on the modelling techniques (IUCN et al. 2000a,b). There is
hardly any effective coordination between the two agencies dealing with hydro-meteorological data.
The facilities available with Geophysical Centre of PMD are hardly known to R&D institutions. They
are receiving high-resolution picture transmission of NOAA 12, 15, 16 and 17 and maintain satellite
images in their archive.

51
Data adequacy (spatial and temporal) and reliability is a serious concern for sustainable planning,
development and management of water in the province. Variations in the assessment of water
budget by various agencies are primarily due to the lack of adequate and reliable data. Monitoring
of floodwater and runoff is almost non-existent. The realistic assessment of the water budget for
Balochistan is possible only if the data are reliable and adequate.

Relationship of Groundwater and Land Use Data

The tubewell-irrigated area during 2004-05 was 0.37 million ha, whereas the groundwater use
during the same period was 0.65 billion m 3, as shown in Tables 8 and 18. Excluding the use of
groundwater of 0.216 billion m 3 for the domestic and other sub-sectors of non-agricultural water
use, the actual amount of groundwater use in agriculture comes around 0.434 billion m 3. This
means that water availability per ha is around 117 mm per annum (or 0.39 acre feet per acre). In
fact, for the given climatic conditions, the amount of gross water required is around 800 mm in
the highlands using overall irrigation efficiency of the tubewell irrigated farms of around 70%
and cropping intensity of 150%.

This shows that the either land use or groundwater water use data are questionable. The
groundwater available and use data have been assessed in a number of studies conducted by the
consultants. The discussions made with the Agriculture Department indicated that there are more
chances of un-reliability of agricultural data.

There were around 27195 tubewells in the province during 2004-05. Assuming an average low
discharge of tubewells of around 4.0 lps (0.143 cusec) and operational time of tubewell of 16
hours and 80% days of the year (292 days) provide an amount of water pumped of 1.83 billion m 3
per annum. This is around three-fold of the amount of water use reported by the IPD. Assuming
that the land use data of 0.37 million ha is reliable, the average gross depth of water available per
hectare is around 500 mm, which is even less than the estimated water requirement of 800 mm. If
the tubewell is run for 365 days and more than 20 hours per day it can fulfill the estimated
requirement. This clearly shows that there are serious concerns with the reliability of data of
groundwater water use, irrigated land and the discharge of the tubewell.

The number of tubewells of 27195 and tubewell-irrigated area of 0.37 ha indicate that the average
area under a tubewell is around 13.60 ha, which is on the extremely higher side. The surveys
conducted under the ADB TA study indicated that the average tubewell irrigated farm size is
around 4-5 ha. Thus the Tubewell irrigated area is extremely over-reported by the agricultural
statistics.

In conclusion, the data related to groundwater, tubewell numbers and irrigated area are
questionable. But there are more chances that the data of area under tubewell is highly
questionable. Therefore, there is a need to further evaluate the reliability of data. The capacity of
the data collecting institutions is very much limited in collecting the reliable data in terms of
trained man-power, mobility and lack of appropriate methodology for the collection and
estimation of data.

The success of any sustainable water resource management programme is dependent on the
availability of adequate and reliable data. It is a well understood principle all around the world
that better water measurement is a better water management.

The lack of coordination among the water and agriculture institutions is another reason for the
reliability of data. In addition, number of consultants from ADB, FAO, IUCN and JICA have
been engaged in the reassessment of the groundwater resources in the province, but still the
reliability of groundwater and tubewell irrigated area is questionable as they are not related to
each other. This is a serious concern and a systematic study might result in having a completely
different type of conclusions.

52
2.2.2. Financial Constraints

Development Budget: The financial constraints are severe both for the development and O&M
budget. The development budget is not that constraint as federal PSDP is also financing the
projects in the water sector and donors are also providing resources for the development projects
(ADB, World Bank, etc.). The real constraint is the O&M as most of the schemes are not getting
sufficient O&M budget and deferred maintenance results into a situation where province is taking
development projects for remodeling, rehabilitation and renovation of these schemes.

The development budget for various sectors is presented in Table 31. The total PSDP allocation
during 2005-06 was Rs. 11.589 billion. Out of this, the allocation and financial gap for water
sector were Rs. 0.826 and Rs. 3.598 billions, respectively. The allocation and financial gap for
PHED were Rs. 0.212 and Rs. 0.519 billions, respectively. Adding the others sectors like
agriculture and forestry, the financial gap is Rs. 4.427 billions against an allocation of Rs. 1.122
billions for water, PHED, agriculture and forestry sectors. The allocation is also low as it is
around 10% of the total PSDP allocation for the year 2005-06 for the four sectors.

Non-Development Budget: Cost of canal water was computed based on the expenditures incurred
only on the concerned field offices of canal irrigation (Table 32); excluding the expenditure of
offices of the Department of Irrigation and Power in non-canal command areas and the O&M
expenditure required as per yard stick. The expenditures related to the Pat Feeder and Khirther
canals network are included in the cost estimates. The cost estimated for water related to salaries
of the IPD staff involved in canal commands (including cost under items 6, 7 and 8 of Table 32)
comes to Rs. 207.51 millions and O&M requirement for the Pat Feeder and Khirther canal
systems comes to Rs. 139.29 millions. The O&M requirement for the Pat Feeder canal (Rs. 66.88
millions), for the Khirther canal (Rs. 11.94 millions) and for Drainage Schemes (Rs. 60.47
millions) based on yard stick comes to Rs. 139.29 millions for the year 2005-06. Thus the total
O&M expenditure is around Rs. 346.8 millions.

The assessment of Abiana for the year 2003- 04 comes to Rs. 68.894 millions. Thus the assessed
amount of Abiana during the year 2003-04 is about 20% of the expenditure on the Pat Feeder and
Khirther canals. Actual collection of Abiana is however, much less than the assessment. Thus the
recovery of Abiana just meets 5.4% of the cost of water (Table 32).

To meet the cost of water, both the assessment and rates of Abiana have to be increased or
appropriate options have to be developed to meet the cost of water. This would require analysis
for the introduction of flat rate Abiana system in line with the Government of Punjab, who has
successfully introduced the flat rate of Abiana since October 2003. This has increased the
recovery and cost of assessment has altogether eliminated.

53
Table 31. Allocation and Financial Gap of Sectoral PSDP
PSDP 2003-04 PSDP 2004-05 PSDP 2005-06
Sectors Allocation Total *Total Fin. Gap Allocation Total *Total Fin. Gap Allocatio Total *Total Fin. Gap
Cost Exp. Cost Exp. n Cost Exp.
Agriculture 185.66 1986.45 26.73 1774.07 170.05 787.22 113.04 504.12 67.05 626.97 194.05 365.87
Livestock 37.75 91.17 9.40 44.02 104.14 257.06 37.11 115.82 47.86 290.39 49.84 192.69
Forestry 38.61 604.80 31.63 534.56 70.00 190.51 24.59 95.92 17.06 180.07 46.64 116.37
Wildlife 1.50 3.00 0.00 1.50 2.00 4.99 0.00 2.99 2.99 4.99 2.00 0.00
Fisheries 2.00 2.00 0.00 0.00 25.20 53.20 0.00 28.00 21.50 52.50 17.00 14.00
Industries 22.45 197.37 64.88 110.04 53.00 205.30 67.30 85.00 23.44 169.43 91.86 54.14
Minerals 10.34 40.82 25.48 5.00 125.26 648.38 146.40 376.72 66.00 894.94 283.50 545.45
Manpower 58.18 172.51 1.50 112.84 27.88 65.57 19.50 18.19 23.06 127.76 3.50 101.19
Spt: Tur 70.44 111.09 6.31 34.34 98.25 231.68 25.23 108.20 81.66 269.10 46.78 140.66
Information … … … … 7.98 52.45 0.00 44.48 7.99 57.47 7.00 42.48
P.P.& H 341.98 910.96 404.03 164.95 235.78 927.78 191.82 500.18 221.95 760.76 222.85 315.96
Roads 3260.96 19273.69 3521.44 12491.30 3835.16 31189.85 3381.75 23972.95 5411.79 31632.18 5670.20 20550.20
Water 1601.88 4729.33 603.20 2524.25 264.89 4003.38 770.05 2968.44 825.85 5086.10 662.01 3598.24
Information Tech 58.79 216.64 27.56 130.30 59.67 270.24 26.44 184.13
Education 1173.82 5162.77 1617.94 2371.00 1484.10 11394.36 1599.06 8311.20 1960.58 10081.70 1985.00 6136.12
Health 688.18 2790.74 515.84 1586.72 825.84 2003.65 284.14 893.68 590.30 2131.26 497.07 1043.89
PHED 544.70 898.66 82.81 271.15 241.43 1038.42 287.46 509.54 211.89 1025.67 294.58 519.20
Social Welfare 25.10 27.30 2.20 0.00 62.50 68.51 1.00 5.00 99.69 154.69 8.00 47.00
Environment 88.39 281.82 21.11 172.32 102.04 345.70 85.58 158.09 112.31 326.28 51.86 162.11
Local Govt. … … … … 93.10 144.57 0.00 51.47 91.07 162.47 13.38 58.02
Women Dev. … … … … 44.98 238.35 0.00 193.37 42.00 245.37 0.10 203.27
Rural Devet. 2.00 2.00 0.00 0.00 … … … … … … … …
BDA 30.00 40.00 0.00 10.00 433.29 3977.83 92.00 3452.54 893.83 6839.91 682.92 5263.16
QDA 51.25 252.85 181.60 20.00 3.58 9.58 6.00 0.00
GDA 100.00 166.00 0.00 66.00 10.00 166.00 50.00 106.00
BCDA 41.00 319.00 0.00 278.00 26.58 116.32 0.00 89.74
Power 22.00 99.68 0.00 77.68 35.00 205.16 37.02 133.14 98.18 412.60 88.69 225.73
Sp. Program 130.00 130.00 0.00 0.00 130.00 130.00 0.00 0.00 50.00 70.00 0.00 20.00
Std: & Res: 40.00 40.00 0.00 0.00 30.00 30.00 0.00 0.00 20.00 30.00 0.00 10.00
Other Schemes 359.40 758.18 285.60 113.18 825.44 1707.53 538.77 343.32 335.80 637.25 301.45
Public Rep. Pro. 565.00 565.00 0.00 0.00 465.00 465.00 0.00 0.00 165.00 165.00 0.00 0.00
Total PSDP 9300.34 38919.35 7220.08 22398.93 10043.33 61321.55 7910.96 43367.27 11588.66 63932.50 11638.52 40705.31
Source: PSDP-P (2003); PSDP-P (2004); PSDP-P (2005); PSDP-P (2006).

54
Table 32. Expenditure of the Department of Irrigation and Power, Balochistan.
No. Detailed Summary 2002-03 2003-04
function
1 6-52100 Administration Secretariat 1,510.52 1,927.48
2 6-52100 Planning Development & Monitoring Directorate 55.69 61.28
3 6-52100 H-1 Direction Chief Engineer 7.60 -
4 6-52100 H-1 Chief Engineer Design Cell 0.90 -
5 6-52100 H-1 Direction Chief Engineer (North) - 7.79
6 6-52100 H-1 Chief Engineer South - 1.77
7 6-52100 H-2 Superintendent Engineer 12.64 15.22
8 6-52300 H-3 Executive Engineer Canal Irrigation 169.85 190.52
9 6-52300 H-3 X-EN Establishment for Canal Division & Sub Division Hub 2.54 2.79
10 6-52300 Establishment Charges of Bela Canal 3.78 3.97
11 6-52300 H-4 Special Revenue 3.72 4.79
12 6-52300 Provision for Works (Non Development) 74.50 128.20
Total 1,841.73 2,343.82
Source: IPD (2005).

2.2.3. Physical Limitations

Existing paradigm of water development is primarily dis-jointed and based on mono-dimensional,

mono-disciplinary or sectoral approaches, which exacerbated the problems of resource degradation
and lack of appropriate impacts on the economy of the province and in reducing poverty. Most of the
interventions even if designed to help the poor do not resulted as pro- poor interventions. The
emphasis has been placed on the development of water and irrigation infrastructure, without linking it
with the framework of water management in the province. This paradigm of development is not
sustainable and thus there is need to have a shift from water development to water management by
linking it with the framework of IWRM. The physical limitations are:

The vastness of the province in terms of geographical area and thin distribution of the
available water resources is the major physical limitation as the existing infrastructure for
water development and management is inadequate to undertake IWRM at the basin level.
The instrumentation for monitoring of water resources is extremely limited as the current
gauging facility is addressing part of the needs of the three basins out of 13 major basins.
The building, computer and software facilities are limited for developing and maintaining
the water databases in a scientific manner addressing the temporal and spatial needs.
Reproduction facilities for mapping and printing are also limited and the departments
largely depend on local consultants to meet their day to day needs.
The mobility with the staff actually working in the field is very limited. The most
important staff member involved in field activities is the sub-engineers, which in most of
the cases do not have any mobility. The contractors provide them the transport facility for
the visit and supervision of the works. How, the sub-engineers can perform effectively
without the transport facility is a question, which needs to be addressed. The SDO is
provided a Suzuki Jeep, which is normally used by the SDO and not available to the staff
for field work.

2.2.4. Institutional Arrangements and Constraints

There is hardly any institution in the water sector, which is fully equipped for the implementation
of water resources management programmes. Inter-institutional dependencies are known to most
of the institutions, but there is hardly any effort to have interaction among these institutions. This
has resulted in to dis-jointed efforts for the implementation of the R&D projects. The
development agencies are never consulted while preparing the research agenda of water sector
institutions, which is vital to have impacts of research on water development. In fact, the clients
of research are development agencies and the water users (farmers and households).

55
There is a growing realization regarding lack of coordination between water and agriculture
sectors but there is a complete lack of mechanisms and arrangements how to initiate a
coordinated process in planning and implementation of water related projects. The basic issue is
the lack of joint planning and appraisals for the project formulation and implementation among
the major institutions and stakeholders related to water.

On the directive of Governor Balochistan, the ADB and IUCN provided the support to prepare the
concept paper for the establishment of the Balochistan Water Resources Management Authority
(BWRMA). Later on, the Irrigation and Power Department, Balochistan prepared the PC-II for the
establishment of BWRMA, which was approved by the GoB (ADB-PRM 2006). The GoB hired the
Consultants to prepare feasibility, formulate an Act and develop the PC-I for the establishment of the
BWRMA. The Consultants have completed the feasibility, Draft Act and the PC-I. The IPD is now in
the process for approval of these documents by the concerned quarters.

The M&E system is seen as an activity of policing rather viewing it in the context of learning
successes and failures. This demands change in the thinking process at all levels so that approaches for
sustainable development and management of water resources can be evolved. The interventions of
IWRM including the involvement of women in water quantity and quality management have to be
seen in the context of water-poverty-environment as an evaluation criteria.

One of the major issues is that water sector experts were not able to link the water agenda with
the national agenda of poverty-reduction and environmental conservation. Thus political support
was never utilized for evolving an effective development paradigm. Politicians were considered
as bosses and never taken on board as partners.

Balochistan Irrigation and Drainage Authority (BIDA) has primary responsibility for planning,
investigation, design and implementation of irrigation and water development projects. However, the
authority still lies with the IPD, as BIDA was never given administrative and financial autonomy. In
addition, the Area Water Boards were never constituted to decentralize the control at the canal level.
Furthermore, Farmers Organizations (FOs) were not organized in a fashion so that their
representatives can have representation in the Area Water Boards. Thus the Authority is handicapped,
as it lacks authority and autonomy in functions and also lacks well-qualified, trained and experienced
manpower. The existing manpower is occupied with the operation and maintenance of current
schemes, finding little time to formulate new projects. The access to appropriate equipment, laboratory
and library facilities and computerized access to data and information are inadequate. The Directorate
of Planning, Development and Monitoring of the Irrigation and Power Department (DPDM- IPD)
maintains a limited digital hydro-meteorological database, which can be assessed, processed and used
for planning and designing of water resources projects. DPDM-IPD, however, is deficient in
adequately trained manpower and does not have appropriate equipment to monitor, collect and process
hydrological data. This Directorate was adversely affected during the recent riots due to the death of
the tribal leader in Balochistan and most of the data and digital resources were burnt by the public.
Thus instead of addressing the issue of restructuring and strengthening of the DPDM, now the
question is to rebuild the DPDM from scratch in terms of developing databases, data analysis and
measuring facility.

The similar situation exits for other research institutions in the water and agriculture sectors. In
the absence of strong institutions for data collection, project planning, execution and monitoring,
effective water development projects cannot be planned and implemented.

Water research institutions are deficient in capacity and infrastructure; especially the trained
manpower is extremely limited. Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR)
maintains its Water Resources Research Centre in Quetta but lacks trained and qualified
manpower, limited laboratory and equipment facility. They are implementing projects related to
groundwater recharge, drip irrigation and water quality. The research facilities for agricultural
water management and use are non -existent. Recently, the P&D has issued a notification for the
establishment of the Directorate of Research in Agricultural Water Use and Management at the
56
ARI, Sariab. Still the programme has to be formulated and manpower has to be recruited. Arid Zone
Research Centre (AZRC) under Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) is engaged in
research related to rangelands, livestock, Sailaba and Khushkaba. They have qualified team of
scientists and engineers related to crops, rangelands, livestock, soil & water management research.

On-Farm Water Management (OFWM) Directorate under the Department of Agriculture is

responsible for lining of watercourses, construction of water tanks and installation of drip
irrigation systems. Their activities are limited due to the lack of institutional capacity and lack of
trained manpower in the management of groundwater and high efficiency irrigation systems.

Coordination between Water and Agriculture Sectors

Though agriculture is the main user of water and Balochistan’s economy is largely agriculture-
oriented, there is a lack of coordination between the agriculture and irrigation departments.
Similarly, at the federal level, coordination between Agriculture and Water Ministries is almost
non-existent. This leads to inefficiency in the planning, execution, operation and maintenance of
viable projects in irrigated agriculture, in a country where both these sectors are of vital
importance to the economy and are inter-dependent. Similar is the case at the province level,
where coordination between line departments is almost non-existent.

2.2.5. Human Resources

The human resources available in the departments of Irrigation and Power. Public Health
Engineering and On-Farm Water Management Directorate of the Agriculture Department are
limited both at the professional and para-professional levels. The constraints related to the human
resources are:

Most of the professional engineers in the Department of Irrigation and Power and Public
Health Engineering are normally having a BSc degree in Civil Engineering with
background mainly in construction of civil works. Their theoretical background in
Irrigation and Water Supply is limited. Only few professional are having MS degree in
Irrigation Engineering, Water Management or Water Supply. Similarly, most of the
experts in the Department of Agriculture are having background in various disciplines
having little or no relevance with On -Farm Water Management. In fact, agricultural
engineering is the relevant background. In other provinces, professionals are having MS
degree in Agricultural or Irrigation Engineering.
Most of the professional staff is not having any training in rural development for design
and operation of rural water supply schemes or designing and operation of irrigation
schemes for agriculture.
The facility and system for in-service training is not available in the line departments.
The promotion is not linked with the in-service trainings. The Punjab Engineering
Academy provides in-service trainings to all the engineering departments in Punjab.
There is no provision for the professionals for improving their academic education.
Similar is the case for the para-professionals.
The lack of service structure is also hindering the development of human resources,
because most of the professional having access for other lucrative jobs are leaving to get
jobs with private sector or the NGOs. Some of them have started working as Consultants.
There is no incentive for the professionals and para-professionals to improve their
academic education.

