200 Expressions So Far!!!

Last update: Aug. 2004

JLPT GRAMMAR GUIDE

A
AGEKU、AGEKU NO （～あげく、～あげくの）Grade 2
Meaning: After much __ing… Used only for negative results, such as “After much worrying, I
decided to quit my job.”
Notes: Same as ‘sue ni’ but can only be used for actions which have negative results. ‘Sue
ni’ , on the other hand, can be used for both positive and negative things. Ageku and ageku
no are the same meaning, but differ grammatically. ageku is a conjunction, used to join two
clause, whereas ageku no always comes before a noun.
Example: 両親と話し合ったあげく、学校を辞めることにした。（りょうしんとはなしあったあげ
く、がっこうをやめることにした。）After consulting with my parents, I quit school.
両親と話あったあげくの決定です。（両親とはなしあったあげくの決定です。）This is a decision
that I reached after talking with my parents.
CF: sue ni

AREBA
(see to areba)
　
ATARANAI
(See ni ataranai)

ATTE NO （～あっての）Grade 1
Meaning: It’s only possible because of…; If not for A, B would not be possible.
Notes: Comes between two nouns.
Example: 法律あっての社会。（ほうりつあってのしゃかい。）Society is only possible because
of laws.

B
BAKARI NI (～ばかりに) Grade 2
Meaning: Because. Always indicates a negative outcome.
Example: 新車を買ったばかりにお金がありません。（しんしゃをかったばかりにおかねがありま
せん。）
勉強しなかったばかりに試験に失敗した。（べんきょうしなかったばかりにしけんにしっぱいし
た。）I failed the test because I didn’t study.
I don’t have any money because I bought a new car.

　
~BA KOSO （～ばこそ）Grade 1
Meaning: If only.
Notes: Always used with a conditional form verb.
Example: お金があればこそ、旅行できる。（おかねがあればこそ、りょこうできる。）If only I
had money, I could go on a trip.
CF: Koso

BEKARAZU, BEKARAZARU （~べからず、～べからざる）Grade 1

Meaning: Shouldn’t; Don’t.
Notes: Written only. Old fashioned word that was often used on public notices prohibiting
actions. Bekarazu always comes at the end of a sentence. Bekarazaru comes before a noun.
Although the meanings are completely different, they may throw in questions where both
beku and gatera would be appropriate, but only one would be grammatically correct. Beku
comes after a masu form verb, or a gerund. E.g. Hakamairi o suru beku, furusato ni kaetta.
Example: ここにごみを捨てるべからず。（ここにごみをすてるべからず。）Do not throw your
garbage here.
許すべからざるできごとだ。（ゆるすべからざるできごとだ。）That matter is something I can
never forgive.
　
BEKU （～べく） Grade 1
Meaning: For the purpose of; To ____, In order to
Notes: ‘Beku’ is the same as ‘~ngatame’ but they differ grammatically. ‘Beku’ comes after
the dictionary form of a verb, whereas ‘~ngatame’ follows the ‘~tai’ form of a verb. Written.
Example: エンジニアになるべく一生懸命勉強した。（エンジニアになるべく、いっしょうけんめ
いべんきょうした。）I studied hard in order to become an engineer.

D
DAKE, DAKE NO （～だけ、～だけの）Grade 2
Meaning: As much as; As fast as; To the extent of.
Notes: Has no negative form. Dake no is always used before a noun.
Example: お好きなだけどうぞ。（おすきなだけどうぞ。）
Have as much as you want.
できるだけのことはした。I did as much as I could.

DAKE ATTE (～だけあって)

Meaning: As might be expected.
Notes: Often used after sasuga.
Example: 両親がプロ選手だけあって、さすが子供もスポーツ万能だ。（りょうしんがプロせん
しゅうたけあって、さすがこどももスポーツばんのうだ。）As might be expected from a child
whose parents are professional athletes, he’s an all-around athlete.
CF:

DANI （～だに）Grade 1
Meaning: Even; Just. Used for emphasizing the unlikelihood of something happening.
Notes: Often used after 想像 (そうぞう) or 聞く (きく).
Example: 想像だにしなかった。（そうぞうだにしなかった）I never even imagined it.
聞くだにに恐ろしい。（きくだにおそろしい。）Just hearing about it is dreadful.

　
DARAKE (～だらけ) Grade 2
Meaning: Covered in; Full of. Used for things that can be sensed or seen, always has a
negative nuance.
Notes: ‘Darake’ is easily confused with ‘mamire’. They are similar, but ‘mamire’ means
totally covered and can’t be used for intangible things. You can say both ‘chidarake’ and
‘chimamire’ (covered in blood), ‘hokoridarake’ and ‘hokorimamire’ or ‘dorodarake’ and
‘doromamire’ (covered in mud). You can say ‘machigaidarake’ (full of mistakes),
‘shiwadarake’ (covered in wrinkles) and ‘kizudarake’ (covered with cuts) but not
‘machigaimamire’, ‘shiwamamire’ and ‘kizumamire’. Both ‘mamire’ and ‘darake’ have negative
meanings, while ‘zukume’ has a positive meaning.
Example: 泥だらけ。　(どろだらけ。)　
Covered in mud.
間違えだらけ (まちがえだらけ。)
Full of mistakes.
CF: ~gimi, ~gachi, ~ppoi, ~mamire, ~zukume, ~meku, ~rashii, kirai ga aru

DE ARE (1)（～であれ）Grade 1
Meaning: No matter what; Even if; No matter how…
Notes: Same meaning as ‘Tatoe~temo’. Written. Formal.
Example: 社長であれ規則はまもらないといけない。（しゃちょうであれきそくはまもらないといけ
ない。）Even the company president has to obey the rules.
CF: Tatoe~demo
投票は海外に住んでいる人であれするべきだ。（とうひょうはかいがいにすんでいるひとであれする
べきだ。）Voting is something that you have to do, even if you live abroad.

　
DE ARE (2) （～であれ） Grade ?
Meaning: It doesn’t matter which; It doesn’t matter whether.
Notes: Unlike ~u ga/~nai ga, de are can be used in both positive and negative sentences.
Always follows a noun or a na adjective. In the case of an I adjective, the form changes to
kare. Usually written. After verbs, use ni shiro.
Example: 週末であれ、平日であれこの店はいつも込んでいる。（しゅうまつであれ、へいじつであ
れ、このみせはいつもこんでいる。）It doesn’t matter whether it’s a weekend or a weekday,
this shop is always crowded.
CF: De are (1), ~u ga, ~nai ga, ~kare, ni shiro

DE AROU TO （～であろうと）Grade 1
Meaning: No matter what; Even if; No matter how…
Notes: Same as ‘de are’. Formal. Written.
Example: どんな人であろうと、この映画は楽しめます。（どんなひとであろうとこのえいがはたの
しめます。）This movie can be enjoyed by anyone, no matter what kind of person they are.
CF: De are, Tatoe~demo

DE NAKUTE NAN DAROU （～でなくてなんだろう）Grade 1

Meaning: If that’s not _________, then I don’t know what is.
Notes: Always follows a noun. Written only.
Example: このケーキが世界いちでなくてなんだろう。（このケーキがせかいいちでなくてなんだ
ろう。）If this isn’t the world’s best cake, then I don’t know what is.
CF:

　
DE SAE
(See sae)

DE SHIKANAI（～でしかない）Grade 2
Meaning: Nothing but
Notes: De shikanai is easily confused with de shikanai, as they are both translated in
English as ‘nothing but’. However, ‘shikanai’ means ‘nothing else’, as in “He eats nothing
but vegetables”, whereas ‘de shikanai’ means ‘merely’, as in ‘Nothing but a child’.
Example: これは普通の切手でしかない。（これはふつうのきってでしかない。）This is nothing
but an ordinary stamp.
CF: shikanai

　
DE SURA
(See sura)

DE WA OKANAI
(See ~nai de ha okanai)

DE WA ARU/DE WA ARIMASU GA （～ではある）Grade 2

Meaning: But, Although.
Notes: De wa aru is only used in written Japanese. De wa arimasu ga is used in formal
speech.
Example: 二月ではあるが、今日は暖かい。（にがつではあるがきょうはあたたかい。）It’s
February, but today is very warm.
二月ではありますが、本日はあたたかいです。（にがつはありますが、ほんじつはあたたかいで
す。）It’s February, but today is very warm.

　
DOKORO DE WA NAI/DOKORO DE WA NAKU　（どころではない、どころではなく）Grade
2
Meaning: There’s no way…, It’s out of the question, There is no time to…
Notes: Dokoro dewa nai goes at the end of a sentence. Dokoro dewa naku goes in the
middle.
Example: お金がなくて、買い物どころではない。（おかねがなくてかいものどころではない。）I
have no money, so there’s no way I can go shopping.
休暇を取るどころではなく、毎日忙しい。（きゅうかをとるどころではなく、まいにちいそがしい。
Taking a vacation is out of the question because I’m busy everyday.

GA
(~u ga ~maiga)

~GACHI （～がち）Grade 2
Meaning: Tend to; Likely to
Notes: Differs from ‘gimi’ in that ‘gachi’ describes a general tendency, whereas ‘gimi’
describes a visible indication of a tendency. For example, ‘kazegimi’ means a slight cold
whereas ‘kaze o hikigachi’ means a tendency to catch cold.
Example: 遅れがち（おくれがち）
A tendency to be late
留守がち（るすがち）
Likely to be out of the house
CF: ~gimi, ~ppoi, ~mamire, ~zukume, ~meku, ~darake, ~rashii, kirai ga aru

GA HAYAI KA （～がはやいか）Grade 1
Meaning: As soon as.
Notes: Basically the same as ‘ya inaya’ and ‘nari’ but ‘ga hayai ka’ indicates that the
speaker was waiting for something to happen.
Example: 社長が会議室に入ったがはやいか、早速会議がはじまた。（しゃちょうがかいぎしつには
いったがはやいか、さっそくかいぎがはじまった） As soon as the company president entered
the meeting room, the meeting started.
CF: Ya inaya, nari.

　
GA SAIGO (～が最後) Grade 1
Meaning: Once someone starts something, the person can’t stop it.
Notes: Easily confused with ~kiri, but the meanings are completely different and ga saigo
doesn’t mean ‘for the last time’. Always used with past tense verbs.
Example: 食べ出したが最後、おいしくて止められなかった。（たべだしたがさいご、おいしくてや
められなかった。）It was so delicious that once I started eating, I couldn’t stop.
CF: kiri

GATAME
(see n gatame)

GATERA （～がてら）Grade 1
Meaning: While; partly.
Notes: Easily confused with tsuide ni and katagata. Differs from tsuide ni in that in gatera,
both actions are of equal importance, while in tsuide ni, one action is the main one, and the
other action is done “on the way” or “while doing” the more important action.
Although the meanings are completely different, they may throw in questions where both
beku and gatera would be appropriate, but only one would be grammatically correct. Beku
comes after a masu form verb, or a gerund. E.g. Hakamairi o suru beku, furusato ni kaetta.
Katagata?
Example: 環境がてら仕事で東京へ行った。（かんきょうがてらしごとでとうきょうへいった。）I
went to Tokyo, partly for business and partly for sight-seeing.
CF: Tsuide ni, katagata, katawara.

~GIMI （~気味）Grade 2
Meaning: Tend to, A touch of _____, A little _____.
Example: 疲れ気味 (つかれぎみ)　
slightly tired;
遅れ気味 (おくれぎみ）
slightly tired
CF: ~gachi, ~ppoi, ~mamire, ~zukume, ~meku, ~darake, ~rashii, kirai ga aru

GOTOKU, GOTOKI （１）（～ごとく、～ごとき）Grade 1

Meaning: As; Similarly.
Notes: Written, formal. Use ‘gotoku’ after nouns. ‘Gotoku’ and ‘gotoki’ are exactly the same
meaning, but differ grammatically. Use ‘gotoki’ before a noun and ‘gotoku’ at the end of a
phrase. ’Gotoku’ is always followed by a comma.
Example: 前に述べたごとく、その計画に反対しています。（まえにのべたごとく、そのけいかくに
はんたいしています。）As I said before, I am opposed to that plan.
上記のごとき日程で、明日の会議を行います。（じょうきのごときにっていで、あすのかいぎをおこ
ないます。）As is written in the above program, the meeting will take place tomorrow.

　
GOTOKU, GOTOKI (2) （ごとく、ごとき）Grade 1
Meaning: Like, As … as …
Notes: Written. Formal. Use ‘gotoku’ after nouns. ‘Gotoku’ and ‘gotoki’ are exactly the same
meaning, but differ grammatically. Use ‘gotoki’ before a noun and ‘gotoku’ at the end of a
phrase. ’Gotoku’ is always followed by a comma.
Example: 氷のごとく冷たい人だ。（こおりのごとくつめたいひとだ。）He is as cold as ice.
１０年は一日のごとく過ぎ去った。（１０ねんはいちにちのごとくすぎさった。）Ten years
passed as if it was one day.
彼のごとき富豪でも買えないものがある。（かれのごときふごうでもかえないものがある。）There
are some things that even a person as rich as him can’t buy.

