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Contents

ARITHMETIC ........................................................................................................................................ 4

Introduction: ........................................................................................................................................ 4

Addition and Subtraction: ................................................................................................................ 4

Multiplication Algorithm:................................................................................................................ 6

History of Operating Systems ............................................................................................................. 7

The First Generation (1940's to early 1950's).................................................................................. 7

The Second Generation (1955-1965) .............................................................................................. 7

The Third Generation (1965-1980) ................................................................................................. 8

The Fourth Generation (1980-Present Day) .................................................................................... 8

word processing (word processor) .......................................................................................................... 9

History of Word Processing ................................................................................................................ 9

Standard Features of Word Processors................................................................................................ 9

Spreadsheet ........................................................................................................................................... 10

Examples of spreadsheet programs ................................................................................................... 11

DATABASE ......................................................................................................................................... 12

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ARITHMETIC
Introduction:
Data is manipulated by using the arithmetic instructions in digital computers. Data is manipulated to produce
results necessary to give solution for the computation problems. The Addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division are the four basic arithmetic operations. If we want then we can derive other operations by using these
four operations. To execute arithmetic operations there is a separate section called arithmetic processing unit in
central processing unit. The arithmetic instructions are performed generally on binary or decimal data. Fixed-
point numbers are used to represent integers or fractions. We can have signed or unsigned negative numbers.
Fixed-point addition is the simplest arithmetic operation. If we want to solve a problem then we use a sequence
of well-defined steps. These steps are collectively called algorithm. To solve various problems we give
algorithms. In order to solve the computational problems, arithmetic instructions are used in digital computers
that manipulate data. These instructions perform arithmetic calculations. In addition, these instructions perform
a great activity in processing data in a digital computer. As we already stated that with the four basic arithmetic
operations addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, it is possible to derive other arithmetic operations
and solve scientific problems by means of numerical analysis methods. A processor has an arithmetic processor
(as a sub part of it) that executes arithmetic operations. The data type, assumed to reside in processor, registers
during the execution of an arithmetic instruction. Negative numbers may be in a signed magnitude or signed
complement representation. There are three ways of representing negative fixed point - binary numbers signed
magnitude, signed 1’s complement or signed 2’s complement. Most computers use the signed magnitude
representation for the mantissa.

Addition and Subtraction:

Addition and Subtraction with Signed –Magnitude Data We designate the magnitude of the two numbers by A
and B. Where the signed numbers are added or subtracted, we find that there are eight different conditions to
consider, depending on the sign of the numbers and the operation performed. These conditions are listed in the
first column of Table 4.1. The other columns in the table show the actual operation to be performed with the
magnitude of the numbers. The last column is needed to present a negative zero. In other words, when two equal
numbers are subtracted, the result should be +0 not -0.
The algorithms for addition and subtraction are derived from the table and can be stated as follows (the words
parentheses should be used for the subtraction algorithm)

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 Algorithm:
 The flowchart is shown in Figure 7.1. An exclusive-OR gate compares the two signs A, and B.
If the output of the gate is 0 the signs are identical;
If it is 1, the signs are different.
 For an add operation, identical signs dictate that the magnitudes be added. For a subtract operation, different
signs dictate that the magnitudes be added.
 The magnitudes are added with a microoperation EA A + B, where EA is a register that combines E and A. The
carry in E after the addition constitutes an overflow if it is equal to 1. The value of E is transferred into the add-
overflow flip-flop AVF.
 The two magnitudes are subtracted if the signs are different for an add operation or identical for a subtract
operation. The magnitudes are subtracted by adding A to the 2's complemented B. No overflow can occur if the
numbers are subtracted so AVF is cleared to 0.
 1 in E indicates that A >= B and the number in A is the correct result. If this numbs is zero, the sign A must be
made positive to avoid a negative zero.
 0 in E indicates that A < B. For this case it is necessary to take the 2's complement of the value in A. The
operation can be done with one microoperation A A' +1.
 However, we assume that the A register has circuits for microoperations complement and increment, so the 2's
complement is obtained from these two microoperations.
 In other paths of the flowchart, the sign of the result is the same as the sign of A. so no change in A is required.
However, when A < B, the sign of the result is the complement of the original sign of A. It is then necessary to
complement A, to obtain the correct sign.
 The final result is found in register A and its sign in As. The value in AVF provides an overflow indication.
The final value of E is immaterial.
 Figure 7.2 shows a block diagram of the hardware for implementing the addition and subtraction operations.
 It consists of registers A and B and sign flip-flops As and Bs.
 Subtraction is done by adding A to the 2's complement of B.
 The output carry is transferred to flip-flop E, where it can be checked to determine the relative magnitudes of
two numbers.
 The add-overflow flip-flop AVF holds the overflow bit when A and B are added.
 The A register provides other microoperations that may be needed when we specify the sequence of steps in
the algorithm.

