UNIT-1 SEMI CONDUCTOR PHYSICS

1. Classification of Materials Based on Energy Band Theory

Insulators, Semiconductors and Metals:
 A very poor conductor of electricity is called an insulator;
 An excellent conductor of electricity is a metal; and
 A substance whose conductivity lies between these extremes is a semiconductor.
A material may be placed in one of these three classes, depending upon its energy-band
structure.
Insulator: The energy-band
structure of insulator is shown
schematically in Fig. A large
forbidden band (EG ≈6 eV)
separates the filled valence
region from the vacant
conduction band. Practically it Fig. Energy-band structure of (a) an insulator, (b) a
is impossible for an electron to semiconductor, and (c) a metal.

jump from the valence band to the conduction band. Hence such materials cannot
conduct and called insulators. Insulators may conduct only at very high temperatures or
if they are subjected to high voltage. Such conduction is rare and is called breakdown of
an insulator.
Insulator has negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
Example : Diamond ,glass, wood, mica, paper, Xenon etc
Semiconductor:
A substance for which the width of the forbidden energy region is relatively small (≈1 eV)
is called a semiconductor. The most important practical semiconductor materials are
germanium and silicon, which have values of EG of 0.785 and 1.21 eV, respectively, at
0°K. Energies of this magnitude normally cannot be acquired from an applied field. Hence
the valence band remains full, the conduction band empty, and these materials are
insulators at low temperatures. However, the conductivity increases with temperature.
These substances are known as intrinsic (pure) semiconductors.
As the temperature is increased, some of these valence electrons acquire thermal energy
greater than EG, and hence move into the conduction band. These are now free electrons
in the sense that they can move about under the influence of even a small applied field.
The insulator has now become slightly conducting; it is a semiconductor. The absence of
an electron in the valence band is represented by a small circle in Fig. b, and is called a
hole. The phrase “holes in a semiconductor” therefore refers to the empty energy levels
in an otherwise filled valence band.
Note: It has been determined experimentally that EG decreases with temperature.
 For silicon, EG(T) = 1.21 - 3.60 x 10-4T,
where T is Temperature in 0K
At room temperature (3000K), EG = 1.1 eV.
 For germanium, EG(T) =0.785 -2.23 x 10-4 T
At room temperature(3000K), EG = 0.72 eV.
Conductor (Metal): In conductors, the conduction and valence bands are overlapped
with each other (EG = 0). Hence even at room temperature, a large number of electrons
are available for conduction. So without any additional energy, such metals contain a
large number of free electrons and hence called good conductors. The conductors are
unipolar i.e, conducts current by means of electrons only.
Conductors has positive temperature coefficient of resistance .
Example : Copper , silver, Aluminum etc.

2. MOBILITY: The following figure is a two-dimensional schematic picture of the

charge distribution within a metal. The shaded regions represent the net positive charge
of the nucleus and the tightly bound inner electrons. The black dots represent the outer,
or valence, electrons in the atom. These electrons wander freely from atom to atom in the
metal. According to the electron-gas theory of a metal, the electrons are in continuous
motion, the direction of flight being changed at each collision with the heavy (almost
stationary) ions. Since the motion is random, the average current is zero.
Now let us apply a constant electric field E (volts
per meter) to the metal. As a result of this
electrostatic force, the electrons would be
accelerated and the velocity would increase
indefinitely with time. However, at each inelastic
collision with an ion, an electron loses energy, and
a steady- state condition is reached where a finite
value of drift speed v is attained. This drift velocity
is in the direction opposite to that of the electric field. The average speed V is proportional
to applied electric field E. Thus
V = µE where µ is called mobility of charged particle.