H
HIKIKAE
(See ni hikikae)

I
IE DOMO
(See to ie domo)

IKAN
(See Ikanda)

IKANDA, IKAN DE, IKAN NI YOTTE （～いかんだ、～いかんで、いかんによって）Grade 1

Meaning: Depending on; On the basis of. Sometimes untranslatable. Sentences like “実力テ
ストの結果いかんで、レベルを決める。（じつりょくテストのけっかいかんで、レベルをきめる。）
are easy to translate. In the aforementioned example, “Your level will be decided on the
basis of your test results.” means ‘depending on’ or ‘based on’. In a sentence like, “実力テス
トの結果にいかんでどうなるだろう。（じつりょくてすとのけっかにいかんでどうなるだろう。）,
however, the meaning is less clear. If we translate it as ‘It depends on the results of the
placement test, but I don’t know what will happen’, it means both ‘depending on’ and
‘because of’.
Notes: Written. Formal. Ikande goes in the middle of a sentence. Ikanda goes at the end of
the sentence. Ikan ni yotte is exactly the same as ikande and the two can by used
interchangeably.
Example: レベルを決めるのは、実力テストの結果いかんだ。（れべるをきめるのは、じつりょく
てすとのけっかいかんだ。）Your level will be decided on the basis of your ability test.
実力テストの結果いかんによって、レベルを決める。（じつりょくテストのけっかいかんによって、
レベルをきめる。）Your level will be decided on the basis of your ability test.
実力テストの結果いかんで、レベルをきめる。（じつりょくテストのけっかいかんで、レベルをきめ
る。）Your level will be decided on the basis of your ability test.

IKAN NI YORAZU, IKAN NI KAKAWARAZU （～いかんによらず、いかんにかかわらず）

Grade 1
Meaning: Whether or not; Unrelated to; It doesn’t depend on; Regardless of.
Notes: Formal. Written. Ikan ni yorazu and ikan ni kakawarazu are exactly the same.
Example: 卒業した大学のいかんにかかわらず誰でも採用する。（そつぎょうしただいがくのいか
んにかかわらずだれでもさいようする。）We will hire anyone, regardless of what university
they graduated from.
卒業した大学のいかんによらず誰でも採用する。（そつぎょうしただいがくのいかんによらずだれで
もさいようする。）We will hire anyone, regardless of what university they graduated from.
CF:

ITARU
(See ni itaru)

ITARI
(See ni itaru)

　
ITATTA
(See ni itataru)

　
ITATTE
(See ni itaru)

KA
(See ~u ka ~mai ka)

KAGIRI/KAGIRI NO（～限り/～限りの）Grade 2
Meaning: As long as; Within the limits of; As far as.
Notes:
Example: 生きている限り、彼を許さない。（いきているかぎり、かれをゆるさない。）I’ll never
forgive him as long as I live.
CF: Kagiri da.

KAGIRI DA （～かぎりだ）Grade 1
Meaning: Nothing but; The height of; Completely. This expression literally means that the
speaker is at the ‘limit’ of whatever emotion he or she is talking about. Eg. Ureshii kagiri.
(The height of happiness.)
Notes: Exactly the same meaning as no kiwami but the grammar is different. No kiwami
always follows a noun, whereas ‘kagiri da’ follows adjective.
Easily confused with kagiri. However, they are different both grammatically and in meaning.
Kagiri da is used to express the speaker’s strong emotion or feeling about something,
whereas kagiri simply expresses something that is limited. An easy way to distinguish
between them is to remember that kagiri comes in the middle of a sentence, whereas kagiri
da comes at the end.
Example: 恥ずかしい限りだ。（はずかしいかぎりだ。）I’m nothing but embarrassed.
赤ちゃんが生まれて、嬉しいかぎりだ。（あかちゃんがうまれて、うれしいかぎりだ。）I’m really,
really happy because of the baby being born.
CF: No kiwami, kagiri.

KAGIRI NI （～かぎりに）Grade 1
Meaning:
Notes: Kagiri ni is easily confused with o kagiri ni. They are similar in meaning, but kagiri ni
expresses that something is only happening now. O kagiri ni means that something is
ending. To better understand the difference, compare these two sentences: Kyou o kagiri ni,
30% offu. (Today is the last day that we will offer a 30% discount.) Kyou kagiri ni 30% offu.
(Today only! 30% off!).
Example:
CF: O kagiri ni.

KAGIRU
(see ni kagiru)

KAKAWARU
(see ni kakawaru)

~KAKERU, ~KAKENO, ~KAKE DA （～かける、かけの、かけだ）Grade 2

Meaning: Not finished; In the middle of
Notes: Kakeru is for verbs, ~kakeno is a modifier for nouns (eg. tabekake no ringo, a half-
eaten apple) ~Kake da is for ??
Example: 本を読みかけて、寝てしまいました。（ほんをよみかけて、ねてしまいました）
I fell asleep with the book half read.
言いかけ　（いいかけ）
In the middle of saying something.
食べかけのりんご　（たべかけのりんご）
A half-eaten apple

KAKETE
(see ni kakete wa or kara ni kakete

KANARAZU SHI MO ~ TO WA KAGIRANAI （～かならずしも　～　とはかぎらない）Grade 1

Meaning: It doesn’t necessarily mean that.
Example: 日本人だからといって、かならずしも寿司が好きだとは限らない。（にほんじんだからと
いって、かならずしもすしがすきだとはかぎらない。）Just because someone is Japanese, it
doesn’t necessarily mean that he or she likes sushi.

KANAWANAI （～かなわない）Grade 1
Meaning: No match for; Can’t compare with; There is no way (it can be done).
Notes: Negative form of kanau.
Example: 物価が高くてかなわない。（ぶっかがたかくてかなわない。）Prices are so high I can’t
afford anything.

~KANENAI (～かねない)　Grade 2
Meaning: There is a chance that; _____ is not impossible. Only used for negative results or
things you don’t want to happen.
Notes: Formed by using the ‘masu’ form of a verb, removing the ‘masu’, and adding
‘kanenai’.
Example: 一生懸命勉強しなかったら失敗しかねない。（いっしょうけんめいべんきょうしなかった
ら、しっぱいしかねない。）If you don’t study hard, there’s a chance you will fail.

　
KANSHITE
(see ni kanshite)

　
KARA ARU （~からある）Grade 1
Meaning: At least.Used for measurement of height, weight, length, etc.
Notes:
Example: そのビルは５００ｍからある。（そのビルは５００ｍからある。）That building is at
least 500m tall.

KARA ~ NI KAKETE （～から~にかけて）Grade 2

Meaning: From about (time/place) until about (time/place). Only used for indefinite areas or
time periods.
Notes: Similar to ‘ni watatte’, ‘ni wataru’, and ‘o tsuujite’, but is easy to distinguish because
there will always be two times or places in the sentence.
Example: 九州から四国にかけて、雨が降るだろう。（きゅうしゅうからしこくにかけて、あめがふ
るだろう。）Rain is expected from Kyushu to Shikoku.
CF: ni watatte, ni wataru, o tsuujite

KARA NI WA, KARA WA （からには）Grade 2

Meaning: Because; Since.
Notes: Use kara wa after ‘na’ adjectives and nouns.
Example: 約束したからには、やらなければなりません。（やくそくしたには、やらなければなりま
せん。）
I have to do it because I promised.

KARASHITE （～からして）Grade 2
Meaning: Starting with; Especially. Used to indicate the main or most important reason or
example. Similar to o hajime, but karashite is usually only used for negative things.
Notes: Always follows a noun.
Example: かれの下品な言い方からして、すごく嫌な人です。（かれのげひんないいかたからして、
すごくいやなひとです。）I really dislike him, especially because of his foul mouth.

KARA WA
(see Kara ni wa)

~KARE (～かれ) Grade 1

Meaning: It doesn’t matter which; It doesn’t matter whether.
Notes: Exactly the came meaning as de are (2) but differs grammatically. De are is used
with nouns and na adjectives, whereas ~kare is used with i adjectives. Usually written.
Example: 遅かれ、早けれしないと行けない。（おそかれ、はやかれしないといけない。）I’ll have
to do it sooner or later.
CF: de are (2)

KATAGATA （かたがた）Grade 1
Meaning: While. Used to express that one action has two objectives.
Notes: ‘Katagata’ is very similar to ‘katawara’, but ‘katagata’ is usually used more formally,
especially for business situations. In addition, ‘katawara’ is used for things that last a long
time, or ‘situations’, such as being a student, visiting a friend in the hospital, etc., whereas
‘katagata’ is for actions that can be accomplished relatively quickly, such as taking a stroll,
or eating a meal.
Example: お見舞いかたがた、友人を訪れた。（おみまいかたがた、ゆうじんをおとずれた。）
While visiting someone at the hospital, I visited my friend.
報告かたがた社長へのご挨拶に伺った。（ほうこくかたがたしゃちょうへのごあいさつにうかがっ
た。）I went ot see the president of the company for the dual purpose of paying my respects
and giving my report on my business trip.
CF: Katawara

KAWAKIRI
(see o kawakiri)

KATAWARA （~かたわら）Grade 1
Meaning: While. Used to express that two unrelated actions are being performed at the
same time.
Notes: ‘Katawara’ is very similar to ‘katagata’, but ‘katagata’ is usually used more formally,
especially in business situations. In addition, ‘katawara’ is used for things that last a long
time, or ‘situations’, such as being a student, visiting a friend in the hospital, etc., whereas
‘katagata’ is for actions that can be accomplished relatively quickly, such as taking a stroll,
or eating a meal.
’Katawara’ is also similar to ‘nagara’, but ‘katawara’ usually lasts longer.
Example: 学校で勉強するかたわら、アルバイトをしています。（がっこうでべんきょうするかたわ
ら、アルバイトをしています。(While studying at school, I also work part-time.)
CF: Nagara, katagata.
　
KINJIENAI
(See o kinjienai)

　
KIRAI GA ARU （～きらいがある）Grade 1
Meaning: Has a (natural) tendency to…
Notes: Usually has a negative meaning.
Example: 大げさにするきらいがある　（おおげさにするきらいがある）
a tendency to exaggerate
CF: ~gimi, ~gachi, ~ppoi, ~mamire, ~zukume, ~meku, ~darake, ~rashii

　
KIWAMARU, KIWAMARINAI, KIWAMATTE, KIWAMATTA （～極まる、～極まりない、極
まって、極まった）Grade 1
Meaning: Extremely; The height of…; Knows no bounds. Always has a negative meaning.
Notes: Formal. Kiwamaru and kiwamarinai are exactly the same meaning and can be used
interchangeably. Kiwamatte is also the same meaning, but is used as a conjunction and is
often used with the word 感 (かん, feeling).
Example: 失礼極まりない。（しつれいきわまりない。）The height of rudeness.
その映画を見て、感極まって泣いた。（そのえいがをみて、かんきわまってないた。） The film
was so moving that I cried.
その映画をみて、感極まった様子だった。（そのえいがをみて、かんきわまったようすだった。）
The film was so moving that it made her seem very sad.
不愉快極まる会話だった。（ふゆかいきわまるかいわだった。）It was a most uncomfortable
conversation.

KIWAMI
(See no kiwami)

KIWAMI DA （～きわみだ）Grade 1
Meaning: Extremely; The height of…; Completely.
Notes: Exactly the same meaning as kagiri da, but the grammar is different. No kiwami
always follows a noun, whereas ‘kagiri da’ follows an adjective.
Example: 恥ずかしさのきわみだ。（はずかしさのきわみだ。）This is the height of
embarrassment.
CF: No kiwami

~KKONAI （～っこない）Grade 1
Meaning: Definitely won't ...
Notes: Very casual. Spoken only. Differs from wa shinai in that it is never used formally.
<<check>>
Example: 勉強しないとうっかりこない。（べんきょうしないとうっかりこない。）If you don't
study, you definitely won't pass.
CF: wa shinai

KOSO （～こそ）Grade 2
Meaning: Used to add emphasis. Something like the English practice of writing a word in
italics to emphasize it. E.g. He always leaves his office at exactly five o’clock.
Notes: The difference between koso and to wa is that koso always follows a noun, whereas
to wa follows a plain form verb. Also, to wa only emphasizes surprise, whereas koso is more
general.
Example: 今年こそ、絶対に旅行したい。（ことしこそ、ぜったいりょこうしたい。）I definitely
want to take a trip this year.
CF: To wa

　
KOTAETE
(see ni kotaete)

KOTO EXPRESSIONS:
(See: koto, koto da, koto ka, koto ni natte iru, to iu koto da, koto wa nai, koto ni, koto kara, koto
tote, kotonaku, koto dakara, kotomo, koto de)
One trick for mastering ‘koto’ is remembering which expressions come in the middle of a
sentence, and which are only used at the end. The following come in the middle: koto ni,
koto kara, koto tote, kotonaku, koto dakara, kotomo, koto de
These ‘koto’ expressions always come at the end: koto, koto da, koto ka, koto ni natte iru, to iu
koto da, koto wa nai.

