Generator

1MRB520046-Len
Edition October 1998
Generator and
Transformer Protection
Lecture
Ó 1997 ABB Network Partner AG / Baden / Switzerland
ABB Kraftwerke AG / Baden / Switzerland
ABB Kraftwerke AG / Mannheim / Germany
3rd Edition
All rights with respect to this document, including applications for patent and
registration of other industrial property rights, are reserved. Unauthorised use, in
particular reproduction or making available to third parties, is prohibited.
This document has been carefully prepared and reviewed. Should in spite of this the
reader find an error, he is requested to inform us at his earliest convenience.
The data contained herein purport solely to describe the product and are not a
warranty of performance or characteristic. It is with the best interest of our
customers in mind that we constantly strive to improve our products and keep them
abreast of advances in technology. This may, however, lead to discrepancies
between a product and its Lecture Notes.
ABB Network Partner AG 1MRB520046-Len Generator and Transformer Protection
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Contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................................. 2
1.1. Fault Conditions...................................................................................... 2
1.2. Abnormal Operating Conditions.............................................................. 2
1.3. Basic Requirements................................................................................ 3
1.4. Basic Conditions ..................................................................................... 4
1.5. Additional Requirements......................................................................... 4
1.6. Overall Protection of a Generator-Transformer Unit ............................... 4
2. Currents and Voltages During Faults...................................................... 6
3. Protection Devices for Fault Conditions.................................................. 7

3.1 Overcurrent Protection............................................................................ 7
3.2 Differential Protection .......................................................................... 11
3.3 Minimum-Impedance Protection ........................................................... 22
3.4 Interturn Fault Protection ...................................................................... 23
3.5 Buchholz Relay or SPR ........................................................................ 29
3.6 Stator Ground Fault Protection ............................................................. 30
3.7 Rotor Ground Fault Protection .............................................................. 41
3.8 Transformer Ground Fault Protection ................................................... 42
3.9 Breaker Failure Protection .................................................................... 44
4. Protection Devices for Abnormal Operating Conditions........................ 47

4.1 Overload Protection .............................................................................. 47
4.2 Unbalanced Load Protection ................................................................ 56
4.3 Voltage Protection ................................................................................ 68
4.4 Overexcitation Protection...................................................................... 69
4.5 Frequency Protection............................................................................ 70
4.6 Loss-of-Excitation Protection ................................................................ 71
4.7 Pole Slipping Protection........................................................................ 75
4.8 Reverse Power Protection .................................................................... 80
4.9 Inadvertent Energization Protection...................................................... 81
4.10 Voltage Unbalance Protection .............................................................. 82
5. Protection Current Transformers .......................................................... 84

5.1. Current Transformers with Closed Magnetic Core................................ 86
5.2. Linear Current Transformers................................................................. 96
6. Figures and Tables ............................................................................. 100
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Generator and Transformer Protection 1MRB520046-Len ABB Network Partner AG
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1. INTRODUCTION
The task of the generator and transformer protection is maintaining operation

during:
- faults
- abnormal service conditions.
1.1. Fault Conditions
On electrical machines the following kinds of faults can occur and cause
damage:
- Short-circuits
- Interturn faults
- Ground faults
Most of the fault currents are of a higher level, usually higher than two-times
the rated value (refer to the Tables); the damage is therefore great and con-
tinuing operation may not be possible. Because the damage rises with time, it
is necessary to interrupt operation as soon as possible by a trip of:
- circuit breaker(s)
- excitation circuit breaker
- turbine shut down.
During stator ground faults the circulating fault currents are small; they are
limited to a level of 20 A by a grounding resistor. An arc between the faulted
slot bar and the laminated stator iron causes damage to the generator and
long and expensive repair work. Therefore operation must also be interrupted
by a trip. An exception are faults on ungrounded and impedance-grounded
systems having a low level of circulating currents. This is the case for:
- rotor ground faults
- M.V. system ground faults.
With respect to restricted damage, the protection device often emits only an
alarm and operation is not interrupted usually.
During a short-circuit between generator and transformer (refer to Fig.1-1 or

1-2) the faulted point is injected by a current of the H.V. power system and by
a current of the generator.The first component can be interrupted by an AC
circuit breaker e.g. 100 ms after the fault has occured. The second
component cannost be cleared by an AC circuit breaker. This component is
proportional to the field current. Its interruption by a DC circuit breaker is not
possible due to a very high inductance of the field winding. It is only possible
to suppress the field current. Its suppression can be accelerated with the help
of a discharging resistor connected in parallel to the field winding.
1.2. Abnormal Operating Conditions
Under abnormal operating conditions the normal electrical, mechanical and

thermal stress of protected machines is increased by
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- overcurrent
- unbalanced load
- overtemperature
- overvoltage
- over- and underexcitation
- over- and underfrequency
- asynchronous running
- generator motoring.
The protected machines are still sound, but their life can be influenced.
The abnormal operating conditions could cause a fault later, if they are not
detected by a protection system in time.
The abnormal operating conditions can be caused by:

- switching, failures and faults on the connected power system
(they influence current, voltage, frequency)
- failures on protected machines (e.g. on the cooling system)
- failures on the control system
(current, temperature, voltage, excitation, speed, inadvertent non-
synchronized connection).
In cases of a chance to correct the abnormal conditions to normal ones, the

protection system emits an alarm (e.g. during unbalanced load, overtempera-
ture etc.).
1.3. Basic Requirements
The basic requirements on the protection system are:

a) Reliable operation during
- internal faults
- abnormal operating conditions
b) No operation during
- external faults
- normal operating conditions.
The high protection availability is enabled by:

- the simple arrangement of important inner circuits
(rule: the failure rate rises with the number of elements)
- simple trip circuits
- additional devices used for the same protection purpose during dangerous
faults
- doubling the DC voltage supply.
The groundless operation of the protection is restricted by a suitable design
of the internal circuits of the protection system.
In order to reinforce the protection during dangerous faults, additional devices

may be used to increase the protection reliability. E.g. an overcurrent device
used in addition to the differential device. At the same time the application of
two devices for the same purpose must not considerably increase the danger
of maloperation. Therefore two devices are used usually using different
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measuring methods and having a different sensitivity. They are called main
and back-up protection devices.
1.4. Basic Conditions
Basic conditions for the correct operation of the protection system are:
- suitable settings
- a suitable location and specification of voltage and current transformers.
The suitable settings depend on the sufficient knowledge of minimum fault

currents and voltages. For the specification of VT's and CT's the maximum
fault currents and voltages must be applied.
The fault current level is

- the highest during interturn faults
- high during short circuits
- very low during ground faults on generators.
For calculated values of short circuit currents refer to Tables 2-III...VI.
1.5. Additional Requirements
Additional requirements on the protection system are:

- selectivity
- reliable operation during worst conditions.
The selectivity enables the detection of individual failures and faults. The cor-
responding zone is cleared and the other system stays in operation.
The protection system must also be able to operate under worst conditions
(e.g. at a reduced level of the DC voltage, failure on AVR, etc.).
1.6. Overall Protection of a Generator-Transformer Unit
With respect to safety and selectivity a number of different protection devices

are applied. Refer to the single-line diagrams in Fig. 1-1 and 1-2. During the
design phase the following points should be considered:
- Suitable split-up of the protection zones
- Overlapping of zones as short as possible
- Overcurrent device of the generator located at its neutral point
- Unbalanced load device and reverse power device connected to CT'S and
VT's with small voltage, current and phase angle errors
- Voltage transformers located in the zone of the differential device
- Protection devices divided into two independent groups if possible
- For protection devices as those for overcurrent/undervoltage, frequency,
overexcitation, underexcitation, minimum impedance, pole slipping, reverse
power, only a line-to-line voltage as a supplying voltage should be used,
because only this voltage is independent of ground faults
- No overall differential protection should be used for units with a generator
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C.B.
- Although the breaker failure protection can be provided for each circuit
breaker, it is applied mainly for units with a generator C.B.
The scheme using two 52 G and 52 T circuit breakers enables the supply of
the station transformer at an open H.V. or generator C.B. and is often
preferred for gas turbine generators. For steam turbine and water-wheel
generators the 52 G circuit breaker is usually omitted.
For the REG216/316 and RET316 systems the frequency range of the
measured voltages and currents is considerably restricted by filtering for most
protection devices. Therefore the DC component and the higher harmonics
need not be considered during selection of the setting values.
For a suitable application of individual protection devices at different ratings

of generators and transformers refer to Tables 1-II and 1-III.
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2. CURRENTS AND VOLTAGES DURING FAULTS
The current and voltage values required for the dimensioning of the current
and voltage transformers, for various protection components as well as for
the determination of protection setting values can be calculated according to
the following figures and tables.
The characteristic of short-circuit currents of transformers and generators are
quite different (refer to Fig. 2-1 and 2-2).
The field-discharge circuit breaker is a modified DC circuit breaker with a

main and a discharging contact (Fig. 2-3). In order to extinguish a DC current
the arc voltage Varc of a C.B. must be higher than the voltage of the
excitation system V:
Varc > V (Fig. 2-4)
With the help of the discharging resistor the time constant T'd of the field
current can be reduced by approx. one half and the suppression of the field
current can thus be accelerated.
For symmetrical current components during asymmetrical short circuits refer

to Fig. 2-5, 2-6 and 2-7.
For current distribution during a line-to-line fault of transformers refer to

Fig. 2-8.
For current distribution during a line-to-ground fault of two transformers

operating in parallel (one unit solidly grounded and the other ungrounded)
refer to Fig. 2-9.
For current distribution during asymmetrical short circuits of a generator-

transformer unit refer to Fig. 2-10.
For formulas required for the calculation of currents and voltages during sym-
metrical short-circuits on generators, transformers and generator-transformer
units refer to Tables 2-I to 2-VI.
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3. PROTECTION DEVICES FOR FAULT CONDITIONS
3.1. Overcurrent Protection
The overcurrent protection is used:

- to supervise service overcurrents
- to detect faults as a back-up protection.
The overcurrent protection for generators and transformers is different due to

different requirements given by the different characteristics of the short-circuit
current (Fig. 2-1 and 2-2).
3.1.1. Overcurrent Protection for Generator-Transformer Units
3.1.1.1. Definite Time Overcurrent Protection
The task of this protection device connected to CT's located at the gener-
ator neutral point is to protect:
a) the zone between the generator neutral point and the H.V. circuit
breaker against service overcurrents
b) the zone from the generator neutral point up to the H.V. power system
as a back-up protection during faults (If a M.V. bus is applied, it is also
involved in the protected zone).
The current curve of a suddenly shorted generator comprises damped

subtransient and transient components (Fig. 2-2). After a certain time of
several seconds the overcurrent measuring system drops out, because
the instantaneous current values do not exceed the current setting level
anymore.
If the A.V.R. is not active the continuous steady-state short-circuit current
is smaller than the rated stator current, due to the high value of the syn-
chronous reactance. At xd = 2 the continuous current i = 0.5. It is even
zero when the excitation system is supplied from the generator terminals.
The definite time overcurrent characteristic with a desired delay of several

seconds would prohibit the trip at such a curve of the fault current.
For satisfactory tripping a combination of an overcurrent and an undervol-

tage measuring system (ANSI device Number 51 V, Fig. 3.1-2) is to be
used.
The current setting must be chosen between the minimum through-fault

current (usually during a line-to-line fault on the H.V. side) and the
maximum short-time overcurrent (Fig. 3.1-1).
This maximum short-time overcurrent is to be determined in accordance

with the:
- maximum continuous operating current
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- switching conditions in the H.V. power system