2.2.6. Spatial Variability

Relating Rural Poverty with Natural Resources Endowments

A study was conducted by the WRRI (2001) in collaboration with ICARDA with an objective to
analyse the relationship between rural poverty and natural resources indices. There was a
57
correlation between the rural poverty index (RPI) and the natural resources index (NRI), where
the R-value was 0.299. Similarly, there was correlation of social development index (SDI) with
the NRI where R-value of -0.283 was observed (Figures 26 and 27). The weak relationship was
mainly due to the reason that social development was mainly directed by the priorities of the
bureaucratic or political system instead of the natural resources endowments. The distribution of
probability of NRI is presented in four quartiles alongwith the ranks of the RPI to have better
assessment of the relationship between the RPI and the NRI in spatial terms (Table 33).

Figure 26. Rural poverty index of various districts of Balochistan.

Figure 27. Natural resources index for various districts of Balochistan.

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Table 33. Distribution of probability of ranks assigned to NRI of various districts
along with information of RPI, Balochistan, Pakistan.
Probability Quartiles Districts NRI RPI

Top Quartile Khuzdar+Aw 1 10

Kharan 2 11
Chagai 3 19
Zhob 4 3
Lasbela 5 17
Qilla Saifullah 6 6
Average 11
Second Quartile Pishin+QA 7 14
Loralai 8 9
Turbat 9 2
Panjgur 10 1
Gwadar 11 15
Kohlu 12 20
Average 10
Third Quartile Kalat 13 4
Mastung 14 13
Dera Bugti 15 12
Bolan 16 8
Sibi 17 22
Musa Khel 18 5
Average 11
Bottom Quartile Jhalmagsi+Ja 19 16
Barkhan 20 18
Quetta 21 23
Nasirabad 22 7
Ziarat 23 21
Average 17
Source: WRRI (2001).
NRI Natural resources index
RPI Rural Poverty index

Top quartile represents the districts having relatively higher level of natural resources
endowments, whereas the bottom quartile includes districts having relatively lower level of
natural resources endowments. The trend of RPI was more or less same for the first three
quartiles. The lowest quartile in terms of hydrological endowments has the highest poverty.
Therefore, the provincial Poverty Alleviation Programme must focus priorities on natural
resources endowments. The top quartile also indicated that districts like Khuzdar, Kharan,
Chagai, Zhob and Lasbela although endowed with relatively higher levels of natural resources
endowments, but very little efforts were made for agricultural and social development.

Most alarming thing is that districts, which had least natural resources endowments like Quetta,
Jhal Magsi, Bharkhan and Ziarat, have been exploited rather more than the sustainable levels,
where clear signs of degradation are now visible. Therefore, development paradigm and process
of assigning priority to various districts based on likes and dislikes of the bureaucratic and
political system need rethinking.

2.2.7. Socio-cultural Influences

Tribal system, low literacy rate and poverty often create problems in the identification of
appropriate projects and their implementation. Under traditional practices members of the
Provincial Assembly decide the projects to be started. They have their localized priorities and
interests. The project rather than being based on technical, socio-economic, environmental, basin
59
or physiographic considerations – are designed to suit localized interests. The interests of the
communities at large and ecosystems perspectives are therefore ignored. Lack of education
among water users, including farmers and the general public, also creates problems in convincing
people of the importance of saving water for their own good, as well as for the good of the
province and nation.

The socio-political character is always considered as interference in the development process and
water sector is not an exception. The question, which never asked is how to include politicians as
partners and stakeholders in the planning of water resources projects.

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 3. Opportunities

3.1. Changing Parameters for Provincial Development

3.1.1. Focusing the Resource Base - Availability and Use

Need for IWRM Policy for Balochistan

Despite the extensive developments in the water sector, population growth, rapid urbanization,
mining sector development and industrialization, are imposing growing demands and pressures
on water resources of the Balochistan province, which are extremely deficient due to arid
environments. The expanding imbalance between supply and demand, has led to shortages and
unhealthy competition amongst end-users besides causing severe environmental degradation in
the form of: a) persistent increase in waterlogging and salinization in the IBIS area of Pat Feeder
and Khirther canals; b) inefficient and ineffective irrigation management in minor irrigation
schemes leading to loss of precious water; c) lowering of water table and mining of groundwater
in the three over-drawn basins (Pishin-Lora, Nari and Zoab); d) neglect of Sailaba and Khushkaba
farming systems with reduced recharge to the groundwater; e) entry of sewage, agricultural and
industrial effluents into freshwater or storm water streams; and f) intrusion of saline water into
fresh groundwater reservoirs in the coastal areas and at certain inland locations.

During the last three decades (1976-2005), Balochistan’s development was driven by expansions in
the irrigated agriculture area and production; especially the rate of increase in tubewell-irrigated
area was relatively much higher than the surface irrigated area. Improved agricultural practices in the
surface irrigated area (IBIS and minor irrigation schemes) allowed for substantial yield increases, as
well as the development of high value horticulture through the indiscriminate exploitation of
groundwater resources. These interventions have contributed in the agricultural economy of the
Balochistan's province through contribution of 52% into the provincial GDP to keep pace with the
provincial demand in meeting the food and fiber requirements and for export of fruits and vegetables.
Whilst in other water related sectors, notably urban and rural water supply, the pace of development
has not kept up with the need, whereby significant proportions of the population remained deprived of
the benefit of clean and safe water supply for domestic needs and sanitation facilities, resulting in a
heavy cost to the province in terms of people's health.

Currently, the surface water resources of the province constitute 96% of the total water
resources available per annum, whereas the rest 4% is available from the groundwater resources.
The major part of the fresh groundwater resources have already been exploited, therefore, the
potential for future development lies in the development of the available surface water resources.
Out of that around 71% of the available water resources are from floodwater. Therefore,
development of floodwater has to be given highest priority in the future. In the past, emphasis has
been placed on the development of groundwater, as the Governments of Pakistan and
Balochistan are jointly providing subsidy of around Rs. 8 billion (for the current year 2005-06) to
the electric tubewell owners, which are not more than 7900 in the province. This number is based
on the actual number of tubewells in operation and assuming that on an average a farmer owns
two tubewells. The ADB TA Grant studies revealed that there are farmers who own over 12
tubewells, whereas number of farmers has two or more tubewells. It is important to mention that
the electric tubewell owners represent around 2.4% of the total farms of Balochistan (around
329,868 farms) – a fractional segment of the total farming community.

The electric subsidy does not left any significant financial resources available with the
Government of Balochistan for the development and management of the water resources in the
province. Furthermore, there is a distortion in the policy of supporting the minor segment of the
farming community by neglecting the diesel tubewell owners of the same number and a large
number of Sailaba, Khushkaba and livestock farmers. The neglect of Sailaba and Khushkaba
farming systems also affected the traditional and natural system of groundwater recharge.

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The subsidy on electricity has another dimension, because it resulted in wasteful use of water as
farmers pay only 10% of the total electricity bill. Thus they are not yet aware of the value of
water even after the persistent drought and drying of wells during the last six years. In addition,
the prolonged drought had adverse effects on the water table and the mining of groundwater
resources throughout the province. The rapid decline in water table has resulted in to a situation
where pumped groundwater is not going to be economical to grow agricultural crops within the
existing framework.

The future of the Balochistan province is likely to be dominated by increasing pressure on

water, both driven by the increasing population (set to increase by over 43% by the year 2025),
rising urbanization (the urban population is expected to double in the next 25 years) and increased
contribution of the agriculture sector in provision of livelihood to the large population. In the
domestic water supply sub-sector, this will require significant investment and improvements in
the management, efficiency and equity of availability and service delivery. Increased storage of
floodwater will be required around the urban areas like Quetta City and Gwadar to recharge the
groundwater through storage of floodwater in dams. This must be matched by increasing
efficiency of water use in the irrigation, industrial as well as urban and rural potable water
supplies. The added investment and enhanced efficiency needs will also require that the
beneficiaries are more involved in the management of the systems than has been the case to date,
and that the beneficiaries will have to pay for services both to ensure that the costs are covered
and that they use the services efficiently. The level of investment required will also drive the need
to mobilize capital from all sources, including the private sector wherever feasible, which is most
likely in the urban water supply and sanitation. The water markets in the private sector for
domestic needs now provide water tankers to urban households. During field visits, it was
observed in the Ziarat and at places in Loralai district, where farmers are using water tankers
paying Rs. 250 per tanker to provide life saving irrigation to their orchards after drying of their
wells and Karezes. Large number of orchards is affected by drought and these owners are now
working as labourers in urban areas to earn their livelihood.

The rising competition for water must be seen against increasing concerns about the
deterioration of water quality and the environment. Lack of effective wastewater treatment
facilities and saline drainage effluents are resulting in increasing pollution loads in the freshwater
streams as well as the salinization of farmlands in the IBIS commands. Gradually declining water
availability and quality raises serious concerns for very few wetlands of the province, coastal
areas and national parks.

In short, there was an emerging need to have a shift in the past policy of water development,
which did not consider development within the overall framework of integrated water resources
management (IWRM) at the basin level. Therefore, there was a need to link development with
the framework of IWRM so that any future development should not lead towards further
deterioration of the existing resources rather the target should be the up-gradation of the
resources. This would also require a shift in the policy instead of having emphasis on the
development of groundwater highest priority should be given to Spate irrigation development for
Sailaba areas with an objective to increase the command area and enhance the groundwater
recharge. Thus the development of check and delay action dams have to be seen within the
context of storage of water within Sailaba areas to support supplemental irrigation during dry
spells and prolonged droughts. Considering the need, the Government of Balochistan approved
the IWRM Policy for Balochistan on March 9th 2006, and notified by the Chief Secretary on
April 12 th 2006. The issue of subsidy on electric tubewells was pended. However, the GoB
included in the Budget Speech for 2006-07 the capping of the GoB share at Rs. 2.0 billion with
Tubewell numbers of 15,206, as on October 2005. The federal government has also given
assurance to cap their share of the tubewell subsidy. This would lead towards initiating the
process of initially capping the whole of the subsidy and then its gradual tapering.

The policy formulation is a dynamic process especially in situations where water is in short. The
province has to further strengthen the culture of managing the shortage through managing the
62
demand and the available resource. The recently approved IWRM Policy was the first effort and
it has to be implemented by all sub-sectors of water use, and in this process, it will be
automatically refined and fine tuned.

3.1.2. Basin Approach

The basin approach is essential for implementation of the IWRM Policy. This could be
accomplished by development of IWRM plans at the basin and sub-basin levels. In addition to
this, there is a need that such plans should be prepared within the framework of watershed-
water-farming so that productivity and sustainability of available water resources must be
ensured at the basin level with an objective to enhance profitability of the farming systems.

In summary, there is a need to use IWRM approach to have "Blue Revolution" in the province,
which over the next 50 years will provide water on sustainable basis, service delivery, usage
efficiencies and equities in availability of water to meet targets of agricultural production, public
health and environmental management. Therefore, for sustained agricultural production,
alleviation of poverty and combating environmental degradation, every drop of available water
should be conserved and production per unit of water be optimized, as has been amply indicated
by the recent persistent drought and declining of groundwater resources in the province. The
shortage of water was so acute that orchards have been dried and some of the farmers have lost
their source of livelihood in almost all the districts.

In terms of development of additional water resources, the new water resources in future would
largely come from managing the demand and saving of existing losses. Therefore, the emphasis has to
be placed on the management of resources and development has to be seen in the overall context of
integrated water resources management. The development of water should be aimed to have cost-
effective interventions without transferring the burden of O&M to the Government of Balochistan,
which can only be achieved through active participation of water users in the IWRM.

The afore-mentioned objectives can only be achieved by implementing the recently approved
IWRM policy, which addresses all the sources and sub-sectors of water use. Past strategies for the
development and exploitation of groundwater resources have raised questions as to what is a
judicious and balanced level of water resources management for the province. All such problems
are addressed with an objective to form the basis for the approved IWRM Policy.

3.1.3. Linking Watershed-Water-Environment

The IWRM concepts and principles have now been well accepted by majority of the stakeholders
involved in water management all over the world. However, translating these concepts and
principles into practice is a real challenge for Pakistan, because the country, in general, has been
facing difficulty in implementing the Institutional Reform Agenda in the water sector, which is a
key factor in implementing the IWRM. The situation in the Balochistan province of Pakistan is
rather more difficult and complex, as there is inadequate capacity in implementing the water
sector projects, especially the integrated projects. Therefore, the IWRM approach will require
further capacity building, but at the same time the IWRM framework provides an opportunity to
effectively coordinate the available scarce manpower resources available in the province.

The four Dublin principles related to IWRM are listed as under:

‰ Water as a finite and vulnerable resource;

‰ Participatory approach;
‰ The important role of women; and
‰ Water as an economic good.

The four principles of IWRM were followed in the formulation of the Balochistan’s IWRM policy.
The integrated approach is essential for managing the scarce water resources available in the
63
province. In addition to this, the persistent drought and the emerging climate change are going to
further aggravate the situation of mining of groundwater resources and migration of rural
communities to the urban areas.

Water-Poverty-Environment Framework

Poverty in Balochistan province is higher compared to other provinces. The fragile environments
of Balochistan province due to aridity and persistent droughts also demand that the resource
management be linked with the overall objective of poverty-reduction and environmental
rehabilitation. Therefore, within the IWRM framework, the Policy and Reforms were evaluated
considering the poverty-reduction and environmental-management framework. The objective
of the Balochistan’s IWRM Policy is to improve productivity and sustainability of water without
affecting the resource base rather in this process, the resources must be upgraded.

The IWRM Policy should help in achieving objective of poverty -reduction through shifting
benefits of policy and reforms to all segments of the society especially the poor.

Watershed-Water-Farming Framework

The IWRM approach demands basin level planning for implementation of Water Resources
Management (WRM) and Water Resources Development (WRD) Programmes. Therefore, within
the basin, framework of watershed- water-farming was used for integrated planning of WRM
and WRD projects. This framework also provides opportunity to look into ecosystem perspective.
Thus environmental implications of WRM and WRD projects will be taken care by reducing the
negative impacts and externalities.

3.1.4. Water Entitlements

The World Bank’s Pakistan Water Strategy revealed that Pakistan has an unusually long- and
well-established tradition of water entitlements. At the international level, Pakistan’s rights to
water from the Indus Basin system are unambiguously defined in the Indus Water Treaty. The
1991 Water Accord is a major achievement, which establishes clear entitlements for each
province to surface waters. Implicit in the Water Accord, too, is a set of surface water
entitlements at the canal command level (established on the basis of historic use). In large areas
of the system these entitlements serve as the basis for allocation of water among canal
commands. There are also well established rules for further distributing water to the distributary
and outlet levels within a given canal. Below the outlets, farmers’ entitlements are clearly
specified through the Warabandi system. The Warabandi system is the oldest farmers’ institution
(at the grass-root level) handling the water allocation issue on a given watercourse command. The
existence of such a well established entitlements means that Pakistan can now focus on: a) putting
in place a similar system for the surface systems that do not currently have such established
entitlements; b) extending the entitlement system to cover any new water that might be
mobilized; c) formalizing entitlements for environmental flows (including to the delta); d)
moving towards a similar definition of entitlements for groundwater; and, above all; e)
administering this system in a more transparent, and participatory manner.

Although, no restrictions have been imposed on Balochistan in the Water Accord 1991 to develop the
water resources of the Indus right bank tributaries, flowing through its areas, but the water
entitlements for Sailaba waters are not sharply defined. Furthermore, institutional set-up for the
development of Sailaba agriculture and Spate Irrigation is not yet in place. The floodwater is largely
handled under the concept of flood control and dispersion by the IPD, and the development and
management of Spate Irrigation is left for farmers. As, the floodwater in the province constitutes
around two-third of the total water resource, thus it provides an opportunity for its development.
Similarly, the water entitlements for other surface and groundwater resources are not precisely defined
for development and environmental purposes. The following opportunities exist

64
for further development of the resource in the province by defining the water entitlements for the
13 major basins of the province.

There is an opportunity to develop floodwater in the province through precise water

entitlements for water development and environmental needs for the 13 large basins in
the province. This would settle the trans-basin disputes and conflicts on floodwater
among the communities living in different basins of the province. The development of
floodwater is going to have some environmental implications on the wet bodies and the
coastal areas, thus precise definition of water entitlements considering water needs for
all sub-sectors of water use (agriculture, domestic, stockwater and environmental) would
allow sustainable development of this large resource in the province and provide
livelihood of the poorest communities living in these ecologies.
The groundwater entitlements need to be defined precisely for domestic, agriculture and
environmental purposes to allow sustainable development of the scarce resource. Rather
priority has to be defined among the various sub-sectors of water use as the domestic and
industrial water needs are largely fulfilled through the abstraction of groundwater. The
methods and quantum of groundwater to be used for agriculture must be defined to avoid
inter-generational issues within each of the basin.
The water entitlements for small scale surface and groundwater schemes (springs,
Karezes, etc.) need to be precisely defined to allow users to abstract defined amount of
water without affecting the degrading environments. Over-exploitation of groundwater
in one basin is going to affect the communities living in other basins as most of the
basins are inter-connected.

The water entitlements for the 13 major basins have to be defined considering all sources of water
so that future development of water is not going to end up with un-sustainable development and
environmental degradation. The rights for nature and lower riparian have to be precisely
determined using a holistic approach and the framework of IWRM.

3.1.5. Participation and Gender

The IWRM Policy Balochistan clearly articulates the need for having participation of
stakeholders at the basin level including the gender focus. The major elements of the policy
provides an opportunity to build institutions at the grass root level to have active participation of
stakeholders at all levels for sustainable development and management of the resource. The major
policy initiatives suggested in the IWRM Policy are:

Encourage and support participation of water users in water resource development and
management schemes as an integral part of the water policy.
Provide legal framework and support to build and strengthen water users’ institutions at
the basin level for sustainable management of the resource.
Link the users’ institutions with the basin Water Boards and then to the Balochistan Water
Resources Management Authority
Promote gender sensitization and encourage women participation in domestic water
supply, water hygiene, and environmental health by providing mandatory representation
in various forums.