KOTO (～こと) Grade 2

Meaning: Used to show that something is an order.
Notes: Written. Formed by combining the dictionary form of a verb, or ~nai’(negative) form
of a verb with ‘koto’. Be careful not to confuse koto and koto da (1). Koto is used for orders,
whereas koto da is used for advice.
Example: 遅れないこと。（おくれないこと。）Don’t be late.
いつも遅れる彼のことだ。３時までこないだろう。（いつもおくれるかれのことだ。３じまでこない
だろう。）He’s always late. He probably won’t be here until three.
CF: koto da, koto ni

KOTO DA (1), KOTO DE WA NAI （～ことだ,　～ことではない）Grade 2

Meaning: It’s obvious that __ should be done; Should. Warning or advice about things that
should or should not be done.
Notes: Expresses the speaker’s personal opinion.
Example: 旅をしたかったら、まず英語を勉強することだ。（たびをしたかったら、まずえいごをべ
んきょうすることだ。）If you want to travel, first of all, you should study English.
CF: Koto, koto da (2), koto da (3)

KOTO DA (2), KOTO DAKARA (～ことだ、～ことだから) Grade 2

Meaning: Knowing…Used to make a guess or an inference based on something one knows.
Notes:
Example: 彼のことだから遅れるだろう。（かれのことだからおくれるだろう。）Knowing him,
he’ll be late.
CF: Koto, Koto kara, koto da (1), koto da (3)

KOTO DA (3) (～ことだ) Grade 2

Meaning: Used to add emphasis and show how the speaker feels about some fact.
Notes: Often follows adjectives which express feeling such as 嬉しい (ureshii), 懐かしい
(nostalgically happy), etc. Exactly the same meaning as ‘koto ni’ but goes at the end of a
sentence, instead of near the beginning.
Example: 大学を卒業しました。本当に嬉しいことだ。（だいがくをそつぎょうしました。ほんとう
にうれしいことだ。I graduated from university. I’m really happy about it.
CF: Koto ni, koto da (1), koto da (2)

KOTO DA (4)
(See to iu koto da)

KOTO DAKARA （～ことだから）Grade 2

Meaning: Knowing ___; Because. Used when you believe something to be true or think that
something will happen based on common sense, general knowledge, or something that has
happened in the past.
Notes: Formed by adding ‘no koto dakara’ to a noun.
Example: 北朝鮮のことだから、次は何を言うか分からない。（きたちょうせんのことだから、つぎ
はなにをいうかわからない。）Because it’s North Korea, you never know what they’re going to
say.
CF: Koto kara
KOTO DE （～ことで）Grade 2
Meaning: Because. Same as koto kara but more often used in negative sentences.
Notes:
Example: 彼が何か言ったことで、けんかになった。（かれがなにかいったことで、けんかになっ
た。）The fight started because of something he said.
CF: koto kara, koto dakara

KOTO KA （～ことか）Grade 2
Meaning: How ___!; What a ___! Used for exclamations.
Notes: Usually follows adjectives. Sometimes follows past tense verbs.
Example: 何度注意したことか。（なんどしたちゅういしたことか。）How many times did I
warn him?!
どんなに嬉しかったことか。（どんなにうれしかったことか。）How happy I was!
どんなに残念だったことか。（どんなにざんねんだったことか。）What a disappointment it was.

KOTO KARA （～ことから）Grade 2

Meaning: Because. Used for origins and causes but not ordinary sentences like 寝ていないこ
とから疲れた。（ねていないことからつかれた。）I’m tired because I didn’t sleep.
Notes: Don’t confuse koto kara with koto dakara. Koto kara is for facts, whereas koto da
kara is used for speculation and conjecture.
Example: 明るい子供が欲しかったことから陽子と名付けた。（あかるいこどもがほしかったことか
らようことなづけた。）Because they wanted a bright, cheerful child, they named her Yoko
(literally ‘Sun Child’).
CF: kara, tokorokara <<check differences>>

KOTO NASHI （～ことなし）Grade 1

Meaning: Without.
Notes: Koto nashi and nashi mean exactly the same thing. Koto nashi is used to turn a verb
into a noun whereas nashi is used after regular nouns.
Example: 飲むことなし、パーティは楽しめない。（のむことなし、パーティはたのしめない。）I
can’t enjoy a party without drinking.

KOTO NASHI NI （～ことなしに）

See nashi ni

KOTO NI （～ことに）Grade 2
Meaning: Used to express the speaker’s strong emotion about some fact.
Notes:
Example: 残念なことに、好きなレストランが倒産した。（ざんねんなことに、ざんねんなレストラ
ンがとうさんした。）Unfortunately, that restaurant that I really like went out of business.
CF: koto da (3)

KOTO NI NATTE IRU (～ことになっている) Grade 2

Meaning: Untranslatable. Used to express that something is a rule.
Notes:
Example: ここではタバコを吸ってはいけないことになっている。（ここではタバコをすってはい
けないことになっている。）Smoking is not allowed here.

KOTO TOTE （～こととて）Grade 1

Meaning: Because. Often used for excuses and explanations.
Notes: Always followed by bad news. Old-fashioned. Written. Formal.
Example: 始めてのこととて、失敗してしまいました。（はじめてのこととて、しっぱいしてしまい
ました。）Because it was the first time (I had tried it), I failed.
田舎のこととてなにもありません。（いなかのこととてなにもありません。）This area is rural,
so we don’t have anything interesting. (Set phrase often used at traditional inns in the
country.)

KOTO WA NAI (～ことはない)　Grade 2

Meaning: Don’t have to.
Notes: Comes after a dictionary form verb.
Example: 怖がることはない。（こわがることはない。）You don’t have to be afraid.
早く仕事が終わったので残業することはない。（はやくしごとがおわったのでざんぎょうすることは
ない。）

KUSE NI （～くせに）Grade 2
Meaning: Even though; But; Although; In spite of; And yet (always has a negative nuance)
Notes: Usually used to complain, or show contempt/scorn
Example: できるくせにやろうとしない。
Even though you’re capable of doing it, you don’t (even) try.

　
M

MADE MO
(See nai made mo)

MADE MO NAI, MADE MO NAKU（～までもない、～までもなく）Grade 1

Meaning: There’s no need to…; It goes without saying that…
Notes: ‘Made mo naku’ is used as an adverb and comes in the middle of a sentence. ‘Made
mo nai’ always comes at the end of a sentence. Both forms always follow a dictionary form
verb.
Example: もうわかった。言うまでもない。（もうわかった。いうまでもない。）I understand.
There’s no need to say it.
彼女は言うまでもなく一番賢い生徒だ。（かのじょはいうまでもなくいちばんかしこいせいとだ。）
It goes without saying that she is the most intelligent student.

~MAI （～まい）Grade 2
Meaning: It is not likely; __ is not expected to; Probably not
Notes: Written. Formal.
Example: 誰も分かるまい。（だれもわかるまい。）Nobody understands.

　
MAJIKI （～まじき）Grade 1
Meaning: Not allowed; Should not be done.
Notes: Written. Formal. Similar to ‘bekarazu’ but ‘bekarazu’ always comes at the end of a
sentence.
Example:　市民に暴力を振るうとは、警官にあるまじき行為だ。（しみんにぼうりょくをふるうと
は、けいかんにあるまじきこういだ。）Using violence against a citizen of the community is
something that a police officer should never do.
CF: bekarazu

MAMIRE （～まみれ）Grade 1
Meaning: Covered in ____; ____stained
Notes: Usually used for things that can be sensed or seen, always has a negative nuance.
‘Darake’ is easily confused with ‘Mamire’. They are similar, but ‘mamire’ means totally
covered and can’t be used for intangible things. You can say both ‘chidarake’ and
‘chimamire’ (covered in blood), ‘hokoridarake’ and ‘hokorimamire’ or ‘dorodarake’ and
‘doromamire’ (covered in mud). You can say ‘machigaidarake’ (full of mistakes), and
‘shiwadarake’ (covered in wrinkles) but not ‘machigaimamire’, ‘shiwamamire’ and
‘kizumamire’. Both ‘mamire’ and ‘darake’ have negative meanings, while ‘zukume’ has a
positive meaning.
Example: 血まみれ　（ちまみれ）
bloodstained
CF: ~gimi, ~gachi, ~zukume, ~meku, ~darake, ~rashii, ~ppoi, kirai ga aru

MASHITE
(see ni mo mashite)
MEGUTTE
(see o megutte)

MEITA
(see meku)

MEITE
(see meku)

　
MEKU, MEITA, MEITE (めく、めいた、めいて) Grade 1
Meaning: ~like (e.g. springlike).
Notes: Always follows a noun.
Example: 春めくと楽しい気持ちになる。（はるめくとたのしいきもちになる。）When it
becomes springlike, people feel happy.
今月は春めいた日が多かった。（こんげつははるめいたひがおおかった。）There were a lot of
springlike days this month.
だんだん春めいて来た。（だんだんはるめいてきた。）The weather has gradually become more
sprinlike.
CF:

　
MO…~BA…MO/MO…NARA…MO （～も。。。～ば。。。も、～も。。。なら。。。も）Grade
?
Meaning: On top of that; in addition
Notes: Mo…~ba…mo is used with verbs and i keiyoushi. Mo…nara…mo is used with nouns
and na keiyoushi.
Example: 九州の夏は温度も高ければ、湿も高くて辛い。（きゅうしゅうのなつはおんどもたかけれ
ば、しつもたかくてつらい。）On top of being very hot, the Kyushu summer is hot as well.
甘いものが嫌いなら、肉も嫌いだ。（あまいものがきらいなら、にくもきらいだ。）On top of not
liking sweet things, I also dislike meat.
CF:

MONO:
(See: mono da, mono ka, mono ga aru, mono o, mono de wa nai, mono demo nai, mono no,
mono tomosezu, mono nara, mono dakara)
One trick for mastering ‘mono’ is remembering which expressions come in the middle of a
sentence, and which are only used at the end. The following come in the middle: mono no,
mono tomo sezu, mono nara, monodakara. These ‘mono’ expressions always come at the end:
mono da, mono ka, mono ga aru, mono o, mono de wa nai, mono demo nai.

MONO DA (1) （~ものだ） Grade 2

Meaning: Used to express that something is a rule, or something that everyone knows.
Notes: Always used at the end of sentences.
Example: 学生は勉強するものだ！（がくせいはべんきょうするものだ！）
You’re a student so you’re supposed to study!
CF: mono dewa nai, mono da (2)

MONO DA (2) （～ものだ）Grade 2

Meaning: No English equivalent. Attached to sentences in which the speaker is expressing
that something is a vivid memory for him or her.
Notes: Only used for good memories.
Example: 子供のころ、この公園でよく遊んだものだ。（こどものころ、このこうえんでよくあそ
んだものだ。）When I was a child, I often used to play in this park.
CF: mono da (1)

MONO DAKARA, MONO DE, MONO （～ものだから、～もので、～もの）Grade 2

Meaning: Because. Usually used when making an excuse
Notes: ‘Mono de’ is used in the middle of sentences. ‘Mono dakara’ comes at the end of a
sentence. <<check>>
Example: 時間がないもので、準備は整っていません。（じかんがないもので、じゅんびがととのっ
ていません。）Because I didn’t have time, I haven’t finished preparing.
<<more examples>>

　
MONO DEMO NAI (～ものでもない) Grade 1
Meaning: Not impossible; Not always; Not entirely.
Notes: Used only at the end of a sentence.
Example: 頼めれば、しないものでもない。（たのめれば、しないものでもない。）If you ask for
my help, it’s not impossible.

MONO DEWA NAI （～ものでわない）Grade 2

Meaning: Used to express that something is a rule, or is something that everyone knows.
This is the negative form of ‘mono da’.
Notes: Always used at the end of sentences.
Example: 学生は夜遅くまで遊ぶものではない！(がくせいはよるおそくまであそぶものではない！)
Students are not supposed to stay out late at night!
CF: mono da, mono demo nai

MONO GA ARU （～ものがある）Grade 2

Meaning: I feel that. Always expresses the speaker’s feeling about something.
Notes: Always used in the present tense and never attached to verbs.
Example: この絵には感動させるものがある。（このえにはかんどうさせるものがある。）This
picture has something in it that really moves me.

MONO KA（～ものか）Grade 2
Meaning: Used to emphasize that you will never do something again.
Notes: Always comes at the end of a sentence.　‘Mono ka’ sentences usually include the
words “nante” or “nanka’.
Example: こんな店なんか二度と来るものか。（こんなおみせなんかにどとくるものか。）I’m
never coming back to this shop again.

MONO NARA （～ものなら）Grade 2

Meaning: If only. Used for something that is impossible.
Notes: Used in the middle of a sentence.
Example: 鳥になれるものなら飛んでみたい。（とりになれるものならとんでみたい。）If only I
could become a bird, I would like to fly.

MONO O IU （～ものをいう）
Meaning: What counts; The most important thing
Example: 経験がものをいう。（けいけんがものをいう。）Experience is what counts.

MONO NO （～ものの）Grade 2
Meaning: Although; Even though. ‘Mono no’ is used for unexpected things or exceptions to
things that usually happen. It is similar to ‘ni mo kakawarazu’ but the speaker is stating a
fact, rather than expressing an opinion. ‘Mono no’ is different from ‘kuse ni’ because when
you use ‘mono no’, you are not criticizing or complaining about something.
Example: 秋になったものの３０℃もある。（あきになったものの３０℃もある。）Even though
it’s fall, the temperature is 30 degrees.
CF: kuse ni, ni mo kakawarazu

MO SARU KOTO NAGARA （～もさることながら）Grade 1

Meaning: A can’t be ignored, but B is also important.
Notes: Formal.
Example: 失業問題もさることながら、環境問題も大切だ。（しつぎょうもんだいもさることなが
ら、かんきょうもんだいもたいせつだ。(Although the unemployment problem can’t be ignored,
the environment problem is also very important.