- influence of the ceiling voltage
- accuracy of current detection
- reset ratio.
An example of calculated short-circuit currents supplied by a generator-

transformer unit in Table 2-VI shows that the highest short-circuit current
circulates during a line-to-ground fault. During H.V. faults the current
circulating on the generator side has the following consequences:
- During a line-to-ground fault the through-fault current is 2.89 p.u.
- During a line-to-line fault the through-fault current of one phase is
4.0 p.u. and 2.0 p.u. of the other phases.
The minimum through-fault current is therefore equal to 2.0 p.u. and cir-
culates through the generator CT's during an H.V. line-to-line short-circuit.
A suitable current setting is usually i = 1.5. The undervoltage setting value

must be higher than the maximum line-to-line voltage measured on the
generator terminals during all possible kinds of faults on the M.V. and H.V.
side. The usual voltage value is v = 0.7.
The value of the applied delay depends on the grading with overcurrent
devices of the power system and of the auxiliaries. The setting value of
the delay is usually in the range between 2 and 5 s. At its selection the
permitted maximum through-fault current duration of 2 s for many trans-
formers is to be considered.
3.1.1.2. Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection
Sometimes an instantaneous stage is asked for. This stage should enable

fast clearing of short-circuit currents during faults between the generator
C.B. (if applied) and the generator transformer.
For selective protection the current value setting is to be chosen in the

range between:
- minimum short circuit currents
and
- maximum through-fault currents during faults on the H.V. side.
The minimum short-circuit fault current would be a line-to-line fault. The

maximum current during an H.V. fault circulates during a three-phase
short-circuit.
If, for example, we use the following reactance values
xd'' = 0.15 x2 = 0.15 xT = 0.1
we get
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0.9 3 0.9 3
i= "
= = 5.2
xd + x2 0.15 + 0.15
for the minimum fault current (at a voltage of 90%)

and
1.1 1.1 1.1
i= " = = = 4.4
xd + xt 0.15 + 0.10 0.25
for the maximum through-fault current during an H.V. three-phase fault (at
a voltage of 110%)
For protection devices with a significant restriction of the influence of the

DC component, a possible setting would be i = 4.8 or 5. Without that res-
triction, an H.V. fault could cause a trip of the generator C.B. In this case it
is better to omit the instantaneous stage.
For large machines the difference between the minimum fault current and
the external maximum fault current is smaller due to a higher value of xd''.
It is then even more difficult to find a suitable setting level.
If the generator-transformer unit has no generator circuit breaker, the in-

stantaneous overcurrent device connected to CT's located at the
generator neutral point would not make any sense.
3.1.2. Overcurrent Protection for Generator Transformer
The application of a generator circuit breaker enables the supply of the

auxiliaries from the H.V. system by the generator transformer at an open
generator C.B. In this case the generator transformer should be protected
by its own overcurrent device aside from the other protection devices. This
is a usual arrangement for gas turbine generators.
The preferred type of the transformer overcurrent protection has a definite

time overcurrent device and often also an instantaneous overcurrent
device. This overcurrent protection is afforded by H.V. current
transformers. The short-circuit current curve of transformers has no
damping of the AC component (refer to Fig. 2-1). Therefore no additional
voltage monitoring is desired and only an overcurrent measuring device is
used.
3.1.2.1. Definite Time Overcurrent Protection
The task of the definite time device is a selective detection of short circuits
on the transformer and on its M.V. side supplied by the H.V. power
system. This device must be graded with the overcurrent devices of the
M.V. side of auxiliary transformers. Naturally this device must not operate
during continuous operation current as well as during short-time
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overcurrents. This device must operate at all short-circuits on the M.V.

side. The minimum fault current circulates during a line-to-line fault; its
value is 8.66 IN at the transformer reactance of 10% (refer to Table 2-V).
If we assume a maximum short-time overcurrent level of 1.3 IN then the
possible setting range is between 1.3 IN and 8.66 IN.
3.1.2.2. Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection
The task of the instantaneous overcurrent device is the protection against

high current faults on the transformer H.V. side supplied by the H.V.
power system.
The instantaneous device must operate during H.V. faults between the
H.V. current transformers and the transformer H.V. winding. It must not
operate during M.V. faults and transformer inrush currents. The
application of an instantaneous device is especially important at long
distances between the H.V. current transformers and the transformer
H.V. winding, threatened by a very high fault current level. E.g. if the H.V.
current transformers are located close to the H.V. circuit breaker at the
begin of a line supplying this transformer.The current setting must be
selected between
- minimum fault current of the H.V. side
and
- maximum through-fault current.
Designating the H.V. power system reactance xS and the transformer
reactance xT, the minimum H.V. fault current is
3
iF =
2x S
during a line-to-line fault.The maximum through-fault current is
1
i=
xT
during a symmetrical three-phase fault.
Let us assume: xS = 0.02; xT = 0.1 and we get
3 1
iF = = 43 i= = 10
2 x0. 02 0.1
A sensible current setting would then be e.g. i = 15 (Fig. 3.1-3).
In the case that an inrush current is higher than the through-fault current,
the bottom limit of the instantaneous stage setting range is to be specified
by the inrush current level instead of the through-fault current level. Very
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high inrush currents occur at transformers supplied by a power system

with a very high level of short-circuit currents.
For the REG216/316 and RET systems the instantaneous stage can be
blocked if the circulating overcurrent has a 2nd harmonic component
which is higher than 10 % of the current setting level.
3.1.3. Overcurrent Protection of Auxiliary Transformer
Overcurrent protection of the input side:

The protection device comprises a definite time stage and if required also
an instantaneous stage like the generator transformer.
Overcurrent protection of the output side:

This protection device has only a definite time stage; it is to be graded
with other overcurrent devices of the connected and supplied auxiliary
system.
For application of overcurrent devices refer to Fig. 3.1-6. For an example

of grading with possible current and delay setting values refer to Fig.
3.1.7.
3.2. Differential Protection
3.2.1. Introduction
The differential protection is the main and most important protection

against short-circuits. Transformer interturn faults and ground faults of
solidly grounded windings are additionally detected. As a back-up
protection a minimum impedance overcurrent device and a Buchholz or a
sudden pressure relay (SPR) are used.
The differential protection is used for the detection of internal faults within
a zone defined by the location of the supplying current transformers. It
operates with a comparison of the currents before and behind the
protected machine (Fig.3.2-1). The differential protection must be
sensitive and fast (Fig. 3.1-2). Otherwise the damage caused by high fault
currents, rising with time, would be too high. The high sensitivity is
demanded in order to detect most of the faults; this is important especially
during transformer ground faults. It is usually accepted that the differential
protection detects failures of the secondary CT circuits (interturn faults,
short-circuits as well as interruptions) and trips. During external faults the
differential protection must not trip (Fig. 3.2-1).
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3.2.2 Differential Protection for Transformers
3.2.2.1. Application
The differential protection for transformers must be designed to meet

three conditions:
- sensitive detection and fast clearing of internal faults
- sufficient stability during external faults
- sufficient stability at transformer inrush currents (Fig. 3.1-4).
To satisfy these requirements, the differential device for transformers

comprises:
- a sensitive instantaneous overcurrent system
- a sensitivity restraint by the bias circuit
- a sensitivity restraint acc. to the 2nd harmonic current.
The sensitivity of the differential overcurrent detection during internal

faults is set by a basic setting "g" for ABB relays. The stability of the
differential protection during external faults depends on the factor "v"
defining the slope of the trip characteristic.
3.2.2.2. Basic Setting "g"
The sensitivity of differential devices during internal faults is given by the

basic setting value "g". This value should be selected as low as possible
in order to enable the detection of most of the faults but without
jeopardizing any device operation at
- Generators due to CT current errors
- Transformers due to
- CT current errors
- transformer no-load current
(especially at short time overvoltages)
- tap changer operating range.
For an average magnetizing curve of transformers refer to Fig. 3.2-3.
Using the protection class 5P20 for CT's the differential current caused
by the current error of CT's is usually considered to be 10 %.
The transformer no-load current depends on its design. Nevertheless acc.

to Tabel 3.2-I a value of 10 % can be used if no actual value is known.
The differential current caused by the tap changer depends on its range,
which can be e.g. +/- 5 % or +/- 10 %.
If we consider the sum of these 3 components to be 30 % as the worst

case, then the minimum setting value "g" should be 0.3 for transformers
(Tabel 3.2-I).
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3.2.2.3. Factor "v"
The stability of the differential protection depends on the slope of the ope-
rating characteristic given by the factor "v" (sometimes called "pic-up
ratio"). The value "v" is given by the ratio of the pick-up differential current
, I to the through current IH (Fig. 3.2-4).
The value "v" should be selected such that:

- during normal operation also small fault currents can be detected
- danger of a false tripping during external faults due to CT saturation is
restricted.
The ABB differential protection uses an operating characteristic, which is

a combination of a constant curve and of two slope curves. The
protection stability is influenced during:
- through-currents of the medium level by the gentle slope
- high through-currents by the steep slope.
The gentle slope can be set by the ratio "v". The steep slope is fixed.
The danger of false tripping during external faults is considerably
restricted by the steep slope.
For CT's with a different behaviour at off-set overcurrents, higher values of