3. DRIFT CURRENT DENSITY

Let us consider conductor of length ‘L’ having ‘N’
number of electrons and having a area of cross
section ‘A’. Consider any cross section of the
conductor. Let ‘N’ be the number electrons passing
through area ‘A’ in time ‘T’.So number of electrons crossing the area in unit time is N/T.
Thus the total charge per second passing any area, which, by definition, is the current in
amperes, is
I=Nq/T=Nqv/L; where v = drift velocity =(L/T)
The current density J for the conductor is current per unit cross sectional area of the
conducting material.
J = I/A ampere/m2  J = Nev/LA ;
where L.A = volume of the conductor ; n = number of electrons per unit volume,
n = N/LA  J = nev ; but v = µE;
Therefore J = neµE ampere/m2 ;
This is the general expression for current density in a given material.
The current density is related to electric field E by relation, J = σE;
where σ = conductivity of the material in (Ω-m) -1 and σ= neµ.
4. INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS :
Intrinsic Semiconductor : Pure semiconductors . Si, Ge

4.1. Electrons and Holes in an Intrinsic Semiconductor:

At a very low temperature (say 0oK), semiconductor behaves as an insulator, since no
free carriers of electricity are available. At room temperature, some of the covalent bonds
will be broken because of the thermal energy supplied to the crystal, and conduction is
made possible. The energy EG required to break such a covalent bond is about 0.72 eV
for germanium and 1.1 eV for silicon at room temperature.
Hole in a lattice is designed as vacancy created by removal of electron from covalent
bond. The absence of the electron in the covalent bond (incomplete) is called a hole. The
importance of the hole is that it may serve as a carrier of electricity comparable in
effectiveness to the free electron.
The motion of the hole in one direction means the transport of a negative charge an equal
distance in the opposite direction. The hole behaves like a positive charge equal in
magnitude to the electronic charge. The holes are physical entities whose movement
constitutes a flow of current.
In a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor the number of holes in a valence band is equal to the
number of free electrons in the conduction band.
Thermal agitation continues to produce new hole – electron pairs, whereas other hole –
electron pairs disappear as a result of recombination.
n = p = ni
where n = Electron concentration; p = hole concentration.
ni = Intrinsic concentration of semiconductor.
At room temperature, ni = 1.5 x 1010 / cm3 for Silicon
= 2.5 x 1013 / cm3 for Germanium.
Intrinsic concentration ni : The intrinsic concentration ni varies with temperature as,
 EGo
ni2  AoT 3e KT
where EGo = energy gap at 0oK in eV;

K = Boltzmann constant in eV /oK

T = Temperature in degree Kelvin; A0 = Constant independent of T.
4.2. EQUILIBRIUM CONCENTRATIONS
The energy corresponding to the highest filled level at
0oK is called the “Fermi energy EF”. At 0oK, the free
electrons occupy all the levels up to the Fermi level,
leaving all those above it empty.
At temperature above 0oK, due to thermal
excitation, there is a finite probability of some of the
electrons from below the Fermi level moving to
Fig. Plot of electron distribution.
levels above EF. This probability is given by the
Fermi – Dirac statistics.
The probability of occupation f(E) of an energy level E by an electron is given by

The final level can be defined as that level which has a 50% probability of occupation
by an electron at any temperature.
Case (1) : At T = 0oK
f(E) = 1 / (1+ e∞) = 0 when E > EF
f(E) = 1 / (1+ e-∞) = 0 when E < EF
 Intrinsic semiconductor will acts as insulator for 0oK
Case (2) : At T = 300oK
f(E) = 0 when E >> EF
f(E) = 1 when E << EF
 As temperature increases conduction increases in intrinsic semiconductor.
KT = 0.026 eV
For E >> EC, E – EF >> KT and equation reduces to f(E) = e-(E c – E f ) / KT
EC = lowest energy level in the conduction band

4.2.1. Concentration of Electrons

The carrier density, i.e., the number of electrons available for conduction in Conduction
band is  
 EC  E F / kT
n  NC e
n=equilibrium electron carrier concentration; N(E)=density of states;
f(E) =fermi function; k=Boltzmann’s const.