MONO TOMO SEZU

(See o mono tomo sezu)

MUKE NI /MUKE NO/MUKE DA（向けに/むけの/むけだ）Grade 2

Meaning: For.
Notes: ‘Muke ni’ comes after a verb. ‘Muke no’ is always followed by a noun. ‘Muke da’ is
used at the very end of a sentence (or clause).
Example: 子供向けの本 （こどもむけのほん）
A book for children.
<<Examples>>
N

　
NAGARA (1), NAGARA NI, NAGARA NO （～ながら、ながらに、ながらの）Grade 1
Meaning: Since; born with. Used to express a situation or condition that is unchanged.
Notes: Nagara and nagara ni are adverbs. <<difference?>> Nagara no is used with nouns.
Example: 生まれながらに視力が弱い。（うまれながらにしりょくがよわい。）He was born with
poor eyesight.
生まれながらの障害。（うまれながらのしょうがい。）A handicap that has been with him since
birth.
生まれながら、王位を継承する権利を持っている。（うまれながら、おういをけいしょうするけんり
をもっている。）The Prince has had the right of succession since birth.
CF: nagara mo

NAGARA (2) （～ながら）Grade 2

Meaning: Although.
Example:　子供ながら、すごく賢いです。（こどもながら、すごくかしこいです。）Although
he’s a child, he’s very intelligent.
残念ながら、負けました。（ざんねんながら、まけました。）Unfortunately, we lost.
CF: Nagara (1), nagara mo

NAGARA MO　（～ながらも）Grade 1
Meaning: Although. Same as nagara (2) but more formal.
Notes: Both nagara mo and to omikiya mean ‘even though’ in English, but omoikiya refers to
a situation which came out differently from the way the speaker expected. It contains the
kanji 思 (think) to it is easy to remember that it means ‘different than I thought it would’.
This difference also goes for to wa ie, to ie domo and other words which mean ‘even though’.
Watch out for trick questions involving nagara mo and to ie domo. In nagara mo, the
subjects of the sentence must be the same. Therefore, both San sai nagara mo hon ga jouzu
ni yomeru (Even though he’s only three, he can read well) and San sai to ie domo hon ga
jouzu ni yomeru (same meaning). However, we can say Kugatsu to wa ie yuki ga futta (Even
though it’s September, snow fell), but not Kugatsu nagara mo yuki ga futta.

　
Example:　彼は新入社員ながらも、必死に頑張っている。（かれはしんにゅうしゃいんながらも、
ひっしにがんばっている。）Although he’s a new employee, he works extremely hard.
CF: Nagara

~NAI DE WA IRARENAI （～ないではいられない）Grade 2

Meaning: Can’t help __ing. Differs from other ‘can’t help __ing’ expressions in that ‘~nai de
wa irarenai’ indicates the speaker’s emotional or sympathetic reaction to some condition or
situation. Therefore, you can say, 困った妹を助けないではいられない (I couldn’t help giving a
hand to my little sister because she was in so much trouble), but not 泣かないではいられない
(I couldn’t help crying).
Notes: Same meaning as ~zu ni wa irarenai, but less formal.
Example: くさいからシャワーをあびないではいられない。（くさいからシャワーをあびないでは
いられない。）I stink so I really must take a shower.
CF: ~te tamaranai, ~zu ni wa irarenai.

~NAI DE WA OKANAI, ~ZU NI WA OKANAI（～ないではおかない、～ずにはすまない）Grade

1
Meaning: Definitely have to; This can’t go un__ed. Very similar to ~nai de ha sumanai and
~zu ni ha sumanai, but has a stronger, more positive nuance. An easy way to remember the
difference is that sumanai is used by the person who is in the wrong or has the obligation,
whereas okanai is used by the person in the right or who deserves or is owed something.
Notes: Written Only. ~Nai de wa okanai and ~zu ni wa okanai mean exactly the same thing,
but ~zu ni wa okanai is more formal.
Example: 罰しないではおかない。（ばっしないではおかない。）This can’t go unpunished.
CF: ~nai de wa sumanai, ~zu ni ha sumanai.

~NAI DE WA SUMANAI, ~ZU NI WA SUMANAI （～ないではすまない、ずにはすまない）

Grade 1
Meaning: Definitely have to do. Very similar to ‘~nai de ha okanai’ but ‘~nai de ha okanai’
has a stronger, more positive nuance. Also, ‘~nai de wa okanai’ is used in sentences written
in the active voice, whereas ‘~nai de wa sumanai’ is used in the passive voice.
Notes: ~nai de wa sumanai and ~zu ni wa sumanai mean exactly the same thing, but ~zu ni
wa sumanai is more formal.
Example: 彼が悪いのだから、謝らないではすまないだろう。（かれがわるいのだから、あやまらな
いではすまないだろう。）He’s the one who’s at fault, so I definitely have to must not
apologize.

~NAI KAGIRI （～ないかぎり）Grade 2

Meaning: As long as; Until; If ___ doesn’t happen.
Notes: Usually followed by something negative. The negative part is sometimes omitted, but
it is always understood.
Example: 雨が降らない限り、ピクニックは行います。（あめがふらないかぎり、ぴくにっくはおこ
ないます。）As long as it doesn’t rain, the picnic will be held.
CF:

~NAI KOTO MO NAI/~NAI KOTO WA NAI （～ないこともない/～ないことはない）Grade 2

Meaning: It’s not impossibe; I can’t say it won’t happen.
Notes: Always follows a conditional like ‘if’.
Example: 新幹線で行けば間に合わないこともない。（しんかんせんでいけばまにあわないこともな
い。）If you go by bullet train, it’s not impossible that you’ll make it on time.

~NAI KOTO NI WA (～ないことには) Grade 2

Meaning: Have to; If you don’t A, you can’t B.
Notes:
Example: どんなにつまらなくても、基本を覚えないことには上達しない。（どんなにつまらなくて
も、きほんをおぼえないことにはじょうたつしない。）No matter how boring it is, if you don’t
learn the basics, you’ll never progress.
CF: ~Nai koto wa nai

~NAI KOTO WA NAI

(See ~nai koto mo nai)

~NAI MADE MO （ないまでも）Grade 1

Meaning: Although it’s not __, it’s still __. Even if it doesn’t happen; even if it’s not completely.
Expresses the idea that although something is not 100%, it has some redeeming qualities,
is still useful, or was not a complete failure. For example, “Although he’s not good enough
to be a professional, he’s by far the best on our team.
Notes:
Example: モデルのようにとは言わないまでも、結構美人です。（モデルのようにとはいわないま
でも、けっこうびじんです。）
Although she doesn’t look like a model, she’s very beautiful.
NANDEMONAI （～なんでもない）Grade 2
Meaning: Easy; trifling.
Notes: An idiomatic usage of ‘Nan demo nai’, which means ‘nothing’.
Example: なんでもない問題 （なんでもないもんだい）
An easy problem

NAN TO IU （～なんという）Grade 2
Meaning: Used for adding emphasis, as in What beautiful scenery
Notes: Not a question.
Example: なんという素晴らしい景色でしょう。（なんというすばらしいけしきでしょう）
What beautiful scenery!

NAN TO ITTE MO （～なんといっても）Grade ??

Meaning: Above all (?); After all; when all is said and done; by far the most.
Notes: Used to express that something is the most important or the best.
Example: 日本語をならうとなんといっても漢字を覚えるのが大変です。（にほんごをならうとなん
といってもかんじをおぼえるのがたいへんです。）When it comes to learning Japanese,
remembering kanji is by far the most difficult thing.
CF:

NAN TO KA (～なんとか) Grade 2

Meaning: Manage to do, do with difficulty, barely, somehow.
Example: 凄く疲れたけれどもなんとか最後までまでしました。（すごくつかれたけれどもなんとか
さいごまでしました。）I was really tired but I somehow managed to do it through to the end.
CF:

　
~NARA DEWA （～ならでは）Grade 1
Meaning: ‘~nara dewa’ is used to indicate that there is no other way to do something, or
that only one person or thing can do something
Notes: Comes after a noun
Example: これは、彼ならではの美しい絵です。（これは、かれならではのうつくしいえです。）
This painting is so beautiful that no one but him could have done it.

~NARI (1)（～なり）Grade 1
Meaning: As soon as something happened, something else unexpected happened
Notes: Similar to ‘totan’, but there are two differences. The first is that after ‘nari’ there will
always be something unexpected. For example, you could say 学校から帰ったとたん、宿題を
しました。（がっこうからかえったとたん、しゅくだいをしました。）As soon as he got home
from school, he did his homework. This is a normal thing so we use ‘totan’. If something
unexpected happened, however, we would use ‘nari’. For example, 家へ帰るなり、すぐに出か
けた　（いえへかえるなり、すぐにでかけた）As soon as he got home, he went out again. The
second difference is grammatical. ‘Totan’ comes after a past tense verb, while ‘nari’ comes
after a dictionary form verb.
Example: 家へ帰るなり、すぐに出かけた　（いえへかえるなり、すぐにでかけた）As soon as he
got home, he went out again.
CF: Totan, ~ka to omou to, ~ka ~nai ka no uchi ni

~NARI (2) (～なり) Grade ?

Meaning: Or. Used for advice, suggestions or requests.
Notes: Toka and nari are the same meaning and can often be used interchangeably, but
toka is a little stronger and is used more often. Also, toka is used for giving regular
examples, but nari is used for examples in which the there is a nuance that these are just
two of many possibilities. Often used twice. Cannot be used more than twice in one
sentence.　
Example: テレビを見るなり、シャワーを浴びるなり、楽にしてください。（てれびをみるなり、
シャワーをあびるなり、らくにしてください。）Watch TV, take a shower – make yourself at
home.
CF: toka, yara

~NARI NI, ~NARI NO （～なりに、なりの）Grade 1

Meaning: Within the limits of my ability; For a …; Do the best one can.
Notes: Although the expression ‘Watashi nari ni’ is very common, it should not usually used
when speaking to one’s elders/superiors.
Example: 初心者なりによくできた。（しょしんしゃなりによくできた。）For a beginner, he did
very well.
分からない単語がたくさんあったけど、私なりに宿題をしました。（わからないたんごがたくさん
あったけど、わたしなりにしゅくだいをしました。）There were a lot of words I didn’t know,
but I did the best I could with my homework.

　
NASHI NI, KOTO NASHI NI (～なしに、～ことなしに) Grade 1
Meaning: Without. Often used to describe actions which are inappropriate or are contrary to
common sense or accepted practice.
Notes: Written. Formal. Easily confused with ‘nuki de’, which is translated into English as
without, but actually means, ‘to set aside something which is usually there’. To understand
the difference, compare these two examples:
Arukohuru nuki no paati. (A party without alcohol)
Kotowari nashi ni watashi no mono o tsukata. (He used my things without asking
permission).
Koto nashi ni is used when you want to use a verb as a noun.
Example: 問題なし。（もんだいなし。）No problem.
許可なしに帰宅した。（きょかなしにきたくした。）He returned home without permission.
許可をもらうことなしに帰宅した。（きょかなしにきたくした。）He returned home without
getting permission.
CF: Nuki de, koto nashi.

~N BAKARI NI, ~N BAKARI NO, ~N BAKARI DA（～んばかりに、～んばかりの、んばかりだ）

Grade 1
Meaning: About to __; on the verge of __ing; Seems to be saying …
Notes: Never used talk about oneself. ~N bakari ni is used for nouns. ~N bakari da always
comes at the end of a sentence.
Example: 彼が悪いのに誤れと言わんばかりだ。（かれがわるいのにあやまれといわんばかりだ。）
Although he’s in the wrong, he seems to be saying that I should apologize.
泣かんばかりだ。（なかんばかりだ.）She’s on the verge of tears.
その地域には溢れんばかりの資源がある。（そのちいきにはあふれんばかりのしげんがある。）
That area is (“on the verge of”) over=flowing with resources.
唇を震わせて、いまにも泣かんばかりだ。（くちびるをふるわせて、いまにもなかんばかりだ。）
Her lips were trembling and she seemed to be on the verge of tears.

~N GATAME/~N GATAME NO （~んがため/んがための）Grade 2

Meaning: To have a goal.
Notes: ‘~ngatame’ is the same as ‘beku’ but they differ grammatically. ‘Beku’ comes after
the dictionary form of a verb, whereas ‘~ngatame’ follows the ‘~tai’ form of a verb. Formal.
Written.
Example: 合格せんがため努力している。（ごうかくせんがためどりょくしている。）I’m making
a big effort so that I can pass the test.
CF:

NI ATARANAI, NI WA ATARANAI （～にあたらない、にはあたららない, Grade 1

Meaning: Nothing to ____ about; Not worthy of ___.
Notes: Often followed by the words involving surprise, compliments, emotions, or praise.
Example: 賞賛にはあたらない。(しょうさんにはあたらない。) It’s not worthy of praise.

NI HIKIKAE （にひきかえ）Grade 1
Meaning: In contrast with…
Example: 私の古いパソコンにひきかえ、かれのはとても早いです。（わたしのふるいパソコンに
ひきかえ、かれのはとてもはやいです。）In contrast to my old computer, his is very fast.

NI ITARU, NI ITATTA, NI ITATTE, NI ITATTE WA （(～にいたる, ～にいたった,に至って、に

いたっては）Grade 1
Meaning: Only after; Things became so bad that…
Notes: Written. Formal. The difference between ni itatte and ni itatte wa is that the wa in ni
itatte wa is emphasizing the following phrase. For example Kare ni itatte wa, bi-ru o
nijyuppon mo nomu sou da. (He can hold his liquor so well that he can drink 20 beers.)
Example: 長い協議の末、合意にいたる結果となった。（ながいきょうぎのすえ、ごういにいたる
けっかとなった。）Only after a long period of discussion was a consensus reached.
熱が４０℃に至って、病院に行った。（ねつが４０℃にいたって、びょういんにいった）Only after
my temperature reached forty degrees did I go to the hospital.
死者は１００人にいたった。（ししゃは１００にんにいたった。）The number of dead reached
100.

NI ITARU MADE （～に至るまで）Grade 1

Meaning: From A to B. Starting with A and ending with B.
Notes: Easily confused with ni itatte. Ni itaru made means ‘from A to B whereas ni itatte
explains the process and the final result. If you see ‘kara’ in the sentence, you probably
need to use ‘ni itaru made’.
To better understand the difference, compare these two sentences: Hiragana kara kanji ni
itaru made benkyou shita. (I studied everything from hiragana to kanji.) and Sensou ni
itatte, heiwa no taisetsusa ni ki ga tsuita. (Only after the war happened did we understand
the importance of peace.)
Example:
CF: Ni itatte.