"v" are to be selected. The normal setting value is v = 0.5.
At the REG and RET protection systems the steep slope is activated only
during CT secondary currents I > b IN, where "b" is a certain through
current in p.u. By setting the value "b" the point of intersection of both
slopes is selected. The steepness of the steep slope is infinite (Fig. 3.2-4).
The usual setting value is b = 1.5. In the case of danger of a false
tripping at low through currents the value b = 1.25 can be applied.
3.2.2.4. Matching and Filtering
Very often rated currents of the protected transformer and of the CT's are
different.
The difference between the ratio of the transformer rated currents and the
ratio of CT's rated currents must be matched. Otherwise this difference
would produce a spurious differential current. This matching is possible for
the REG216/316 and RET316 systems with the help of "reference
values".
It is an advantage if the setting value "g" (p.u.) can be based on the rated
currents of the transformer and not of the CT's. The phase shift between
the currents of the primary and secondary transformer side is given by the
connection group and must also be matched.
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An external line-to-ground fault of a Dy-connected transformer causes a

circulating current with positive, negative- and zero-sequence component
on the faulted "wye" side. The line current supplying the "delta" side has
only a positive and negative-sequence component. The zero-sequence
current circulates only in the delta-connected winding. The differential
device measuring the line currents on the primary and secondary
transformer side, would detect an unbalance, if the zero-sequence
component of the"wye" side is not prohibited to circulate to the differential
device. Therefore the following remedies are applied for the transformer
differential protection:
- Current matching
- Connection group matching
- Filtering of the zero-sequence component.
These remedies can be performed by a suitable current ratio and a
correct connection group of interposing CT's or by modern protection
systems alone.
3.2.2.5. Increased Basic Setting g-High
The REG and RET systems offer the possibility to reduce the sensitivity
by increasing the value "g" ,if it is required, with respect to
- increased transformer no-load currents
(due to a short time overvoltage)
- differential currents caused by a tap changer
- various other purposes.
A suitable setting must be selected according to the purpose.
3.2.2.6. Differential Current I-Inst
The operating time of the transformer differential device is independent for

the REG216/316 and RET316 systems on the energizing detector during
differential currents exceeding the setting value I-Inst. Such a shorter
operating time is important during internal faults with a very high current
level.
3.2.2.7. Transformer Inrush Current Detection
The inrush current detection operates with the detection of the 2nd
harmonic. During normal operation this detection is not activated. It can be
activated by the:
- energizing detector
- external signal "InrushInp".
The energizing detector operates when the setting value of the "inrush
ratio" is exceeded, i.e. when the content of the 2nd harmonic exceeds the
setting value.
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The inrush current detection is only active during the "InrushTime", which
must be set.
3.2.3 Differential Protection for Generators
The differential protection for generators must be designed to meet two

conditions:
- Sensitive detection and fast clearing of internal faults
- Sufficient stability during external faults.
The inrush current of newly energized transformers can also circulate in

the generator stator winding; but for generators this is a through-current
and no differential current such as for transformers. Therefore the
sensitivity restraint for inrush currents is omitted at some differential
protection devices for generators, such as e.g. at the REG216 and 316
systems. Also matching and measuring of the 2nd harmonic are omitted
for these systems.
3.2.3.2. Settings
The highest applicable sensitivity is limited by different current errors of

both CT's; therefore the minimum setting value "g" should be 0.1(p.u.).
The factor "v" is usually set to the value 0.25 with respect to not especially
high through-currents during external faults. If necessary the higher value
of 0.5 can be applied.
The factor "b" cannot be set at the differential device of the REG216/316
systems for generators. Its value 1.5 is fixed.
3.2.4 Suitable CT's for Differential Protection
The current transformers applied for the differential protection must

enable correct operation of the protection during internal as well as at
external faults.
For generator-transformer units the differential protection must be stable

during H.V. faults (Fig. 3.2-6a). The fault current level is limited by
reactances of the generator and of the transformer. Similarly the time
constant of the through fault current is given by the time constant of the
generator and of the transformer.
The units for gas turbines have a generator circuit breaker which en-
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ables the supply of the auxiliaries also at a disconnected generator. In this

case the transformer differential protection must be stable during short-
circuits in the generator zone supplied from the H.V. side and enable the
supply of auxiliaries without any service interruption (Fig. 3.2-6b).
Naturally the generator differential protection must also be stable during
faults on the auxiliary feeders (Fig. 3.2-6c).
The CT's designed for conditions of external faults mostly enable correct
protection operation during internal faults too. Therefore the CT's are
usually specified with respect to the protection stability during external
faults. This stability depends on the behaviour of the protection device and
of the CT's. The differential protection device has a suitable operating
curve as a means for device stability. Therefore it is not necessary to
demand that CT's do not saturate. Such a requirement would cause big
CT's with a high magnetic core cross section.
Nevertheless the applied CT's must be able to transfer such a current to

the CT secondary side, which enables correct operation of the differential
protection device.
The ability of CT's to transfer overcurrents to the secondary side without

any saturation is specified by the overcurrent factor "n". Most of the
applied CT's are not specified for the full value, but for a reduced factor
"n" with respect to the stabilizing form of the operating curve of the
differential device.
The current transformers designed for protection purposes are specified

according to the class and the rated output. CT's specified according to
IEC standards are usually of the class 5P20 . The maximum current error
allowed is then 5 % at a current 20 times the rated value. The current
error is the difference between the primary and secondary current, if both
currents are based on the same number of turns for the primary and
secondary side (Fig. 3.2-5).
The factor 20 called "overcurrent factor" is used to specify the highest

current, during which the current error is still acceptable for the operation
of protection devices.
3.2.4.2. Calculation of the Overcurrent Factor
The overcurrent factor "n" desired for a faulted circuit and non-saturating
CT's is defined by a continuous AC overcurrent without any DC
component.
This factor "n" may also be used for offset overcurrents having an AC
current component "i" and a DC component. The influence of the DC
component is specified by a factor "k" :
16
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n = k i
The factor "k" is a function of:

- frequency
- time constant of the faulted circuit J
- time constant of the CT secondary circuit J 2
- time t.
The factor "k" is determined by the exponential functions given by the

short-circuit and by the CT secondary circuit. It depends on the instan-
taneous voltage at the instant of the short-circuit.
Short-circuit at voltage v = vmax :

In this case the short-circuit current has only an AC component.
i1
= sin wt
I1N 2
The CT secondary current curve thus comprises an induced AC

component and an exponential function of the CT secondary circuit. The
factor "k" is given by the CT magnetizing current and is
t
-
J2
k=e - cos wt
The maximum value of "k" appears at w t = p :
k=2
Short-circuit at v = 0:
The short-circuit current has a DC and an AC component.
t
i1 -
J2
=e - cos w t
I1N 2
Assuming a CT linear magnetizing curve, the factor "k" is then

(Fig. 3.2-7):
J2 æ - Jt - ö
t
k = MJ çç e 2 - e J ÷÷ + 1
J2 -J è ø
The first formula for the factor "k" can be used:

- at fault currents without any DC component
- if the influence of a CT saturation, due to the DC component, can be
accepted.
17
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The value k = 2 can be used e.g. for ground faults on resistance

grounded systems, where the fault current has almost no DC component.
The second formula is to be used if the CT must not saturate during an

off-set fault current. The function of "k" given by two exponential
functions has a maximum value at a certain time (Fig. 3.2-7):
J J2 æJ ö
tm = ln ç ÷
J -J2 èJ2 ø
J
æ J ö J 2 -J
k m = MJ ç ÷ +1
èJ2 ø
The specification of a CT according to "k" makes sure that the CT never

saturates under given short-circuit conditions. The calculation for the fault
instant at v = 0 is the worst case. If it is accepted that a mechanical
reason for a fault is not probable and that an electric break-down must be
initiated by a certain voltage, then the result of the calculation of "k" acc.
to the second formula can be reduced. E.g. a reduction of the DC
component and also of the factors "k" by 0.866 corresponds to an
instantaneous voltage of 50 % of the peak value.
Current transformers with a magnetic ring core have a high time constant
J 2 . If the " J 2 " is much higher than " J "
t 2 >> t
an approximate formula for "k" can be used:

æ - ö
t
k = MJ ç 1 - e ÷ + 1
J
è ø
3.2.4.3. Current Transformers Specified acc.to IEC Standard
Protection current transformers of the class 5P20 have a magnetic core

designed for an inner voltage E2 given by 20 times the value of the rated
output voltage V2N and by 20 times the value of the voltage drop R2 I2N
across the resistor R2 (Fig. 3.2-5). The magnetic core of CT's for
generators and many transformers is a ring core, at which the leakage
inductance of the secondary winding is very small and may be neglected
at the calculation:
E2N = V2N + R2 I2N
18
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E2 = 20 ( V2N + R2 I2N )
The internal voltage E2 is the maximum voltage produced during current

errors < 5 %. The same CT may be used when a higher overcurrent
factor "n" is required and if the actual burden is smaller:
E2 = n ( V2 + R2 I2N )
If we compare the last equations we get:
V2N + R2 I2N
n = 20
V2 + R2 I2N
or using power instead of voltage:
rated output SN = V2N I2N

secondary copper losses , PCu2 = R2 ( I2N )2
actual output S = V2 I2N
SN + DPCu2
n = 20
S + DPCu2
This equation shows that an overcurrent factor "n" higher than 20 can be
reached if the actual burden is smaller than the rated burden at SN. The
above formula is to be used if a certain CT is to be applied for a required
higher factor "n" . In opposition if the desired overcurrent factor "n" was
calculated, the actual burden is known and the CT copper losses can be
estimated, the CT is to be specified for class 5P20 by the calculated
rated output
n
SN =
20
S + DPCu2 -DPCu2
such as e.g. class 5P20 and rated output SN = 90 VA.
Example:
Required value n = 40
Actual output S = 5 VA
Secondary copper losses , PCu2 = 35 W = 35 VA
Using the equation
n 40
SN =
20
S + DPCu2 - DPCu2 =
20
5 + 35 - 35
SN = 45 VA
19
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3.2.4.4. Current Transformers Specified acc. to ANSI / IEEE Standard
Protection CT's according to ANSI or IEEE and having a magnetic ring

core (a low inductance type) are specified by the class C and by the
output voltage "V2 " at 20 I2N .
E.g. the class C 400 means a ring CT with an output voltage of 400 V at
20 I2N and of 20 V at I2N . If the rated output current is 5 A, the rated
output would be
SN = 20 x 5 = 100 VA.
The CT's specified acc. to ANSI or IEEE standard are designed for an
inner voltage E2 given by the output voltage and by the voltage drop
across the resistor R2. The allowed maximum current error is 10 % at 20
I2N .These CT's may also be applied for a higher overcurrent factor if the
actual burden is smaller than the rated burden.
3.2.4.5. Requirements on CT's Applied for the REG and RET Systems
There is no simple method of calculating the performance of the

differential device together with its CT's under fault conditions. A
possibility is an investigation of that performance by measurement at
simulated fault conditions.
The performance of the differential functions of the RET316 system

together with supplying CT's was investigated in the range between 3 IN
and 20 IN with and without a DC component given by the time constant
between 40 and 300 ms. The results show the following:
a) Considering the stability during external faults under above conditions:

The CT's may saturate and the stability is unaffected at the following
minimum overcurrent factor "n" values:
- between 5 and 15 for transformers with 2 windings
- between 9 and 33 for transformers with 3 windings.
b) The operating time during internal faults under above conditions is

unaffected by fault currents if the inrush detector is not activated.
The above results for transformers with 2 windings can also be used for
generators. Thanks to the similar design all above results can also be
used for the REG216 and 316 systems.
Conclusion:
- CT's of the class 5P20 may be used for the differential protection
devices for generators and 2-winding transformers
- CT's of the class 5P20 may also be used for the differential protection
of 3-winding transformers if the rated output SN is calculated with
respect to the required factor "n" and to the actual required output S;
20
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i.e. if the rated output SN is higher enough than the required output
S in order to enable the required value "n".
3.2.4.6. Trouble shooting
Difficulties during the operation of the differential protection can be caused

either by the differential protection or by the current transformers.
A very good possibility of checking the function of the differential device

under normal operating conditions is the measurement of the differential
current.
An unusually high differential current can be caused by:
- opposite polarity of CT's
- wrong current matching
- wrong vector group
- harmonics.
False tripping of an energized transformer at no-load can be caused by an

insufficient inrush current detection. Check the setting "InrushRatio" and if
necessary the content of the 2nd harmonic in the curve of the measured
inrush current.
False operation during external faults can be caused by CT saturation as

well as by an unsuitable setting especially of the value "v". The differential
current produced by different CT secondary currents can be caused by:
- different current ratioes
- unadapted burden
- CT no-load curve (magnetizing curve).
Under the assumption of a correct CT turn ratio, the accuracy of the CT

can be checked with the help of several points of the CT magnetizing
curve. Supplying the secondary side at a primary side with I1 = 0 the
measured current is a no-load current, producing the current error of the
CT. The supplying voltage is to be adjusted to the internal voltage E2 .
This value is given by the sum of the terminal voltage at 20 I2N and of
the voltage drop across the resistor R2 at 20 I2N at the IEC class 5P20
as well as at the ANSI or IEEE class "C". The measured current value
must not exceed 5 % of 20 I2N , i.e. I2N , according to IEC or 10 % of 20
I2N , i.e. 2 I2N , according to ANSI / IEEE class "C" (Fig. 3.2-8). At the
voltage E2 given by the rated current I2N the measured no-load current
must not exceed 1 % of I2N .
3.2.4.7. Checking the Differential Devices
Aside from the internal simulation of a differential current at the REG216,