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Multiplication Algorithm:
In the beginning, the multiplicand is in B and the multiplier in Q. Their corresponding signs are
in Bs and Qs respectively. We compare the signs of both A and Q and set to corresponding sign
of the product since a double-length product will be stored in registers A and Q. Registers A and
E are cleared and the sequence counter SC is set to the number of bits of the multiplier. Since an
operand must be stored with its sign, one bit of the word will be occupied by the sign and the
magnitude will consist of n-1 bits.
Now, the low order bit of the multiplier in Qn is tested. If it is 1, the multiplicand (B) is added to
present partial product (A), 0 otherwise. Register EAQ is then shifted once to the right to form the
new partial product. The sequence counter is decremented by 1 and its new value checked. If it is
not equal to zero, the process is repeated and a new partial product is formed. When SC = 0 we
stops the process.

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History of Operating Systems
The First Generation (1940's to early 1950's)
When electronic computers were first introduced in the 1940's they were created without any operating
systems. All programming was done in absolute machine language, often by wiring up plugboards to control the
machine's basic functions. During this generation computers were generally used to solve simple math
calculations, operating systems were not necessarily needed.

The Second Generation (1955-1965)

The first operating system was introduced in the early 1950's, it was called GMOS and was created by General
Motors for IBM's machine the 701. Operating systems
in the 1950's were called single-stream batch
processing systems because the data was submitted in
groups. These new machines were called mainframes,
and professional operators in large computer rooms
used them. Since there was such as high price tag on
these machines, only government agencies or large
corporations were able to afford them.

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The Third Generation (1965-1980)
By the late 1960's operating systems designers were able to
develop the system of multiprogramming in which a
computer program will be able to perform multiple jobs at the
same time. The introduction of multiprogramming was a
major part in the development of operating systems because
it allowed a CPU to be busy nearly 100 percent of the time
that it was in operation. Another major development during
the third generation was the phenomenal growth of
minicomputers, starting with the DEC PDP-1 in 1961. The
PDP-1 had only 4K of 18-bit words, but at $120,000 per
machine (less than 5 % of the price of a 7094) it sold like
hotcakes. These microcomputers help create a completely
new industry and the development of more PDP's. These
PDP's helped lead to the creation of personal computers that
are created in the fourth generation.

The Fourth Generation (1980-Present Day)

The fourth generation of operating systems saw the
creation of personal computing. Although these
computers were very similar to the minicomputers
developed in the third generation, personal
computers cost a very small fraction of what
minicomputers cost. A personal computer was so
affordable that it made it possible for a single
individual could be able to own one for personal use
while minicomputers where still at such a high price
that only corporations could afford to have them.
One of the major factors in the creation of personal
computing was the birth of Microsoft and the
Windows operating system. The windows
Operating System was created in 1975 when Paul
Allen and Bill Gates had a vision to take personal
computing to the next level. They introduced the
MS-DOS in 1981 although it was effective it created much difficulty for people who tried to understand
its cryptic commands. Windows went on to become the largest operating system used in techonology today with
releases of Windows 95, Windows 98, WIndows XP (Which is currently the most used operating system to this
day), and their newest operating system Windows 7. Along with Microsoft, Apple is the other major operating
system created in the 1980's. Steve Jobs, co founder of Apple, created the Apple Macintosh which was a huge
success due to the fact that it was so user friendly. The Macintosh influenced Windows development throughout
the later years and it created a strong competition between the two companies. Today all of our electronic devices
run of operating systems, from our computers and smartphones, to ATM machines and motor vehicles.
Moreover, as technology advances, so do operating systems.