　
NI ITATTA
(See ni itaru)

NI ITATTE
(See ni itaru）

NI ITATTE MO (～にいたっても) Grade 1

Meaning: No matter how bad/serious A was, B still happened/was done.
Notes: Always used for actions which occurred in the past; cannot be used for the present
or future. In addition, it is never used for minor things like “No matter how sick he was, he
was never absent.
Example: 会社が倒産しそうな状況にいたっても、悲観しなかった。（かいしゃがとうさんしそうな
じょうきょうにいたっても、ひかんしなかった。）Even though his company seemed like it was
about to go bankrupt, he never became pessimistic.
CF: Ni itatte.

NI ITATTE WA
(See ni itaru)

　
NI KAGIRAZU （～にかぎらず）Grade 2
Meaning: Not only; Not just.
Notes: Always comes after a noun.
Example: 子供に限らず、だれでも楽しめる。（こどもにかぎらず、だれでもたのしめる。）This
movie can be enjoyed by anyone, not just children.
CF:

　
NI KAGIRI (～にかぎり) Grade 2
Meaning: Only.
Notes: Always comes in the middle of a sentence.
Example: 今日に限り３０％オフ. (きょうにかぎり３０％オフ。) Today only. 30% Off!
CF:

NI KAGIRU （~に限る）Grade 2
Meaning: The best; There is nothing better.
Notes: Used for opinions, not objective things. Easily confused with ni kagitte. An easy way
to remember the difference is that ni kagiru always comes at the end of a sentence whereas
ni kagitte is a conjunction and therefore comes in the middle of a sentence.
Example: お好み焼きを食べるなら、大阪に限る。（おこのみやきをたべるなら、おおさかにかぎ
る。）If you want to eat okonomiyaki, there’s no place like Osaka.
CF: Ni kagitte.

NI KAGITTE (1) (～に限って) Grade 2

Meaning: Used to express that something always happens. Always used negatively (but
doesn’t have to include a negative word like ‘not’ or ‘never’.)
Notes: Easily confused with ni kagiru because they sound alike, but the meaning is
different. Ni kagiru means that something is ‘the best’ whereas ni kagitte means that
something always happens.
In addition, it is similar in meaning to koto dakara. The difference is that ni kagitte is always
negative, whereas koto dakara can be used in both positive and negative sentences.
Example: 警官は必要なときにかぎっていない。（けいかんはひつようなときにかぎっていない。）
You can never find a policeman when you need one.
休みの日に限って、雨が降る。（やすみのひにかぎって、あめがふる。）It always rains on my
day off.
CF: Ni kagiru, ni kagitte (2).

NI KAGITTE (2) （～にかぎって）Grade 2

Meaning: Knowing ___, he would never; Knowing ___, it wouldn’t. Used to indicate that
because of something the speaker knows about the person or object in question, a previous
negative statement could not be true.
Notes: Easily confused with koto dakara. The difference is that ni kagitte is used to deny
some negative statement or idea about a person or thing, saying that it can’t be true
because it is something we know they would never do or that would never happen to them.
Koto dakara, on the other hand, indicateds that because of something that we know about
the person or company’s character, another thing must be true. Ni kagitte is always used to
deny some negative thing, whereas koto dakara can be used for either positive or negative
things. Another difference is that koto dakara can never be used for objects. To understand
the difference, compare these sentences: Uchi no ko ni kagitte, uso o tsuku hazu ga nai.
(Because he’s my son, I know he can’t be lying.) Uchi no koto dakara, kono omocha wa ki ni
iru darou. (Because he’s my son, I think he’ll like this toy.
Example: トヨタ車に限って、そんな故障をするはずがないと思う。（トヨタしゃにかぎって、そ
んなこしょうをするはずがないとおもう。）This car is a Toyota so I don’t think it would have
that sort of defect.
CF: Ni kagitte (1), koto dakara.

NI KAKAWARAZU
(See ikan ni yorazu)

NI KAKAWARU （~にかかわる）Grade 1
Meaning: Be concerned in; Have to do with; Take part in.
Notes: Ni kakawaru implies that the things being described have a significant relationship,
or that one thing has a strong influence on another.
Example: ??
CF:

NI KAKETE
(See kara ni kakete)

　
NI KAKETE WA （にかけては）Grade 2
Meaning: When it comes to…
Notes: Always follows a noun.
Example: 走ることにかけては、だれにも負けない。(はしることにかけては、だれにもまけない。)
When it comes to running, there’s no one who can beat me.

NI KANSHITE （~に関して）Grade 2
Meaning: About.
Notes: Ni tsuite and ni kanshite mean exactly the same thing, but ni kanshite is more
formal.
Example: 彼は日本に関して沢山しっています　（かれはにほんにかんしてたくさんしっていま
す）He knows a lot about Japan
CF: ni taishite, ni tsuite, o megutte, ni kakawaru

NI KOSHITA KOTO WA NAI GA （～にこしたことはないが）Grade 1

Meaning: Of course, __ is good, but…
Notes: Always follows a dictionary form verb.
Example: 美人であるにこしたことはないが一番大切なのは性格だ。（びじんであるにこしたことは
ないがいちばんたいせつなのはせいかくだ。）Of course beauty is good, but character is more
important.

　
NI KOTAERU/NI KOTAETE (～にこたえる、~にこえて) Grade 2
Meaning: In answer to; In response to.
Example: 市民の期待にこたえて、新しいスポーツセンターを建てました。（しみんのきたいにこ
たえて、あたらしいスポーツセンターをたてました。）In response to the wants of its citizens,
the city build a new sports center.
両親の期待にこたえた。（りょうしんのきたいにこたえた。）I lived up to my parents’
expectations.

NI MO KAKAWARAZU （～にもかかわらず）Grade 2
Meaning: Although.
Notes: Ni mo kakawarazu is very similar to mono no and is also used in situations where
something surprising or unexpected happens. The difference is that when one uses ni mo
kakawarazu, you are expressing your opinion about the surprising things, whereas when
one uses mono no, one is just stating a fact.
Example: ハンディキャップがあるにもかかわらず卒業した。（ハンディキャップがあるにもかかわ
らずそつぎょうした。）He graduated even though he has a handicap.
CF: Mono no, kuse ni

NI MO MASHITE （～にもまして）Grade 1
Meaning: Ni mo mashite expresses the idea that one thing is better/more important than
another.
Notes: Usually follows ‘mae’ or ‘izen’
Example: 私の問題にもまして、かれの病気を心配しています。（わたしのもんだいにもまして、か
れのびょうきをしんぱいしています。）I’m more worried about his illness than I am about my
own problem.
彼女は前にもまして、きれいだ。（かのじょはまえにもまして、きれいだ。）She’s more beautiful
than before.

　
NI SOUI NAI （～にそういない）Grade
Meaning: Surely; Certainly; Definitely; Must be.
Notes: Written. Formal.
Example: 彼は犯人に相違ない。（かれははんにんにそういない。）He is definitely the criminal.
NI SHIRO (～にしろ) Grade ?
Meaning: It doesn’t matter which; It doesn’t matter whether.
Notes: De are always follows a noun or a na adjective. In the case of an I adjective, the form
changes to kare. Usually written. After verbs, use ni shiro.
Example: 日本にしろ、中国にしろ、アジアの国へ行くのは面白い。（にほんにしろ、ちゅうごくに
しろアジアのくにへいくのはおもしろい。）It doesn’t matter whether it’s Japan or China,
going to Asian countries is interesting.
CF: de are (1), kare

　
NI SHITATTE (～にしたって) Grade 1
Meaning: Even if, even. Sentences using ni shitatte will always have some negative thing
which contradicts, affects or negates the first part.
Notes: Similar to ~ta tokoro de butdiffers both grammatically and in usage. ~Ta tokoro de is
used with past tense verbs, while ni shitatte is used with plain form verbs. Also, ~ta tokoro
de is much stronger and more negative. To see the difference, compare these two sentences.
Donnani ganbatta tokoro de muri darou. (No matter how much you try, it’s impossible).
Donnani ganbaru nishitatte kantan dewanai. (No matter how much you try, it won’t be easy).
Example: 先生にしたって、答えられない質問がある。（せんせいにしたって、こたえられないしつ
もんがある。）There are questions that even a teacher cannot answer.

NI SHITE （～にして）Grade 1
Meaning: Even; Only. Used to express the idea that something is only possible because a
certain age/level/degree has been reached.
Notes: Always follows a noun.
Example: ５０歳にして、園芸の楽しさがわかった。（５０さいにして、えんげいのたのしさがわ
がった。）I only began to enjoy gardening when I turned fifty.
CF: Ni shite wa

NI SHITE WA （~にしては）Grade 2
Meaning: For. Shows that something is relative. Ni shite wa is only used when something is
different from what would normally be expected.
Notes: Not usually used when speaking about oneself.
Example: ８０歳にしては、若く見えます。（８０さいにしては、わかくみえます。）For
someone who’s 80 years old, he looks very young.
CF: Ni shite.

NI SOKU SHITE (～に即して)　Grade 1

Meaning: In accordance with; In line with; Conforming to.
Notes: Same as ni sotte, but more formal. Written. Formal.
Example: マニュアルに即して訓練して下さい。（マニュアルにそくしてくんれんして下さい。）
We do the training in accordance with the manual.
犯人は法律に即して処分された。（はんにんはほうりつにそくしてしょぶんされた。）The thief
was dealt with in accordance with the law.)
CF: Ni sotte.

NI TAERU, NI TAENAI （～にたえる、～にたえない）Grade 1

Meaning: Can bear; Can stand; Can’t bear; Can’t stand.
Notes: There are often JLPT questions where both ｎ i taenai and to ittaranai would be
logical (although they have different meanings), but you may have to choose between them
based on grammar. To ittaranai follows only ‘I’ adjectives and nouns, whereas ni taenai is
used for dictionary form verbs and nouns. Also to ittaranai is casual and ni taenai is formal.
Therefore, in the case of nouns, formal words like kansha (gratitude) are used with ni
taenai, but less formal nouns like arigatasa would be used with to ittaranai. Eg. Kansha ni
taenai. (I can’t help feeling grateful). Arigatasa to ittaranai. (I can’t express my thanks in
words.) Shiai ni makete, kuyashii to ittaranai. (I can’t express in words how much I regret
losing that match.) Jiko gemba miru ni taenakatta. (I couldn’t help looking at the site of the
accident.)
Example: その映画の暴力シーンは見るにたえない。（そのえいがのぼうりょくシーンはみるにたえ
ない。）I couldn’t bear to watch the violent scene in that movie.
試合にまけて
CF: to ittaranai

NI TAENAI
(see ni taeru)

NI TAISHITE (～に対して) Grade 2

Meaning: To; Ttoward; For; Against.
Notes: Be careful not to confuse ni taishite with ni tsuite, which means ‘about’.
Example: 生徒に対して優しい先生 （せいとにたいしてやさしいせんせい）
a teacher who is nice to her students.
両親に対して反抗する（りょうしんにたいしてはんこうする）
rebel against one’s parents.
CF: Ni tsuite, ni kanshite

NI TSUITE （～について）Grade 2
Meaning: About; Regarding.
Notes: Ni tsuite and ni kanshite mean exactly the same thing, but ni kanshite is only used in
writing. Also, ni tsuite and ni taishite sound similar but the meaning is very different. Ni
tsuite means ‘about’ whereas ni taishite means ‘towards’, ‘to’, or ‘for’.
Example: 彼は日本について沢山しっています　（かれはにほんについてたくさんしっています）
He knows a lot about Japan
CF: Ni taishite, ni kanshite, o megutte, ni kakawaru

NI TSUKE (1)（～につけ）Grade 2
Meaning: Whenever.
Example: 彼を見るにつけ、私の兄を思い出す。（かれをみるにつけ、わたしのあにをおもいだ
す。）Whenever I see him, I’m reminded of my brother.
CF: ni tsuke (2)

NI TSUKE (2) （～につけ）Grade 1

Meaning: Whether.
Notes: Always used for sentences contrasting good situations and bad situations. The
sentence always ends with an action. Therefore, a sentence like, “Umaku iku ni tsuke,
ikanai ni tsuke, kare wa itsumo ureshii desu” (Whether things go well or badly, he’s always
happy) is wrong.
Example: うまく行くにつけ、いかないにつけ、いつも文句を言う。（うまくいくにつけ、いかない
につけ、いつももんくをいう。）Whether things go well or badly, he always complains.
CF: ni tsuke (1)

NI WA OKANAI
(See nai de wa okanai)

NI WATATTE, NI WATARU （～にわたって、～にわたる）Grade 2

Meaning: Throughout. Shows length of time or duration.

Notes: Very similar to o tsuujite (2) and o tooshite, but only used for things that have
finished. O tsuujite (2) and o tooshite are used for ongoing things. Always follows a noun.
Example: 二ヶ月にわたって勉強した。（にかげつにわたってべんきょうした。）I studied for the
test for two months.

NI YORAZU
(See ikan ni yorazu)

　
NI YORU
(See ni yotte)
　
NI YORU TO, NI YOREBA （～によると、～によれば）Grade 2
Meaning: According to.
Notes: Always follows a noun.
Example: 天気予報によると明日は雨です。（てんきよほうによるとあしたはあめです。）
According to the weather forecast, it’s going to rain tomorrow.

NI YOTTE (1), NI YORU （～によって、～による）Grade 2

Meaning: By; At (his request); In accordance with; Under (the regulations); Because of.
Notes: Always follows a noun.
Example: 話会いによって、問題を解決しました。（はなしあいによって、もんだいをかいけつしま
した。）By talking about it, we were able to solve the problem.