316 and RET316 systems, an injected current or a generator current can
be used for the test. With the help of an injected current at machine
standstill the following can be measured:
21
___________________________________________________________________
- the value "g"

- the operating time
and with the help of the running generator, supplying a symmetrical short
circuit arranged by a link, the following can be checked:
- protection operation during an internal fault
- protection stability during an external fault.
If it is not possible to arrange an artificial internal fault by a link or by

grounding isolators, an artificial differential current can be produced
shorting an input current circuit.
In any case the artificial short-circuit must be symmetrical; otherwise the

generator rotor could be damaged.
3.3. Minimum Impedance Protection
This protection is a back-up protection of the generator-transformer unit

against short circuits. For the protected zone refer to Fig. 3.3-1. The
advantage of this protection function is a shorter tripping time than the
time required by overcurrent functions.
The minimum impedance device is connected to voltage transformers

located at the generator terminals (Fig. 3.3-1). The device is usually set to
protect the connection to the generator transformer and its M.V. winding.
The H.V. winding cannot be well protected by this protective device due to
the danger of maloperation for faults on the H.V. side.
A short delay is to be used to avoid any maloperation. This is especially

the case for units with a generator C.B., due to:
- grading with the main protection (differential protection)
- transformer inrush currents.
A maloperation would also be caused by the loss of a VT voltage; in this

case the minimum impedance function must be blocked.
The impedance setting is selected according to 70% of the transformer

impedance voltage. Assuming the transformer impedance voltage to be
10% and the same rating of the generator as well as of the transformer we
get for
- impedance setting 0.07 p.u.
- usual delay values at
- units without generator C.B. 0.2 s
- units with generator C.B. switching
the transformer (inrush currents) 0.5 s
22
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3.4. Interturn Fault Protection
3.4.1 Interturn Fault Protection of Generators
The interturn faults of generator and motor stators cannot be detected by

the differential protection, because the measured currents at both sides of
the winding are the same. Therefore other detection methods must be
used.
The ABB generator protection scheme uses detection methods monitoring:

- Voltage (Fig. 3.4-1
- Current (Fig. 3.4-2,3)
- Differential current (Fig. 3.4-4).
All above methods use the decreased magnetic flux of the faulted phase
for the detection. A large current circulating in the shorted turn or turns
produces a magnetic flux of the opposite polarity in contrast to the polarity
of the original flux. The total magnetic flux is then much smaller and the
phase voltage too.
At a winding having two circuits connected in parallel per phase an interturn

fault causes a circulating current which can be monitored.
Features of the voltage method

- simple, sensitive
- 3 VT's with both primary terminals insulated for the high voltage
- applicable sensitivity limited by
- asymmetry of the 1st harmonic of phase voltages
- zero-sequence voltage caused by the 3rd, 9th and other
harmonics.
Features of the current method:

- useful only for windings having two circuits connected in parallel
- applicable sensitivity limited by unsymmetry of voltages of winding
circuits
connected in parallel,
- 1 or 2 CT's.
Features of the differential method:

- applicablel only for windings having two circuits connected in parallel
- applicable sensitivity limited by unsymmetry of voltages of winding
circuits connected in parallel,
- 6 CT's
- monitoring of the circulating current individual for each phase.
The differential method is the sole one enabling the detection of the faulted
phase.
23
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This protection should be fast to restrict the damage caused by high fault
currents. Nevertheless sometimes a short delay between 0.1 and 0.5 s may
be necessary to avoid any maloperation. This especially holds true for the
method using the voltage measurement.
3.4.2 Interturn Fault Protection of Transformers
The interturn fault of a transformer may under certain circumstances be de-

tected by the differential protection using the comparison of primary and
secondary currents, contrary to generators and motors at which the
currents are compared at the begin and the end of the winding and do not
enable any detection of interturn faults. Some of the interturn faults can
also be detected by an overcurrent protection scheme.
The transformer currents caused by an interturn fault depend on the

number of shorted turns, on the transformer leakage reactance and on the
circuit resistance. The leakage is variable, depending on the number of
shorted turns.
Interturn faults across a smaller number of winding turns may cause small
and not well measurable circulating currents. Such interturn faults should
be detected by a gas protection device like the Buchholz relay or the SPR
device. Nevertheless, in the range of interturn faults with more shorted
turns the currents are high enough to be detected by a differential or an
overcurrent protection.
3.4.3 Voltages and Currents at Interturn Faults
3.4.3.1 Interturn Faults on Generators
Any interturn fault on a phase of the generator stator winding causes

a reduced magnetic field of that phase. The consequence is a reduced
phase voltage. A supervision of the change of this voltage enables the
detection of interturn faults (Fig.3.4-1). During interturn faults on windings
with branches connected in parallel the current distribution in those
branches is changed and the current circulating between those branches
can be used for the fault registration (Fig. 3.4-2,3,4). The sensitivity of the
interturn fault detection depends on the ratio of sound and faulted turns of
the failed branch and naturally on the protection setting.
The level of the voltage displacement depends on the

- number of shorted turns
- kind of service of the generator.
24
___________________________________________________________________
In an extreme case the total length of a stator phase winding is shorted; i.e.
all turns of a phase winding are shorted and the voltage on this faulted
phase fully disappears. The two different service kinds are:
- generator disconnected from the power system (running at no-load)
- generator directly connected to a large power system
At no-load the potential of the terminal of the faulted phase moves to the
neutral point. The line-to-line voltage between the sound phases is fixed,
non influenced. The line-to-line voltages between the faulted phase and 2
sound phases drop to the phase voltage value. Using the measurement of
the neutral point voltage displacement by the broken delta side of three
VT's connected in parallel with the generator phase windings the voltage
measured during an interturn fault along the total phase winding length is
1/3 of the maximum value e.g. of 100 V (Fig. 3.4-5a).
On a generator connected to a fixed voltage of a large power system all

three line-to-line voltages are fixed. The voltage measured across the
broken delta of VT's rises with the number of short-circuited turns up to the
maximum value e.g. of 100 V at an interturn fault across the total phase
winding length (Fig. 3.4-5b).
Therefore the sensitivity of the interturn fault detection by the voltage

measurement is smaller at the disconnected generator.
The detection of interturn faults by the supervision of the voltage accross

the broken delta of VT's connected to the generator terminals is
independent of ground faults. On the other hand a supervision of the
generator neutral point displacement, used for the detection of stator
ground faults, is not only able to detect ground faults but also interturn
faults.
In the case of a stator winding with 2 or more branches connected in

parallel for each phase, it is preferable to apply a circulating current or a
differential current for the interturn fault detection. These currents depend
on the ratio of the shorted turns to the total number of all turns per phase
connected in series and on the number of parallel branches.
Currents in a disconnected generator (Fig. 3.4-6):

- On a winding without branches connected in parallel the current can
circulate only in the shorted turn(s)
- On a winding with branches connected in parallel
- a high current circulates in the shorted turn(s)
- a smaller current circulates between the faulted and the sound
branches.
Generaly during interturn faults the currents circulating on a winding with

2 branches connected in parallel can be calculated according to the
following equations developed from the circuit in Fig. 3.4-7.
25
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The current i1 circulating in the sound section of the faulted branch:
n3 1 - s 2 N2 N3
i1 =
n 2 x n N2 + n N2 - 2 N N - 1
N22
1 1 3 3 1 3
n2
The current i2 circulating in the section with the interturn fault:
n 3 N3 1 -1
i2 =
n 2 N2 x s2 N22
1 +
n 2 n1 N12 + n 3 N32 - 2 N1 N3 - N22
The phase voltage u1 reduced by the influence of the interturn fault:
1
U1s 2 N1
é
ê
N2 n1 N1 - N3 +
n2
N22
ù
ú
u1 = = ê1 + ú
E n 3 N3 ê 2 2 1 2ú
ê n1 N1 + n3 N3 - 2 N1 N3 - N
ë n 2 2 úû
The measured voltage change Du1:
, u1 = 1 - u1
Used symbols:
E E.M.F. per phase, induced from the rotor
U1 , u1 phase voltage during an interturn fault
Du1 phase voltage change caused by an interturn fault
i1 current of the sound section in p.u.
i2 current of the section with the interturn fault in p.u.
N1, N2, N3 number of turns of section 1, 2 and 3
n1, n2, n3 Blondel's factors (ratio of the total flux to the excitation flux,
defined by the leakage)
s1 , s2 , s3 leakage factors
x subtransient reactance.
From the diagram im Fig. 3.4-8 it is evident that the minimum number of
shorted turns, which can be registered, depends on the ratio of faulted and
total turns per phase and naturally on the protection voltage setting.
Therefore a better detection sensitivity is reached at turbogenerators which
have a smaller number of turns per phase as e.g. N3 =10, in comparison
with salient pole generators having e.g. N3 = 40.
In the absence of parallel branches we get the simple formulas from the
above modified equations:
26
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i1 = 0
n 3 N3 1
i2 =
n 2 N2 x
s 2 N1
u1 =
n 2 N3
The last formula shows that the reduction of the phase voltage depends on
the leakage factor s2. Without this leakage the voltage u1 would sink to
zero.
Generator connected to the power system:

- The currents not only circulate in shorted turn(s) and between the
faulted
and sound branches of the faulted phase but also between the
generator
and the power system.
In this case the currents circulating in the faulted winding are overlapped
with currents circulating from the power system.
3.4.3.2 Interturn Faults on Transformers
The Interturn faults on transformers can sometimes be detected by the

differential protection, contrary to generators and motors at which the
currents are compared at the begin and at the end of the winding and do
not enable any detection of interturn faults.
The transformer currents during an interturn fault depend on the

transformer leakage reactance and on the circuit resistance. The leakage is
variable, depending on the number of shorted turns.
The current curves for the following diagrams were calculated under the
assumption of a certain variability of the leakage reactance.
Interturn Faults on the Transformer Secondary Winding
The circulating currents can be calculated acc. to the following formulas:
1 1
i1 =
3 2
é æ N ö2ù
2
é 2 æ N2sc ö ù
+ êr ç ÷ ú
2
ê x s + x T çç 5 - 4 ÷ú
÷
êë 3 è N2 øú ê è N2sc ø ú
û ë û
27
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N2
i 2sc = i1 3
N2sc
Used symbols:
i1 primary current in p.u. of the transformer rated current
i2sc current in the interturn faulted winding section in p.u.
xs reactance of the supplying power system in p.u. of the transformer
rating
xT transformer reactance (impedance voltage) in p.u.
r resistance of the faulted circuit in p.u.
N2 number of secondary winding turns (per phase)
N2sc number of shorted turns of the secondary winding.
With respect to the protection sensitivity desired for the fault detection, the
currents circulating during interturn faults were calculated considering the
severe conditions given by the great variability of the transformer leakage
reactance being between 10 and 50% and by the circuit resistance.
Fig. 3.4-9 shows that during interturn faults on a secondary winding with a
constant leakage reactance and without any resistance, the primary as well
as the secondary currents are high enough for the detection at each
interturn faulted winding length "x". The leakage reactance variability
causes the circulating currents to be smaller. For the influence of the circuit
resistance refer to the (Fig. 3.4-10). It is shown there that especially the
range of short faulted winding lengths is influenced by the circuit
resistance. Nevertheless in the range of the longer faulted winding lengths
(above 20% of the total winding length), the measured primary currents are
high enough to be detected also by a simple overcurrent protection
scheme.
Conclusion:
In the range of the faulted secondary winding lengths between 20 and
100% the currents are influenced especially by the variability of the
secondary winding leakage. In the range between 0 and 20% the currents
are restricted especially by the circuit resistance.
Interturn Faults on the Transformer Primary Winding
The circulating currents can be calculated acc. to the following formulas:
1
i1 =
2
é æ N1 - N1sc ö 2 æ N1sc öù

2
3r + ê2 x s + 3 çç ÷ x ç5 - 4 ÷ú
÷ 1l ç ÷ú
ê è N1 ø è N1 øû
ë
28
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N1
i1sc = i1
N1sc
Used symbols:
i1 primary current in p.u. of the transformer rated current
i1sc current in the interturn faulted winding section in p.u.
xs reactance of the supplying power system in p.u. of the transformer
rating
x1l primary leakage reactance of the transformer in p.u.
r resistance of the faulted circuit in p.u.
N1 number of primary winding turns
N1sc number of shorted turns of the primary winding
For interturn faults on the transformer primary winding the critical range for
the detection is again at the short interturn faulted winding lengths
(Fig. 3.4-11,12), especially due to the circuit resistance. Nevertheless the
measured primary current value is often sufficient for the detection also in
this range.
3.5. Buchholz relay
The Buchholz relay is a gas detection relay protecting oil transformers

during
- internal insulation faults such as short circuits, interturn faults, earth
faults
- small failures such as spark emission, discharges, iron lamination faults
- tank leakages.
The Buchholz relay supervises gas emissions and is built into the oil pipe
connecting the transformer tank with the expansion chamber. The relay
consists of a small reservoir to accumulate the incoming gas, and of two
swimmers to monitor the oil level located one above the other.
The relay has two stages for an alarm and a trip. The upper swimmer
operates the very sensitive 1st stage protection and is able to detect small
oil level differences caused by small gas emissions or by a small oil
leakage.
The lower swimmer operates the 2nd stage protection; it detects greater oil
level differences and oil stream surges caused by sudden insulation
faults.
The second stage detecting the fast oil streams caused by insulation
faults trips in approximately the same time as the differential protection.
The Buchholz relay is a second protection device against heavy faults. It

has a quite different detection system than the differential device. Its
advantage is a very high sensitivity and ability to detect faults and failures
which cannot be detected by the differential device. The zone protected
29
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by the Buchholz relay is limited to the transformer tank, whilst the zone of
the differential protection is given by the location of current transformers
installed inside or outside of the tank.
The Buchholz relay is usually used for transformers with ratings above
1000 kVA and in some exceptional cases between 100 and 1000 kVA.
For larger transformers, the Buchholz relay is used together with the
differential relay as an important protection against faults. The first stage
of the Buchholz relay is very sensitive and detects very small gas
emissions, which cannot be detected by the differential relay responding
to higher measurable currents, e.g. above 20 % of the rated current. On
the other hand, high fault currents are detected by the differential relay
and by the Buchholz relay which both initiate a trip and interruption within
approximately the same time.
In the US a Sudden-Pressure Relay (SPR) is usually used instead of the

Buchholz relay. There are two types of SPR devices, operating on sudden
changes
- in the gas above the oil
or
- in the oil itself.
Both types are sensitive to low-and high-energy arcs and have inverse-
time characteristics. Generally the SPR devices are used to trip. They are
free from false operation.
3.6. Stator Ground Fault Protection
The stator ground fault protection protects the generator stator against
damage caused by ground faults.
The consequence of a ground fault is the damage of the insulation and

additionally the damage of laminated iron of electrical machines. The
damage depends on the level of the fault current; therefore this current
should be kept very small. Higher ground fault currents on rotating
machines can lead to short-circuits in the iron lamination and to higher
iron losses.
The stator ground fault protection system is different for generators

working with a generator transformer or working directly to a busbar.
3.6.1. Stator Ground Fault Protection for Generators Operating in

Connection with Generator Transformers
The following stator ground fault protection devices are applied for
generators with an impedance-grounded or an ungrounded neutral point.
For the detection of a stator ground fault either the generator voltage or an
auxiliary voltage can be used. Using the generator voltage, approximately
30
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95 % of the generator winding lengths can be protected; the rest of the

winding near the neutral point remains without protection.
An artificial voltage displacement of the generator neutral point by an

auxiliary voltage is to be used if the winding at the neutral point should
also be protected.
3.6.1.1. 95% Stator Ground Fault Protection
The stator of generators operating in a unit with the transformer is usually

high resistance grounded. The task of the grounding resistor is a sufficiant
selectivity of the applied ground fault protection device. Stator ground
faults cause a voltage displacement of the generator neutral point. This
displacement depends on the point of the ground fault. It is zero at a
neutral point ground fault and it is equal to the generator phase voltage at
a terminal ground fault (Fig. 3.6-1).
The voltage displacement of the neutral point can be measured either

- between the generator neutral voltage and the ground (Fig. 3.6-1)
or
- by the voltage across the broken delta of the tertiary windings of three
VT's located at generator terminal side (Fig. 3.6-2).
It is also possible to measure the current of the grounding resistor instead

of the neutral point voltage.
The neutral point voltage consists of several components, two of which

occur only under fault conditions; the other two components occur also
during normal operating conditions. These voltage components are:
Va - Voltage caused by a ground fault and depending on its position
Vb - Voltage transferred from the H.V. side at a ground fault on the H.V.
side
Vc - Voltage of the 3rd, 9th, 15th, 21st and higher harmonics
Vd - Voltage caused by asymmetry of phase capacitances and phase
voltages.
During a ground fault of the neutral point the component "a" is equal to
zero. This voltage increases with the rising distance from the neutral point
and reaches the value of the full phase voltage at a fixed ground fault on
the generator terminals.
The measured voltage may be higher than the phase voltage value during
an arcing ground fault due to oscillations produced between the stator
circuit and the ground. The neutral point voltage transformer should never
become saturated with respect to a danger of ferro-resonance. Therefore
it is to be designed for a higher voltage than the phase voltage. The best
method is to specify the VT for the voltage factor 1.9 (acc. to IEC
standard) or for the line-to-line voltage (acc. to ANSI standard).
Also the three VT's of the variant with the VT's located at the generator
31
___________________________________________________________________
terminal side should be specified by the voltage factor 1.9 or by the line-
to-line voltage value.
A modified method uses the current measurement instead of the voltage

measurement. In this case a current transformer is connected between
the grounding resistor and the ground (refer to Fig. 3.6-3).
In case of a ground fault on the H.V. generator-transformer side, the

phase voltage of the H.V. side produces a certain voltage transferred to
the generator side (component "b") by the capacitive coupling.
During normal as well as abnormal operating conditions the neutral point

voltage contains the 3rd, 9th, 15th, 21st and higher harmonics of the
component "c" and a component "d" given by the asymmetry of the phase
capacitances and phase voltages.
Taking into account a danger of a protection maloperation the suitable

setting of the measured voltage must be selected with respect to the
spurious components "b", "c" and "d". At an usual protection device
sensitivity of 5 % the total value of spurious components should be equal
to or below 2.5 %. Based on such a sensitivity, 95 % of the winding length
is protected, naturally under the assumption of a linear voltage distribution
along the winding.
ABB devices are usually delayed for 0.5 s, in order to exclude any
maloperation at transient voltages.
Property of the Protection Method
ABB prefers the method using a grounding resistor and a voltage trans-
former connected in parallel between the generator neutral point and the
ground for the following reasons.
In both cases (Fig. 3.6-1 and 3.6-2) the grounding resistor reduces the
transferred voltage of the component "b" and enables a selective
detection of ground faults on the generator side. If this resistor fails or is
interrupted, the selectivity of the protection may be lost, but the generator
side remains protected.
The voltage transformer located at the neutral point is without any voltage
under normal operating conditions. It is energized only during a ground
fault and is then slightly loaded by the very small power consumption of
the protection device.
The three voltage transformers at the generator terminals operate with a

rated voltage under normal running conditions. During a ground fault their
voltage is different for each phase and in the range between zero and the
line-to-line value. For a short time the voltage transformers are overloaded
by the current of the grounding resistor connected to the broken delta of
tertiary windings.
32
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The method of monitoring the current circulating between the generator

neutral point and the ground is simple; the sensitivity is the same as for
the voltage method. The detection is lost by an interruption of the
grounding resistor.
Grounding Resistor
The grounding resistor has to restrict the influence on the voltage

displacement of the generator neutral point by:
- voltages transferred from the transformer during H.V. ground faults
- transient overvoltages produced by generator arcing ground faults and
circuit breaker restrikes.
The above mentioned reduction of transferred voltages requires a resis-

tance value which is as small as possible. Such a low resistance value
increases the ground fault current. On the grounds of test results, ABB
recommends to limit the ground fault current to 20 A for a duration of 0.5
s. Higher currents cause damages making the repair of the iron lamination
necessary. At ABB the grounding resistor is usually specified for currents
between 5 and 15 A during 10 seconds.
Dimensioning of Grounding Resistor
The grounding resistor is to be designed according to two conditions:
- Maximum ground fault current IE < admitted value IEmax < 20A
- Spurious voltage Vs < 0.5 of the setting value Vset
Used symbols:
IE, IEmax ground fault current
Vs, Vb, Vc, Vd spurious voltages
Vset setting voltage value
V neutral point voltage
Vph generator phase voltage
RE grounding resistance
U2ph phase voltage of the H.V. generator transformer winding
C capacitance equivalent to three phases of the generator

side to ground; it consists of the following capacitances:
Co generator capacitance
33
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Ce capacitance of the lead connection to the

generator transformer
C1 capacitance of the L.V.winding of the generator

transformer
L inductance equivalent to all voltage transformers

connected to the three-phase system of the generator.
C12 capacitance between the primary and secondary

winding of the generator transformer per phase
M angular velocity
The capacitance
C = 3 (Co + Ce + C1)
Based on the first condition of the maximum ground fault current, it is