 2 mn kT 
3/ 2 3
N C  2  (1.602 X 10 19 ) 2  effective density of states in conduction band
 
2
h
4.2.2. Concentration of Holes
The carrier(free holes) density, i.e., the number of holes available for conduction in
Valence Band is
 EF  E / kT
p  Nve

Where
 2 m p kT 
3/ 2 3
N v  2 2
 (1.602 X 10 19 ) 2  effective density of states in valence band
 h 

4.3. Fermi Level In Intrinsic Semiconductor( Ef)

For an intrinsic semiconductor n = p; So
 
 EC  E F / kT  E F  E  / kT
NC e  Nve

N c Ec  Ev  2 E F
ln 
Nv kT
Taking logarithm of both sides, we obtain
Hence
Ec  Ev kT N c
EF   ln
2 2 Nv
If the effective masses of hole and free electron are the same, Nc = Nv, then

Ec  Ev
EF 
2
Hence Fermi level EF lies in the middle of forbidden energy band for intrinsic
semiconductor.

4.4. Current Density in an Intrinsic Semiconductor:

In an Intrinsic semiconductor with each hole – electron pair created, two charge carrying
particles are formed. One is negatively charged free electron with mobility µ n, and the
other is positively charged hole having mobility µp .
The current density J due to both electron and hole is given by
J = (n µn + p µp) q E = σ E

Where n = magnitude of free – electron (negative) concentration

p = magnitude of hole(positive) concentration
σ = conductivity; E = electric field and q = electron charge
µ n = Mobility of electron and µ p = Mobility of hole
For Intrinsic Semi conductor, n = p = ni, so that J = n i ( µ n + µp) q E = σ E
and Conductivity = σ = ni ( µ n + µp) q
Resistivity : The resistivity  is inversely proportional to the conductivity and is given
by
 = 1/ σ = 1/ (n µn + p µp) q
The conductivity of Silicon (Germanium) will increase approximately 8(6) percent per
degree with increase in temperature.
Semi conductors have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance where as that of
a metal is positive and of much smaller magnitude. For most metals the resistance
increases about 0.4 percent /oC increase in temperature.

5. Extrinsic Semiconductors
Due to the poor conduction at room temperature, the intrinsic semiconductor as such, is
not useful in the electronic devices. Hence, the current conduction capability of the
intrinsic semiconductor should be increased. This can be achieved by adding a small
amount of impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor, so that it becomes impure or extrinsic
semiconductor.
 This process of adding impurity is known as doping.
Due to doping some of the characteristics like conductivity, capacitance, break down
affect, frequency of operation, temperature are improved in a semiconductor.
The amount of impurity added is extremely small, say 1 to 2 atoms of impurity for 10 8
intrinsic atoms.
5.1. n-Type semiconductors
A small amount of pentavalent impurities such as arsenic, antimony or phosphorus is
added to the pure semiconductor (Ge or Si) to get n-type semiconductor.
Germanium(Ge) atom has four valence electrons and Antimony(Sb) has five valence
electrons. As shown in fig., each antimony atom forms a covalent bond with surrounding

four Ge atoms. Thus, four valence electrons of Sb atom form covalent bond with four
valence electrons of individual Ge atom and fifth valence electron is left free which is
loosely bound to the Sb atom.
 The energy required to detach this fifth electron is of the order of only 0.01 eV
for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si.
Suitable pentavalent impurities are phosphorous, arsenic, antimony and bismuth (PAAB).
Such impurities donate excess (negative) electron carriers and are therefore referred to
as “donor, or n – type” impurities.
When donor impurities are added to a pure semiconductor, allowable discrete energy
levels are introduced at a very small distance below the conduction band, as shown in
fig. called Donor Energy Level and therefore at room temperature almost all of the “fifth”
electrons of the donor material are raised into the conduction band.
If intrinsic semiconductor material is “doped” with n – type impurities, not only does the
number of electrons increase, but the number of holes decreases below that which would
be available in the intrinsic semiconductor. The reason for the decrease in the number of
holes is that the larger number of electrons present increases the rate of recombination
of electrons with holes.
5.2. p-Type Semiconductors
If a trivalent impurity (Boron, Aluminum, Gallium and Indium (BAGI)) is added to an
intrinsic semiconductor, only three of the covalent bonds can be filled, and the vacancy
that exists in the fourth bond constitutes a hole. Such impurities make available positive
carriers because they create holes which can accept electrons. These impurities are
consequently known as acceptor, or p-type, impurities. The amount of impurity which
must be added to have an appreciable effect on the conductivity is very small.