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word processing (word processor)

A word processor is software or a device that allows users to create, edit, and print documents. It enables you to
write text, store it electronically, display it on a screen, modify it by entering commands and characters from the
keyboard, and print it.

Of all computer applications, word processing is the most common. Today, most word processors are delivered
either as a cloud service or as software that users can install on a PC or other device.

History of Word Processing

The earliest word processors were standalone machines similar to electric typewriters that debuted in the 1960s.
The great advantage of these early machines over using a typewriter was that you could make changes without
retyping the entire document. Over time, the devices acquired features that are more advanced, such as the ability
to save documents on a disk, elaborate formatting options, and spell checking.
While there are still some standalone word processors in use today, word processing began to move to personal
computers in the 1980s. In the early days of the PC, a word processor called WordPerfect became one of the
most widely used applications of any kind. Over time, however, What You See Is What You Get (WYSIWYG)
word processors that showed users exactly what would print on their final documents became more popular. One
of those WYSISWG word processors, Microsoft Word, became dominant in the 1990s.

Standard Features of Word Processors

Word processors vary considerably, but all word processors, whether cloud-based or installed on a system,
support the following basic features:
insert text: Allows you to insert text anywhere in the document.
delete text: Allows you to erase characters, words, lines, or pages.
cut and paste: Allows you to remove (cut) a section of text from one place in a document and insert (paste) it
somewhere else.
copy: Allows you to duplicate a section of text.page size and margins: Allows you to define various page sizes
and margins, and the word processor will automatically readjust the text so that it fits.
search and replace: Allows you to direct the word processor to search for a particular word or phrase. You can
also direct the word processor to replace one group of characters with another everywhere that the first group
appears.
word wrap: Automatically moves to the next line when you have filled one line with text, and it will readjust
text if you change the margins.
print: Allows you to send a document to a printer to get hard copy.
file management: Provides file management capabilities that allow you to create, delete, move, and search for
files.
font specifications: Allows you to change fonts within a document. For example, you can specify bold, italics,
and underlining. Most word processors also let you change the font size and even the typeface.
windows: Allows you to edit two or more documents at the same time. Each document appears in a separate
window. This is particularly valuable when working on a large project that consists of several different files.
spell checking: Identifies words that don't appear in a standard dictionary.
Full-Featured Word Processors
Most installable modern word processor software supports additional features that enable you to manipulate and
format documents in more sophisticated ways. Full-featured word processors usually support the following
advanced features, and cloud-based word processors may have some of these features as well:

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grammar checking: Identifies sentences, paragraphs, and punctuation that doesn't appear to meet commonly
recognized rules of grammar.
footnotes and cross-references: Automates the numbering and placement of footnotes and enables you to easily
cross-reference other sections of the document.
automated lists: Automatically creates bulleted or numbered lists, including multi-level outlines.
graphics: Allows you to embed illustrations, graphs, and possibly even videos into a document. Some word
processors let you create the illustrations within the word processor; others let you insert an illustration produced
by a different program.
headers, footers, and page numbering: Allows you to specify customized headers and footers that the word
processor will put at the top and bottom of every page. The word processor automatically keeps track of page
numbers so that the correct number appears on each page.
layout: Allows you to specify different margins within a single document and to specify various methods for
indenting paragraphs.
macros: Enables users to define and run macros, a character or word that represents a series of keystrokes. The
keystrokes can represent text or commands. The ability to define macros allows you to save yourself a lot of
time by replacing common combinations of keystrokes.
merge: Allows you to merge text from one file into another file. This is particularly useful for generating many
files that have the same format but different data. Generating mailing labels is the classic example of using
merges.
tables of contents and indexes: Allows you to automatically create a table of contents and index based on special
codes that you insert in the document.
thesaurus: Allows you to search for synonyms without leaving the word processor.
collaboration: Allows users to track changes to the document when more than one person is editing. Some cloud-
based word processors also allow multiple users to edit the same document at the same time.
Internet features: Allows users to embed Web links into their documents and format their documents for the
Web. Some also link to Web services that can help users create their documents.
translation and speech: As artificial intelligence capabilities become more commonplace, some word processors
have gained the ability to read text aloud, to accept voice commands, and to translate text from one language to
another.

