Analogy

• But if you throw more, you’ll make more holes

 The Photon Model Remember this bit
• Part – to release the electron
• Part – to the kinetic energy of the released electron
 The Photon Model Remember this bit
• Energy from photon = Energy needed to release electron + Kinetic
energy of the released electron
 The Photon Model Remember this bit
• Energy from photon - Energy needed to release electron = Kinetic
energy of the released electron
 The Photon Model Remember this bit
• Can you put this into symbols?
 The Photon Model
• K = hf – W0
• Remember this for later
 The Photon Model Remember this bit
• We can measure kinetic energy, and see what effects it
 Experimental Measurement
• We can add a battery
 Experimental Measurement
• This helps us measure the stopping voltage
 Experimental Measurement
• Which allows us to calculate the kinetic energy of the electrons
• In electronvolts
 Experimental Measurement
• We can plot a graph of stopping voltage against frequency
 Experimental Measurement
• This is a graph of the electron’s kinetic energy against frequency
 Experimental Measurement
• It looks something like this
 Experimental Measurement
• A linear relationship! With a gradient
 Experimental Measurement
• Gradient: Planck’s constant = 6.63 × 10-34 m2 kg/s
 Experimental Measurement
• ‘Equation’ of graph - K = hf – W0
 An interesting point
• What’s interesting about this point?
 An interesting point
• Kinetic energy of electron = zero
• Ejected electrons are stopped
 An interesting point
• This helps us find the ‘Work Function’
 An interesting point
• K = hf – W0 (We already have K, h and f, so let’s get the intercept)
 Work Function
• The minimum amount of energy necessary to eject an
electron from a metal ‘W0’
 An interesting point
• At the special point, what happens to the incoming photon energy?
 An interesting point
• All of it is used to eject the electron
• Kinetic energy is zero
 An interesting point
• What happens as we increase frequency?
• i.e the energy of the photons hitting?
 An interesting point
• Anything after the work function hump becomes the electron’s
kinetic energy
 Maximum kinetic energy of a Photoelectron
Kmax = hf – W0
 Experimental Measurement
• But what about intensity? We’ve been keeping it constant!
 Classical Physics - Intensity
• Classical Physics states kinetic energy of electrons should increase
with intensity
 Classical Physics - Intensity
• So let’s try…. PhET
 Experimental Measurement
• The plot is independent of intensity PhET
 Experimental Measurement
• The kinetic energy of the electron doesn’t depend on light intensity
 Remember
• But you’ll get more of them (more photons)
Classical Physics Fails
• Classical Physics fails
 Experimental Measurement
• The kinetic energy of the electrons increases with photon frequency
 Classical Physics Failure
• Higher photon frequency gives higher photon energy
 Some points of the model
• Energy from the light can’t build up over time and eject electrons
• Electrons are ejected when we hit a minimum frequency
 Conclusion Time Again….
• The incident light must be acting like a particle
• It gives all its energy to the electron, and ejects it
 Work Function
• Only certain photons of light have the energy required to eject
 Work Function
• It is the individual photon which needs to supply enough energy
 Conclusion Time Again….
• Any energy ‘left over’ becomes the kinetic energy of the particle
 Concept-check Question
How does the maximum kinetic energy of electrons ejected sodium and gold compare?
Hint: the cutoff frequency for gold is higher than sodium (7 marks)
 Example Answer
The threshold frequency ‘f0’ is higher for gold than sodium. The work function ‘W0’ of gold is therefore
higher than that of sodium. (1) More energy is needed to release an electron from gold (1) The energy
supplied by an incident photon of light is ‘hf’ (1) The maximum kinetic energy of emitted electrons is given
by ‘Kmax’ = hf – W0 (2) The maximum kinetic energy of the electrons from the gold will be less than that of
the sodium (1) for the same frequency of light (1) because more energy is used up in trying to release the
electrons from the material (1)
 Concept-check Question: Two
Interpret and explain the graph shown (7 marks)
 Example Answer
Gold has a higher work function/threshold frequency than sodium (2) Gold will therefore have a
y-intercept at a lower ‘y’-value (1) A light of higher frequency is needed to observe the
photoelectric effect in gold (1) The slope of both graphs (1) is the same (1) As modelled in
Einstein’s photon model of light (1) Where E = hf (1) Because kinetic energy varies linearly with
frequency (1)
 Concept-check Question: Three
A beam of white light containing frequencies between 4.00 x 1014Hz and 7.90 x 1014Hz is incident on a
sodium surface, which has a work function of 2.28 eV.

a) What is the range of frequencies in this beam of light for which electrons are ejected from the sodium
surface?

b) Find the maximum kinetic energy of the ‘photoelectrons’ that are ejected from this surface
A beam of white light containing frequencies between 4.00 x 1014Hz and 7.90 x 1014Hz is incident on a sodium surface,
which has a work function of 2.28 eV.

a) What is the range of frequencies in this beam of light for which electrons are ejected from the sodium surface?

.
Cutoff frequency for sodium – f0 = = . ×

The frequencies that emit electrons are between ‘f0’ and the highest

photon frequency in the beam

Frequencies that eject electrons: 𝟏𝟒 to 7.90 x 1014Hz

A beam of white light containing frequencies between 4.00 x 1014Hz and 7.90 x 1014Hz is incident on a
sodium surface, which has a work function of 2.28 eV.

b) Find the maximum kinetic energy of the ‘photoelectrons’ that are ejected from this surface

Kmax = hf – W0
𝟏.𝟔𝟎×𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟗
For the maximum frequency = [(6.63 x 10-34)x(7.90 x 10)] - [(2.28)( )] = 1.59 x 10-19J
𝟏

The maximum kinetic energy of an emitted photon is about 1 eV

Additional question) What frequency of light would be necessary to give a maximum kinetic energy of
2.00eV to the photoelectrons from this surface?
Additional question) What frequency of light would be necessary to give a maximum kinetic energy of
2.00eV to the photoelectrons from this surface?