 For example, if a donor-type impurity is added to the extent of 1 part in 10 8, the

conductivity of germanium at 30°C is multiplied by a factor of 12.
When acceptor, or p-type, impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, they
produce an allowable discrete energy level which is just above the valence band, as
shown in Fig.. Since a very small amount of energy is required for an electron to leave
the valence band and occupy the acceptor energy level, it follows that the holes
generated in the valence band by these electrons constitute the largest number of
carriers in the semiconductor material.
5.3. Variation in Fermi Level with Doping Concentration and
Temparature

5.3.1. For n-type semiconductors:

For n-type material EF moves closer to the conduction band and the equation is given as

 Nc 
EF  Ec  kT ln 
In n-type n = ND where
 ND 
 
 EC  E F / kT
n  NC e
 As Doping Concentration increases, ND increases, then ND > NC
EC - EF = KT 1n (NC / ND) < 0 =≫ EC < EF
With increase in doping concentration, Fermi level will move towards conduction band
and hence conduction increases.
 As Temperature increases, NC increases and then NC > ND
EC - EF > 0 =≫ EC > EF
With increase in temperature, Fermi level will move towards the center of the forbidden
energy gap and hence conduction decreases.

5.3.2. For P-type semiconductors:

For p-type material EF moves closer to the valence band and the equation is given as
N 
E F  Ev  kT ln v 
 NA 
In p-type p = NA where  E F  Ev / kT
p  Nve
 As Doping Concentration increases, NA increases, then NA > NV
EF - EV = kT 1n(NV / NA) < 0
EF - EV < 0 =≫ EF < EV
With increase in doping concentration, Fermi level will move towards valence band and
hence conduction increases.
 As Temperature increases, NV increases and then NV > NA
EF - EV > 0 =≫ EF > E V
With increase in temperature, Fermi level will move towards the center of the forbidden
energy gap and hence conduction decreases.
5.4. Charge Densities in a Semiconductor :
All Semiconductors (either Intrinsic or Extrinsic) are electrically neutral. i.e., the total
negative charge is equal to that of total positive charge.
In a Semiconductor the positive charges include holes and donor ions and the negative
charges include electrons and acceptor ions.
Let ND be the concentration of donor atoms, NA be the concentration of acceptor atoms.
Then,
the total positive charge density = ND + p and
the total negative charge density = NA + n.
Since the semiconductor is electrically neutral,
Magnitude of the positive charge density = Magnitude of the negative charge density,
ND + p = NA + n ------(1)
For n-type semiconductors
For n – type materials NA = 0 and n >> p then equation (1) reduces to n ≈ ND
The concentration of holes p in the n – type semiconductor is obtained from
mass action law np = ni2
Thus, p = ni2 / ND
Hence for n-type Semiconductor, Electron Concentration n = ND
and Hole Concentration p = ni2 / ND
For p-type semiconductors
For p – type materials ND = 0 and p >> n then equation (1) reduces to P ≈ NA
np = ni2 ; pp ~ NA and np = ni2 / NA
Hence for p-type Semiconductor, Hole Concentration p = NA
and Electron Concentration n = ni2 / NA
6. DIFFUSION CURRENT DENSITY
Diffusion current is caused by the concentration gradient in the semiconductor, that is,
when there is non-uniform concentration of charge particles in a semiconductor.
The hole diffusion current density is given by the expression
𝑑𝑝
𝐽𝑝 = − 𝑞𝐷𝑝
𝑑𝑥
where Dp is the diffusion constant of holes in cm2/s and dp/dx the variation in hole
concentration with distance x (it is positive when the hole concentration increases with
distance and is negative when the hole concentration decreases with distance).
Similarly. the electron diffusion current density is
𝑑𝑛
𝐽𝑛 = + 𝑞𝐷𝑛
𝑑𝑥
where Dn is the diffusion constant of electrons in cm 2/s and dn/dx is the variation of