Spreadsheet
A spreadsheet is an interactive computer application for organization, analysis and storage of data in tabular
form. Spreadsheets are developed as computerized simulations of paper accounting worksheets. The program
operates on data entered in cells of a table. Each cell may contain either numeric or text data, or the results of
formulas that automatically calculate and display a value based on the contents of other cells. A spreadsheet may
also refer to one such electronic document.
Spreadsheet users can adjust any stored value and observe the effects on calculated values. This makes the
spreadsheet useful for "what-if" analysis since many cases can be rapidly investigated without manual
recalculation. Modern spreadsheet software can have multiple interacting sheets, and can display data either as
text and numerals, or in graphical form.

Below is a basic example of what a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet looks like, as well as all the important
features of a spreadsheet highlighted.

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Examples of spreadsheet programs
Today, Microsoft Excel is the most popular and widely used spreadsheet program, but there are also many
alternatives. Below is a list of spreadsheet programs that can be used to create a spreadsheet.
Google Sheets - (Online and free)
iWork Numbers - Apple Office Suite
LibreOffice -Calc (Free)
Lotus 1-2-3 (Discontinued)
Lotus Symphony - Spreadsheets
Microsoft Excel
OpenOffice - Calc (Free)
VisiCalc (Discontinued)
Other examples and uses of a spreadsheet
Although spreadsheets are typically used with anything containing numbers, the uses of a spreadsheet are almost
endless. Below are some other popular uses of spreadsheets.
Finance
Spreadsheets are ideal for financial data, such as your checking account information, budgets, transactions,
billing, invoices, receipts, forecasts, and any payment system.
Forms
Form templates can be created to handle inventory, evaluations, performance reviews, quizzes, time sheets,
patient information, and surveys.

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School and Grades
Teachers can use spreadsheets to track students, calculate grades, and identify relevant data, such as high and
low scores, missing tests, and students who are struggling.
Lists
Managing a list in a spreadsheet is a great example of data that does not contain numbers, but still can be used
in a spreadsheet. Great examples of spreadsheet lists include telephone, to-do, and grocery lists.
Sports
Spreadsheets can keep track of your favorite player stats or stats on the whole team. With the collected data, you
can also find averages, high scores, and other statistical data. Spreadsheets can even be used to create tournament
brackets.

DATABASE

A database is an organized collection of data, stored and accessed electronically. Database designers
typically organize the data to model aspects of reality in a way that supports processes requiring
information, such as (for example) modelling the availability of rooms in hotels in a way that supports
finding a hotel with vacancies.

A database-management system (DBMS) is a computer-software application that interacts with end-

users, other applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze data. (Sometimes a DBMS is
loosely referred to as a "database".) A general-purpose DBMS allows the definition, creation, querying,
update, and administration of databases. A database is generally stored in a DBMS-specific format
which is not portable, but different DBMSs can share data by using standards such as SQL and ODBC
or JDBC.

Computer scientists may classify database-management systems according to the database models that
they support. Relational databases became dominant in the 1980s. These model data as rows and
columns in a series of tables, and the vast majority use SQL for writing and querying data. In the 2000s,
non-relational databases became popular, referred to as NoSQL because they use different query
languages

A presentation is the process of presenting a topic to an audience. It is typically a demonstration, introduction,

lecture, or speech meant to inform, persuade, inspire, motivate, or to build good will or to present a new idea or
product. The term can also be used for visuals presentation program.
A presentation program is a software package used to display information in the form of a slide show. It has
three major functions: an editor that allows text to be inserted and formatted, a method for inserting and
manipulating graphic images, and a slide-show system to display the content..A presentation program is often
used to generate the presentation content, some of which also allow presentations to be developed
collaboratively, e.g. using the Internet by geographically disparate collaborators. Presentation viewers can be
used to combine content from different sources into one presentation. Apple and Microsoft offer some of the
popular presentation products used across the globe.

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