Out line:

Titile : The Theory and Models of Biostratigraphy Which Use Micropaleontology as Orientations

Intro : what is micropaleontology and Biostratigraphy

Bagaimana teori dan konsep menggunakan micropaleontology dalam membuat

biostratigrafi

Closing: conclusion

The Theory and Models of Biostratigraphy Which Use Micropaleontology as Orientations

We can let on about Events in earth history only by using micropaleontology. Why and how? Well as
we know Micropaleontology is the systematic study of microfossils, their morphology,
classification and environmental and stratigraphic significance. Then, how could microfossils record the
events of earth. The stakeholders of this are foraminifera, calcareous nannoplankton, spore and
pollen, dinoflagellate and radiolarian which is the creatures belonging to microfossils. Microfossils are
abundant and widely distributed in all the environments. Also, each of them has special morphology
and physiology as a way of life in accordance with the circumstances of the environment. Therefore,
they used to determine environmental indicators, such as temperatures, climate, pressure, salinity,
acidity, and so on. Their evolutionary rates are rapid and therefore provide about geology time scale.
This is why No major environmental events can be explained without micropaleontology and its
contributions to age dating, regional and global correlation, and the tempo and nature of
environmental changes. And the advantage of microfossil is their size, make small amount of sediment
sample can yield large quantity of data required for statistical analysis. All of these facts make
micropaleontology is the best match for biostratigraphy.

Biostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy which focuses on correlating and assigning relative ages
of rock strata by using the fossil assemblages contained within them. Biostratigraphy is fundamentally
concerned with the recognition of fossils and the relative position of their occurrences in space and
time. Various fossil groups are can be found in two main environments, there are land (terrestrial) and
ocean (marine).

The concept of biostratigraphy is based on the reflection that organisms have undergone
successive changes throughout geologic time. stratigraphic unit differentiated on the basis of its
contained fossils from stratigraphically younger and older units and fossils as a practical tool for
characterizing, subdividing, and correlating strata from one area to another. each stratigraphic
succession was characterized by the same distinctive fossil assemblage. this concept known as the
principle (law) of faunal succession. A stage is a major subdivision of strata which is systematically
ensuing the other bearing of unique fossil assemblages and defined as a group of strata containing the
same major fossil assemblages. to divide fossiliferous strata into small-magnitude, using zone which
is represents the time between first appearance and last appearance of a chosen species or different
species. Each zone was named after a particular species, called an index fossil.

The fundamental unit of biostratigraphy is the biozone. Biozones are units of stratigraphy that
are defined by the fossil taxa (usually species and subspecies) that they contain. There are six principal
kinds of biozones:

 Taxon range biozone represents the known stratigraphic and geographic range of
occurrence of a single taxon (species or genus).
  Concurrent range biozone include the concurrent, coincident, or overlapping part of
the
range of two specified taxa.
 Interval biozone include the strata between two specific biostratigraphy surfaces. It
can be based on lowest or highest occurrences.
 Lineage biozone are strata containing species representing a specific segment of an
evolutionary lineage.
 Assemblage biozones are strata that contain a unique association of three or more
taxa.
 Abundance biozone are strata in which the abundance of a particular taxon or group
of taxa is significantly greater than in the adjacent part of the section

Sequence biostratigraphy analyses are the sequence boundary, a transgressive surface

and the maximum flooding surface. Sequence boundary is forms in response to a relative fall
in the sea level. It is characterized by (1) abrupt truncation or decrease in abundance and
diversity of marine microfossils, (2) upward increase in terrestrial spores and pollens, (3) decrease
in ratio of
planktic and benthic foraminifera (P/B), and (4) increase in reworked microfossils. The evidence
of reworking includes the presence of microfossils of significantly different environments,
different ages and different states of preservation.

Transgressive surface (or marine flooding surface) is represents the first major flooding
surface following the sequence boundary. It separates older strata from younger across which
there is evidence of an abrupt increase in water depth. It is marked by an increase in marine
microfossils. Maximum flooding surface is marks the deepest water facies in the sequence and
separates the transgressive unit below and the regressive unit above. It is characterized by (1)
peak abundance of planktic microfossils, including planktic foraminifera, calcareous nannofossils
and dinocysts, (2) deep water benthic microfossils, (3) dominance of low-oxygen-tolerant benthic
foraminifera and infaunal foraminifera, (4) minimum terrestrial spores and pollens, (5) minimum
reworked microfossils, and (6) the maximum total foraminiferal number (TFN) and P/B ratio.

systems tracts in relation to the sea-level curve are shown in Highstand Systems Tract (HST),
Falling Stage Systems Tract (FSST), Lowstand Systems Tract (LST), and Transgressive Systems Tract
(TST).

Highstand Systems Tract (HST) is overlies the MFS and is overlain by the sequence boundary.
It forms when base-level rise is at its highest point and in the process of slowing down prior to
commencement of slow fall. The micropaleontological characteristics of HST are (1) shallowing-
up benthic foraminiferal assemblage, (2) gradual upward reduction in open ocean planktic
microfossils, (3) upward decrease in P/B ratio, (4) irregular last occurrences (LOs) due to a
problem of ecology and clastic dilution, (5) gradual upward increase in derived terrestrial fossils,
and (6) diachronous biofacies boundaries.

Falling Stage Systems Tract (FSST) is occurs during the sea-level cycle when
the sediment supply on the continental shelf and continental slope is at its maximum. A fall in the
base level exposes the coastal plain and the continental shelf to subaerial erosion. The FSST is
characterized by derived terrestrial fossils and reworked microfossils of the previously deposited
HST.

Lowstand Systems Tract (LST) is occurs when the sea level is at its bottom and the depositional
trend shifts from seaward to landward and constitutes a small part of the sequence. The
micropaleontologic characteristic of LST is in most ways similar to that of the sequence boundary.
Transgressive Systems Tract (TST) is This is formed during a rise in the base level when that rise exceeds
sediment supply. It leads to retrogradation of depositional systems. The micropaleontologic characteristics
of TST include (1) gradual upward decrease in spores and pollens, (2) upward increase in planktic
foraminifera and calcareous nannofossils, (3) upward deepening indicated by benthic foraminiferal
assemblage, (4) increase in P/B ratio, (5) upward decrease in reworked microfossils, and (6) a diachronous
biofacies boundary.

From all above we can conclude that the theory and models of biostratigraphy can be
determine by the appearance of microfossils.