NI YOTTE (2) （～によって）Grade 2

Meaning: By.
Notes: Only used in passive sentences.
Example: この本は夏目漱石によって書かれました。（このほんはなつめそうせきによってかかれま
した。）This book was written by Natsume Soseki.
CF: Ni yotte (1)

NO ITARI （～のいたり）Grade 1
Meaning: The best; the greatest.
Notes: Formal. No kiwami and no itari mean exactly the same thing and are also exactly the
same grammatically. The only difference is that no itari sounds more humble. For example,
you might say, こんな間違いをするとは赤面のいたりだ。(こんなまちがいをするとはせきめんのい
たりだ。) Making this kind of mistake leaves me completely red-faced. Compare this with 子
供が生まれることは幸せの極みだ。（こどもがうまれることはしあわせのきわみだ。）Having a
child is the happiest thing that can ever happen to you.
Example: ノーベル賞を頂いて光栄のいたりでございます。（ノーベルしょうをいただいてこうえい
のいたりでございます。）Receiving the Nobel Prize is the highest honour I could ask for.
(Notice the humble language.)

NO KIWAMI （～のきわみ）Grade 1
Meaning: The best; The greatest. No kiwami is also used for praising other people and
talking about how happy you feel.
Notes: Formal. No kiwami and no itari mean exactly the same thing and are also exactly the
same grammatically. The only difference is that no itari sounds more humble. For example,
you might say, こんな間違いをするとは赤面のいたりだ。(こんなまちがいをするとはせきめんのい
たりだ。) Making this kind of mistake leaves me completely red-faced. Compare this with 子
供が生まれることは幸せの極みだ。（こどもがうまれることはしあわせのきわみだ。）Having a
child is
Example: ノーベル賞の受賞は科学者として、光栄の極みだ。（ノーベルしょうのじゅしょうはかが
くしゃとして、こうえいのきわみだ。）As a scientist, the Nobel Prize is the highest honour
that I could attain.
CF:

NOMINARAZU （～のみならず）Grade 2
Meaning: Not only; Not just.
Notes: Same meaning as tada…nominarazu, but tada…nominarazu is not necessarily formal
and only used in writing (nominarazu can be used in formal speech). Nominarazu and tada
nominarazu are exactly the same meaning. Written. Formal.
Example: 値段のみならず、品質もかんがえなければならない。（ねだんのみならず、ひんしつもか
んがえなければならない。）We can’t just think about the price. We have to think about
quality to.

NUKU (～ぬく) Grade 1

Meaning: Make an effort to finish
Notes: Nuki also means ‘without’ or ‘to take off’.
Example: 頑張りぬいたが結局できなかった。（がんばりぬいたがけっきょくできなかった。）I
made an effort to finish, but in the end, I couldn’t finish.
CF: Nuki de.

NUKI DE （～ぬきで）Grade 1
Meaning: Without. Although it is translated in English as ‘without’ in order to avoid
confusing it with ‘nashi ni’ (see the Notes), remember it as ‘To put aside’ or ‘not use’
something that is usually there.
Notes: Easily confused with ‘nashi ni’, which means without. To understand the difference,
compare these two examples:
Arukohuru nuki no paati. (A party without alcohol)
Kotowari nashi ni watashi no mono o tsukata. (He used my things without asking
permission).
Example: ケチャップぬきでハンバーグを食べるのが好きだ。（ケチャップぬきでハンバーグをた
べるのがすきだ。）I like my hamburgers without ketchup.
CF: nashi ni

O HAJIME, O HAJIME TO SURU （～をはじめ、～をはじめとする）Grade 2

Meaning: First; Most important; First and foremost; Especially. Used to indicate that the first
thing in the list is the most important one.
Notes: Written only.
Example: 田中先生をはじめ、この学校の皆さんのお世話になりました。（たなかせんせいをはじ
め、このがっこうのみなさんのおせわになりました。）I Have been helped by everyone in this
school, but especially by Mr. Tanaka.

　
O KAGIRI NI （～をかぎりに）Grade 1
Meaning: Only until; This is the last…
Notes: O kagiri ni is easily confused with kagiri ni. They are similar in meaning, but kagiri ni
expresses that something is only happening now. O kagiri ni means that something is
ending. To better understand the difference, compare these two sentences: Kyou o kagiri ni,
30% offu. (Today is the last day that we will offer a 30% discount.) Kyou kagiri ni 30% offu.
(Today only! 30% off!).
Example: 声をかぎりに応援した。（こえをかぎりにおうえんした。）We cheered at the top of
our lungs.
CF: Kagiri ni.

OKANAI
(See ~nai de wa okanai)

O KAWA KIRI （~をかわきり）Grade 1

Meaning: Starting with.
Notes:
Example: ツアーは東京をかわきりに（して）、日本中で公演しました。（ツアーはとうきょうをか
わきりに（して）、にほんじゅうでこうえんしました。）The tour started with Tokyo and went
all over Japan.

O KINJI　ENAI (～をきんじえない) Grade 1

Meaning: Can’t help feeling ____. Only used for feelings.
Notes: Written only.
Example: 孤児には同情をきんじえない。（こじにはどうじょうをきんじえない。）I can’t help
feeling sorry for the orphans.

O MEGUTTE （~を巡って）Grade 2
Meaning: About; Concerning. Usually used for arguing or disagreeing.
Notes:
Example: 環境問題を巡って議論しました。(かんきょうもんだいをめぐってぎろんしました). They
argued about the environment problem.
CF: ni taishite, ni kanshite, o megutte, ni kakawaru

OMOI KIYA
(see to omoikiya)

O MONO TOMO SEZU NI (をものともせずに) Grade 1

Meaning: Overcome; Succeed in spite of __; Make an effort in spite of __.
Notes: Not used when talking about oneself. Always comes in the middle of a sentence,
never at the end.
Example: 台風をものともせずに、家を出た。（たいふうをものともせずに、いえをでた。）In
spite of the typhoon, he went out of the house.

~O MOTTE (1) （~おもって）Grade 1

Meaning: Use; Utilize; By; Through
Notes: ‘~O motte’ has two meanings. See the next entry for the other meaning.
Example: 努力をもって、問題を解決した。（どりょくをもって、もんだいをかいけつした。）I
solved the problem by making a big effort.
郵送をもってお知らせします。（ゆうそうをもっておしらせします。）We will notify you through
the mail.

　
~O MOTTE (2) （をもって）Grade 1
Meaning: At. Indicates time. Used instead of the particle ‘de’ in formal speech. For example,
in ordinary speech, you would say, 六時で閉店します。（６じでへいてんします。）The shop
closes at 6. In formal speech, however, you say, ６時をもって閉店します。
Notes: Formal
Example: 本日をもって、研修会を終了いたします。（ほんじつをもって、けんしゅうかいをしゅう
りょういたします。）Today is the close of the training period.

~O OITE （~をおいて）Grade 1
Meaning: But; Except. Implies that this is the best or only person or thing.
Notes: Formal
Example: 彼をおいて、できる人はいない。（かれをおいて、できるひとはいない。）There is no
one who can do it except him.

OROKA
(See wa oroka)

O TOUSHITE （～をとおして）Grade 2
Meaning: Through.
Notes: <<vs. o tsuujite>>
Example: マスコミをとおして、災害の可能性が報じられた。（マスコミをとおして、さいがいの
かのうせいがほうじられた。The chance that a disaster would occur was reported in the mass
media.
CF: O tsuujite

O TSUUJITE (1)（～を通じて）Grade 2
Meaning: By; by way of; through.
Notes: Is very similar to, and can usually be used interchangeably with o tooshite, …Differs
from ni watatte in the ni watatte always follows a noun which expresses the duration of the
action.
Example: 友達を通じて、聞きました。（ともだちをつうじてききました。）I heard about it
through a friend.

O TSUUJITE (2)
O YOGI NAKU SARETA （～を余儀なくされた）Grade 1
Meaning: Be made to; Be forced to.
Notes: Written only.
Example: 退職を余儀なくされた。（たいしょくをよぎなくされた。）He was forced to resign.

　
O YOSO NI （およそに）Grade 1
Meaning: Ignore; Neglect.
Notes: Always follows a noun.
Example: 仕事をよそに同僚と話しこんでいた。（しごとをよそにどうりょうとはなしこんでい
た。）Ignoring his work, he talked to his coworkers.

~PPANASHI （っぱなし）Grade 1
Meaning: Do something for too long; Leave something on. Always negative.
Notes: Always follows the ‘masu’ form of a verb.
Example: しゃべりっぱなし。Talk for too long
寝っぱなし Sleep too long
電気が付きっぱなし。（でんきがつきっぱなし。）Leave the lights on.

~PPOI （っぽい）Grade 2
Meaning: ~like; Like a ___, ~ish
Notes: Many people confuse ‘ppoi’ and ‘rashii’. The best way to remember the difference is
the words ‘otokoppoi’ and ‘otokorashi’. A mannish woman is ‘otokoppoi’ – it has a negative
nuance and it is describing the woman as having some characteristics of a man, while not
actually being a man. A manly man is Otokorashii. He is not being compared to a man, he
is a man and has the characteristics associated with being one. ‘~ppoi’ is usually used
negatively. Also used for colours. eg. shiroppoi means whitish)
Example: 忘れっぽい　（わすれっぽい）forgetful, 子供っぽい　（こどもっぽい）childish, 安っ
ぽい　（やすっぽい）cheap, cheesy 白っぽい　（しろっぽい）whiteish
CF: ~gimi, ~gachi, ~mamire, ~zukume, ~meku, ~darake, ~rashii, kirai ga aru

　
R

~RASHII (らしい)　Grade 2
Meaning: ~like, like a ___, ~ly
Notes: Many people confuse ‘ppoi’ and ‘rashi’. The best way to remember the difference is
the words ‘otokoppoi’ and ‘otokorashi’. A mannish woman is ‘otokoppoi’ – it has a negative
nuance and it is describing the woman as having some characteristics of a man, while not
actually being a man. A manly man is Otokorashi. He is not being compared to a man, he is
a man and has the characteristics associated with being one. Also means “I heard that”
(Ashita kuru rashii – I heard he’s coming tomorrow)
Example: 紳士らしい　（しんしらしい）
gentlemanly
大阪らしい　（おおさからしい）
Truly Osakan
CF: ~gimi, ~gachi, ~ppoi, ~mamire, ~zukume, ~meku, ~darake, ~rashii, kirai ga aru

　
S

SAE, DE SAE （～さえ、～でさえ） Grade 2

Meaning: Even, not even, even though, although.
Notes: Exactly the same as sura, but sae is more common. Sae and de sae mean the same
thing, but de sae is used after words that express time, situations, and positions.
Examples: 冬でさえ 15℃です。（ふゆでさえ 15℃です。）Even though it’s winter, the
temperature is 15 degrees. (situation)
先生でさえ答えられなかった。（せんせいでさえこたえられなかった。）Even the teacher
couldn’t answer the question. (position)
一円さえない。（いちえんさえない。）I don’t have even a single yen.
子供ですらできる。（こどもですらできる。）Even a child can do it.
子供でさえできる。（こどもでさえできる。）Even a child can do it.
忙しくて食事を作る時間すらない。（いそがしくてしょくじをつくるじかんすらない。）I’m so
busy I don’t even have time to cook.
CF: Sura

SURA/DE SURA （～すら、～ですら）Grade 1

Meaning: Even. Used for emphasis.
Notes: Exactly the same as sae and de sae. Sura and de sura are the same meaning but
there is a tendency to use de sura and de sae with ‘positions’ such as ‘child’, ‘teacher’,
‘professor’, etc. All forms follow a noun.
Example:
CF: Sae, de sae.

~SAKARI （～さかり）Grade 1
Meaning: In full swing, at the height of one’s powers, the peak season
Example: 数学者は２０代が活躍のさかりだ。（すうがくしゃは２０だいがかつやくのさかりだ。）
A mathematician is at the height of his powers and does his most successful work while
he’s in his twenties.

　
SAKIDACHI （さきだち）Grade 1
Meaning: To come before, go ahead of, precede
Example: お金さきだちのは家族。（おかねさけだちのはかぞく。）Family comes before money.

SARU KOTO NAGARA

(See Mo saru koto nagara)

SHIKANAI （～しかない）Grade 2
Meaning: nothing but
Notes: Shikanai is easily confused with de shikanai, as they are both translated in English
as ‘nothing but’. However, ‘shikanai’ means ‘nothing else’, as in “He eats nothing but
vegetables”, whereas ‘de shikanai’ means ‘merely’, as in ‘Nothing but a child’.
Example: 彼のコレクションには日本の切手しかない。（かれのコレクションには日本の切手しかな
い。）There is nothing but stamps in his collection.
CF: de shikanai

SHIKARU NI （~しかるに）Grade 1
Meaning: In spite of that.
Notes: Exactly the same as ‘sore na no ni’ but much more formal.
Example: 何回も思い出した。しかるに彼は忘れた。（なんかいもおもいだした。しかるにかれはわ
すれた。）I reminded him of it many times, but in spite of that, he forgot.

　
SHIMATSU DA （～しまつだ）Grade 1
Meaning: Finally, on top of that. Used to describe when something bad becomes worse.
Example: 離婚してうえに、首にまでなるしまつだ。（りこんしてうえに、くびまでなるしまつ
だ。）On top of getting divorced, I got fired from my job.

SHITE MO
(see to shite mo)

　
~SEZARU O ENAI　（～せざるをえない）Grade 2
Meaning: Have no choice but to…
Notes: Formal.
Example: 成績が悪くて、留年せざるをえない。（せいせきがわるくて、りゅうねんせざるをえな
い。）My grades are bad so I have no choice but to repeat the year.