3.1.6. Environmental Concerns

The IWRM Policy Balochistan clearly highlights the need for having appropriate measures for
mitigating the negative impacts of resource development right from the planning phase by adopting
basin approach for management and development of the resource. The participation of stakeholders at
the basin level including the gender focus would further help to reduce the negative impacts of water
development. The major elements of the policy provide an opportunity to undertake appropriate
measures at the planning, development and management levels to address the environmental concerns.
The major policy initiatives suggested in the IWRM Policy are:
65
 Recognize the need for a shift in the concept of drainage as disposal of effluent of Pat
Feeder and Khirther canals to the safe utilization of effluents for production of crops,
grasses and fuelwood.
Enforce EPA legislations for restricting entry of sewage effluents into water streams
Develop and implement low-cost treatment system for sewage effluents and safe
utilization for peri-urban agriculture.
Impose ban on installation of new agricultural tubewells in the three over-drawn basins –
Pishin- Lora, Nari River and Zoab River. Installation of tubewells for drinking purposes
should be restricted only in case of replacement of dried wells.
Allow replacement of dried agricultural tubewells in basins having limited potential for
development.
Restrict installation of new agricultural tubewells to basins having potential for
sustainable development but link it with the introduction of high efficiency irrigation
systems (sprinkler and drip).
The QESCO may be made responsible for providing reliable power supply to the farmers
and other consumers involved in pumping of groundwater and irrigation related activities.
Introduce the concept of skimming dugwells in the coastal areas including the Gwadar
and ban may be imposed on the installation of tubewells, which will certainly induce the
intrusion of seawater into the thin freshwater lens in these areas

3.1.7. Irrigation and Energy Nexus

Irrigation-Energy Nexus – IWMI Viewpoint for South Asia and Adoption for Balochistan

Electric tariff subsidy for tubewell farmers in Balochistan is an expensive development policy
having huge burden on the provincial economy. The result is overuse of both water and energy
resources in tubewell-irrigated agriculture — threatening the financial viability of the power
sector and the future of the groundwater resource itself, along with the livelihoods of the
thousands who directly depend on it.

The logical solution is the “Metered-tariff”, promoted by international and national experts,
donors, and power companies. But metering is the ideal solution, only if, the cost of metering and
billing 15,824 extremely scattered tubewells in Balochistan is ignored. More feasible and
beneficial solution in the short-term would be the use of a “Rational Flat-tariff”, which avoids the
transaction costs, strong farmers’ opposition associated with metering, and law and order
situation in Balochistan.

The prevailing “Flat-tariff” option in Balochistan has been questioned by the experts because it
has proved a complete failure. However, combined with the size of the prime mover and
intelligent power supply rationing, it is a logical and viable alternative which could reduce
wasteful use of groundwater at least by 30-40% in Balochistan.

The approach would involve: a) gradually raising farmers share of electricity bill to reduce
subsidy and power utility losses; b) supplying tubewells with reduced hours of power per day
instead of 24 hours (theoretical duration of power supply), but ensuring a quality power supply to
meet peak demand; and (c) metering at the feeder level to measure and monitor tubewell power
use, to allow effective management.

Metering - may not be the answer: The key reason for power utility losses is commonly thought
to be the “Flat-tariff”, which is based on fixed share of farmers (Rs. 48,000 per annum per
tubewell) and rest is subsidized rather than metered consumption of power. In mainstream
thinking, metering is the only solution. But tubewell-level metering was discontinued in
Balochistan due to the huge logistical difficulties and transaction costs involved. Rather, this
approach was abandoned in favor of the subsidized “Flat-tariff”. In reality, the benefits of the
“Flat-tariff” could not be achieved due to huge subsidy, where farmers’ share is only 10% of the
66
electricity bill and also irrespective of the size of the prime mover. Since no radical new solutions
to these problems have been found, there is little hope that metering will succeed if re-introduced
in Balochistan. Re -introduction of tubewell metering in rest of Pakistan in 1999 has benefited
neither farmers nor power companies, and power theft and meter-tampering are still common.

Two Alternative ‘Business Philosophies’: The “Metered-tariff” and “Flat-tariff” regimes are not
simply alternative pricing policies but they are completely different business philosophies. Using
a “Metered-tariff”, a power company can recover its costs and supply customers with as much
power as they want and when they need it. The “Rational Flat-tariff”, by contrast allows a power
company to use management to provide a high-quality, but carefully rationed, power supply and
yet remain viable.

The “Flat-tariff” currently used in Balochistan is ‘degenerate’, because it does not involve strict
controls on supply. Paying a flat rate for an almost unlimited supply encourages farmers to
maximize consumption, as has happened in the case of tubewells. As a result, the reliability and
quality of the power supply has been neglected, thus severely threatening farmers’ orchards and
crops at the peak water demand season.

Short-term Solution - the ”Rational Flat-tariff”: The key to making a “Flat -tariff” work is
rationing of power supply. For example, the QESCO does not need to supply 8,760 hours of
electric power per year – continued supply of power theoretically. It can make its farmers happy
(and cut its losses) by supplying only 3,333 hours per annum, provided those 3,333 hours are
made available when most needed. Gradual tariff increases would be necessary, but subsidies
should not be removed completely because that would be a political suicide, given the farming
community’s often violent opposition to attempts to rationalize energy prices. Farmers would
benefit greatly, although these gains would need to be guaranteed by the power companies, and
communicated clearly to farmers. Power companies would also benefit — fewer hours of supply,
and better upkeep of power-supply infrastructure, would cut their transmission and distribution
power losses. The case study of IWMI is presented in Box 8.

Box. 8. The Nexus and the Problem

In Balochistan, the management of the groundwater and energy economies is closely tied. Little can be
done in the groundwater economy that will not affect the energy economy. Plus, attempts to make the
energy economy viable (by cutting subsidies) have been blocked by farmers, who are an extremely
influential vote-bank for the politicians in a tribal society.

But do subsidies really encourage overuse of power and groundwater? A recent IWMI survey showed
clearly that farmers accessing greatly subsidized electricity supplies run their tubewells for between
40% and 250% longer than those who must buy diesel at market rates to operate their tubewells (Figure
28).

Figure 28. Comparison of annual hours of electric-tubewell operation (“Flat-tariff) and diesel-operated
tubewells in India and Bangladesh by IWMI (2003).

The “Flat-tariff” induces farmers to pump more. Electric-operated tubewell owners pump groundwater
for more hours per year than diesel-operated tubewell owners, according to an IWMI survey of 2,234
tubewell farms across India and Bangladesh conducted in 2002. Cutting the number of hours of electricity
supplied annually would ‘close the gap’ between electric and diesel-operated tubewell operating hours,
and so reduce ‘waste’ of energy and water.

67
The Case for Indirect Management

To control the unsustainable use of groundwater, decision makers commonly use the direct
management approach — involving tools such as laws, water pricing policies and reforms of
property/water rights. This has worked in some developed countries, in countries with a relatively
small number of large tubewell farms, and in countries in where the proportion of the population
dependent on tubewell-irrigated agriculture is small. But, even these countries have found it
difficult to remove electric subsidies for tubewells and stop overdraft completely.

In Balochistan, direct management is more difficult than any other part of Pakistan. First, the
extremely scattered tubewells over large geographical area of Balochistan pose huge logistical
problems. Second, institutions regulating groundwater use are ill-equipped, in-experienced, and
have few field staff. Third, agriculture in the province is extremely important, so direct
management is particularly ‘painful’ as many people rely on groundwater for their incomes and
livelihoods. It is important to note that these tubewells also provide water for domestic and
stockwater purposes to a larger segment of rural population – indirect benefits of irrigation
tubewells.

The Rational Flat-tariff - conserving groundwater and reducing power losses

The practical method for indirect management of groundwater in the short-term is the “Rational
Flat-tariff”. Flat-rate pricing is a recognized business philosophy, often used when an important
objective is reducing the transaction costs of doing business.

There are many examples available in the commercial sector all over the world. In Pakistan, for
example, a flat rate is charged by the Cell Phone Companies for the first 60 minutes phone calls
made. Many low- income customers thus try to keep their calls closer to this limit, and thus the
company’s billing costs are reduced. The system is also used for canal irrigation around the
world, because it is not possible to measure and charge for individual usage having larger number
of smallholders.

Flat-rate electricity pricing in agriculture does not carry the logistical problems and large
transaction costs associated with the metering. And, if key points are considered when
implementing the system, it should not provoke farmers’ opposition.

Farmers like the “Flat-tariff” because it is simple and transparent (unlike metering). Plus, it is a
subsidy that reaches them directly, without being ‘creamed off’ by intermediaries. When
transforming the current dysfunctional “Flat-tariff”, policymakers should appreciate this; indeed,
all of the measures listed below need to be included in a policy.

Making the Power Subsidy Explicit: Power subsidy is important from two standpoints. Firstly, to
maintains the political life of the provincial government, and secondly to keep the farmers
farming. If charging farmers realistic energy prices means bankrupting them, all the progress
made since the 1970s in groundwater-based livelihood creation in Balochistan would be lost.

Making a power subsidy explicit is vital to effective management of the nexus. Presently, federal
and provincial governments provide 90% subsidy on the electric bill of 15,800 tubewells, but the
farmers complain that load shedding and power breaks are common and power supply is hardly
available for not more than 12 hours a day. Reducing the number of total hours supplied to a set
level and increasing power supply when irrigation is needed most would greatly reduce this
uncertainty, as well as cost of the subsidy.

Raising the Farmers’ Share of “Flat-tariff” - gradually and regularly: In Balochistan, farmers’
share of electric-tariff has not been changed since last many years, though generation and
distribution costs have increased tremendously. Inevitably, infrastructure has decayed and supply

68
quality has dropped. Raising the farmers’ share of “Flat-tariff is, unfortunately, unavoidable to
halt this decline and stop large rural areas losing their electricity supply completely.

The difference between farmers using electric- and diesel-operated tubewells gives some
indication of the ‘waste’ of energy and groundwater the current ‘degenerate’ “Flat-tariff” regime
encourages.

Considering the farmers share of electric bill of Rs. 48000/year and assuming a prime mover size
of 40 hp, revealed that the current annual charge is around Rs. 1200/hp per annum per tubewell
(or Rs. 100/hp per month per tubewell). Whereas in the Indian Gujarat’s, the electricity board
intends to hit farmers with a 350% price-hike, raising the annual charge from Rs 500/hp to Rs
2,100/hp (US$43.72/hp) for shallow tubewells, to comply with demands from the Gujarat
Electricity Regulatory Commission. However, if the state does this, the farmers may well unseat
the government.

In Balochistan, a regular 10-15% annual increase, would be easier for farmers to cope with, and
thus more likely to be accepted. Combined with the other measures outlined here, this would
allow farmers to see improved quality and reliability of supply as the benefits of the rise in their
share of electric tariff.

Finally, in Balochistan the emphasis is on maintaining the farmers’ share of electric bill of Rs.
48,000 per annum per tubewell, instead of addressing the issue of power quality. Farmers are not
willing to allow any increase as they are already victims of the voltage fluctuations and power
breaks. In fact, the voltage drop is not only due to the poor quality and deteriorated power
infrastructure but it is also due to the extra load of connections than the power supply lines can
afford.

Thus intelligent power supply management is needed to provide to farmers quality and reliable
power supply coupled with gradual increase in farmers’ share.

Managing Water Use – the basic issue

The crop water requirement is a function of atmospheric demand expressed as evapotranspiration.

There is extreme variation in seasonal water demand for fruits, vegetables and crops in
Balochistan. Kharif crops and vegetables have higher water requirement compared to the Rabi
season crops. For fruit plants, water requirement is higher during the summer months from that of
the winter months. For the purpose of comparison, 70% of reference crop evapotranspiration is
assumed as actual evapotranspiration for the fruit plants in Quetta, Balochistan (Table 34).

Table 34. Reference and actual crop evapo- transpiration for Quetta, Balochistan, Pakistan.
Months Reference Crop Actual Crop Evapotranspiration
Evapo-
transpiration (mm/day) (mm/month)
(mm/day)
January 1.3 0.9 27.9
February 2.2 1.5 42.0
March 3.0 2.1 65.1
April 4.6 3.2 96.0
May 5.9 4.1 127.1
June 7.2 5.0 150.0
July 7.4 5.2 161.2
August 6.8 4.8 148.8
September 5.2 3.6 108.0
October 3.7 2.6 80.6
November 2.1 1.5 45.0
December 1.4 1.0 31.0
Total 1082.7

69
 Average 4.3 3.0 90.2
Minimum 1.3 0.9 27.9
Maximum 7.4 5.2 161.2

The Table 34 indicated that peak crop water demand in Quetta during the month of July (161.2
mm) is over five-fold of the minimum requirement in the month of January (27.9 mm). This huge
variation in atmospheric demand provides an opportunity for managing the power supply to
reduce the electric subsidy and ensure higher productivity due to the scheduled irrigations. It is
important to note that over-irrigation to any crop from that of the atmospheric demand affects the
productivity adversely, because the deciduous fruits are extremely sensitive to excessive wetness.

Power Supply Management — the crux of the matter

Farmers who use diesel- operated tubewells pay market costs for their power supply. So, they are
unlikely to waste money on pumping extra water. Their behavior is rational and relatively based
on economics, rather than on maximizing benefits from a free or artificially low-cost resource.
They are the benchmark against which ‘excess’ use of power by electric tubewell owners can be
measured.

In India, the study conducted by IWMI revealed that each month, electric-tubewells are used for a
greater number of hours than diesel tubewells ( Figure 28). The difference between farmers using
electric- and diesel-operated tubewells gives some indication of the ‘waste’ of energy and
groundwater the current ‘degenerate’ “Flat-tariff” regime encourages. Certainly there is a scope
for reducing the hours of power supplied to farmers under a “Rational Flat-tariff”.

The data of Table 34 were used to estimate monthly duration of power supply needed during the year.
Assuming that at the peak water demand, reliable power supply is needed for a maximum duration of
16 hours, and then power supply requirements were computed on monthly basis (Table 35). In total,
3,333 hours of power supply are needed per annum. On monthly basis, power supply requirement
varies from 3-16 hours (Figure 29). This huge variability in power requirement provides an
opportunity for power supply management, which power companies can use for managing power
supplies to manage extremely scarce groundwater resources of Balochistan.

Table 35. Estimated hours of power supply to meet crop water demand for Quetta, Balochistan
(Ahmad. 2005a).

Months Crop Water Demand Duration of Power Supply

(mm/month) (hrs/month)
January 27.9 85.8
February 42.0 129.2
March 65.1 200.3
April 96.0 295.4
May 127.1 391.7
June 150.0 462.5
July 161.2 496.0
August 148.8 457.8
September 108.0 332.3
October 80.6 248.0
November 45.0 138.5
December 31.0 95.4
Total 1082.7 3332.9=3333
Average 90.2 277.5
Minimum 27.9 85.8
Maximum 161.2 496.0

Through this regime, power supply could be restricted to 3,333 hours/year compared to
maximum theoretical availability of 8760 hours/year. This would mean that a typical tubewell
could provide its owner with water sufficient to meet his water requirement at the farm level.
70
 (Ahmad 2005a).

Hours of Power Supply Needed to Meet Water Demand of Tubewell Farm

16

14

12

Hours of
10
Power Supply

0
January March May July September November
Period (months)

Figure 29. Hours of daily power supply needed to meet the water demand of tubewell farms for Quetta, Balochistan

Irrigators perceive a good quality service to be the provision of power of a uniform voltage and
frequency to meet peak water demand. Therefore, with intelligent management of power supply,
it is possible to satisfy irrigation power demand by ensuring power of 12-16 hours during 120
days of higher water demand period in the summer season (May through August). Some power
(e.g., 3-10 hours/day) would also be made available on other months of the year (Figure 29).

Use of off-peak power would further reduce the cost of electricity if all power was off -peak.
And, as many farmers irrigate at night, this would not affect their farming practices. So, the most
viable and practical solution to the current crisis involves gradually raising the farmers’ share of
electric tariff (from Rs. 1200/hp per year) by 15% annually – meaning increase of Rs. 180/hp per
annum along with restricting annual supply of tubewell power to 3,333 hours/year, rather than the
uneconomical and un-reliable 8760 theoretical hours/year currently provided.

The challenge for power companies would be to match the timing of power supply to the periods
when crops need water most. This would vary a great deal as crops grown vary within the
province.

The Benefits of the “Rational Flat-tariff”

If well managed, such a strategy could reduce wasteful use of groundwater in Balochistan
considering just by managing the power supply, reducing electric subsidy to a great extent. Plus,
it could actually improve farmer satisfaction with the power industry.

The strategy would also make groundwater and power use more sustainable (compared with the
present regime or a “Metered-tariff”) by placing an effective check on total use of both resources,
and thereby reducing unplanned overuse. For example, farmers who use automatic switches to
maximize the amount of groundwater they pump could not indulge in such waste if they only
received a rationed quota of good quality power on a pre-announced schedule.
71
A “Rational Flat-tariff” combined with supply management could reduce wasteful use of
groundwater considerably in the province.

Providing power for 3-10 hours/day outside the main irrigation seasons will encourage farmers to
line small on-farm storage tanks, to meet their water needs. Government is already providing
subsidy for the lining of earthen water tanks under the President’s Programme on Water. And, as
the “Flat-tariff” is greater for pumps with higher horsepower ratings, raising the tariff would
encourage farmers to purchase and use smaller capacity pumps for irrigating their farm, thus
reducing overdraft in regions where groundwater mining is rampant.

3.1.8. Innovative Technological Options

Potential for Innovative Micro-irrigation Systems

Access to irrigation water is a limiting factor to the productivity and profitability of many small
farms in Sailaba and Khushkaba systems, in particular in areas where water is becoming
increasingly scarce. Most micro-irrigation systems are not affordable for resource-poor farmers.
Standard drip irrigation systems are designed to serve larger areas, and cannot be broken down to
fit the small plots. Thus, innovative micro-irrigation systems have a potential to improve
livelihood of resource-poor families. The farms of Balochistan province can be divided into three
major categories:

• Large farms of more than 4 ha and having at least 2 ha under orchards can be considered for
standard micro-irrigation systems.
• Medium farms of 1-4 ha and having at least one ha under orchards can be considered for
innovative micro-irrigation systems.
• Small farms of less than one ha can be considered for hose-fed irrigation systems.
• Household gardens having area of less than one ha to support kitchen gardening can be
considered for small-scale bucket- and drum-type drip or hose-fed irrigation systems.

The Case Study of commercial-scale innovative micro-irrigation systems is presented in Box 9,

whereas house-hold scale study is presented in Box 10.

3.1.9. High Performance Institutions - Balochistan Water Resources Management

Authority

The recent past has been a period of increasing efforts and dialogue aimed at encouraging
efficient use of natural resources and attaining sustainability. Within the global perspective
several Asian countries17 have established (national) water sector apex bodies to guide sector
reforms and achieve sustainable water management. In 2004, a regional donor funded meeting 18
advocated the need for water sector apex bodies to bring together government, civil society and
non-government stakeholders for promoting effective water policies and water sector reforms.