Work function ‘W0’ of the sodium surface is 2.28 eV

𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑾𝟎
Kmax = hf – W0 , hf = Kmax + W0, f=
𝒉

Conversion of electronvolts to Joules:

2.00 eV = 3.2 x 10-19 J (maximum kinetic energy),2.28 eV = 3.65 x 10-19 J (work function)

. × ( . × )
f=
. ×
 Concept Check Question: Four
In a photoelectric experiment, a beam of light with a frequency greater than the cutoff frequency

Shines on the emitter. If the frequency of this beam is increased while the intensity is kept
constant, does the number of electrons ejected per second from the metal surface

a) increase, b) decrease, or c) stay the same

Why?
 Example Answer
Answer:

Increasing the frequency of the beam means each photon carries more energy. However, the intensity of
the beam is constant. A constant number of photons hits the metal per second. The same number of
photoelectrons will be ejected, but they have a higher kinetic energy

So the answer is c) Stay the same

 Photoelectric Effect in Real-Life
• Elevator doors (a ‘photocell’)
◦ When someone arrives late: Photocell’s current is interrupted. The doors signaled to open
• The photoelectric effect is also used in solar panels, cameras and streetlights
Photoelectric Effect Questions
 Photoelectric Effect- Answers for 1 and 2

Kmax = hf – W0, W0 = hf - Kmax

W0 = [(6.63 x 10-34) x (9.95 x 1014)] – 0.180 x 10-19 = 6.42 x 10-19 J - Work function of silver ( = 4.01 eV)

𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑾𝟎
Kmax = hf – W0, hf = Kmax + W0, f= 𝒉

𝟔.𝟒𝟖×𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟗 (𝟒.𝟓𝟖 ×𝟏.𝟔𝟎 ×𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟗 )

f= 𝟑𝟒 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝑯𝒛
𝟔.𝟔𝟑×𝟏𝟎
 Photoelectric Effect- Answer for 3

𝒄
Wavelength and frequency are inversely related by:
𝝀

Speed of light ‘c’ = 3.00 x 108 m/s

. ×
f=
×

W0 = hf – Kmax
In this situation, the frequency is the threshold frequency ‘f0’

W0 = hf0 = 6.63 x 10-34 x 1.14 x 1015 = 7.76 x 10-19 J ( = 4.85 eV)

 Photoelectric Effect- Answer for 4

a) Aluminum requires a higher frequency of light to release electrons from the material because the
minimum amount of energy required to release an electron is greater (as shown by its work
function)

b) W0 = hf0 , Calculate the threshold frequency for each material: f0 =

. × . ×
For Aluminium f0 = = 1.03 x 1015 Hz
. ×

. × . ×
For Calcium f0 = = 6.93 x 1014 Hz
. ×
 Let’s go further…
• How much energy did the photons have in this experiment?
• Photon energy = Work function + Kinetic energy of electron
 Visible Light - Photon Energies
• Visible light photon range ≈ 1.7 – 3.3 eV
 Visible Light - Photon Energies
• Photoelectric effect observed with low wavelengths of visible light
 Visible Light – Laboratory Equipment
• Easy to analyse in a lab with a bright lamp or laser
 Photoelectric Effect
• Is seen to photon energies of 100,000 eV/0.1MeV
 Photoelectric Effect
• Therefore, we see it with low wavelengths of ultraviolet light too
 The Compton Effect
• But with X-rays, a different effect takes over…
 The Compton Effect
• This effect was observed in Arthur Holly Compton’s
experiment in 1923.
 The Compton Effect
• It further confirmed the Quantum theory of light
 The Compton Effect
• He directed X-rays at stationary electrons
• Then examined the collision
 The Compton Effect
• He measured the wavelength of the waves after the collision
 Classical Physics – Group Task
• What does classical wave theory predict would happen?
• Hint: We’ve talked about this before
 Classical Physics – Prediction
• Wavelength should not change
• Electron will oscillate at incident frequency
 Classical Physics – Prediction
• Therefore, electron should re-emit wave with same frequency
 Classical Physics – Prediction
• The frequency of scattered X-ray should be the same
 Classical Physics – Another Failure!
• This doesn’t happen!
 The Compton Effect - Observation
• After collision :
• Higher wavelength/lower frequency photons than incident
• Plus the ejected electron it hits
 The Compton Effect - Observation
• Compton used the photon model to explain the results.
 Example Exam Question
• Use the photon model to explain what happens (5 marks)
 Example Exam Question
• Incoming photon collides with electron (1) Transfers some energy to the
electron (1) photon now has less energy than before (1) so it decreases in
frequency [E=hf] (1) and increases in wavelength (1) Electron increases its
kinetic energy and is ejected (1) X-ray is scattered (1) Speed remains
constant
 Compton Effect – Pairwork Task
• What does this remind you of?
 Compton Effect – Pairwork Task
• Maybe this helps…
 Compton Effect – Pairwork Task
• An elastic collision
 Compton Effect – Pairwork Task
• But it’s photon wavelength that changes, not speed
 Particle-Like Properties
• This suggests another particle-like property of light
 Particle-Like Properties
• Momentum
 Momentum of a photon
• Despite no mass….
 Momentum of a photon
• Objects with mass can never reach ‘c’
• So it follows that photons have no mass
 Momentum of a photon
• But they do have momentum
• Which goes against Newtonian Physics
 Wave-Particle
• Hence, light exhibits particle-like properties
 Particle-like interactions of light
• Seen in:
• The photoelectric effect
• The Compton effect