electron concentration with distance x (it is positive when the concentration of electrons
increases with distance and is negative if the concentration of electrons decreases with
distance).
6.1. TOTAL CURRENT DENSITY :
The hole current in any point x may be written as the sum of two contributions, one
from the field (Drift) and one from the diffusion process:
Jp = pμp qE - qDp dp/dx
Similarly, the total electron current density:
Jn = nμn qE - qDn dn/dx
6.2. EINSTEIN’S RELATIONSHIP: Since both diffusion and mobility are statistical
thermodynamic phenomena, D and are not independent. The relationship between them
is given by the Einstein equation:
𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑛
= = 𝑉𝑇
μ𝑝 μ𝑛
where VT is the “volt-equivalent of temperature,” defined by
𝐾𝑇 𝑇
𝑉𝑇 = =
𝑞 11600
At room temperature (T = 300oK),
VT = 0.026 = 26mv.
7. Hall Effect
Hall Effect is used to find the type
of semiconductor i.e, n –type or
p-type.
If a specimen (metal or
semiconductor) carrying a
current I is placed in a transverse
Fig: Pertaining to the Hall effect, the carriers (whether electrons
magnetic field B, an electric field or holes) are subjected to a magnetic force in the negative Y
direction.
E is induced in the direction
perpendicular to both I and B. This phenomenon is known as the Hall Effect.
Hall Effect is used to determine whether a semiconductor is n or p-type and to find the
carrier concentration. Also, by simultaneously measuring the conductivity , the mobility
µ can be calculated.
If ‘I’ is in the positive X direction and B is in the positive Z direction as shown in fig., a
force will be exerted in the negative Y direction on the current carriers. The current I may
be due to holes moving from left to right or to free electrons traveling from right to left in
the semiconductor specimen. Hence, independently of whether the carriers are holes or
electrons, they will be forced downward toward side 1. If the semiconductor is n-type
material, so that the current is carried by electrons, these electrons will accumulate on
side 1, and this surface becomes negatively charged with respect to side 2. Hence a
potential, called the Hall voltage (VH), appears between surfaces 1 and 2.
If the polarity of VH is positive at terminal 2, then, as explained above, the carriers must
be electrons. If, on the other hand, terminal 1 becomes charged positively with respect to
terminal 2, the semiconductor must be p-type. These results have been verified
experimentally, thus justifying the bipolar (two-carrier) nature of the current in a
semiconductor.
Experimental Determination of Mobility
In the equilibrium state the electric field intensity E due to the Hall effect must exert a
force on the carrier which just balances the magnetic force,
or Bqν = qE; or E=Bν
where q is the magnitude of the charge on the carrier, and ν is the drift speed.
We know that E = V/d, where d is the distance between surfaces 1 and 2.
Current density J = nqv =v; where  is charge density
But current density J = I/A  J = I/w.d

VH = Ed= Bvd = B.( J/).d = B. I d BI

. 
d .w  W

Hall coefficient RH is defined as RH = 1/;

VH B.I .RH RH = VH w
Then = or
W B.I
If conduction is due primarily to charges of one sign, the conductivity is related to the
mobility as  = . 
If the conductivity is measured together with the Hall coefficient, the mobility can be

determined from  =  /  = RH
Applications Since VH is proportional to B (for a given current I), then the Hall Effect has
been incorporated into a magnetic field meter. Another instrument, called a Hall-effect
multiplier, is available to give an output proportional to the product of two signals. If I is
made proportional to one of the inputs and if B is linearly related to the second signal,
then, VH is proportional to the product of the two inputs.