Example-1

Problem: Thin-film metal interconnections on a SiO2 substrate

for microelectronic purposes. Which is better Al or Cu ?

Possible

impossible,

Hence Cu is preferable for interconnections.

PYL 116 Elements of Materials Processing, Dr. P. K. Muduli
 Example-2
 During evaporation of Al from a crucible to produce a film.
will Al oxidize at 1000 C?

(At 1000°C)

(Equilibrium partial
pressure)

Many orders of magnitude below actual oxygen partial

pressures in vacuum systems,
=>Al would be expected to oxidize

PYL 116 Elements of Materials Processing, Dr. P. K. Muduli

 Kinetics and Diffusion

 Concentration gradients generate time-dependent,

mass-transport effects.
 Reduce free-energy variations in the system.

Manifests as
 phase transformations,
 recrystallization,
 Compound growth

PYL 116 Elements of Materials Processing, Dr. P. K. Muduli

 Diffusion
Diffusion: defined as the migration of an atomic or molecular
species within a given matrix under the influence of a
concentration gradient.

Fick's 1st Law Concentration (atoms/cm3)

𝑑𝐶
Flux 𝐽 = −𝐷
2
𝑑𝑥
Atoms/cm -sec
Diffusion
Constant (cm2/sec)

C C

x x
Things move from higher concentration to lower concentration
PYL 116 Elements of Materials Processing, Dr. P. K. Muduli
 Diffusion Constant
Diffusion is a thermally
activated process and the
temperature dependence
of diffusion appears in the
diffusivity as an
“Arrhenius-type”
equation:
D = D0exp(-ED/RT)
D0 is a constant and ED is
the activation energy for
diffusion (cal/mole).

PYL 116 Elements of Materials Processing, Dr. P. K. Muduli

 Fick’s 2nd Law (non-steady state)
The fluxes (J) may be different at different positions (x) in the
material.
𝜕𝐽
𝐽2 = 𝐽1 + ∆𝑥
𝜕𝑥

rate of increase of matter in the region = rate of flow in - rate of flow out
𝜕𝐽 𝜕𝐶
(𝐽1 −𝐽2 )𝐴 = − ∆𝑥𝐴 = ∆𝑥𝐴
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐽 𝜕𝐶
=>− =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝐶 (𝑥, 𝑡) 𝜕 2 𝐶(𝑥, 𝑡) Using 𝐽 =

=𝐷 −𝐷
𝑑𝐶
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
PYL 116 Elements of Materials Processing, Dr. P. K. Muduli
 Solution of Fick’s 2nd Law
x=0

C 𝑥, 0 = 0 at t = 0
d
C ∞, 𝑡 = 0 at 𝑥 = ∞ for t > 0 valid for thick films.
Very large
C 0, 𝑡 = 𝐶0 ,

A thick layer of diffusant provides an essentially

limitless supply of atoms maintaining a constant pure thick film
surface concentration C0 for all time

𝑥/2 𝐷𝑡
𝑥 2 2
Where Error function 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 =1− 𝑒 −𝑧 dz
4𝐷𝑡 𝜋 0

• Used in doping of semiconductors

• Solution invalid for When 𝑑 < 𝐷𝑡
PYL 116 Elements of Materials Processing, Dr. P. K. Muduli