~SOBA KARA （~そばから）Grade 1

Meaning: as soon as
Notes: ‘~Soba kara’ is very similar to ‘~totan’ and ‘~nari’. The difference is that ‘~soba kara’
is used for things that happen over and over whereas ‘~totan’ and ‘~nari’ are used for things
that only happened once. For example, if you want to say, “As soon as I tidy up my house,
my children mess it up” you would use ‘~soba kara’, but if you want to say, “As soon as he
got home he went out again”, you would use ‘~nari’.
Example: 部屋を片付けるそばから、子供は散らかす。（へやをかたづけるそばから、こどもはちら
かす。）As soon as I get my apartment tidy, the children mess it up.

SOKU
(see ni soku shite)

　
SOUI
(See ni soi nai)

　
~SOU MO NAI （～そうもない）Grade 1
Meaning: It’s probably impossible.
Notes: Formed by taking a ‘masu’ form verb, removing the ‘masu’ and adding ‘~sou mo nai’.
Eg. ‘ikisou mo nai.’
Example: 電車にまに合いそうもない。（でんしゃにまにあいそうもない。）It’s probably
impossible for me to make the train.

~SOU NA MONO DA （～そうなものだ）Grade 2

Meaning: Expect, should be
Notes:
Example: できそうなものだ。(It should be able to be done.)

SUE NI, SUE NO　（～すえに、すえの）Grade 2

Meaning: After a lot of… Used to describe an effort that was made, and its results.
Notes: Same meaning as ‘ageku’ but can be used in both positive and negative situations.
‘Ageku’ is always used negatively.
Example: 晩中書いた末に、エッセイを終わった。（ばんちゅうかいたすえに、えっせいをおわっ
た。）After studying all night, I finished my essay.
CF: ageku

SURA/DE SURA （～すら、～ですら）Grade 1

Meaning: Even. Used for emphasis.
Notes: Exactly the same as sae and de sae. Sura and de sura are the same meaning but
there is a tendency to use de sura and de sae with ‘positions’ such as ‘child’, ‘teacher’,
‘professor’, etc. All forms follow a noun.
Example: 子供ですらできる。（こどもですらできる。）Even a child can do it.
子供でさえできる。（こどもでさえできる。）Even a child can do it.
忙しくて食事を作る時間すらない。（いそがしくてしょくじをつくるじかんすらない。）I’m so
busy I don’t even have time to cook.
冬でさえ 15℃です。（ふゆでさえ 15℃です。）Even though it’s winter, the temperature is 15
degrees. (situation)
先生でさえ答えられなかった。（せんせいでさえこたえられなかった。）Even the teacher
couldn’t answer the question. (position)
CF: Sae, de sae.

T
TADA…NOMI (～ただ。。。のみ) Grade 1
Meaning: The only thing. Emphasizes that something is the only thing that is important, or
the only way to succeed.
Notes: Formal. Written.
Example: 不正解は、だだそれのみだ。（ふせいかいは、ただそれのみだ。）That is the only
mistake.
CF: Tada…nominarazu

TADA…NOMINARAZU　(～ただ。。。のみならず) Grade 1
Meaning: Not just; not only
Notes: Same meaning as nominarazu, but not necessarily formal and only used in writing
(nominarazu can be used in formal speech). Written only.
Example: これは、ただ経済的な理由のみならず環境にやさしい商品です。（これは、ただけいざ
いてきなりゆうのみならずかんきょうにやさしいしょうひんです。）This product isn’t just
economical, it’s also environmentally friendly.
CF: nominarazu, tada…nomi

TAERU, TAENAI
(See ni taeru, ni taenai)

TAISHITE
(see ni taishite)

　
~TARITOMO （たりとも）Grade 1
Meaning: not even
Notes: Formal. Written.
Example: １分たりとも無駄にしてはいけない。（いっぷんたりともむだにしてはいけない。）I
can’t waste even one minute.

~TA TOKORO （～たところ）Grade 2

Meaning: When I, because I.
Notes: When differentiating between ‘tokoro o’ and ‘~ta tokoro’, remember that ‘tokoro’
follows adjectives and plain form verbs, while ‘~ta tokoro’ follows a past tense verb.
Example: 友達のお宅を訪ねたところ、友達は留守だった。（ともだちのおたくをたずねたところ、
ともだちはるすだった。）When I visited my friend’s house, he was out.
CF: ~ta tokoro de, tokoro

~TA TOKORO DE （～たところで）Grade 2

Meaning: Even if, now matter how…
Notes: ‘~Ta tokoro de’ is used in situations where doing an action is futile. For example,
走って行ったところで、電車に間に合わなかった　（はしっていったところで、でんしゃにまにあわ
なかった）“Even though I ran, I couldn’t catch the train.” It is very similar to ‘Tatoe demo’
and both come out the same in English but the difference is that ‘~ta tokoro de’ always
indicates that the action is futile. ‘Tatoe demo’ may be futile, but is not necessarily so. For
example, たとえお金がなくても、いい生活ができる (たとえおかねがなくても、いいせいかつがで
きる), which means, “Even if you don’t have money, you can enjoy a pleasant lifestyle”.
Example: どんなに説明したところで分かってくれませんでした。(どんなにせつめいしてしたとこ
ろでわかってくれませんでした。) No matter how much I explained it、he didn’t understand.
CF: ~ta tokoro

~TE KARA TO IU MONO （～てからというもの）Grade 1

Meaning: Ever since.
Notes: Always follows a verb.
Example: 日本に来てからというもの、ベッドに寝たことがない。（にほんにきてからというも
の、ベッドにねたことがない。）I haven’t slept in a bed since I came to Japan.

~TE YAMANAI （～てやまない）Grade 1

Meaning: Unending, never ending. Used when you are offering a prayer for a person, or a
strong hope that something good will happen to someone.
Notes: Formal
Example: 長い間拍手がやまなかった。（ながいあいだはくしゅがやまなかった。）The
(appreciative) ovation went on for a long time.
早く元気になることを願ってやまない。（はやくげんきになることをねがってやまない。）I will
never stop wishing that you will get healthy again soon.

TO AREBA （～とあれば）Grade 1
Meaning: If it’s for…, if
Notes: Formal
Example: チャリティとあれば、いくらでも募金します。（チャリティとあれば、いくらでもぼきん
します。）
If it’s for charity, I’ll donate as much as you want.

　
TO BAKARI NI (～とばかりに) Grade 1
Meaning: As if to say. Used to show something that is unsaid through one’s actions.
Notes: Always used with plain form verbs or na adjectives
Example: 帰りたいとばかりに時計を見た。（かえりたいとばかりにとけいをみた。）He looked
at his watch as if to say that he wanted to go home.
CF: bakari ni, ~n bakari ni, ~n bakari no, ~n bakari da

TO IE DOMO （～といえども）Grade 1
Meaning: Even, no matter how, even the most.
Notes: Formal. Written. To wa ie and to ie domo are very similar and can usually be used
interchangeably. To wa ie can always be replaced with to ie domo, but not vice versa. This is
because to ie domo has two meanings. The first, ‘even though’ or ‘although’ is the same as to
wa ie. The second meaning, ‘even’ (as in ‘even a child’) is different and it cannot be replaced
with to wa ie.
Watch out for words like tatoe, ikani, donna ni or ikura. They usually indicate that the
meaning is ‘even’ and in sentences containing these words (which usually come at the
beginning), you can only use to ie domo. Compare these examples:
子供といえども、いい加減にしてはいけない。（こどもといえども、いいかげんにしてはいけな
い。）Even though you’re a child, you shouldn’t act irresponsibly.
子供とはいえ、いい加減にしてはいけない。（こどもとはいえ、いいかげんにしてはいけない。）
Even though you’re a child, you shouldn’t act irresponsibly.
Example: どんな悪人といえども、いいところもあるでしょう。（どんなあくにんといえども、いい
ところもあるでしょう。Even the most evil person has some good points.
CF: to ie domo (2), to wa ie

TO IE DOMO （～といえども）Grade 1
Meaning: But (always followed by some opposite thing).
Notes: Formal.
Example: 生徒といえどもぜんぜん勉強しません。（せいとといえどもぜんぜんべんきょうしませ
ん。）Even though he’s a student, he never studies.
CF: to ie domo (1)

　
TO ITTARA NAI, TO ITTARA ARI WA SHINAI （～といったらない、～といったらありはしな
い）Grade 1
Meaning: To be at a loss for words, to be unable to describe in words
Notes: ‘~to ittara nai’ can be used for both positive and negative things, but ‘~to ittara ari
wa shinai’ is usually used negatively.
Watch out for trick questions involving nagara mo and to ie domo. In nagara mo, the
subjects of the sentence must be the same. Therefore, both San sai nagara mo hon ga jouzu
ni yomeru (Even though he’s only three, he can read well) and San sai to ie domo hon ga
jouzu ni yomeru (same meaning). However, we can say Kugatsu to wa ie yuki ga futta (Even
though it’s September, snow fell), but not Kugatsu nagara mo yuki ga futta.
Example: 素晴らしさといったらない。（すばらしさといったらない。）I’m at a loss for words to
describe its magnificence.

　
TO IU MONO DA （～というものだ）Grade 2
Meaning: No good English equivalent. In most sentences, it should be left out if you
translate it to English, but it is sort like “in my opinion” or “from what I can see” or “from
what I know”.
Notes: Never used with past tense or negative forms. Used for things that happen many
times, continuing situations, or people’s characters.
Example: かれには失望された。それでは頼りにくいものだ。（かれにはしつぼうされた。それでは
たよりにくいものだ。）He disappointed me. For that reason, it will be hard to rely on him.
CF: To iu koto da.

TO IU KOTO DA （～ということだ）Grade 2
Meaning: I heard that, It is said that, they say.
Example: 天気予報によると、明日はいい天気になるということだ。（てんきよほうによると、あし
たはいいてんきになるということだ。）I head on the weather report that the weather will be
nice tomorrow.

TO IU MONO DE MO NAI, TO IU MONO DE WA NAI（～というものでもない、～というもので

はない）Grade 2
Meaning: Not necessarily, just __ing isn’t enough, it’s not just a matter of…
Notes: To iu mono de mo nai and to iu mono de wa nai mean the same thing, but to iu mono
de wa nai is stronger.
Example: 食事の量を減らすと健康になるというものでもない。（しょくじりょうをへらすとけんこ
うになるというものでもない。）Just eating less won’t make you healthy.

TO IU TOKORO DA, TO ITTA TOKORO DA （～というところだ、といったところだ）Grade 1

Meaning: At the very most
Notes: ‘To iu tokoro da’ and ‘to itta tokoro da’ are exactly the same.
Example: 月給は３０万円というところだ。（げっきゅうは３０まんえんというところだ。）My
monthly salary is, at most, 300 000 yen.

TOKA （～とか）Grade 2
Meaning: I heard that. Short for ‘to kikimashita’.
Notes: Less certain than ‘sou da’ and ‘to iu koto da’.
Example:

TOKA…TOKA （～とか～とか）Grade 2
Meaning: Such as, like. Used when giving examples. Only used for subjective things like
expressing one’s likes and dislikes, opinion, advice, etc. Similar to ‘yara’ but ‘yara’ is used
for giving examples of some sort of condition or situation. For example: コーヒーとか紅茶とか
が好きです。（コーヒーとかこうちゃとかがすきです。）I like things like coffee and tea.
Compare this with: コーヒーやらこうちゃやらがあります。（コーヒーやらこうちゃやらがありま
す。）We have things like coffee and tea.
Toka and nari are the same meaning and can often be used interchangeably, but toka is a
little stronger and is used more often. Also, toka is used for giving regular examples, but
nari is used for examples in which the there is a nuance that these are just two of many
possibilities.
Example: タイとかベトナムとかに行きたいです。（タイとかベトナムとかにいきたいです。）I
want to go somewhere like Thailand or Vietnam.
CF: yara

TOKITARA （ときたら）Grade 1
Meaning: No clear English equivalent. Used for expressing dissatisfaction with something
(or someone). Often used for making negative comparisons to something else.
Notes:
Example: あの先生ときたら、教え方が下手です。（あの先生ときたら、おしえかたがへたです。）
As for that teacher, his teaching is really bad.
となりの子は優秀な生徒です。うちの子ときたら全然勉強しません。（となりのこはゆうしゅうなせ
いとです。うちのこときたらぜんぜんべんきょうしません。）
The child next door is an excellent student. Our child, on the other hand, doesn’t study at
all.

TOKORO
(see ~ta tokoro, ~ta tokoro de, tokoro data, tokoro o, to iu tokoro da)

TOKORO DATTA （ところだった）Grade 2

Meaning: Almost, something bad almost happened. Always used negatively.
Notes: Often used with ‘mou sukoshi de’
Example: もう少しで死ぬところだった。（もうすこしでしぬところだった。）I almost died.

TOKORO O （～ところを）Grade 1
Meaning: When; while; even though.
Notes: Used for apologizing.
Example: お忙しいところをすみません。（おいそがしいところをすみません。）I’m sorry to
disturb you when you’re so busy.

TO MO NARU TO, TO MO NAREBA （～ともなると、ともなれば）Grade 1

Meaning: when one becomes ____, when ____ comes
Notes:
Example: 春ともなると、桜が咲く。（はるともなると、さくらがさく。）
When the spring comes, the cherry blossoms bloom.
社長ともなると、かなりいい給料をとるだろう。（しゃちょうともなると、かなりいいきゅうりょう
をとるだろう。）If you become the president, you’ll get a really good salary.