17 Technical assistance has to date been provided by the Asian Development Bank for establishing and/or capacity building
of National Water Sector Apex Bodies in Sri Lanka, Lao PDR, Thailand, and Viet Nam. Several other Asian countries have
also established NWSABs, including India, Bangladesh, Kazakhstan, Nepal, and the Philippines.

18 ADB first regional meeting of National Water Sector Apex Bodies held in Hanoi, Vietnam and
subsequently, in 2005 in Bangkok, Thailand brought together the experience of several Asian countries.
72
Box. 9. Commercial-scale Innovative Micro-irrigation Systems (Ahmad 2005b)

Large-size Farms

Large-size farms are normally commanded by electric- tubewells and standard micro-irrigation systems can be
installed to irrigate orchards and creaper-type vegetables. Micro-tube type emitters are recommended to keep the
capital cost low, to avoid clogging and to provide higher discharges of water to replace the costly bubblers. For
field crops, low-pressure sprinkler irrigation systems can also be used. The watercourse has to be converted to
mainline using PVC or HDPE buried pipes. Manifolds and laterals of LDPE can be used to allow application of
water to plants. Fertigation systems can be avoided as labour is easily available but can be added if water
soluble fertilizers are available and farmers are ready to pay the extra cost of fertigation.

Medium-size Farms

Medium size farms are normally commanded by diesel-tubewells and micro-irrigation systems can be
installed using micro-tubing emitters to irrigate young orchards and creaper-type vegetables. For matured
orchards and field crops, hose-fed irrigation systems can be used. The watercourse has to be converted to
mainline using PVC buried pipes. Burried manifolds of PVC can be used to allow application of water to
plants using PVC flexible Hose. The innovative adaptation recommended is the low-pressure hose-fed
system using shiftable PVC flexible hose as laterals (Figure 30).

Plants

PVC
Moveable
Hose

PE Buried
Manifold

Hydrant

Figure 30. Hose-fed micro-irrigation system for matured orchards (Ahmad 2005b).

Small Size Farms

Small-size farms are normally irrigated using water from an earthen pond, dugwell, spring or stream.
Handpump based drip irrigation systems have been successfully tested for these farms in the Barani lands
(Figure 31). Windmills can be used in areas having desired speed of wind, where either shallow
groundwater or floodwater stored in earthen ponds can be used (Figure 32).

Figure 31. Handpump drip irrigation systems Figure 32. Windmill based micro-irrigation
using shallow groundwater in Barani areas systems in coastal areas of Balochistan.
of Punjab.

73
 Box. 10. Household-scale Micro-irrigation Systems (Ahmad 2005b)

Low-cost micro-irrigation systems have been adopted for resource-poor farmers and for household
kitchen-gardens in India, Nepal, and Zimbabwe. Drip irrigation kits ranging from an area of 40 m 2 to 2
ha have been developed, tested and are now used by over 30,000 families. These kits have reduced the
cost to irrigate 0 . 4 h a of land to 250 US$ compared to 1000 US$ under standard drip irrigation
systems. They require little initial investment and can be gradually extended (Figures 33 and 34).
With a 200 litre drum kit for 25 US$, a poor family can irrigate 500 plants (vegetables crops) and may
earn over 100 US$ cash income per year, a substantial improvement in their livelihood ( Figures 35 and
36). The technology leads to a significant savings in water (upto 60%) compared to flood-irrigation.

Figure 33. Basket -kit for household

drip irrigation systems in India

Figure 34. Basket-kit drip irrigation Family in India.

There are other innovative pumping technologies like treadle-pumps, rope-pumps, hand-pumps and
windmills, which can be used to recycle wastewater at household- or village-scale for raising fruits and
vegetables.

Figure 35. Household Drum-kit drip Figure 36. Household Drum-kit drip
irrigation Systems in India. Irrigation and smallholders in Zimbabwe

The Draft National Water Policy presented to the Prime Minister of Pakistan during August 2005 by
the Ministry of Water and Power included the policy area of “Institutional Improvement” through
establishing institutions for better coordination (GOP 2005b). This includes establishment of the
National Water Council at the federal level as an apex policy institution. In addition, it also
recommends the establishment of Provincial Regulatory Body as an apex provincial institution for
water regulation and enforcement. Therefore, the establishment of the Balochistan Resource
Management Authority (BWRMA) is in line with the National Water Policy, which is now in the
process of approval by the federal government. The establishment of the provincial Authorities

74
would also provide support in the future for the formulation of the Water Policy at the provincial
level and would ultimately generate consensus among the provinces for formulating the National
Water Policy through a participatory process, where provinces would have better ownership of
the National Water Policy.

The Government of Balochistan has recently approved the IWRM Policy for Balochistan, which
highlighted the establishment of the “Balochistan Water Resources Management Authority
(BWRMA)” as an apex policy, planning, regulatory, allocation and monitoring organization
providing assistance to the line departments in the planning and monitoring of the integrated
projects, but not involved directly in the implementation of the projects. Therefore, it will be an
apex institution responsible for coordination in the water sector, as a whole.

Based on analyses of the water resources sector within Balochistan the major constraints
identified and those that would need to be addressed or mitigated by the Authority are
summarized as follows:

• Economic value of water: the tubewell subsidy is perhaps the greatest impediment for
efficient utilization of water resources and provides a huge disincentive to farmers to adopt
more efficient methods of irrigation. Similarly the lack of metering and charging based on
utilization has led to (domestic and agricultural) water having little economic value;
• Delivery of water services is confined to government organizations and agencies which
have compounded constraints including overextended in terms of staffing, under-funding
and poorly trained staff to provide quality services;
• Public institutions involved in the water sector have a heavy infrastructural bias and are
“constructors” rather than managers and/or service providers;
• Government agencies have overlapping roles as implementers and regulators, which
prevents effective enforcement of legislation and impartiality in aspects such as licensing
abstractions and cost recovery;
• In many instances, water resources management legislation includes provisions, which may
no longer be relevant and may actually constrain new management initiatives. A more
significant concern is the lack of impetus to monitor and enforce existing legislation;
• Water resources management is hindered by a lack of adequate and reliable
hydrological, meteorological, and water quality data and its utilization as a planning tool;
• Water resources management activities are diffused and fragmented and, more often
than not, divorced from environmental management. Water resources management is
often hindered by not appreciating the holistic nature of natural resource management;
• There is a shortage of adequately trained human resources at all levels and more
pertinently planners who have a broad vision to understand and act decisively on critical
issues;
• There are no linkages between the development and research agencies. The research
agenda for the research institutions is being developed without participation of the clients
(development agencies, NGOs, farmers, households, etc.). Therefore, research is hardly
supporting the needs of the development agencies and NGOs.
• The sectoral development agenda resulted in implementation of sectoral projects
without considering the interdependencies of the sectors i.e. water, agriculture, forestry,
livestock and public health. Thus the water development projects are mostly un-
sustainable due to the mono-dimensional approaches followed for managing the
resources of the fragile ecosystems of Balochistan.
• Lack of impetus and political will on the part of government which has yet to
demonstrate its full commitment to effectively managing water resources within the
province. Despites strengths in infrastructure development and positive response to the
concept of IWRM and associated current initiatives there remain a critical weakness in
demonstrating commitment through positive action.

The need for a water resources management is essential for catalysing and leading change in the
management of water resources. This is particularly evident in Balochistan where poor planning
75
and management has lead to depleting groundwater resources and little focus on the potential of
surface water. The situation is further hampered by ineffective institutional arrangements, limited
capacity of institutions and poor linkages between public and private sectors associated with
water resources.

The creation of an apex or “umbrella” authority to coordinate recognized principles of integrated

water resources management (IWRM) based on declarations, such as the Dublin Principles is a
necessary step towards synergising the role of public institutions and independent regulation of
the water sector. The authority will contribute in the following areas:
• Accepting the economic value of water;
• Applying the best suited methods for allocating physically limited and economically
valuable water resources amongst competing needs;
• Promoting efficiency in water use;
• Balancing highly water consuming productive lower if an integrated approach to water
resources activities and highly polluting societal water uses management had been
followed. Increasing the role of municipalities and industries with long-term emphasis on
integrated demand management, for environmental conservation needs;
• Assessing how much water is available for meeting expected demand and evaluating the
impact of development works on existing resources and the environment;
• Increasing awareness amongst stakeholders and policy makers on the need for efficient
management of water resources and help bridge gap between what is technically required
and socially and politically feasible.

Attributes of the Authority

The key attributes of the BWRMA are reproduced as under (Box 11 provides the details of the
attributes):

• An independent apex body for water resources development and management;

• Focussed on regulatory and policy matters and not service delivery;
• Authorized to formulate, implement and enforce provincial water policy to provincial
government and other water sector stakeholders;
• Responsible for defining water entitlements both for surface and groundwater resources;
• Technically capable to provide high-level policy advice and planning for the integrated
water resources management projects;
• Active in promoting new technologies and practices for efficient water use and
facilitating line departments and other stakeholders in their adoption;
• Responsible for coordinating with other water sector stakeholders;
• Responsive to the needs of water users as defined by the provincial Water Policy and
Strategy;
• Financially and administratively independent;
• Accountable to the Government of Balochistan;
• Fair and transparent in its functioning.

3.2. Federal and Provincial Government’s Current Water Policies

3.2.1. Current Water Policies – National and Provincial

National Perspective

The First Comprehensive Draft National Water Policy was formulated to optimize the
development of water resources (surface and groundwater) and to enhance productivity and
sustainability of water in agriculture and other sub-sectors of water use, which is yet to be
approved by the federal government. Around 93% of annual available water is being used for the
agriculture sector; therefore, the emphasis of the Draft National Water Policy is to contribute to
76
food security and poverty reduction by fostering sustainable increases in productivity of water
through optimal supply and effective management at the basin level.

Box. 11. Attributes of the Authority (IPD 2006g)

To date one of the key institutional impediments to the successful development and management of water
resources within the province has been limited linkages between key stakeholders (particularly public
institutions) and subsequently, lack of coordinated planning. Additionally, the overriding role of technical
departments as “constructors” rather than planners and poor regulators has lead to isolated and often
parallel efforts within the sector. The primary role of the BWRMA will be to act as the senior, coordination
and advisory body in the water sector to advise government on water resource management and
development. In order to meet these requirements, the apex body will be authorized to formulate, implement
and enforce provincial water policy and will also have (limited) responsibility to monitor and evaluate the
implementation of its recommendations.

Recent experience in Pakistan, although limited to the private sector 19, suggests that regulation in an
independent, transparent, and predictable way attracts investment and provides a subjective assessment of
sector performance. Examples include the creation of the National Electric Power Regulatory Authority
(NEPRA), to implement power sector regulation and similarly the Oil and Gas Regulatory Authority
(OGRA)20 . These Authorities are largely responsible for granting, issuing, renewing licenses for regulated
activities, administering, enforcing and certifying standards for undertaking any regulated activity,
approving investment programs and determining tariffs and rates for licensees. The BWRMA will have
clearly defined responsibilities separating its role as policy making, planning, regulation and monitoring of
water resources from that of water development.

The organizational structure and membership of the BWRMA need to be carefully considered to promote
transparency, accountability, credibility and clear communication. To help achieve this, the BWRMA will
report directly (and be accountable) to Chief Minister and not through existing sectoral line departments.
Therefore, it will function under the direct control of the Chief Minister. To further strengthen the
independent nature of the BWRMA, it will also have financial autonomy from water sector departments
and will be funded directly by federal and provincial governments in addition to grants, donations and
revenue generated from licensing fees.

The BWRMA will function as an autonomous organization. It will have an eminent water manager as a Chairman
and national level experts as Full-time Members for building excellence and credibility of the Authority.
Separation of role will also help coordinate water sector institutions and encourage participation of all
stakeholders. The Chairman of the BWRMA should ideally be a high level eminent engineer/scientist from the
public or private sector who is a ”Change Agent” with the required vision and capacity to establish the
organization as a credible leader in integrated water resource management. Supporting roles will be provided by
sub-sector specific members, again demonstrating professional excellence within their specific fields to
contribute to policy formulation, provide high-level advice and planning of water resources. Technical experts
will also encourage and promote technological advancements and facilitate stakeholders in adopting innovative
approaches for improved water management.

The BWRMA will work under the Board of Governors, who will approve the annual programme and annual
budget of the Authority. The Executive Committee would be responsible for providing support in operations
of the Authority for the day to day working but work under the approved programme of the Board of
Governors. The BOGs part-time members will be appointed by the Chief Minister where representation will
be provided to all the major stakeholders. Membership of BoG will be for a 3 year period following which a
procedure similar to that of the Senate whereby 50% of membership is changed, will be adopted.

The amount and method of communication by the BWRMA with stakeholders in the water sector will be
linked very closely to the part-time membership of the Balochistan Water Conservation Council. In order
to promote effective communication and increase transparency in the functioning of the BWRMA, part-
time membership will be broad-based and open to a diverse range of water sector stakeholders. The
Balochistan Water Conservation Council will act as an advisory body for the Authority.

19 This refers mainly to privatized utilities such as oil and gas, electricity and electronic media
suppliers who are regulated by OGRA, NEPRA and PEMRA, respectively.
20 Established under the Oil and Gas Regulatory Authority Ordinance 2002
77
The First Comprehensive Draft National Water Policy (GOP 2005b) is aimed to achieve the
followings:

‰ Efficient management and conservation of existing water resources;

‰ Optimal development of potential water resources;
‰ Steps to minimize time and cost overruns in completion of water sector projects;
‰ Equitable water distribution in various areas and canal commands;
‰ Measures to reverse rapidly declining groundwater levels in low-recharge areas;
‰ Increased groundwater exploitation in high-recharge areas;
‰ Effective drainage interventions to maximize crop production;
‰ Improved flood control and protective measures.
‰ Steps to ensure acceptable and safe quality of water;
‰ Minimization of salt build-up and other environmental hazards in irrigated areas; and
‰ Institutional reforms to make the managing organizations more dynamic and responsive.

The Draft National Water Policy articulated that the water resources management and development
in Pakistan faces immense challenges for resolving many diverse problems. The most critical of these
is a very high temporal and spatial variation in water availability. The temporal variation is indicated
from the fact that highest annual flows are double of the lowest flows based on the last 70 years flows
data. In addition, there is a considerable seasonality in flows. Nearly 81 % of river flows and 65% of
precipitation occurs during the three monsoon months, while quality of groundwater largely varies
with depth and location. The spatial variations are in terms of precipitation, groundwater quality and
availability of canal supplies. The variation in rainfall is in the range of 100-750 mm per annum in the
Indus basin (GOP 2005b).

Ever expanding water needs for the growing economy and the population for meeting its food and
fiber requirements, and the advent of frequent floods and droughts, add to the complexity of water
management. The Key Issues related to the sustainability of irrigated agriculture were identified in the
First Comprehensive Draft National Water Policy (GOP 2005b) and are listed as under:

‰ Growing need of water to meet requirements of rising population besides socio-economic

demands;
‰ Very high variations, both in terms of space and time, in the availability of water
resources;
‰ Reduction in the availability of surface water, due to silting of dams;
‰ Lack of proper maintenance of the canal system leading to unsatisfactory service;
‰ Waterlogging and salinization of areas in various canal commands of Indus Basin System;
‰ Lack of commitment by various organizations on the need for provision of drainage
network as a part and parcel of the irrigation network;
‰ Over exploitation of groundwater resources, thus, rendering large areas out of reach of
poor farmers and exhaustion of groundwater aquifers;
‰ Pollution of aquifers due to lateral movement of saline water or upward movement of
highly mineralized deep water;
‰ Lack of proper disposal of saline effluent;
‰ Contamination of river water due to disposal of industrial waste, household wastewater
and field overflows contaminated with fertilizers and pesticides;
‰ Inadequate participation of consumers;
‰ Frequent floods and droughts and climate change impacts on water availability;
‰ Lack of inter-provincial consensus on developmental strategy and mistrust between
provinces on equitable water distribution;
‰ Proper pricing/valuation of water; and
‰ Quality of water in all sub-sectors.

The Guiding Principles, which formed the basis for formulating the First Comprehensive Draft
National Water Policy (GOP 2005b), are listed as under:

78
 ‰ By the year 2025, Pakistan should have adequate quantity as well as quality of water,
equitably distributed to meet the needs of all users through an efficient management,
institutional and legal system that would ensure sustainable utilization of its water
resources;
‰ Water has to support economic and social development with due consideration to the
environment, quality of life, economic value of resources, ability to pay and the
participation of all stakeholders;
‰ National water-resource development and management should be undertaken in a
holistic, determined, and sustained manner;
‰ Insofar as is feasible, planning, development, and management of water resources should
be decentralized to appropriate levels responding to basin boundaries and/or canal
systems;
‰ Delivery of specific water services should be delegated to autonomous and accountable
public and/or cooperative agencies providing water services in a defined geographical
area to their customers and members for an appropriate charge, but with proper and
effective regulatory functions to be performed by an independent body;
‰ Water use in society should be sustainable with appropriate incentives, regulatory
controls, public education, promoting economic efficiency, conservation of water
resources, and protection of environment, within a transparent policy framework;
‰ Shared water resources within and between provinces should be appropriately allocated,
delivered equitably and efficiently for the mutual benefit of all riparian users;
‰ Water sector activities should be participatory and consultative at each level, leading to
commitment by stakeholders and action that is socially acceptable; and
‰ Successful water sector reforms require sustained capacity building, monitoring,
evaluation, research, and learning at all levels, to respond effectively to changing needs at
the national, basin, project, service entity, and community level.