necessary to calculate and specify the maximum current of the grounding
resistor.
The second condition is used for the determination of the maximum value
of the grounding resistance with respect to spurious voltages. A spurious
voltage consists of three components. The equation for these three com-
ponents expressed in p.u. values:
vs = vb + vc + vd
The neutral point voltage displacement causes a ground fault current

which is limited by the impedance ZE of the generator stator side to
ground. The influence of the winding reactance is small and can be
neglected. The impedance ZE has generally a capacitive component, a
certain inductive component given by the VT's and an additional resistive
component given by the grounding resistor.
Using the total capacitance to ground C, the inductance L equivalent for

all VT's applied at the generator terminal side (per three phases) and the
resistance RE of the grounding resistor we get the following formula for
the impedance:
RE
ZE =
w 2LC - 1
1 + jwCRE
w 2LC
The value M 2LC has to be checked. If it is M 2LC >> 1 as usual, then
34
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RE
ZE @
1 + jw CRE
or
ZE
RE @
1 - jw CZE
Vph
We put Z E ³
IE max
and get e.g. for
24000
Vph = V IEmax = 10 A
3
C = 0. 6 x10 -6 F (per 3 phases)
24000
ZE ³ = 1385 ohms
3 10
For the connection of RE and C in parallel:
2 2
æ 1ö æ 1ö Z E2
ç ÷ = ç ÷ + w C
2 2
R =
1 - w CZ E
E 2
è ZE ø è RE ø
1385 2
REmin ³ for M = 314 1/s
1 - 314x0.6x10 -6 x1385
2
REmin > 1435 ohms
The ABB static devices applied for monitoring the neutral point voltage
displacement are less sensitive to higher harmonics and therefore
vc = 0
The componnent "d" is usually smaller than 1 or 2 % of the phase voltage.
Using the value vd = 2 % and keeping the value vb < 2.5 % a setting value
vset = 5 % is not exceeded by spurious voltages.
The transformer capacitance C12 is much smaller than the generator

capacitance C0. Therefore for an approximate calculation of a transferred
current during a ground fault on the transformer H.V. side only the
capacitance C12 may be applied:
35
___________________________________________________________________
a) Transformer H.V. neutral point ungrounded
IC ( 3M C12 V2ph
The voltage drop across the impedance ZE
DV = ZEIC
should be equal or smaller than 2.5 % of the generator phase

voltage Vph. Then
DV = 0. 025 Vph = ZEIC
and the maximum impdedance and resistance value is
0. 025 Vph
ZE £
IC
2
Z E2
R £
1 - w CZ E
Emax 2
Using the values
24000
Vph = = 13856 V
3
w = 314 1/ s
C12 = 3 x10 -9 F
110000
V2ph = = 63500 V
3
C = 0. 6 x10 -6 F
we get
IC = 3 x314 x3 x10 -9 x63500 = 0.18 A
0. 025 x13856
ZE = = 1924 ohms
0.18
1924 2
REmax £
1 - ( 314 x0. 6 x10 -6 x1924)2
36
___________________________________________________________________
REmax < 2064 ohms
The final resistance value is to be chosen between REmin and REmax, it is

between 1435 and 2064 ohms. Taking the value of e.g. 1500 ohms we get
for the
- maximum resistor current
Vph 13850
IR = = = 9. 23 A
RE 1500
- maximum ground fault current

Vph
IE =
ZE
RE
ZE =
1 + jw CRE
1500
ZE =
1 + j314 x0. 6 x10 -6 x1500
ZE = 1443 ohms
13850
IE = = 9. 60 A
1443
b) Transformer H.V. neutral point solidly grounded.

In this case only 1/6 of the value of 3 C12 is activ.
IC = 0. 5w C12 V2ph
IC = 0. 5 x314 x3 x10 -9 x63500 = 0. 03 A
0. 025 x13856
ZE = = 11547 ohms
0. 03
Comparing this maximum impedance value ZE with the reactance value of

the capacitance C
1 10 6
XC = = = 5308 ohms
w C 314 x0. 6
we see that the capacitance C allone is able to keep the voltage drop
produced by a current transferred from the H.V. side, below the level of
the ground fault protection pick-up value. The resistor RE is thus not
desired to stabilize the protection device at H.V. ground faults; it is to be
37
___________________________________________________________________
used only to damp transient voltage oscillations. Its value should thus be
equal or smaller than the capacitive reactance Xc.
The final resistance value can be chosen between 1435 and 5308 ohms.
Taking the value of e.g. 3000 ohms we get:
13850
IR = = 4. 62 A
3000
3000
ZE =
1 + j314 x0. 6 x10 -6 x3000
ZE = 2612 ohms
13850
IE = = 5. 3 A
2612
For a resistor connected to the secondary side of a voltage transformer

situated between the generator neutral point and the earth the resistance
value Re must be recalculated:
2
æ V2N ö
R e = RE ç ÷
è V1N ø
The voltages V1N and V2N are rated voltages of this voltage transformer.
The value of a resistor connected to a tertiary side in delta of 3 voltage
transformers situated at generator terminals is:
2
æ 3V3N ö
Re = RE ç ÷
è V1N ø
The voltage V3N is the rated tertiary voltage of a VT.
If the transformer capacitances are not known, the following maximum

data can be used for an approximate calculation:
Capacitance of 1 phase (pF)

C1 5000 - 12000
C2 1000 - 1500
C12 3000 - 6000
where:
C2 is the H.V. generator transformer winding capacitance

( not important for the determination of the grounding resistor)
38
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3.6.1.2. 100 % Stator Ground Fault Protection
The task of the 100 % stator ground fault protection is the detection of all
stator ground faults.
The 100 % stator ground fault protection comprises a 95 % scheme and

an injection scheme. The injection scheme operates with a neutral point
displacement by an injected voltage. At the REG216 and 316 systems the
injection voltage has an impulse waveform with an amplitude of about
100V and a frequency of 12.5 or 15 Hz.
The protected winding length depends on the maximum current of the

power system frequency circulating through the grounding resistor RE
during a terminal ground fault. If this current is smaller than 5 A, the total
winding length of 100 % is protected by the injection scheme. If this
current is higher, e.g. 10 A, then only 50 % of the winding length from the
neutral point is protected by the injection scheme.
The advantage of the low frequency for the injection voltage is the:
- possibility to distinguish between a service and a ground fault current
- low capacitive currents during normal operation.
Typical settings:
95 % scheme Voltage 5 or 10 % Delay 0.5 s
Injection scheme Insulation resistance Delay

stage No.1 "alarm" 10000 ohms 1s
stage No.2 "trip" 1000 ohms 0.5 s
Remark: a similar injection scheme can also be applied for the rotor
ground fault protection.
3.6.2. Stator Ground Fault Protection for Generators Directly Connected

to a Busbar
This ABB protection system is applicable for ungrounded systems

(Fig. 3.6-6).
The purpose of this protection system is

- on the bus and transformer feeders: to give an alarm
- on generator feeders : to trip the faulted feeder
during ground faults.
Any ground fault on the system is detected by a voltage displacement

measured on the busbar, which is common for all machines of this
system.
39
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The voltage displacement is measured by a sensitive voltage device

connected to the broken delta of the tertiary windings of three voltage
transformers supplied by the busbar voltage. In order to selectively detect
and remove the feeder affected by the ground fault, a current or better a
directional current measurement is necessary in addition.
For an ungrounded power system the ground fault currents are

determined by the capacitances to ground. In most cases these currents
are small, not well measurable and cannot be used for the detection of a
ground fault. In these cases it is necessary to increase the level of the
ground faults by a grounding impedance. Usually a grounding resistor is
applied.
The ABB protection system uses a grounding resistor Re limiting the

ground fault current to 20 A. As mentioned, when a ground fault occurs
the voltage device picks up. This device sounds an alarm. Consequently
the voltage device initiates the connection of the grounding resistor to the
broken delta of 3 VT's (Fig. 3.6-7). A sufficient ground fault current can
now flow. According to the location of the ground fault, the ground fault
currents vary between 0 and 20 A.
For a ground fault on the busbar and on the transformer feeders no

current device can pick up, and therefore the grounding resistor will be
disconnected after 3 - 6 s.
The grounding resistor and the grounding transformers are full-current-

rated only for a short time operation of 10 s. The purpose of the resistor
Rp is to reduce the influence of spurious voltages for a ground fault on the
H.V. side. The resistor Rp is dimensioned for continuous operating
conditions.
For a ground fault on the generator side of the current transformers the
directional overcurrent device picks up and the faulted generator is tripped
after 0.5 s.
Features of this method:

- very sensitive and complex
- not available for large machines.
In the case of large machines it is not possible to detect small ground
fault
currents below the relatively high rated current.
- the special zero sequence current transformers are required
- the grounding transformer is overloaded for a short time
- the grounding resistor is dimensioned for a short time only
- reference voltage value depends on the location of the ground fault.
Summary:
- The voltage device detects any ground fault
40
___________________________________________________________________
- If only the voltage device picks- up, it means that the bus or some
transformer feeder is faulted to ground
- The directional current device detects ground faults on its generator
feeder.
If a running generator is not yet connected to the busbars, a ground fault

on its feeder cannot be detected. In this case it is possible to use an
additional neutral point voltage transformer (see Fig. 3.6-7) and a voltage
device to detect ground faults on its feeder. A grounding resistor is not
required, because there is no transferred current as a spurious
component. This protection device trips the excitation circuit breaker.
When the generator circuit breaker is closed, this additional protection
system is blocked.
3.7. Rotor Ground Fault Protection
The rotor ground fault protection is the protection of the field circuit
against ground faults.
The rotor ground faults are less dangerous, because the fault current is
small due to the low voltage. More dangerous is the double rotor ground
fault causing heavy rotor vibrations due to the magnetic unsymmetry.
For generators with sliprings the rotor insulation resistance is sometimes

reduced by a coal dust layer produced by the coal-brushes.
The applied rotor ground fault protection device is not able to differentiate
between single- and double-ground faults. Depending on the kind of the
excitation system, the ground faults of the excitation machine, rectifier and
excitation transformer are also detected.
The rotor circuit is ungrounded under normal operating conditions and the
excitation voltage is divided into two voltages of the + and -pole to ground.
At the occurrence of a ground fault this voltage distribution is changed and
results in a small ground fault current.
Concerning the capabilities of the measuring technique, this small DC

current, compared with the much higher field current, is not suitable to be
applied for the ground fault detection. Instead a small AC voltage is
injected between the field circuit and the ground according to Fig. 3.7-1.
This voltage value has to be limited to a level of 50 V for the safety of the
maintenance personnel. The capacitor C blocks any DC current to avoid
saturation of the supplying transformer as well as of the measuring
transformer.
The simple rotor ground fault protection system monitoring the current of
the supplying voltage transformer is suitable for generators with excitation
systems having a voltage with only few harmonics, such as e.g. excitation
41
___________________________________________________________________
systems with diode rectifiers. Larger harmonics would cause faulty

operation at this protection system.
At generators with modern excitation systems, using controlled thyristors,