TO OMOI KIYA （～とおもいきや）Grade 1

Meaning: contrary to what I thought
Notes: Not usually used in formal writing or formal speech.
Both nagara mo and to omikiya mean ‘even though’ in English, but omoikiya refers to a
situation which came out differently from the way the speaker expected. It contains the
kanji 思 (think) to it is easy to remember that it means ‘different than I thought it would’.
This difference also goes for to wa ie, to ie domo and other words which mean ‘even though’.
Example:　彼は新入社員ながらも、必死に頑張っている。（かれはしんにゅうしゃいんながらも、
ひっしにがんばっている。）Although he’s a new employee, he works extremely hard.
タイガースが負けるだろうと思いきや優勝した。（タイガースがまけるだろうとおもいきやゆうしょ
うした。）Although I thought the Tigers were going to lose, they won the championship.

TOSHITARA, TO SUREBA, TO SURU TO （～としたら、～とすれば、～とすると）Grade 2

Meaning: Suppose, supposing, if.
Notes: ‘To sureba’ and ‘to suru’ to are often used in questions.
Example: １００万円あったとしたら、何を買いますか。（１００まんえんあったとしたら、なにを
かいますか。）If you had one million yen, what would you buy? 今週は忙しいので、行くとし
たら今日しかない。（こんしゅうはいそがしいので、いくとしたらきょうしかない。）I’m very
busy this week, so if I’m going to go, today is the only day.

TOSHITE （として）Grade 2
Meaning: Even, even though, even if, granting that
Notes: ‘~Toshite’ is always used in a sentence with a 疑問詞　（ぎもんし）, question word
such as ‘nani’, paired with ‘ichi’ or ‘hitsotsu’ (eg. dare hittori). The pattern for making a
sentence with ‘toshite’ is question word + 1 + toshite + ~nai. It is almost exactly the same in
meaning as ‘to ie do mo’ but ‘to ie do mo’ doesn’t use the ‘gimonshi’ pattern and is more
formal. See also the note on ~toshite mo.
Example: 火事のあと、誰一人として生き残っていなかった。（かじのあと、だれひとりとしていき
のこっていなかった。After the fire, not even one person was left alive.

　
TOSHITE MO, ~NI SHITE MO （としても、にしても）Grade 2
Meaning: Granting that, even if, no matter how __
Notes: Same meaning as ‘tatoe ~temo’. Similar to ‘~toshite’ (meaning #1), ‘~tari to mo’, and
‘to ie do mo’ but when you make a sentence using ‘toshite mo’, you are indicating that the
action was useless or ineffective. For example, ‘勉強するとしても、合格できません。（べんきょ
うするとしても、ごうかくできません。）Even if I study, I’m going to fail.
Example: 行けるとしても、八時になる。（いけるとしても、はちじになる。）Even if I go, it
won’t be until 8.
CF: tatoe ~te mo, ~toshite, ~tari to mo, ~to ie do mo

TO SUREBA, TO SURUTO （とすれば、とすると）Grade 2

Meaning: Supposing, if
Notes: Same as ~toshitara
Example: 値段が下がったとすれば、買いますか？（ねだんがさがったとすれば、かいますか）
Would you buy it if I lowered the price?
失敗する可能性があるとすれば止めましょう。（しっぱいするかのうせいがあるとすればやめましょ
う。）If there is a chance we might fail, let’s not do it.

TOTAN （～とたん）Grade 2
Meaning: As soon as
Notes: Similar to ‘nari’, but there are two differences. The first is that after ‘nari’ there will
always be something unexpected. For example, 家へ帰るなり、すぐに出かけた　（いえへかえ
るなり、すぐにでかけた）As soon as he got home, he went out again. ‘Totan’ does not have
this nuance of being used for something unexpected. You could say, 学校から帰ったとたん、
宿題をしました。（がっこうからかえったとたん、しゅくだいをしました。）As soon as he got
home from school, he did his homework. This is a normal thing so we use ‘totan’. The
second difference is grammatical. ‘Totan’ comes after a past tense verb, while ‘nari’ comes
after a dictionary form verb.
Example: 学校から帰ったとったん、宿題をしました。（がっこうからかえったとたん、しゅくだ
いをしました。）As soon as he got home from school, he did his homework.
CF: ~nari, ~ka to omou to, ~ka ~nai ka no uchi ni

TOSHITARA （としたら）Grade 2
Meaning: Supposing, if
Notes: Same as ~to sureba and ~to suru to
Example: １００万円あったとしたら。。。（１００まんえんあったとしたら。。。）If I had
1,000,000 yen…

　
TOOSHITE
(see o tooshite)

TO WA （～とは）Grade 1
Meaning: No good literal translation exists, but it is used to add emphasis to a sentence
and show surpise. In English, it might be “I can’t believe that” or “I was surprised to hear
that”. Similar to writing something in italics to emphasize it. E.g. He always goes home at
exactly five o’clock.
Notes: Always follows a plain form verb.
Example: 優勝するとは、ぜんぜん思っていいなかった。ゆうしょうするとはぜんぜんおもっていな
かった。I never expected to win.
CF: Koso, to wa ie

TO WA IE （とはいえ）Grade 1
Meaning: It’s called a __, but it’s actually more of a __; although _______ is true in general, it’s
not completely true. Usually (but not always) followed by the speaker’s opinion or judgment.
Notes: This is the formal version of to itte mo. The meanings are exactly the same.
To wa ie and to ie domo are very similar and can usually be used interchangeably. To wa ie
can always be replaced with to ie domo, but not vice versa. This is because to ie domo has
two meanings. The first, ‘even though’ or ‘although’ is the same as to wa ie. The second
meaning, ‘even’ (as in ‘even a child’) is different and it cannot be replaced with to wa ie.
Therefore, you can say Shinnnyuu shain to wa ie, tegiwa ga ii (For a new worker, he’s very
skilled) but not Shinnyuu shain to ie domo, tegiwa ga ii (Even if he’s a new worker, he’s very
skilled).
Watch out for words like tatoe, ikani, donna ni or ikura. They usually indicate that the
meaning is ‘even’ and in sentences containing these words (which usually come at the
beginning), you can only use to ie domo. Compare these examples:
子供といえども、いい加減にしてはいけない。（こどもといえども、いいかげんにしてはいけな
い。）Even though you’re a child, you shouldn’t act irresponsibly.
子供とはいえ、いい加減にしてはいけない。（こどもとはいえ、いいかげんにしてはいけない。）
Even though you’re a child, you shouldn’t act irresponsibly.
Example: 学生とはいえ、彼はあまり勉強しません。
Although he’s a “student” he doesn’t study much.
彼女は、美人とはいえモデルほど美人ではないと思う。（かのじょはびじんとはいえモデルほどびじ
んではないとおもう。）Although she’s beautiful, she’s not good-looking enough to say she
could be a model.
CF: To itte mo, to wa

TSUIDE NI （～ついでに）Grade 2
Meaning: while, have the chance to, on one’s way to somewhere, one did something else –
‘Tsuide ni’ is used to express the idea that while a person was doing one thing, he or she
had a chance to do something else. For example, ‘While I was on a business trip, I visited
my friend’s house.’
Notes: It’s easy to confuse ‘tsuide ni’ with ‘gatera’. The difference is that with ‘gatera’, both
actions are of equal importance.
Example: 仕事へ行くついでに、郵便局で手紙を出した。（しごとへいくついでに、ゆうびんきょく
でてがみをだした。(While on my way to work, I mailed a letter at the post office.)
CF: gatera

TSUITE
(see ni tsuite)

~TSU ~TSU （～つ　～つ）Grade 2

Meaning: __ing and __ing. Used for alternating opposites like ‘coming and going’ or ‘rising
and falling’.
Notes: Used with ‘masu’ form verbs.
Example: マラソンは抜きつ、抜かれつのレースになった。（マラソンはぬきつ、ぬかれつのレース
になった。）The marathon became a race where the leader overtook and was overtaken
many times.

TSUUJITE
(see o tsuujite)

UE DE (1)（~上で）Grade 2
Meaning: for, so that, to ___
Notes: Differs from ‘you ni’ in that ‘you ni’ expresses the speakers hope that some action or
thing will be effective in achieving a goal or result whereas ‘ue de’ expresses that something
will be useful for achieving an important goal.
Example: よく考えたうで決めた。（よくかんがえたうえできめた。）I decided after giving it
much thought.
CF: You ni, Ue wa, Ue ni

~UE DE (2) （うえで）Grade 2

Meaning: ‘~Ue de’ means after doing something, doing another thing based on the previous
action.
Notes:
Example: 両親と相談したうえで、決めます。（りょうしんとそうだんしたうえで、きめます。）I
will decide after consulting with my parents.

~UE WA (~上は) Grade 2

Meaning: Since, because, now that, once you have, as long as – Because of A, B must be
done
Notes:
Example: 約束した上は、行かなければなりません。（やくそくしたうえはいかなければなりませ
ん）
Because I promised, I have to go.
CF: Ue wa, Ue ni

~U GA ~MAI GA （～うが　～まいが）Grade ?
Meaning: Whether or not
Notes: Very similar to ~u ka ~mai ka. Both mean ‘whether’ in English. The difference
between them is that in ~u ka ~mai ka, the person is deciding which of the two actions to
perform (eg. whether or not to buy something) whereas in ~u ga ~mai ga, it is not
necessarily a decision.
Example: 彼が行こうが行くまいが、私には関係ない。（かれがいこうがいくまいが、わたしにはか
んけいない。）Whether he goes or not, it doesn’t make any difference to me.
CF: ~u ka ~mai ka

~U KA ~MAI KA（～うか　～まいか）Grade ?
Meaning: Whether or not
Notes: Very similar to ~u ga ~mai ga. Both mean ‘whether’ in English. The difference
between them is that in ~u ka ~mai ka, the person is deciding which of the two actions to
perform (eg. whether or not to buy something) whereas in ~u ga ~mai ga, it is not
necessarily a decision.
Example: 買おうか買うまいか、悩んでいる。（かおうかかうまいか、なやんでいる。）I’m
having trouble deciding whether or not to buy it.
CF: ~u ga ~mai ga

WAKE NI WA IKANAI （～わけにはいかない）Grade 2

Meaning: Impossible.

　
WARI NI WA （割には）Grade 2
Meaning: for, expresses relative things
Notes:
Example: 彼女は年齢の割には若く見えます。（かのじょはねんれいのわりにはわかくみえます。）
She looks young for her age.

WA OROKA （はおろか）Grade 1
Meaning: not even…much less, not even… let alone　(as in “I don’t even have a radio, much
less a TV”)
Notes: The construction of this structure in Japanese is opposite to the English. In English
we put the more difficult to obtain/better one first, where as in Japanese, the lesser one
comes in the beginning and the better one is at the end.
Example: 家にはビデオはおろかテレビもない。（いえにはビデオはおろかてれびもない。）
We don’t even have a TV, much less a VCR.

WA SHINAI (～はしない) Grade 2??

Meaning: definitely will not do it.
Notes: Differs from ~kkonai in that...
Example: 噛みはしないから触っても大丈夫ですよ。（かみはしないからさわってもだいじょうぶで
すよ。）It's okay to touch him. He won't bite.
CF: ~kkonai
Y

YAMANAI
(See ~te yamanai)

YARA （～やら）Grade 2
Meaning: Used to give a negative emphasis to a sentence. For example: 何を言っているや
ら、さっぱりわかりません。（なにをいっているやら、さっぱりわかりません。）I have no idea
what he is saying!
Example: 何を言っているやら、さっぱりわかりません。（なにをいっているやら、さっぱりわかり
ません。
I have no idea what he is saying!
…YARA…YARA （～やら～やら）Grade 2
Meaning: such as, like. Used when giving examples. Only used for objective things like
giving examples of some sort of condition or situation. Similar to ‘toka’ but ‘toka’ is used for
subjective things such as expressing one’s likes and dislikes, opinion, advice, etc. For
example: コーヒーとか紅茶とかが好きです。（コーヒーとかこうちゃとかがすきです。）I like
things like coffee and tea. Compare this with: コーヒーやらこうちゃやらがあります。（コー
ヒーやらこうちゃやらがあります。）We have things like coffee and tea.
Example:
CF: toka

YOGINAKU SARETA
(See o yoginaku sareta)

　YORAZU
(See ikan ni yorazu)

YOU NI （ように）Grade 2
Meaning: So that, for the purpose of, to __.
Notes: Always follows the dictionary form of a verb.
Example: 試験に合格するように、勉強しています。（しけんにごうかくするように、べんきょうし
ています。）I’m studying in order to pass the test.

YOSO NI
(See o yoso ni)

Z
~ZUKUME （ずくめ）Grade 1
Meaning: all in (black/white), nothing but ____, a lot of, continuing
Notes: Both ‘mamire’ and ‘darake’ have negative meanings, while ‘zukume’ often (but not
always) has positive meaning. It is used for black and white, but not other colours.
Example: 黒ずくめ　（くろずくめ）
all in black (clothes)
いいことずくめ　
one good thing after another,
CF: ~gimi, ~gachi, ~ppoi, ~mamire, ~zukume, ~meku, ~darake, kirai ga aru

　~ZU NI WA IRARENAI （～ずにはいられない）Grade 2

Meaning: Can’t help __ing. Differs from other ‘can’t help __ing’ expressions in that ‘~nai de
wa irarenai’ indicates the speaker’s emotional or sympathetic reaction to some condition or
situation. Therefore, you can say, くさくてシャワーをあびずにはいられない (I stink so I really
feel like taking a shower), but not 泣かないではいられない (I couldn’t help crying).
Notes: Same meaning as ~nai de wa irarenai, but more formal.
Example: その本は読み始めたら、終わりまでよまずにはいられない。（そのほんはよみはじめた
ら、おわりまでよまずにはいられない。）Once I started reading that book, I couldn’t stop
until I finished it.
CF: ~te tamaranai, ~nai de wa irarenai