IWRM Policy for Balochistan

Guiding Principles

The Guiding Principles, which formed the basis for formulating the Balochistan’s First
Comprehensive approved IWRM Policy, are listed as under (GOB 2006):

‰ Balochistan’s water resource management should be undertaken in a holistic, determined

and sustainable manner to meet provincial development goals and to protect the fragile
environments;
‰ Planning, management and development of specific water resources should be based on
participatory approach and decentralized to an appropriate level responding to basin
boundaries as a hydrological unit – the IWRM approach;
‰ Delivery of specific water services should be delegated to autonomous and accountable
public, private or cooperative agencies providing measured water services in a defined
geographical area to their customers and/or members for an appropriate fee;
‰ Water use in society having fragile ecosystems should be sustainable at all costs - with
incentives, regulatory controls and public education, promoting economic efficiency,
conservation of water resources and protection of the environment - with a transparent
policy framework;
‰ Shared water resources within and between communities should be allocated efficiently
for the mutual benefit of all riparian users – including canal supplies, minor perennial
flows, Sailaba and Khshkhaba farming systems;
‰ Water sector activities should be participatory and consultative at each level, leading to
commitment by stakeholders and action that is socially and culturally acceptable; and
‰ Successful water sector reforms require a commitment to sustained capacity building,
monitoring, evaluation, research and learning at all levels to respond effectively to
changing needs at the provincial, basin, district, project, service entity and community
level.
79
Strategies for Formulating the IWRM Policy, Balochistan

The Strategies adopted for formulation of the Balochistan’s First Comprehensive approved
IWRM Policy are depicted as under (GOB 2006):

‰ Prepare and adopt a provincial IWRM Policy and Action Agenda, based on a provincial
water sector assessment made under the Pakistan Water Strategy and the Balochistan
Conservation Strategy;
‰ Establishment of an apex organization to support formulation and enforcement of water
laws and regulations, formulation and implementation of water policy, planning of
integrated projects, strengthening of information and water sector institutions, and
monitoring and evaluation of integrated projects;
‰ Invest to manage the provincial priority river basins, including development of physical
infrastructure, institutions and capacity building;
‰ Increase the autonomy and accountability of service providers in the water supply and
irrigation sectors;
‰ Develop incentives, regulations and awareness for sustainable water use especially the
groundwater resources, which are extremely meager in the province;
‰ Manage the use of shared water resources and develop cooperation between and within
communities and provinces;
‰ Enhance water information, consultation and partnerships; and
‰ Invest in capacity building, monitoring and learning.

3.2.2. Need for Shift in Formulation of Water Policy and Water Institutions (Federal-provincial
relations)

The IWRM Policy Balochistan has recently been approved during March 2006. The Draft
National Water Policy is still in the process of approval since the last many years. Both the
documents are the first formal documents, as these are the first provincial and national policies.
However, there is a need to have a shift in the process of policy formulation, as the provincial
policies should be formulated first and then based on these four provincial policies, national
policy should be evolved based on the commonalities.

This shift would help to have better ownership of the policy and would also lead towards
resolving some of the provincial conflicts in the development of large infrastructures on river
Indus. Water is a federal subject but it is mainly related to water development, whereas low
priority is assigned to water management. The implementation of hydro-power and large
irrigation projects are being handled by WAPDA. Irrigation and On-Farm Water Management are
the provincial subjects but handled by different Departments – Irrigation and Agriculture. All the
sub-sectors of water use (water for agriculture, water for people, water for nature, etc.) are
responsibility of the provinces, therefore a clear policy direction is needed for this purpose.

The trans-provincial river basin management and development of large hydro-power projects is
the federal responsibility. Therefore, there is a need to redefine the role of the WAPDA’s Water
Wing by restricting their role in involving water for agriculture and water for people. Currently,
WAPDA’s Water Wing outfits are involved in water management for agriculture and even in
irrigated agriculture activities. Their institutions like IWASRI and MONA be shifted to provinces
or PARC.

Even within the province the Draft National Water Policy advocates the establishment of Water
Resources Management Commissions. This recommendation is in-line with the Balochistan’s
approved IWRM Policy, which advocates the establishment of Balochistan Water Resources
Management Authority with a mandate addressing for water allocation, regulation, policy formulation
and implementation, planning and monitoring of integrated projects. These institutions

80
will not be involved in the implementation of the projects rather would coordinate and provide
linkages for all sub-sectors of water use.

81
 4. Current and Proposed Investment Plan
4.1. On-going Projects Funded under the Federal PSDP

Currently, WAPDA is implementing five federally funded projects under the PSDP with a total
cost of Rs. 42.8 billion (PSDP-F 2006). Out of this Rs. 13.2 billion has already been spent and the
allocation for the current year (2006-07) is around Rs. 7.15 billion (Table 36).

Table 36. Federally funded on-going water projects implemented by WAPDA in Balochistan.
No of Estimated Total Physical Progress
Allocation (%)
No. Description Sub- Cost Expenditure
2006-07
Projects (Rs. in million) todate Planned Actual
1 Mirani Dam Project 1 5811.00 4784.418 750.00 100 95
2 Kachhi Canal Project 1 31204.00 6386.973 5500.00 28 22
3 Sabakzai Dam Project 1 1010.33 815.597 300.00 91 64
4 Balochistan Effluents 1 4485.20 1089.114 500.00 27 27
Disposal through RBOD-III
5 Feasibility Studies Hingol, 5
Naulang, Sukleji, Tanke- 274.00 117.60 100.00 -- --
Zurati, Winder
Sub Total (a) 9 42784.53 13193.70 7150

In addition to the projects implementation by WAPDA, the Department of Irrigation and Power is also
implementing seven projects under PSDP with a total cost of Rs. 4.5 billion, out of which Rs. 1.1
billion has already been spent to date and there is allocation of Rs. 1.2 billion for the year 2006-
7 (Table 37).

Table 37. Federally funded on-going water projects in Balochistan implemented by

Department of Irrigation and Power (PSDP-F 2006).
No of Estimated Total Allocation Physical Progress
No. Description Sub- Cost (Rs. Expenditure (%)
2006-07
Projects in million) date Planned Actual
1 Constt: of 43 minor Canals and
R&Ext: Of existing 49 minor 92 700.0 700.00 19.200 97
Canals in the command of
Patfeeder
2 Ext: of Patteeder Canal Project 1 2243.708 50.594 500.000 16 --
R/Cost 4467.503
3 Kirther Canal Project 1 1000.0 166.70 500.000 20 17
4 Ground WaterRecharge Project 54 436.540
Quetta, Pishin & Manocher. 153.00 142.9 100 40
Dams completed – 5 R/Cost 1057.432
Dams near completion – 8
Dams in progress – 2
5 Balochistan Dams (F/Studies)
(Rs. 266.210 M Reflected in
Federal PSDP 2006-07) 2 30.000 -- 30.00 -- --
- Ajram F/I Scheme
- 200 Dams in Balochistan
(*)
6 Normal Emergent Flood 34 60.80 35.00 -- 100 70
Programme –2005-06
7 Normal Emergent Flood --- 71.40 -- 71.40- Schemes under
Programme –2006-07 process of approval
by PDWP/ SC.
Sub Total (b) 219 4541.908 1105.294 1192.10
82
4.2. New Projects Funded under the Federal PSDP

The federally funded PSDP also approved five new water projects at a total cost of Rs. 3.45 billion
with an allocation of Rs. 0.29 billion for the current year (Table 38). The financial situation of the on-
going and new projects indicated that funding for the water projects being implemented by the
Department of Irrigation and Power is quite low. Normally the project planned for a period of 5 years
is completed in 11 years primarily due to in-adequate and un-planned annual allocations.

Table 38. Federally funded new water projects in Balochistan (PSDP-F 2006).
No. Description Estimated Allocation Remarks
Cost 2006-07
(Rs. in
million)
1 Remedial Measures for Dhana 160.004 100.00 PC-I submitted to Planning Commission
Saduri Irrigation scheme District & Ministry of Water & Power Govt. of
Lasbela Pakistan.
2 Bolan Dam District Kachhi 436.00 50.000 Already approved. But
PC-I has been revised with reference to
advice of Planning Commission, Revised
PC-I costing Rs.605.282 million
submitted to Ministry of Water & Power,
Govt. of Pakistan.

3 Toiwar/Nawa Batozai Storage Dam 2351.98 20.000 PC-I stands submitted to Planning
District Killa Safullah Commission for approval by CDWP.

4 Construction of 200 Dams in 200.00 100.000 Feasibility study being prepared under
Balochistan resource from GOP and will be completed
(10 dams – 2006-07) by January, 2007
5 Re-construction of Shadi Kaur 300.00 20.000 Contract for feasibility study/detailed
Dam District Gawader design awarded and will be available by
(In PSDP 2006-07 reflected as Rs. December 31, 2007
20.0 Million)
Total 3447.894 290.00

4.3. Proposed Mega Projects for Water Development in Balochistan

The Department of Irrigation and Power has also proposed 32 mega project with an estimated
cost of Rs. 60.5 billion (Table 39).

The ongoing mega projects being implemented by WAPDA are Kachhi canal and storage dams
(Mirani and Sabakzai). The proposed mega projects include construction of small storage dams,
delay action dams, flood schemes and rehabilitation of existing schemes.

The most critical aspect is that majority of flood dispersion schemes and delay actions dams are
being planned without having systematic planning at the basin level considering the resource
availability and potential for sustainable development. The flood dispersion schemes have to be
seen in the context of Sailaba Agriculture and the delay action dams has to be linked with Sailaba
agriculture to provide storage of water for the dry spells and periods of drought and recharge to
the groundwater. Until these schemes are linked with Sailaba agriculture, these can not be made
sustainable on long-term basis.

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Table 39. Proposed Mega Projects by IPD, Balochistan
Estimated Cost Area Runoff to
No Name of Project (Rs. in million) (Acres) be utilized
(MAF)
A. PRIORITY -1
1 Naulang Dam , District Jhal Magsi 6000.00 26000 0.13
2 Rehabt: of Khushdil Khan Bund, District Pishin. 1008.00 12000 0.06
3 Reconstruction of Bolan Dam Project 284.00 17000 0.04
4 Winder Storage Dam, District Lasbela. 500.00 12500 0.07
5 Badenzai Storage Dam, District Zhob. 5000.00 25000 0.11
6 Tank-e-Zorati Storage Dam, District Kharan 350.00 21000 0.15
7 Pilar Dat Storage Dam, District Awaran. 2000.00 25000 0.09
8 Porali Dam, District Lasbela 4000.00 50000 0.15
9 Ajram Shadezai Flood (I) Sch:District K-Abdullah 100.00 10000 0.09
10 Construction of 200 Delay Action Dams in different parts 5000.00 150000 0.93
of Balochistan Province (Sites already identified)
TOTAL FOR PRIORITY -1 24242.00 348500 1.820
B. PRIORITY -2
1 5 Nos. Flood Dispersal Structures along with conveyance 500.00 250000 1.01
system on Nari River, District Bolan
2 Murgha Faqirzai Dam , District Killa Saif ullah 1000.00 25000 0.09
3 Burj Aziz Khan Dam , District Killa Abdullah 6000.00 30000 0.09
4 Sehan Flood Irrigation scheme, District Loralai. 200.00 10000 0.03
5 Siri Toi Dam , District Zhob 300.00 2000 0.02
6 Kuchnai Dara Dam, District Quetta. 300.00 500 0.01
7 Saliaza Dam , District Zhob. 300.00 20000 0.13
8 Raising of Hub Dam Project, District Lasbela. 2000.00 20000 0.09
9 Mir Ali Khail Dam Project ,District Zhob 3000.00 15000 0.10
10 Babar Kach Dam, District Sibi 3000.00 100000 0.65
11 Kingri Dam, District Musakhail. 250.00 15000 0.11
12 Hingol Dam, District Gawadar 10000.00 50000 0.27
13 Porali Flood Management and Dispersal System, District 500.00 150000 0.76
Lasbela.
14 Khori Storage Dam, District Lasbela. 100.00 8000 0.08
15 18 Delay Action & Storage Dams in upper catchment of 1000.00 5050 0.01
Nari River, District Ziarat and Sibi.
16 Anambar Storage Dam, District Loralai. 1000.00 50000 0.21
17 Usha Manda Storage Dam, District Killa saifullah 300.00 1500 0.01
18 Basol Storage Dam, District Gwadar. 200.00 6000 0.03
19 Sheh Zanik Storage Dam, District Gwadar. 100.00 2500 0.01
20 Tirandaz Storage Dam, District Gwadar. 100.00 10000 0.07
21 Guhrad-e-Bagh Storage Dam, District Kech. 100.00 1500 0.01
22 Sensori Storage Dam, District Kech. 60.00 2000 0.02
23 Noken Rah Delay Action Dam, District Kech. 60.00 1500 0.01
24 Rindani Gat Flood Irr: Scheme, District Kech. 80.00 9000 0.06
25 Tradan Flood Irrigation Scheme, District Kech. 50.00 2500 0.02
26 Scargo Flood Irrigation Scheme, District Kech. 57.00 5000 0.05
27 Banjahi flood Irrigation Scheme, District Panjgur. 68.00 10000 0.09
28 Tangsar Storage Dam, District Zhob. 1500.00 10000 0.09
29 Gaz Nullah Storage Dam in K/Saifullah 100.00 1500 0.03
30 Narachi Storage Dam in Loralai 3000.00 150000 0.45
31 Flood Dispersal structures and canals system on Lehri and 500.00 30000 0.09
Talli Rivers
32 Extension of Rabi Canal, Patfeeder 300.00 75000 0.004
TOTAL FOR PRIORITY – 2 36225.00 1018550 4.87
G.TOTAL FOR PRIORITY – 1+2 60467.00 1367050 6.69
84
4.4. Current and Planned Investments by Federal and Provincial Governments

The current and planned investments are given in Table 40. The total investment comes to Rs.
111. 25 billion (US$ 1.854). Out of this funding is available for US$ 0.854 billion, and funding is
also needed for US$ 1.0 billion. This amount is needed for the next five years. The requirement
for the next decade would be over US$ 2.4 billion considering the on-going, new and proposed
projects by the province. However, these projects have to be seen in the basin approach and
within the context of IWRM to have sustainable water development without any negative
environmental impacts.

Table 40. Current and planned investments

No. Source of Funding Amount (Rs. In billion)
1. On-going Projects financed under the federal PSDP 47.3
2. New Projects financed under the federal PSDP 3.45
3. Proposed Mega Projects still need funding 60.5
Total (Rs. in billion) 111.25
Total (US$ in billion) 1.854

4.5. Proposed Investment Plan under the Balochistan Economic Mission Report

Based on the opportunities listed in the Background Paper on “Water” and the current investment
plan of the federal and the provincial governments, the Investment plan is proposed for the next
decade (2007- 20017). The province is in a need and in a position to undertake development
programme in water worth of US$ 2.40 billion over the next ten years. This is in addition to the
already committed projects by the federal and provincial governments. The requirement for the
next decade would be around US$ 2.40 billion considering the recommendations of the report,
where major investments are proposed for Sailaba agriculture and storage dams, modernization of
existing canal irrigation schemes, groundwater recharge, introduction of high efficiency irrigation
systems and the institutional development and capacity building (Table 41).

Table 41. Proposed investment plan for the next decade (2007-20017)
No. Source of Funding Amount (US$ in
billion)
1. Basin-wide Sailaba Agriculture Schemes through the development of 1.0
Spate Irrigation and Management of floodwater covering aspects of:
a) Development of Spate Irrigation
b) Development of Sailaba Agriculture
c) Construction of Storage Dams to provide water for drought years
d) Watershed management in the Catchment areas
2. Modernization of Existing Canal Irrigation Schemes through 0.50
Command Area Development and Participatory Management
through FOs including introduction of improved surface irrigation
using Laser Levelling, furrow irrigation and bed planting,
involvement of private sector for provision of input services like Agri
Malls in Punjab
3. Groundwater Recharge in Highlands 0.25
Development of Sustainable Rural Water Supply Schemes in all 0.10
ecosystems – Canal commands, groundwater, Sailaba and Khushkaba
4. Introduction of drip and sprinkler irrigation systems in Tubewell 0.45
Irrigated area (both electric and diesel-operated systems)
5. Institutional Development and Capacity Building through: 0.10
a) Establishment of the Balochistan Water Resources Management
Authority and the Basin Water Boards
b) Development of Water Monitoring facility for Surface and
Groundwater and database systems
c) Restructuring and strengthening of Water Planning and
Monitoring Directorate of IPD
d) Institutional Reforms in IPD
85
 e) Restructuring and Strengthening of Public Health Engineering
Department and the TMAs
f) Restructuring of the Watershed Wing of Forestry Department
g) Establishment of Stockwater component within OFWM Agriculture
Department
h) Establishment of Environmental Water Management Directorate in
IPD
i) Institutional reforms at Grass root level
j) Restructuring of the On-Farm Water Management Directorate into
a Directorate General Water Management including Water for
Agriculture and Livestock
k) Restructuring of Agricultural Research and Extension
Total (US$ in billion) 2.40

86
 5. Recommendations

5.1. Short-term Actions

5.1.1. Tubewell Subsidy

The current subsidy for agricultural tubewells is not only the burden on the financial resources of
the province but it is also untargeted and non-functional to achieve any objective, except
providing relief to few thousand farmers (7,900 representing 2.4% of the total crop farmers) to
subsidize their livelihood earning. There is a lack of political will and commitment by the
provincial government to address the issue of subsidy. Even then there is an urgent need to
rationalize and targeting the subsidy through a phase-wise approach to conserve the scarce
resources of groundwater and energy. The phase-wise recommendations are:

In the first phase the number of tubewells eligible for subsidy should be freezed and
subsidy should be capped in nominal terms. These are the two conditionalities under the
ADB loan provided for the BRMP. These have also been included in the Budget Speech
for the fiscal year 2006-07 of Balochistan by fixing the GOB share of subsidy for
agricultural tubewells at Rs. 2.0 billions. But its implementation by the GOB and
QESCO-WAPDA is still pending.
In the second phase, the power supply companies (QESCO) and the private sector be
encouraged to provide quality power supply to the farmers so that they are motivated to
participate in the process of sharing the additional burden of electricity.
In the third phase, the subsidy be gradually tapered off and farmers be encouraged to
adopt water conservation techniques like the drip irrigation so that their energy
requirement is reduced many fold. The reduction in energy would ultimately lead towards
saving the scarce groundwater resources of the province.
If the drip irrigation systems are installed at 100% cost to the government, the whole of
the electric tubewell irrigated area can be converted to drip or sprinkler irrigation at a cost
of around Rs. 17 billion, which is around the total subsidy for a period of two years. It is
important to mention that the consumption of power may reduce to one -half to one-third
depending on the land use practices adopted by the farmers. The future savings in power
can be further extended to the diesel-operated tubewell farmers for sustaining the scarce
groundwater resources of Balochistan.
The government provides the financial support for drip and irrigation systems through
commercial banks and the private sector irrigation service companies would install such
systems and the consultants would provide the technical support and monitoring. The
private sector would implement this intervention on turn-key basis, where two years post-
installation support for O&M would also be a part of the package.

5.1.2. Service Delivery

The service delivery in water supply sector is limited as only 25.3% population of the province
has access to piped water supply. The recovery of water fee on domestic water ranges between
25-50% of the billed amount in different districts of the province. In agriculture sub-sector of
water use, the assessment of Abiana is around one-third of the assessed value. The recovery of the
assessed Abiana is around 27%. In real-terms, less than 10% of the Abiana is recovered and thus
major portion of the O&M cost is provided by the provincial government. Therefore, the service
delivery needs improvement both in domestic and agriculture sub-sectors of water use. The
recommendations are:

Domestic Water Supply

The responsibility for providing domestic water to the population of Quetta be re-
organized by making Q-WASA responsible for the total water supply system in Quetta.
Both the responsibilities of developing and managing the water supply systems be
87
 transferred to Q -WASA. Currently, these activities are shared between Public Health
Engineering and Q-WASA.
The Water delivery institutions like Q-WASA be restructured into an institution of high
performance in delivery of services to the consumers with active participation of the
private sector. The billing, charging and collection of water fee can be privatized and the
WASA may restrict its role for developing and managing the pipeline network and water
development and abstraction.
The sustainable scheme development process be developed and adopted for building
rural water supply schemes with active participation of the stakeholders.
The faulty pipeline network (iron pipes) be replaced with PE plastic pipes to eliminate the
water losses and to provide safe water supply to the consumers
Water meters be installed for the domestic consumers so that consumers be charged for
the amount of water they consume

Water for Agriculture

The flat rate tariff be introduced in the irrigation schemes and canal commands of
Balochistan with precautions to provide equitable water distribution especially the
interest of the tail-enders be addressed.
The quality power supply is essential for irrigated agriculture in Balochistan especially to
ensure reliable power supply at the peak demand, because it affects the crop productivity
drastically. The QESCO may initiate schemes to improve the infrastructure and
management to provide quality and reliable power supply to the rural consumers. This
would also help to create a discipline in payment of bills through ultimately metering the
system. The beginning be made to monitor the power supply and consumption at the
feeder level.

5.1.3. Water Productivity

The water productivity is extremely low in the province as it ranges between one-half to one-third
of the potential water productivity of crops, fruits and vegetables. Raising the water productivity
of crops, fruits and vegetables in all the farming systems of Balochistan would have large impacts
on water conservation and improved productivity would lead towards increased profitability of
irrigated agriculture. The recommendations are:

The On-farm water Management Directorate of Agriculture Department be restructured

into a full fledge Directorate General with Directorates for Groundwater, Surface water,
Farm Design and Land Forming and Water Productivity. The water productivity
Directorate be linked with district extension agent (EDO Agriculture) to provide support
to farmers.
Drip and sprinkler irrigation systems be introduced for all the tubewell irrigated farms to
have complete conversion from flood irrigation to micro-irrigation to improve water and
energy use efficiency.
The private sector be encouraged to provide support in irrigation systems, non-water
inputs and other related services for marketing of the produce.

5.2. Measures for Management and Development of Water

5.2.1. Building High Performance Institutions – BWRMA and Basin Water Boards

The Balochistan Water Resources Management Authority (BWRMA) be established on priority

with a mandate for water entitlements and allocation, regulation, policy development and
implementation, planning and monitoring of integrated projects. This Authority will not be
responsible for implementation of the projects but would be mainly responsible for coordination
of various sub-sectors of water use. The current committees dealing with water regulations and
enforcement will become part of the Authority. The Authority will be established as an apex body
88
with a structure leading towards a high performance institution. The feasibility, Act and PC-I for
the establishment of the BWRMA have been completed by the domestic consultants and
submitted to the IPD. The Act will be approved by the provincial Assembly and the PC-I by the
DDWP/CDWP.

After the establishment of the Authority, Basin Water Boards be established for each of the 13
basins. The Basin Water Board will be responsible to support the implementation of the projects
by the line departments through providing the stakeholders participation and coordination at the
basin level.

5.2.2. Asset Development and Management

There is still 61% of the available water resource unutilized and thus there is a continued need to
develop further infrastructure for the utilization of the available resources. However, in the
process of further development of water resources the ecosystem and environmental aspects
needs due consideration. Furthermore, the objective of poverty reduction be given due
consideration so that resource-poor communities are not deprived in the development process.
Therefore, basin management plans be prepared for all the thirteen basins. The TA Grant Project
is in the process of initiating the basin management plans for the three over-drawn basins –
Pishin-Lora, Nari and Zoab rivers. This would also help the IPD to build capacity and then
formulate the basin management plans for the rest of the 10 basins in Balochistan.

The scarcity of the resources and persistent drought demand that an integrated strategy be
prepared for the development and management of water resources in Balochistan after the
establishment of the BWRM Authority. Such strategies (like the BCS) have little impact as these
are hardly implemented primarily due to absence of an adequate institutional mechanism.

5.2.3. Water Desalinization

The seawater desalinization is the only option available for providing sustainable water supply to
the coastal areas especially the Gwadar port and the city. The GDA may initiate a systematic
feasibility for water and energy efficient water desalinization plant using the seawater. The GDA
may also initiate a comprehensive study to assess the available surface and groundwater resources
which can be tapped as an alternate to the seawater desalinization. An integrated approach may be
the best option where seawater desalinization may be considered as a complimentary option and
not the sole option.

The desalinization of brackish groundwater be also considered as an option for introducing

protected agriculture where very little water is needed for raising high value vegetables. The areas
like Chagai, Naushki, Kharan, Lasbella, etc. fall in this category. The market pull now provides
an opportunity to initiate peri-urban agriculture.

5.3. Financial Implications

The financial resources needed for development of water infrastructure projects is not a
limitation. The federal government is now investing in the large water projects like the Kachhi
canal and the Mirani dam. However, large financial resources would be required over the next 10
years to develop Sailaba agriculture and storage dams, modernization of canal irrigation schemes,
groundwater recharge, high efficiency irrigation systems and institutional development and
capacity building. An investment of around US$ 2.4 billion would be required in the next decade
for the development of water resources in the province in line with the opportunities and
approach mentioned in the background paper.

89
5.4. Geographically Differentiated Policies

There are geographically differentiated policies as the surface water will be available to fewer
communities having access to water. The major investments are also provided for these projects.
The Sailaba farming systems practicing the Spate irrigation are deprived as still very little
investments are made for this vital resource. Similarly, the communities of the coastal areas are
also deprived in terms of water development. The maximum benefit is being provided to the
tubewell irrigated farmers using electric prime movers. The Khushkaba farmers are the least
benefited farmers from the public funds.

5.5. Federal Vs Provincial Priorities

The federal government is by and large involved in the Indus basin irrigation system and the large
infrastructure projects. The Spate irrigation for Sailaba, Khushkaba, desert and coastal areas are
low priorities for the federal government, whereas these are or should be the high priority areas
for Balochistan.

5.6. Reference to International Best Practices or Relevant International Experiences

5.6.1. Water Security and Global Impacts

Perceptions of natural resources are changing rapidly in the 21 st century. Until 1990s, all Middle
East economies were driven by the belief that additional water had to be mobilized to meet the
rising demands for agricultural, industrial and domestic water. In the mid- 1980s, Israel changed
its policy sharply, following protracted scientific and technical discourses in the diverse
communities which use and allocate water. As a result, it cut its water allocations to agriculture,
and further reinforced policies and practices which increased the water use efficiency in this
sector. In addition, the experience of the rest of the region is globally significant: In fact, the ways
in which these economies adapt to water shortages and adjust in regional relations provide lessons
for other regions which will face similar problems as population increases lead to further demands
on their water resources.

There are major political challenges associated with the adoption of any new radical policy because
they affect livelihoods and communities and are not readily implemented by political leadership.

The first is the structure of water demand. Each individual needs annually about one m 3 (1000
litres) for drinking, ideally about 100 m 3 for other domestic use and about 1000 m 3 to produce
their food needs. The water devoted to domestic use varies widely from economy to economy and
within economies. In the Middle East, for example, figures range from as low as 27 m 3 per head
per year for Palestinians to an estimated average use by Israelis of between 100 and 150 m 3 per
year. Industrial use per capita is modest and, even in the most industrialized country in the region;
it averages only about 20 m3 per person per year.
The discourse on water, both within a single political economy and at the international level, does not
include in its vocabulary "virtual water," which is the most significant water for most Middle East
countries in terms of the key issue of volume. "Virtual water" is defined as the water required to
provide the essential food imports needed by an economy. It requires 1000 tons (1000 m 3) of water to
produce a ton of grain. An individual needs approximately the equivalent of one ton of grain per year.
Because it is much easier to move a ton of grain than 1000 tons of water, world trade in food staples is
the means by which water-deficit economies balance their water budgets. "Virtual water" plus
indigenous water enables national water needs to be met. It follows then that other parts of a national
economy produce the means to address the water deficits of economies.

5.6.2. Efficient Water Resource Use

The notion that water is an economic resource has rapidly gained currency in the international
90
community since 1991, but recently in the 21 st century the 1st World Water Forum draws the
attention to the Dublin principle including water as an economic good. These ideas contradict the
deeply held user expectations that water should be a free entitlement. The idea that water should
continue to be free in agriculture has also been widely articulated in arid and humid regions alike.

The two economic principles which are particularly relevant to water allocation and management
are allocative and productive efficiency, both of which comply with the sound principle of
increasing returns to water. Unfortunately, the subject of the reallocation of water normally
precipitates intense political reaction from those who perceive they might lose by the change.

At the national level, the significance of allocative and productive efficiency is readily illustrated by
the comparison of the gross figures for the proportions of water used in various sectors of an economy
and the relevant GDP figures related to such allocations. In the early 1990s, Egypt allocated about 80
percent of its water consumption to agriculture which generated less than 20 percent of its GDP. The
remaining 20 percent supported all the other livelihoods and provided the population’s domestic and
municipal water needs, as well as contributed to 83 percent of the GDP.

The most important measure of the economic efficiency of water allocation and management in
the Middle East is the extent to which small amounts of water are effectively used to mobilize
elements of the economy to produce goods and services. These in turn generate foreign exchange
with which to gain access to water and/or "virtual water." However, the process of reallocation
has not yet been carried far enough in most Middle Eastern economies, but it is becoming
increasingly recognized that there is no alternative. The principle of productive efficiency is much
more readily adopted than that of allocative efficiency because while increases in productive
efficiency require investment and changes of practice, the introduction of more productively
efficient water management does not generate political stress.

5.6.3. Environmental Resources and Development

General models of resource use and management have evolved over the past twenty years based
on the elusive concept of sustainability. These approaches tended to assume closed systems where
a resource degraded by using it beyond its capacity to recover would lead to terminal ecological
and economic events. In such analyses, it has been generally assumed that development was a
negative factor with respect to the long-term status of environmental resources.

An alternative and much more realistic model of the utilization of environmental resources within
a development context is the "Karshenas model." This model can be readily communicated and,
more importantly, it contributes to explaining and predicting the nature of the political economy
of water in the extreme political, economic and water deficit circumstances. The model shows
that all development has to some extent been undertaken at the expense of environmental capital.
It recognizes, however, that the deployment of ecological principles should be emphasized. The
challenge is achieving a sound balance between economic and ecological priorities.

In summary, despite needing twice as much water and, in some cases, four times as much as is
available, the individual political economies of the Middle East have adapted to the shortages and
have not resorted to confidently predicted conflicts. In the future, it is strongly recommended that
the governments facing water shortages must work at two levels: First, they should continue to
improve the productive and allocative efficiency in the use of their own water. Second, as they
become pivotal consumers of "virtual water" in global trade, it is essential that they investigate
the extent to which they can ensure the delivery of entitlements to food for their peoples in the
future by cooperative participation in global trade in grain.

91
5.6.4. Increasing Productivity of Water Consumed in Agriculture

Agronomic Practices

Crop varietal improvement. Plant breeding plays an important role in developing varieties that
yield more mass per unit transpiration. For example, by reducing growth period while keeping the
same yield, production per unit evapotranspiration increases. Changing the partitioning between
green matter and grain yield increases water productivity when evapotranspiration is kept
constant. This objective of crop improvement has been followed by the International Centres for
Agricultural Research under the CGIAR and many other countries like Egypt, India and Mexico.
Balochistan agricultural research institutions (ARI and AZRC) have to follow this approach in
developing drought tolerant and deep rooted crop varieties.

Crop substitution. Switching from a more to a less water-consuming crop or switching to a crop
with higher-economic or higher-physical productivity per unit of water consumed by
evapotranspiration improves productivity of water. Egypt and India are the two countries who
have successfully followed this approach. In India the crop substitution in case of rice was
enforced by increasing water fee by six folds.

Improved cultural practices. Better soil management, fertilization, pest and weed control often
leads to more productivity of land and often water consumed. The best example is Egypt (delta
area) having highest water productivity for crops like wheat, cotton and rice and followed by
India in the Bhakra dam command area.

Water Management Practices

Improved water supply management. Better timing of water supplies can reduce stress at critical
crop-growth periods, leading to increased yields. By increasing reliability of supply, farmers tend
to invest more in other agricultural inputs leading to higher output per unit of water. USA is the
best example for developing irrigation scheduling for crops.

Improved on- farm water management. Controlling salinity through water management practices at
project or field level can prevent reductions in water productivity. Mulching, direct seeding of rice and
greenhouses reduce evaporation. Stopping water deliveries during rainy periods, or raising field bunds
in rice areas captures more rain that may otherwise flow to sinks. Central Punjab districts like Okara
and Sahiwal are the excellent examples for such management practices. The other best example is the
nature farming being practiced in Saraburee area of Thailand.

Deficit, supplemental and precision irrigation. With sufficient water control, it is possible to utilize
more productive on-farm practices. Deficit irrigation is aimed at increasing productivity per unit of
water by irrigation strategies that do not meet full evaporative requirements. Irrigation supplementing
rainfall can improve productivity of water when a limited supply of water is made available to crops at
critical periods. Precision irrigation, including drip, sprinkler and level basins, reduces non-beneficial
evaporation, applies water uniformly to crops, reduces stress and thus can lead to increases in water
productivity. Israel, India and Egypt are the excellent examples in this area.

Reallocating of water from lower- to higher- value uses, for example from agriculture to municipal
and industrial uses or from low-value crops to high-value crops, can increase the economic
productivity or value of water. As a result of such reallocation, downstream commitments may change.
In turn, reallocation of water can have serious legal, equity and other social considerations that must be
addressed. Israel, Egypt and India are the excellent examples in this area.

92
 6. References

1. ADB. 2005a. TA Grant Project. Supporting Public Resource Management. Inception

Report. Balochistan Resource Management Programme. TA-4560 (PAK).
2. ADB. 2005b. Experiences of Asian Countries on the Role of Apex Body in Water Sector.
Performance First Regional Meeting of National Water Sector Apex Bodies. Bangkok,
Thailand.
3. ADB. 2006a. TA Grant Project Study. Promising Crops and Water Efficient Cropping
Patterns for Irrigated Farming Systems of Balochistan. Balochistan Resource
Management Programme, Asian Development Bank.
4. ADB. 2006b. TA Grant Project Study. Subsidy on Agricultural Tubewells in Balochistan:
A Case for Freezing Numbers of Tubewells and Capping the Subsidy in Nominal Terms.
Balochistan Resource Management Programme, Asian Development Bank.
5. ADB. 2006c. TA Grant Project Study. Electric Tariff and Tubewell Subsidy in
Balochistan – Building Technical Argument for Capping the Subsidy. Balochistan
Resource Management Programme, Asian Development Bank.
6. ADB-PRM. 2006. Integrated Water Resources Management in Balochistan. PPTA
Studies of Balochistan Resource Management Programme. Asian Development Bank,
Pakistan Resident Mission, Islamabad.
7. Ahmad, S. 2005a. Irrigation and Energy Nexus – Managing energy and water use for
reducing subsidy for electric tubewells in Balochistan. Policy Briefing. No.1, Vol.(1).
Water for Balochistan. ADB TA Grant Project.
8. Ahmad, S. 2005b. Micro-irrigation and role of private sector for innovative development
– Need for policy shift in Balochistan. Policy Briefing. No.2, Vol.(1). Water for
Balochistan. ADB TA Grant Project.
9. Ahmad, S. 2006a. Issues restricting capping of subsidy and strategy for introducing the
smart subsidy in Balochistan. Policy Briefing. No.1, Vol.(2). Water for Balochistan. ADB
TA Grant Project.
10. Ahmad, S. 2006b. Payment of electric bills and recovery of arrears in Balochistan –
Farmers’ response and future options. Policy Briefing. No.2, Vol.(2). Water for
Balochistan. ADB TA Grant Project.
11. Ahmad, S. 2006c. Effect of farm size and landholding on equitable distribution of
subsidy for tubewells in Balochistan. Policy Briefing. No.3, Vol.(2). Water for
Balochistan. ADB TA Grant Project.
12. Ahmad, S. 2006d. Building technical argument for capping tubewell subsidy in
Balochistan: Part-I. Analysis of tubewell database and state of service delivery by
QESCO. Policy Briefing. No.4, Vol.(2). Water for Balochistan. ADB TA Grant Project.
13. Ahmad, S. 2006e. Freezing number of agricultural tubewells eligible for subsidy in
Balochistan: Issues and way forward. Policy Briefing. No.5, Vol.(2). Water for
Balochistan. ADB TA Grant Project.
14. Balochistan. MICS. 2003.
15. BBWR. 1996. Groundwater Level Monitoring Studies in Pishin Sub-basin. Balochistan
Bureau of Water Resources. Department of Irrigation and Power, Government of
Balochistan.
16. Gils, Hein van and Shabbir Baig (eds.) 1992. Environmental Profile Balochistan,
Pakistan. Enschede:LARUS-ITC and EU-SSP.
17. GOB. 2006. Integrated Water Resources Management Policy. Department of Irrigation
and Power. Government of Balochistan.
18. GOP. 1996. Livestock Census of Pakistan. Population Census Division. Government of
Pakistan.
19. GOP. 1998. Population Census of Pakistan. Population Census Division. Government of
Pakistan.
20. GOP. 2005a. Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan. Ministry of Food, Agricultural,
Livestock, Food, Agriculture and Livestock Division (Economics Wing) Islamabad.
Government of Pakistan.
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21. GOP. 2005b. Draft National Water Policy. Office of the Chief Engineering
Advisor/Chairman Federal Flood Commission, Ministry of Water and Power.
22. Halcrow Rural Management. 1996. Reassessment of WAPDA Hydrogeological River
Basin Studies of Zoab, Pishin-Lora, Nari, Porali, Hamun-e-Lora and Kachhi Districts.
Halcrow Rural Management and Halcrow Pakistan.
23. Hargreaves, G.H. and Z.A. Samani. 1985. Reference crop evapotranspiration from
temperature. Applied Engineering in Agriculture. 1(2):96-99.
24. IPD. 2004. Assessment of Water Resources Availability and Water Use for Balochistan.
Department of Irrigation and Power. Government of Balochistan.
25. IPD. 2005. Expenditure of Department of Irrigation and Power Department. Department
of Irrigation and Power. Government of Balochistan.
26. IPD. 2006a. Assessment of Water Resources Availability for Balochistan. Department of
Irrigation and Power. Government of Balochistan.
27. IPD. 2006b. Water Shortage Status of Hub Dam. Presentation to the Governor
Balochistan. Department of Irrigation and Power. Government of Balochistan.
28. IPD. 2006c. Salient Features of the Indus Basin Canal Networks of Balochistan.
Department of Irrigation and Power. Government of Balochistan.
29. IPD. 2006d. District-wise Command Area of Kachhi Canal. Presentation on the Progress
of Water Resources Development Projects in Balochistan. Department of Irrigation and
Power. Government of Balochistan.
30. IPD. 2006e. Assessment and Recovery of Abiana in Pat Feeder and Khirther Canals.
Government of Balochistan. Personal Communication.
31. IPD. 2006f. Abiana Rates of Crops in Pat Feeder and Khirther Canal Commands of
Balochistan. Government of Balochistan. Personal Communication.
32. IPD. 2006g. Establishment of Balochistan Water Resources Management Authority.
Feasibility Study. Department of Irrigation and Power, Cameos Consultings, Quetta.
33. IUCN, GOB and GO Netherlands. 2000a. Water. Background Paper of the Balochistan
Conservation Strategy. IUCN, Government of Balochistan and the Royal Government of
Netherlands. Quetta. 56p.
34. IUCN, GOB and GO Netherlands. 2000b. Balochistan Conservation Strategy IUCN,
Government of Balochistan and the Royal Government of Netherlands. Quetta. 354p.
35. IWMI.2000. Land and Water Productivity trends: Across Punjab Canal, Pakistan: Tahir,
Z. and Habib, Z. International Water Management Institute (IWMI) 35p. (IWMI working
paper 14).
36. IWMI. 2003. Improving Water Productivity. Policy Briefing. Issue 8. International Water
Management Institute.
37. Ministry of Water and Power. 2005. Environmental Concerns of All the Four Provinces.
Water Balance Model of Balochistan. AAB Private Ltd. In association with: DHV Water
BV, The Netherlands; Infra-D Consultants, Islamabad and EASE-Pakistan.
38. NESPAK. 1998. Master Feasibility Studies for Management of Hill Torrents of Pakistan -
Balochistan Province”, National Engineering Services of Pakistan.
39. NIPS. 2006. Projections of Population for the Year 2025. National Institute of Population
Studies. Government of Pakistan.
40. PARC. 2001. Evaluation Report of the Project entitled “Rod-Kohi System Development
and Management in Pakistan. Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad.
41. PSDP-F. 2006. Federal Public Sector Development Programme. Government of Pakistan.
42. PSDP-P. 2003. Provincial Public Sector Development Programme. Government of
Balochistan.
43. PSDP-P. 2004. Provincial Public Sector Development Programme. Government of
Balochistan.
44. PSDP-P. 2005. Provincial Public Sector Development Programme. Government of
Balochistan.
45. PSDP-P. 2006. Provincial Public Sector Development Programme. Government of
Balochistan.
46. Vision.2000. Livestock drinking water guidelines. Australian Department of Agriculture.

94
47. WAPDA. 1973 to 1985. Groundwater Development in Balochistan. Feasibility Studies of
Different River Basins of Balochistan. Hydrology Project. Water and Power Development
Authority. Quetta, Balochistan.
48. WAPDA. 1989. Groundwater Mining in Selected Areas of Balochistan. Water and Power
development Authority.
49. WAPDA 1993. Groundwater Resources of Balochistan Province. Water and Power
Development Authority.
50. World Bank. 2005. Pakistan Economy Getting Dry. Pakistan Water Strategy. World Bank.
51. WRRI.2001. Rural Poverty and natural resources endowments of Balochistan. Water
Resources Research Institute, National Agricultural Research Centre, Islamabad.

95
 Annexure I.
Agro-ecological and Climatic Zonation of Balochistan 21

I.1. Physiographic Regions

Balochistan is the largest province of Pakistan with a total area of 347,220 Km 2 and constitutes
about 43% of the country’s geographical area. It lies between latitude 25 O and 32O north and
longitude 62O and 70O east. The province forms the southern west part of Pakistan and is
bounded by the Arabian Sea in the South, Iran and Afghanistan to the West and north and the
North West Frontier Province (NWFP) and the provinces of Punjab and Sindh to the East.

The province is divided into fifteen physiographic zones which are presented in Figure I.1.

B a l o c h i s t a n P r o v i n c e (P h y s i o g r a p h y)

LEGEND
Sulaiman Range (high)
Sulaiman Range (middle)
Sulaiman Range (low)
Sulaiman Range (very low)
Brauhvi-Toba Kakar (high)

Pab Kirthar Range

Pab Mor Range
Central Mekran
Coastal Mekran
Lasbela Plain
Brauhvi-Toba Kakar
(middle)
Siahan Chagai Range
Chagai Kharan Desert
Nagau Range
Sibi- Kachhi Plain
100 0 100 200 Kilometers N

Scale:- 1:7,000,000

Figure I.1. Physiographic zones of Balochistan

The 15 physiographic zones are then generalized into five broad physiographic regions and are
described in the following sections.

I.1.1. High Mountains (Upper Highlands)

Upper highlands locally called Khorasan, occupying the north-eastern and central part of
Balochistan. It is bounded by Suleiman Range in the east, Toba Kakari in the north and Chagai
Hills in the west. The zone includes mostly Zhob, Quetta, Pishin, Loralai, Harnai, Sanjavi, Ziarat,
Kalat, Mastung, Killa Abdullah and Killa Saifullah districts.

I.1.2. Lower Mountains (Lower Highlands)

Lower highlands is formed by the slope of the Suleiman Range on the east and central Brahvi
Range and Kirther Range further in the south, running in north-south direction. The mountain

21based on the findings of the ADB TA Grant Study ADB (2006a) entitled “Promising Crops and Water Efficient Cropping Patterns for Irrigated
Farming Systems of Balochistan, Pakistan.
96
forming the lower highland extends from Makran Coast right up to Afghanistan frontier in the
north. This zone includes mostly Chagai, Kharan, Panjgur, Turbat and southern most part of
Khuzdar districts.

I.1.3. Piedmont Plains

This zone is constituted of vast gently sloping plains between the Suleiman Range and Indus
River the Sibi, Kacchi, Nasirabad Piedmont plains. Southern part of the Lasbella, known as Hub
plain and certain triangular inlets on the Makran Coast also fall in this landform.

I.1.4. Kharan-Chagai Desert

This desert zone lies in the north-west of the province and is extension of Iranian Seistan and
Dasht Lut Desert. The desert covers over 22,000 Km 2. It is constituted of sands from the
weathering products of sand stone formation surrounding the area.

I.1.5. Coastal Zone

This zone lies in the south along the Arabian Sea known as Makran-Lasbella Coast. Most of the
zone comprises of Gawadar district of Makran while a small eastern part of it is occupied by
Lasbella district. The terrain is mainly low hills called Makran Coastal Range comprised of shale
and sandstone.

I.2. Agro-climatic Zones

The agro-climatic zones as defined by the WRRI- NARC are based on combined effect of aridity
and crop growth indices. Aridity index is defined as a ratio of 50% probability of total seasonal
rainfall and actual seasonal crop evapotranspiration. The seasonal crop growth index was
computed using the seasonal growing degree days for the representative crop. The province of
Balochistan has been classified into 8 agro-climatic zones according to aridity and crop growth
indices.

Crop growth index is the ratio between growing degree-days available and growing degree-days
required while growing degree-days are the sum of total heat summation (sum of the mean daily
temperature above the base temperature for the growth period). Growing degree-days provide
cumulative effect of temperature on crop growth. Based on aridity and crop growth indices, the
province is classified into 8 agro-climatic zones as shown in Figure I.2.

Figure I.2. Agro-climatic zones of Balochistan (WRRI 2001).

97
I.5. Agro-Ecological Zones Adopted for the ADB TA Grant Study
The systematic agro-climatic zonation provides basis for developing the agro-ecological zones.
This categorization can be used within each broad agro-ecological zones selected for the study.
The reason for the selection of the broad agro-ecological zones is that these are easily understood
by the agricultural experts of the province. However, the research scientists can use agro-climatic
zones for the purpose of research, where they will be involved in the evaluation of the water
efficient cropping systems.

Five distinct agro-ecological zones have been categorised since long in the province. However,
the basis of this classification was mostly altitude and temperature. While zoning the province,
the source of irrigation, availability of irrigation water and potential of water basins where the
zone is located was not considered. The increase in area under crops in this province mainly
occurred due to the development of already existing resources of irrigation water like karezes,
springs or exploiting groundwater like wells, tubewells or construction of new canals like Pat
Feeder and dams like Hub Dam, etc. In the present investigation, the already established agro-
ecological zoning was used but the perennial source of irrigation system and hydrological basins
were also taken into consideration.

In addition to climatic factors like altitude, winter temperature, late spring and early winter frost
and hailstorms were also kept in view because the growing of successful fruit production
particularly of deciduous fruits entirely depends on these factors.

Deciduous fruits industry is an important income generating activity of the highlands and sub-
highlands and these fruits have an important place in the current cropping patterns, therefore, in
the ADB TA Grant Study six instead of five established agro-ecological zones are recommended.

The proposed agro-ecological zones indicating source of perennial irrigation system in different
zones are summarised in Figures I.3 and I.4, and Table I.1.

Figure I.3. Broad agro-ecological zones of Balochistan (ADB 2006a)

98
Figure I.4. Agro-ecological zones with mean rainfall isohyets of Balochistan

Table I.1. Agro-Ecological Zones of Balochistan (ADB 2006a)

ECOLOGICAL ZONE PERENNIAL CLIMATIC AND RAINFALL DISTRICT
ALTITUDE IRRIGATION
SYSTEM
i. Highlands (> 2000 Spring, Karezes, Severe winter and cool Pishin (Toba Kakari,
m), Open Well, Tube summer with temperature Barshore), Killa
wells rarely over 30 OC and 200 to Saifullah (Kanmetherzai,
300 mm rainfall. Muslim Bagh), Killa
Abdullah (Toba
Achakzai), Ziarat, Kalat
ii. Highlands II Tube-wells, Karezes, Cold winter and mild summer Quetta, Pishin, Loralai,
(1200m to 2000m) Springs. River with temperature rarely over Zhob, Killa Saifullah,
diversion infiltration 35 OC with rainfall 200-300 Killa Abdullah, Chaman
and galleries. mm and Khuzdar, Musa
Khel, Mastung, Barkhan.
iii. Sub-highlands Tubewells, Karezes, Frost during winter and warm Barkhan, Kohlu,
(900m to 1200m) Open Surface Wells, summer with low and variable Khuzdar.
Springs, River rainfall
Diversions
iv. Plains Canal command, Hot in summer, pleasant in Nasirabad, Jafferabad,
river diversion, winter. Average rainfall 110 Bolan, Sibi, Jhal Magsi.
tubewell. mm.
v. Desert Open wells, springs, Mild winter and hot summers Kharan, Awaran, Nushki,
river diversions, tube with variable summer rains of Dalbandin, Kech,
wells. less than 200 mm. Panjgur, Dera Bugti,
Bolan (Kacchi, Jhal
Magsi, Mach), Harnai,
Kharan, Sibi.
i) Coastal Tubewell, spring, Mild to warm winters and Bela, part of Turbat
river diversion, dam very hot summer with low
summer rainfall. Hot arid
rainfall low.
99
 Annexure II.
Promising Crops and Cropping Patterns for Balochistan
based on Water Productivity Ranking 22

The cropping patterns in the province of Balochistan are well established. However, these are
normally based on the criteria for adjusting the cropping patterns based on two major parameters
of climate and availability of irrigation water. In Balochistan province, irrigation water and its
availability was the most important factor in selecting the crops for a particular agro-ecological
zone. Another factor considered for choice of crops especially in the highlands is particularly the
price of fruits in the Quetta market irrespective of its suitability under the prevalent climatic
conditions. The classical example is growing of apples in most of the area located above 700 m
because of its demand in Karachi and Punjab's markets.

Unfortunately, no scientific investigations were carried out for determining the crop water
requirement of a particular crop in a particular zone according to the availability of irrigation
water. Some studies were undertaken by the World Bank during feasibility studies for Balochistan
Minor Irrigation Development Project (BMIADP) and its follow up project Balochistan
Community Irrigation and Agriculture Project (BCIAP). However these studies were limited to
workout the crop water requirement of crops in a particular zone. The productive water potential
of crops according to price in the market and return to the grower was not considered. Similar
study is recently done by PCRWR regarding the estimation of crop water requirement using the
FAO model “CROPWAT”.

In the ADB TA Grant Study, the cropping patterns are proposed according to potential water
productivity and profitability of crops according to the productivity and prevalent market price in
various markets of the country. This study is first of its nature conducted in the province or in the
country.

The method used for determining potential water productivity and ranking of crop in coastal and
plain ecological zones used for the study is described under heading II.1. Some adjustments are
made, keeping in view the limitation of climatic factors. For example in the category of fruits,
almond is ranked 1 and pomegranate at number 2 for the highlands agro-ecological zone but at
high altitude above 2000 m, almond and pomegranate cannot grow due to freezing temperature.
Hailstorm when the flower of almond, which bloom early compared to the rest of the deciduous
fruits is of common occurrence in these areas and late spring frost also damages early flowering
varieties of almond, apricots and plums. Similarly, some adjustments were made in field crops,
vegetables according to climatic condition, perishable nature of vegetables and fruit to distant
markets.

Due to non-availability of data/market price for desert ecological zones, nearest ranking of the
adjacent zones are considered. For example for Chagai highlands of Quetta ranking was
considered and for Kharan, Awaran, highlands ranking nearer to Khuzdar is considered. The
methodology used for ranking is given in the following sections.

II.1. Spatial Variation in Mean Reference Crop Evapotranspiration

Mean monthly and annual reference crop evapotranspiration was computed using the method of
Hargreaves and Samani 1985, which is classified as a Radiation Method. The selection of method
depends on: a) availability of reliable climatic data in Balochistan; b) method of computation,
which is in line with the availability of reliable climatic data; and c) the purpose of estimation of
reference crop evapotranspiration. The purpose of estimation of reference crop evapotranspiration
is ranking of crops, therefore, method suitable for computation of monthly mean values of

22based on the findings of the ADB TA Grant Study ADB (2006a) entitled “Promising Crops and Water Efficient Cropping Patterns for Irrigated
Farming Systems of Balochistan, Pakistan.
100
reference crop evapotranspiration like the Hargreaves and Samani 1985 is selected. Most experts
like to use the Penman Combination method, which is suitable for estimation of daily data, but
most of these methods require calibration for the local conditions.

The major data input required for estimation of reference crop evapotranspiration using
Hargreaves and Samani 1985 method is mean maximum and minimum temperatures, which are
normally available, at most of the locations in Balochistan and the reliability of this data is
reasonably high in Balochistan. The other data requirement is the extra-terrestrial radiation
needed for the Hargreaves method, which can be computed using the latitude and longitude
information for a particular location, which is also available for all locations in the province.

The long-term historical data of maximum and minimum temperatures of 1960-90 were used for
computing reference crop evapotranspiration for a particular month for the nineteen selected
locations in Balochistan.

Nineteen locations were selected to have wider spatial coverage of the province. The reference
crop evapotranspiration varies from 1465 to 2108 mm per annum for the nineteen locations in
Balochistan representing all the four physiographic regions – highlands, canal commands,
lowlands and coastal regions (Table II.1). The details of agro-ecological and Climatic zones of
Balochistan are given in Annexure I.

Table II.1. Mean Reference Crop Evapotranspiration of Selected Locations in Balochistan,

Pakistan1
No. Location Reference Evapotranspiration (mm/month) Annual
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 (mm)
1. Jiwani 92 98 129 147 157 142 135 119 114 130 109 93 1465
2. Bela 90 97 131 149 160 142 136 120 113 131 108 90 1468
3. Sonmiani 91 99 133 150 160 141 136 120 114 132 110 92 1478
4. Kalat 48 59 88 130 176 206 214 199 150 112 61 43 1485
5. Loralai 56 68 115 156 198 196 183 158 145 123 82 59 1536
6. Quetta 49 61 94 138 184 217 228 211 157 114 62 44 1559
7. Zhob 55 70 107 138 187 233 206 187 169 122 65 51 1590
8. Mastung 48 60 101 140 191 216 220 204 167 121 75 54 1596
9. Pasni 86 94 144 165 185 167 152 142 144 143 108 88 1620
10. Panjgur 70 84 128 156 213 205 230 191 159 142 89 67 1735
11. Barkhan 72 85 136 183 233 226 208 181 171 147 99 73 1815
12. Dalbandin 65 79 121 172 218 246 261 233 172 141 79 56 1843
13. Harnai 73 89 148 195 240 235 212 185 176 151 100 74 1878
14. Sibi 78 93 152 206 256 245 222 193 162 158 108 79 1952
15. Nuski 65 79 129 180 238 265 262 243 207 157 98 70 1993
16. Turbat 93 107 171 210 253 230 199 182 172 165 123 95 2000
17. Chagai 83 99 162 211 271 264 232 202 191 165 114 85 2078
18. Nuttal 85 100 163 211 271 264 232 202 191 166 116 86 2088
19. Wadh 88 102 166 212 271 263 231 203 194 170 119 90 2108
1 Reference crop evapotranspiration is computed using Hargreaves and Samani 1985.

II.2. Spatial Variations in Mean Rainfall

Long term historical monthly rainfall data of 1960-90 were used to compute the rainfall
probabilities. The mean rainfall data for the nineteen selected locations based on 50% probability
is given in Table II.2. The mean annual rainfall varies between 64 and 323 mm for the nineteen
selected locations. The data of monthly rainfall at 50% probability is also given for these
locations. The monthly rainfall data has to be used for the purpose of irrigation scheduling and
water productivity.

101
II.3. Water Productivity and Profitability of Crops

II.3.1. Coastal Areas of Balochistan

The ranking of fruit plants, vegetables and crops for the Coastal region of Balochistan was
performed using the evapotranspiration, potential water productivity and market price 23 data of
Lasbella (Table II.3 ). The rank is computed using the potential water productivity data in Rs./m 3
to have uniformity in the water productivity because yield and marketable prices of these
commodities vary a lot, therefore, water productivity does not mean anything in terms of Kg/m 3.
Table II.2. Mean Monthly and Mean Annual Rainfall of Selected Locations in Balochistan, Pakistan
No. Location Mean Monthly Rainfall at 50% Probability (mm/month) Annual
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 (mm)
1. Jiwani 45 6 3 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 3 9 133
2. Bella 3 10 5 4 6 4 49 19 5 1 0 2 213
3. Sonmiani 2 5 2 1 0 2 27 6 2 0 0 2 106
4. Kalat 20 15 17 5 1 0 4 2 0 0 0 5 174
5. Loralai 12 8 23 9 7 2 18 23 1 1 2 6 226
6. Quetta 25 24 23 13 1 0 2 0 0 0 1 10 196
7. Zhob 8 19 28 18 5 2 36 35 1 0 1 5 257
8. Mastung 19 24 13 7 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 8 160
9. Pasni 27 17 2 2 0 1 5 1 0 0 0 3 116
10. Panjgur 6 3 5 1 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 2 94
11. Barkhan 4 6 7 8 13 19 70 45 10 3 1 3 317
12. Dalbandin 11 7 4 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 4 69
13 Hernai 9 18 19 7 4 7 57 45 10 1 1 7 323
14. Sibi 6 6 6 1 1 2 21 8 1 0 1 1 127
15. Nuski 23 13 10 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 5 111
16. Turbat 25 8 6 1 3 1 11 2 0 0 0 4 139
17. Chagai 9 7 4 3 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 4 79
18. Nuttal 1 2 2 0 1 1 8 6 1 0 0 1 64
19. Wadh 35 10 10 2 1 4 6 2 0 0 0 0 146

Table II.3. Ranking of Fruit Plants, Vegetables and Field Crops Based on Water
Productivity in Coastal Areas of Balochistan, Pakistan
No. Crop/Plant Potential Water Productivity Rank
Kg/m3 Rs./m3
Fruit Plants
1. Guava 0.92 9.20 1
2. Banana 0.93 8.37 2
3. Dates 0.90 7.46 3
4. Papaya 0.86 6.88 4
5. Mango 1.02 6.23 5
6 Citrus 1.04 4.34 6
Vegetables
1. Okra 8.57 80.57 1
2. Cucumber 4.02 24.12 2
3. Egg Plant 2.03 12.18 3
Crops
1. Barley 0.60 6.60 1
2. Wheat 0.50 5.50 2
3. Sugarcane 4.70 5.05 3
4. Sorghum 0.30 3.60 4

23 "That the farm prices are taken around 50% of the wholesale prices in the nearby markets. For example for the highlands, wholesale prices of
Quetta market were used. For the Coastal area market information of Hyderabad and Karachi were used. For the Canal command areas market
information of Sukkur was used. Moreover, in most of the cases average annual wholesale prices were used, as the prices vary over the year. In
addition, some of the price information collected from farmers was also taken into consideration."

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II.3.2. Highlands of Balochistan

The ranking of fruit plants, vegetables and crops for the Highlands of Balochistan was performed
using the evapotranspiration, potential water productivity and market price data of Quetta (Table
II.4). The rank is computed using the potential water productivity data in Rs./m 3 to have
uniformity in the water productivity because yield and marketable prices of these commodities
varies a lot, therefore, water productivity does not mean anything in terms of Kg/m 3.
Table II.4. Ranking of Fruit Plants, Vegetables and Field Crops Using Water Productivity in Highlands of
Balochistan, Pakistan.
No. Crop/Plant Potential Water Productivity Rank
3 3
Kg/m Rs./m
Fruit Plants
1. Almonds 0.57 57.00 1
2. Pomegranate 2.66 37.24 2
3. Apricot 1.64 14.88 3
4. Grapes 1.02 14.37 4
5. Apple 1.16 13.2 5
6. Peach 1.17 10.6 6
7. Plum 1.23 8.04 7
8. Pear 0.86 6.45 8
Vegetables
1. Cabbage 5.68 34.88 1
2. Capsicum 2.62 26.20 2
3. Cucumber 4.02 24.12 3
4. Cauliflower 4.38 24.09 4
5. Garlic 1.50 18.15 5
6. Tomato 3.06 15.30 6
7. Potato 3.54 13.94 7
8. Onion 3.68 10.12 8
Crops
1. Barley 0.80 8.80 1
2. Wheat 0.75 8.44 2
3. Cotton 0.38 7.98 3
4. Maize 0.66 7.26 4
5. Sorghum 0.30 3.60 5
6. Tobacco 0.38 ? ?
7. Guar seed 0.57 ? ?

II.3.3. Plains - Canal Commands of Balochistan

The ranking of crops for the canal commands of Balochistan was performed using the
evapotranspiration, potential water productivity and market price data of Nasirabad. The rank is
computed using the potential water productivity data in Rs./m 3 to have uniformity in the water
productivity because yield and marketable prices of these commodities varies a lot, therefore,
water productivity does not mean anything in terms of Kg/m3 (Table II.5.)
Table II.5. Water Productivity of Field Crops in Canal Commands of Balochistan
No. Crop/Plant Potential Water Productivity Rank
Kg/m3 Rs./m3
1. Guar Seed 0.57 9.69 1
2. Cotton 0.38 7.98 2
3. Wheat 0.60 6.60 3
4. Chickpea 0.34 5.10 4
5. Maize 0.45 4.95 5
6. Sugarcane 4.47 4.81 6
7. Rice 0.36 4.68 7

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II.3.4. Deserts and Arid Zone outside the Indus basin

The ranking of crops for the deserts and arid zone outside the Indus basin of Balochistan was
performed using the evapotranspiration, potential water productivity and market price data of
Sibi. The rank is computed using the potential water productivity data in Rs./m 3 to have
uniformity in the water productivity because yield and marketable prices of these commodities
varies a lot, therefore, water productivity does not mean anything in terms of Kg/m 3 (Table II.6).
Table II.6. Ranking of Fruit Plants, Vegetables and Field Crops Based on Water Productivity in Coastal
Areas of Balochistan, Pakistan
No. Crop/Plant Potential Water Productivity Rank
Kg/m3 Rs./m3
Fruit Plants
1. Dates 0.9 7.46 1
2. Mango 1.021 6.23 2
Vegetables
1. Tomato 3.06 13.75 1
Crops
1. Guar seed 0.57 9.69 1
2. Cotton 0.40 8.40 2
3. Barley 0.45 4.50 3
4. Wheat 0.40 4.00 4
5. Sorghum 0.32 3.84 5

II.4. Ranking of Crops for Promising Cropping Patterns

II.4.1. Canal Irrigated Areas of the Indus Basin

According to the foregoing paragraph, the ranking of commodities for future cropping pattern
under canal irrigated system is presented in Table II.7.

The crops like tomato and onion in canal command area are relatively new crops in the area, and
with the availability of water due to extension of the Pat Feeder Canal and the construction of the
Kachhi canal, the crops like tomato and onion are also promising crops for future cropping
patterns in the Rabi season.

Table II.7. Ranking Proposal for Canal Irrigated Area of Balochistan

Name of Commodity District Rank
Kharif Crops
Cotton Nasirabad/Jafferabad 1
Maize Nasirabad/Jafferabad 2
Sugarcane Nasirabad/Jafferabad 3
Rice Nasirabad/Jafferabad 4
Rabi Crops
Wheat Nasirabad/Jafferabad 1
Chick peas (gram) Nasirabad/Jafferabad 2
Rapeseed/Mustard Nasirabad/Jafferabad 3
Rabi Vegetables
Tomato Nasirabad/Jafferabad 1
Onions Nasirabad/Jafferabad 2

II.4.2. Minor Perennial Irrigation Schemes

In addition to Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) there are minor perennial irrigation systems
like diverting river water system into command area through canals or by system making spur in
104
districts Sibi-Bolan (low lying) hot area low plain. The promising crops are proposed according
to water productivity ranking (Table II.8).

Table II.8. Ranking Proposal for Plains Area Outside Indus Basin Irrigation
Commodity Ranking
Sibi Bolan
Rabi
Wheat 1 1
Tomato 2 2
Melon 3 3
Fodder 4 4
Rapeseed 5 5
Kharif
Cotton 1 1
Guar 2 2
Fodder 3 3

II.4.3. Groundwater Irrigation System (Wells, Tubewells, Springs, Karezes)

Groundwater irrigation sources in the province namely karezes, springs infiltration galleries are
the ancient systems of irrigation whereas tubewells, wells became an important source of
irrigation in the province from 1960's to date. These systems are in existence in all the six agro
ecological zones. The ranking of suitability of crops according to water productivity for coastal
area and highlands are worked out as shown in the Tables II.9 to I.12.

II.5. Promising Crops and Cropping Patterns

The promising crops are listed on the map of Balochistan having six agro-ecological zones
(Figures II.1 to II.4 and Tables II.9 to II.12). The listing is made in the following manner:

Promising Kharif and Rabi crops for six agro ecological zones
Promising fruits for the six agro ecological zones
Promising vegetables for the six agro ecological zones

The methodology adopted in providing the spatial information regarding the promising crops would
help to describe the cropping patterns for the six agro-ecological zones and the districts located in each
zone. The methodology would also help in the use of this information by the Executive District
Officer Agriculture, as agriculture is a devolved subject and for implementation purposes, the concept
of ecological zonation has to be adjusted for the administrative boundaries.

Table II.9.Vegetable crops for ecological zones based on water productivity ranking (ADB 2006a).
Agro-Ecological District Altitude Crops Ranks
Zone (m) Proposed
Highlands-I (> Chillies 1
2000m) Kalat 2,054 Potato 2
Onion 3
Ziarat 2,454 Potato 1
Pishin (Toba Kakari, Barshore) NA Potato 1
Killa Abdullah (Toba Achakzai) NA Potato 1
Killa Saifullah (Kan Metherzai) 2,170 Potato 1
Highlands-II Cabbage 1
(1200m to Chillies 1
2000m) Quetta 1,676 Tomato 2
Potato 3
Onion 4
Pishin 1,572 Okra 1

105
 Cucumber 2
Carrot 3
Tomato 4
Potato 5
Onion 6
Cabbage 1
Killa Abdullah NA Chillies 2
Okra 3
Cucumber 4
Tomato 5
Cabbage 1
Killa Saifullah 1,550 Chillies 2
Cucumber 3
Cauliflower 4
Tomato 5
Cabbage 1
Loralai 1,433 Chillies 2
Cauliflower 3
Cucumber 4
Melon 5
Squash 1
Cucumber 2
Mastung 1,676 Okra 3
Bitter Gourd 4
Tomato 5
Onion 6
Cabbage 1
Musa Khel 1,344 Chillies 2
Cauliflower 3
Cucumber 4
Cabbage 2
Chillies 1
Zhob 1,384 Cucumber 2
Cauliflower 3
Garlic 4
Tomato 5
Sub-high lands Cabbage 1
Chillies 2
Melon 3
Khuzdar 1,237 Radish 4
Egg Plant 5
Cauliflower 6
Cucumber 7
Potato 8
Plain Chillies 1
Cucumber 2
Nasirabad 100 Cucumber 3
Egg Plant 4
Tomato 5
Onion 6
Radish 1
Egg Plant 2
Jafferabad 110 Chillies 3
Cauliflower 4
Cucumber 5
Cabbage 6
Sibi 132 Cabbage 1
Cauliflower 2
Cucumber 3

106
 Okra 4
Chillies 5
Tomato 6
Turnip 7
Squash 1
Egg Plant 2
Bolan 226 Carrot 3
Tomato 4
Radish 5
Melon 6
Radish 1
Jhal Magsi 98 Cucumber 2
Cabbage 3
Chillies 4
Tomato 5
Desert Squash 1
Cucumber 2
Chagai 715 Tomato 3
Okra 4
Bitter Gourd 5
Onion 6
Chillies 1
Squash 2
Panjgur 975 Carrot 3
Cauliflower 4
Egg Plant 5
Radish 6
Onion 7
Squash 1
Chillies 2
Kharan 701 Egg Plant 3
Carrot 4
Radish 5
Onion 6
Peas 7
Squash 1
Chillies 2
Awaran NA Egg Plant 3
Carrot 4
Radish 5
Onion 6
Peas 7
Squash 1
Chillies 2
Washuk NA Egg Plant 3
Carrot 4
Radish 5
Onion 6
Peas 7
Coastal Lasbella 80 Okra 1
Cucumber 2
Egg Plant 3
Squash 1
Carrot 2
Turbat 60 Chillies 3
Cauliflower 4
Egg Plant 5
Okra 6
Radish 7

107
Table II.10. Kharif crops proposed for different agro-ecological zones based on water productivity
ranking for Balochistan (ADB 2006a).
Agro-Ecological District Altitude Crops Ranks
Zone (m) Proposed
Highlands-I (< Kalat 2,054 Maize 1
2000m) Sorghum 2
Ziarat 2,454 Maize 1
Pishin (Toba Kakari, Barshore) NA Maize 1
Killa Abdullah (Toba Achakzai) NA Maize 1
Killa Saifullah (Kan Metherzai) 2,170 Maize 1
Highlands-II Quetta 1,676 Maize 1
(1200m to Pishin 1,572 Maize 1
2000m) Tobacco 2
Killa Abdullah NA Maize 1
Tobacco 2
Killa Saifullah 1,550 Maize 1
Loralai 1,433 Maize 1
Sorghum 2
Zhob 1,384 Maize 1
Sorghum 2
Musa Khel 1,344 Maize 1
Mastung 1,676 Maize 1
Sorghum 2
Sub-high lands Cotton 1
(1000m to Khuzdar 1,237 Maize 2
1200m) Sorghum 3
Plain Cotton 1
Nasirabad 100 Maize 2
Sugarcane 3
Rice 4
Cotton 1
Jafferabad 80 Maize 2
Sugarcane 3
Rice 4
Guar 1
Sibi 132 Cotton 2
Maize 3
Sorghum 4
Guar 1
Bolan 226 Cotton 2
Maize 3
Sorghum 4
Guar 1
Jhal Magsi 98 Cotton 2
Maize 3
Sorghum 4
Rice 5
Desert Chagai 715 Cotton 1
Maize 2
Sorghum 3
Panjgur 975 Maize 1
Sorghum 2
Kharan 701 Cotton 1
Sorghum 2
Awaran 701 Cotton 1
Sorghum 2
Washuk 701 Cotton 1
Sorghum 2
Coastal Lasbella 80 Cotton 1
108
 Maize 2
Sorghum 3
Sugarcane 4
Fodder 5
Maize 1
Turbat 60 Sorghum 2
Rice 3
Fodder 4

Table II.11. Rabi crops proposed for different ecological zones based on water productivity ranking
for Balochistan (ADB 2006a).
Agro-Ecological District Altitude Crops Proposed Ranks
Zone (m)
Highlands-I (< Barley 1
2000m) Kalat 2,054 Wheat 2
Cumin 3
Ziarat 2,454 Barley 1
Wheat 2
Pishin (Toba Kakari, Bareshore) NA Barley 1
Wheat 2
Killa Abdullah (Toba Achakzai) NA Barley 1
Wheat 2
Killa Saifullah (Kan Metherzai) 2,170 Barley 1
Wheat 2
High land II Barley 1
(1200m to Quetta 1,676 Wheat 2
2000m) Cumin 3
Pishin 1,572 Barley 1
Wheat 2
Cumin 3
Killa Abdullah 1,320 Barley 1
Wheat 2
Cumin 3
Killa Saifullah 1,550 Barley 1
Wheat 2
Loralai 1,433 Barley 1
Wheat 2
Zhob 1,384 Barley 1
Wheat 2
Mastung 1,676 Barley 1
Wheat 2
Cumin 3
Musa Khel 1,344 Wheat 1
Barley 2
Sub-high lands Barley 1
(1000m to Khuzdar 1,237 Wheat 2
1200m) Cumin 3
Plains Nasirabad 100 Wheat 1
Chick peas 2
Jafferabad 80 Wheat 1
Chick peas 2
Rapeseed/Mustard 3
Sibi 122 Barley 1
Wheat 2
Rapeseed/Mustard 3
Bolan 226 Barley 1
Wheat 2
Rapeseed/Mustard 3
Jhal Magsi 98 Barley 1
109
 Wheat 2
Rapeseed/Mustard 3
Desert Barley 1
Chagai 715 Wheat 2
Cumin 3
Fodder 4
Panjgur 975 Barley 1
Wheat 2
Fodder 3
Kharan 701 Barley 1
Wheat 2
Awaran 1,000 Barley 1
Wheat 2
Washuk 701 Barley 1
Wheat 2
Coastal Lasbella 80 Barley 1
Wheat 2
Fodder 3
Turbat 404 Barley 1
Wheat 2
Vegetables 3

Table II.12. Fruit crops proposed for different agro-ecological zones based on water productivity
ranking for Balochistan (ADB 2006a).
Agro-Ecological District Altitude (m) Crops Proposed Ranks
Zone
Highlands-I (< Apricot 1
2000m) Kalat 2,054 Grapes 2
Apple 3
Ziarat 2,454 Apricot 1
Apple 2
Pishin (Toba NA Apricot 1
Kakari, Barshore) Grapes 2
Apple 3
Killa Abdullah NA Apricot 1
(Toba Achakzai) Grapes 2
Apple 3
Killa Saifullah 2,170 Apricot 1
(Kan Metherzai) Apple 2
Highlands-II Apricot 1
(1200m to 2000m) Quetta 1,676 Grapes 2
Apple 3
Almond 1
Pishin 1,572 Pomegranate 2
Apricot 3
Grapes 4
Apple 5
Almond 1
Killa Abdullah 1,320 Pomegranate 2
Apricot 3
Grapes 4
Almond 1
Killa Saifullah 1,550 Pomegranate 2
Apricot 3
Grapes/olive 4
Loralai 1,433 Almond 1
Pomegranate 2
Apricot 3
Grapes 4

110
 Olive 5
Musa Khel 1,344 Almond 1
Pomegranate 2
Apricot 3
Almond 1
Zhob 1,384 Pomegranate 2
Apricot 3
Olive 4
Almond 1
Mastung 1,676 Apricot 2
Grapes 3
Apple 4
Sub-high lands Almond 1
(1000m to 1200m) Khuzdar 1,237 Pomegranate 2
Apricot 3
Grapes 4
Dates 5
Plain Guvava 1
Nasirabad 100 Dates 2
Mango 3
Citrus 4
Jafferabad 80 Guava 1
Mango 2
Citrus 3
Guava 1
Sibi 122 Dates 2
Mango 3
Citrus 4
Guava 1
Bolan 226 Dates 2
Mango 3
Citrus 4
Jhal Magsi 98 Citrus 1
Guava 2
Mango 3
Desert Chagai 715 Pomegranate 1
Grapes 2
Dates 3
Panjgur 975 Pomegranate 1
Grapes 2
Dates 3
Kharan 701 Pomegranate 1
Dates 2
Grapes 3
Washuk 701 Pomegranate 1
Dates 2
Grapes 3
Coastal Guava 1
Banana 2
Lasbella 80 Chiku 3
Papaya 4
Mango 5
Citrus 6
Turbat 404 Dates 1
Mango 2
Citrus 3

111
Figure II.1. Distribution of promising fruits in cropping patterns of various districts under
different agro-ecological zones of Balochistan (ADB 2006a).

Figure II.2. Distribution of promising vegetables in cropping pattern of various

districts under different agro-ecological zones of Balochistan (ADB 2006a).
112
Figure II.3. Distribution of promising Kharif crops in cropping pattern of various districts
under different agro-ecological zones of Balochistan (ADB 2006a).

Figure II.4. Distribution of promising Rabi crops in cropping pattern grown in various
districts under different agro-ecological zones of Balochistan.
113