various harmonics as well as a certain fundamental frequency voltage
components can occur in the excitation voltage. For that application a new
protection device was developed. This device, using a balanced bridge
connection (Fig. 3.7-1), is less sensitive to the above spurious com-
ponents. During commissioning the measuring bridge circuit must be
balancend according to the rotor capacitance C by the capacitor C2.
During a ground fault the capacitance C is shorted and the bridge is
getting unbalanced.
3.8. Transformer Ground Fault Protection
3.8.1. Typical Ground Fault Protection
Transformer ground faults are detected by a Buchholz relay or by a

suitable protection device for windings connected to
- an ungrounded system: by supervision of the voltage across the

broken delta circuit of VT's (Fig. 3.8-1)
- an impedance grounded by supervision of the neutral point current
system: (Fig. 3.6-3)
- a solidly grounded system: by the differential protection
The protection device of an ungrounded system using the voltage super-

vision across the broken delta is an unselective protection; the ground
faults on the winding as well as on the connected system produce such a
voltage. During ground faults on the connected lines the measured
voltage is 100 %; during ground faults on the transformer winding the
measured voltage depends on the faulted point. At a delta connected
winding the minimum measured voltage is 50 %. A suitable setting value
would be e.g. 40 % for the detection of local and remote ground faults. For
the detection of remote ground faults on lines a setting value between 60
and 80 % may be sufficient.
If the voltage level of the other transformer winding is higher, as is the

case with generator transformers, it is to be calculated with transferred
capacitive currents from the H.V. side and the circuit of the broken delta is
to be closed by a resistor or by a nonlinear element.
Also the device operating with the neutral point current of an impedance-
grounded system (Fig. 3.6-3) is an unselective protection detecting ground
faults not only on the transformer winding but also on the connected
system. The maximum ground fault current circulates during ground faults
on the terminals or on the connected lines. Evaluating the maximum
42
___________________________________________________________________
ground fault current as 100 % and using a current setting of 20 %, the

protected winding length is 80 %.
On a solidly grounded system the level of ground fault currents is similar

to the level of short-circuit currents. Therefore a differential device is able
to detect the currents of both kinds of faults.
3.8.2. Restricted Ground Fault Protection
The restricted ground fault (R.E.F.) protection is a selective protection

(Fig. 3.8-2).
The R.E.F. protection is used especially for impedance-grounded trans-

former windings protected by the transformer differential protection.
Its task is to improve the ground fault protection extending the protected
Wye-winding length. During ground faults on the wye connected winding
the ground fault current induces a current into the delta winding. This
induced current is smaller than the ground fault current (both in p.u.
system) due to a changed turn ratio. The differential protection operates
with the smaller current i1 whilst the R.E.F. protection operates with the
higher current i2, which is more suitable for the detection.
E.g. the R.E.F. protection enables the protection of 80 % of the winding

length, whereby only 42 % can be covered by the differential protection
with the same setting, when the maximum ground fault current is limited to
the value of the rated current by the grounding impedance and the setting
is 20 % for both devices (Fig. 3.8-2).
For the detection of faults instantaneous voltage or current devices are

used. The current device is used with a series-connected stabilizing
resistor (Fig. 3.8-3).
The measuring system is usually a high-impedance system; its advantage

is a very good stability for external faults.
For internal faults the fault current causes high overvoltages across the
high-impedance of the differential circuit. These overvoltages must be
limited by one or more nonlinear resistors connected in parallel to the
differential circuit. Sometimes the differential circuit is to be shorted after
the protection device has tripped.
Only current transformers with the same current ratio can be used. They
are to be specified by the knee-point voltage and by the maximum allowed
secondary winding resistance.
Although the advantage of the R.E.F. protection is most important for

windings with impedance grounded neutral points, this protection is also
used for solidly grounded windings.
43
___________________________________________________________________
The R.E.F. is to be designed in two steps:
step No.1 - determination of the R.E.F. device and of its setting

according to an external ground fault or short-circuit
step No.2 - determination of the CT's acc. to an internal ground fault.
The determination of the 1st step is required to avoid maloperation due to

CT saturation during through-ground-fault currents as well as external
short-circuits.
3.8.3 Tank Leakage Protection
The tank leakage protection is a selective protection against ground faults

between the transformer winding and the tank. It can be applied only if the
tank is fully insulated from ground and is connected to the ground by a
current transformer supplying a ground fault current device (Fig. 3.8-4).
The ground fault current circulates from the tank to the ground during an
internal fault and is monitored by the current device.
The protected zone, generally limited to the tank, can be extended to

cables if their sheath can be insulated from the ground in a similar way as
the transformer tank.
3.9. Breaker Failure Protection
If a fault in a protected zone cannot be cleared due to a C.B. failure, the

tripping command must be extended to the next C.B. or CB's. This remote
tripping must be fast enough to limit the damage caused by the fault. The
breaker failure protection B.F. can be realized by two different schemes
using as criterions (Fig. 3.9-1):
a) a pick-up signal of an overcurrent device and trip command (device

50/62 BF)
or
b) a C.B. image and trip command (device 62 BF).
The BF protection can be arranged with one stage only to trip the remote
C.B.'s or with two stages. In the second case the first stage is provided to
repeat the trip of the local C.B. and the second stage to trip the remote
C.B.'s.
3.9.1 B.F. Device 50/62 BF
The scheme with the overcurrent device and the trip command is mostly
used.
44
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It uses a trip signal and a current still circulating and not yet interrupted as
a criterion of a C.B. failure. At a false trip signal a maloperation of the B.F.
failure device is prohibited with the help of the current supervision.
During correct operation of the C.B. the fault is cleared after a time given
by:
- the operating time of the fault detecting device
- the C.B. operating time.
After the fault has been cleared, the overcurrent device drops out after the
reset time. If the overcurrent device does not drop out, this means that the
current still circulates due to a C.B. failure. In this case the fault current
must be interrupted by a next C.B. or by next C.B's tripped by the C.B.
failure protection after a delay set on the timer 62.
In order to keep a short operating time the reset time of the overcurrent
device must be as short as possible.
The CT's applied to supply the current device of the B.F. protection should
be located close to the protected C.B. The B.F. protection is provided for
the detection of currents circulating trough the failed circuit breaker. If the
applied CT's are located too far from the C.B., only the current supplied by
the generator is monitored during faults between the CT's and the C.B.
and can cause a B.F. device maloperation although the C.B. is already
open (Fig. 3.9-2).
The minimum operating time of the device 50/62 BF is given by the

operating time of the failed C.B. and by the reset time of the overcurrent
device at the standard version (Fig. 3.9-3). It can be e.g. 70 + 30 = 100
ms. The setting value of the operating time should be higher by a certain
margin. The operating time is to be set on the timer 62. Together with the
operating time of the fault protection (e.g. of 30 ms) and with the operating
time of the next C.B. (e.g.70 ms) the total fault clearing time would be 200
ms.
The modified B.F. device has a minimum operating time given by the ope-
rating time of the failed C.B. only.
The current setting must be selected such that the overcurrent device
does not drop out due to the damping of the fault current during the
operating time of the B.F. device.
A typical current setting is above the rated current value. Applying a value
below IN the range of the current supervision is extended down to the
service current values, but the risk of a maloperation is higher.
If the reset time of the overcurrent device is too long a modified B.F.
45
___________________________________________________________________
device can be used. Its overcurrent device 50 BF is normally blocked and

is released only if the timer 62 is timed out.
A disadvantage of the device 50/62 BF is that it is not applicable during

faults with no fault overcurrent such as
- overvoltage, overexcitation, frequency
- unbalanced load, ground faults on ungrounded systems
- loss-of-excitation, pole- slipping, reverse power and C.B. failures at
a normal operating current.
3.9.2 B.F. Device 62 BF
The protection scheme uses a trip signal and an auxiliary contact of the
C.B. for the detection of a C.B. failure (Fig. 3.9-1,4).
Advantage: - The device is independent of the current level.

- The device can also be used at unbalanced load,
loss-of-excitation, overvoltage, etc.
Disadvantage: - Increased risk of a maloperation by a false trip signal

during normal operation
- Maloperation during a fault and wrong operation of the
C.B auxiliary contact.
46
___________________________________________________________________
4. PROTECTION DEVICES FOR ABNORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS
4.1. Overload Protection
4.1.1 Introduction
The overload protection is a protection of the winding insulation against

overheating which could influence the insulation life.
Electrical machines such as generators, motors and transformers are

designed for a certain maximum ambient air temperature; mostly 40°C. At
load the winding temperature rises due to machine losses, especially to
copper winding losses. The winding and its cooling system are usually
designed such that the temperature rise is 60 K for oil transformers and
80 K for air cooled generator stators at rated current. This implies an
absolute continuous winding temperature of 100°C or 120°C. The
permitted maximum continuous temperature value depends on the
insulation class and is usually higher by 10°C; that means an absolute
temperature of 110°C or 130°C. Higher winding temperatures cause a
shorter insulation life and are therefore allowed for faults for a short time
only. During normal service overloads, the maximum temperature value of
110 or 130°C must not be exceeded.
For transformers with high through-fault currents a maximum short time

copper winding temperature of 250°C is allowed.
The insulation overheating can be caused by:

- increased winding current
- failure of the cooling system.
Various monitoring and protection devices supervise:

- cooling gas or oil temperature
- winding temperature rise
- winding temperature.
The following components are used for overload protection:

- Thermal sensors
- Thermal devices.
4.1.1.1. Thermal Sensors
The spot temperature the of insulation surface, the cooling gas or the oil is
monitored.
Advantage: Critical points are able to be supervised
Disadvantage:- Only the insulation temperature instead of the winding

temperature can be measured, due to the high voltage
47
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level.
- Delay of the temperature detection
4.1.1.2. Thermal Devices
Thermal devices are provided for the supervision of the average tem-
perature rise or of the average winding temperature. Because the direct
measurement of the winding temperature for high-voltage machines is not
possible, a thermal image of the winding temperature is used.
The thermal image usually operates with the assumption that the
temperature rise depends only on the winding current. If the current
suddenly changes, the winding temperature rise follows according to
several exponential functions for the temperature rise of the
- cooling medium against the ambient air
- winding against the cooling medium.
The transient functions of the variable temperature rise are specified by

the:
- end temperature rise at a certain current step
- thermal time constant.
E.g. a transformer oil temperature rise curve can be specified by the:

- temperature rise of 55 K at IN
- thermal time constant value between 120 and 210 min.
A winding temperature rise curve can be specified by the:
- temperature rise of 5 K at IN
- thermal time constant value between 5 and 20 min.
The thermal image enables the simulation of the instantaneous

temperature rise without direct temperature measurement and without any
additional delay.
The supervision of the winding temperature rise ensues independently of

the ambient air temperature and the cooling system.
The winding temperature including the ambient air temperature and

cooling intensity can be supervised using a thermal sensor in addition to
the thermal image.
Using two exponentional functions the variable winding temperature of an

oil cooled transformer loaded by an overcurrent i can be calculated as
follows: (Fig. 4.1-1).
é -
t
J oil
-
t
Jw
ù
J w (t ) = J 0 + êDJ Noil (1 - e ) + ( DJ Nw - DJ Noil )(1 - e ) ú(i 2 - 1)
êë úû
Equation 1.1
48
___________________________________________________________________
I
where i=
IN
Used symbols:
J w ( t) - variable winding temperature as a function of time
t - time
J0 - ambient air temperature equal to cold machine temperature
DJ Noil - temperature rise of the oil at the rated current IN
DJ Nw - temperature rise of the winding at the rated current IN
J oil , J w - thermal time constants of the oil and winding
I , IN - instantaneous and rated current
Monitoring the instantaneous oil temperature J oil by a thermal sensor
æ -
t
ö
J oil = J 0 + DJ Noil çç 1 - e J oil ÷÷ Equation 1.2
è ø
we get a simplified equation for the winding temperature
æ -
t
ö
J w (t ) = J oil + ( DJ Nw - DJ Noil )ç 1 - e ÷ (i 2 - 1)
Jw
Equation 1.3
è ø
J oil - instantaneous oil temperature
For a gas or water cooled generator or motor similar equations are valid.
Although under transient current conditions the winding temperature chan-

ges mainly in accordance with two exponential functions, most of the
thermal devices operate with only one exponential function. This function
must be as equivalent as possible to both of the above functions (refer to
Fig. 4.1-2). This equivalent exponential curve corresponds to the winding
temperature rise and has a certain time constant J with a value between
that of t oil and t w . The thermal image thus operates according to the
equation:
æ - ö
t
DJ w = DJ Nw ç 1 - e ÷ (i 2 - 1)
J
Equation 1.4
è ø
49
___________________________________________________________________
For an optimum value of " J " refer to Fig. 4.1-2. Often a suitable value is
J = 0.7 t oil .
4.1.1.3. Equations for Operation Curve of Thermal Devices
According to the equation for an instantaneous winding temperature rise

DJ a certain temperature rise is reached at various currents during
different times. We can consider an allowed maximum operating
temperature rise, e.g. of 70 K, as a such temperature rise. The locus of all
points with the allowed maximum temperature rise is a curve of the
thermal capability of the protected machine (Fig. 4.1-4). It is a pattern for
the characteristic of the applied thermal device which has to operate at
the same or shorter times.
Used symbols:
IN rated current
I current at overload
Im current at maximum temperature
J0 temperature at I = 0
JN steady-state temperature at IN
J steady-state temperature at I
Ji instantaneous temperature at time ti
Jm maximum temperature
ti instantaneous time
tm overload duration until J M is exceeded
J thermal time constant
K multiplying factor
The end value of the temperature rise is given by the current (Fig. 4.1-3):
DJ = J - J 0 = KI2 Equation 1.5
DJ N = J N - J 0 = KIN2 Equation 1.6
50
___________________________________________________________________
DJ I2
=
DJ N IN2
The instantaneous temperature:
æ - i ö
t
J i = J N + (J - J N )ç 1 - e J ÷
è ø
or
æ - i ö
t
J 1 = J N + ( DJ - D J N ) ç 1 - e J ÷ Equation 1.7
è ø
éæ I ö 2 ùæ - i ö
t
J 1 = J N + DJ N êç ÷ - 1úç 1 - e J ÷ Equation 1.8

êëè I N ø úûè ø
The device picks-up at
Ji = Jm t i = tm
éæ I ö 2 ù æ - mö
t
J m - J N = DJ N êç ÷ - 1úç 1 - e J ÷ Equation 1.9
êëè I N ø úûè ø
DJ m = J m - J N
According to the last and following equations the allowed maximum tem-
perature rise DJ m can be reached at various currents I during different
times tm:
Jm - J N 1 -
tm
= 1 - e J
DJ N æ I ö 2
ç ÷ -1
è IN ø
é ù
ê ú
tm ê Jm - J N 1 ú
- ln e = ln ê1 - 2 ú
t DJ N æ I ö
ê ç ÷ - 1ú
êë è IN ø úû
51
___________________________________________________________________
é ù
ê ú
ê ú
ê 1 ú
t m = t ln ê ú
ê1 - J m - J N 1 ú
ê DJ N æ I ö 2 ú
ê ç ÷ - 1ú
êë è IN ø ûú
Equation 1.10
The limits of the last equation are given by:
I
= ¥: t m = t ln1 = 0
IN
I = Im : tm = ¥
é ù
ê ú
ê ú
ê 1 ú
ln ê ú=¥
ê1 - J m - J N 1 ú
ê DJ N æ I ö 2 ú
ê ç ÷ - 1ú
êë è IN ø úû
Im J - JN
= 1+ m
IN DJ N
For the overload capability of the machine according to the equation 1.10
refer to Fig. 4.1-4.
The thermal time constant is
hG
t= [s; J/kg; W/cm2; cm2]
J cS
Equation 1.11
where:
h specific heat [ J/kg ]

G weight [ kg ]
Jc cooling factor [ W/cm2 ]
S cooling surface [ cm2 ]
52
___________________________________________________________________
4.1.2. Overload Device for Generators
4.1.2.1. Overload Device Characteristic
The tripping characteristic of this ABB device consists of two sections. For
small overcurrents a definite time curve and for high overcurrents an
inverse time characteristic is provided. The characteristic of the second
section is specified according to the overload requirement by the
American Standard ANSI C 50.13 for turbogenerators. The applied
characteristic is given by an approximate equation, which is suitable at
fast short time current changes. Using a series development of the
exponential function we obtain:
1 1 1
e- x = 1 - x + x2 - x3 +...
1! 2! 3!
1 1 2 1 3
1 - e- x = x - x + x -...
1! 2! 3!
Usig the equation 1.8 we get

éæ I ö 2 ù é t 1æt ö
2
1æt ö
3
ù
J m - J N = DJ N êç ÷ - 1ú ê i - ç i ÷ + ç i ÷ -...ú
êëè I N ø úû ë t 2 è t ø 6è t ø û
Approximately for t i < 0.1t it can be written:

éæ I ö 2 ù t
i
J m - J N @ DJ N êç ÷ - 1ú
êëè I N ø úû t
The tripping time tm is reached when
Ji = Jm ti = tm
Jm - J N 1
tm = t
DJ N æ I ö 2
ç ÷ -1
è IN ø
ti
This approximate equation is correct for small ratios << 1; it results in
t
shorter tripping times for overcurrents of longer duration than the exact
solution.
For a characteristic according to ANSI for turbogenerator stators the

following is valid:
Jm - JN
t = 41. 4
DJ N
53
___________________________________________________________________
The bottom of the definite time curve for stators is at 1.16 In and 120 s
(Fig. 4.1-5). A similar characteristic can be applied for turbogenerator
rotors.
4.1.2.2. Thermal Device for Universal Heating Curve
If the heating curve of the protected machine cannot be represented by a

suitable exponential function a universal heating curve can be used for
this thermal device of the REG system. The heating curve is to be devided
into 40 steps. By a temporal derivation of these steps an impulse
responce function is obtained, desired for setting values. For details refer
to the Instructions 1MDU02005.
4.1.3. Requirements of Standards
The maximum permissible continuous winding temperatures ( IEC 34-1,

VDE 0530 ) based on the insulation class B and on the ambient tempe-
rature of 40°C are as follows.
Generator stator air cooled winding:
temperature rise 80 K
absolute temperature 120°C
Transformer oil cooled winding
oil temperature rise 60 K

winding temperature 105°C
Short-time overload capability at full load conditions
Generator IEC ANSI
stator winding 37. 5 41. 4

t= t=
i2 - 1 i2 - 1
rotor winding - 31. 8
t= 2
i -1
According to the IEC / VDE standards the stator of generators up to

1200 MVA may be overloaded by 1.5 IN during 30 s.This value cor-
responds with the above formula of IEC.
Transformers:
maximum permissible copper winding

temperature at through-fault currents: 250°C
54
___________________________________________________________________
In order not to exceed the value of 250°C the duration of the through fault
current is to be limited to 2 s according to VDE and ANSI / IEEE.
4.1.4. Thermal Device Setting
The setting depends on the winding insulation class and on the winding
temperature at full load.
E.g. oil cooled transformers are often designed for the following tem-
peratures at rated current and at an ambient temperature of 40°C:
oil 95°C
winding 100°C
The corresponding temperature rise is:
oil 55 K
winding 60 K
In view of the allowed max. winding temperature of 105°C or 110°C,

possible settings of the thermal devices supervising the winding
temperature rise, would be as follows:
single stage devices 65 ... 70 K

double stage devices
1st stage (alarm) 65 ... 70 K
2nd stage (trip) 70 ... 75 K
The recommended settings for devices with the scale in percent:
single stage devices 110 .. 120 %

1st stage (alarm) 110 .. 120 %
2nd stage (trip) 115 .. 125 %
Possible settings of thermal devices supervising the absolute winding tem-

perature with the help of thermal sensors are:
single stage devices 105 .. 110°C

1st stage (alarm) 105 .. 110°C
2nd stage (trip) 110 .. 115°C
Similar values can be determined for generators and motors.
55
___________________________________________________________________
4.1.5. Thermal Time Constants
Generally the values of thermal time constants for generators and trans-
formers vary in a wide range depending on the machine design. Also the
values of the maximum temperature of the cooling medium and of the
winding can be different depending on the insulation class. Therefore it is
recommended to get those values from the machine manufacturer.
For oil transformers the range of usual thermal time constants is as

follows:
tw 5 ... 10 ... 20 min

t oil 120 ... 210 min
If the values of the individual thermal time constants are not known, the
approximate equivalent value can be determined from the measured
winding temperature rise curve. For this purpose the low-voltage
transformer side is usually shorted and the high-voltage side is supplied
by a voltage reduced approximately to the value of the impedance
voltage.
At certain time intervals the transformer supply is interrupted for a short

time for the winding resistance measurement. The winding temperature is
then calculated from the resistance rise.
If the transmission lines between the circuit breaker and the transformer
should also be protected, then it may be necessary to take their thermal
time constants into account.
Generally these are within the following range:

overhead lines 5 ..... 30 min
cables 15 ....100 min
4.2. Negative Sequence Current Protection
4.2.1. NPS Current Protection for Generators
The negative sequence current protection is a protection of the syn-

chronous machine rotor against dangerous overheating caused by un-
balanced stator currents. The negative sequence current device
monitoring stator currents is often called the NPS current device; that
means a negative phase sequence device.
The task of the NPS protection is chiefly the protection against

unbalanced load. If possible this protection should also operate during
asymmetrical faults not cleared by the fault protection in time.
56
___________________________________________________________________
The accuracy of the NPS current detection must be sufficient to avoid any
maloperation at symmetrical three-phase fault currents.
A negative sequence current component I2 circulating during a certain

time causes a rotor temperature rise according to a thermal function from
the initial value at rated conditions J 0 to a new end value J . Usually a
suitable exponential function is considered as equivalent to the actual
transient thermal function (Fig. 4.2-1). The allowed maximum temperature
rise must not be exceeded at:
- continuous current I2 ¥
- any short-time current I2.during time tm
The NPS current protection operates when the value DJ m is exceeded.
4.2.1.1. Dangerous Conditions for Synchronous Machines
For synchronous machines any kind of operation with asymmetrical stator

currents can be dangerous. This abnormal operation can be considered
as an operation with additional current components which increase the
machine losses. These additional stator current components increase los-
ses and temperature of the stator winding and especially of the rotor
surface temperature by induced eddy currents.
Asymmetrical stator currents can be split up in three symmetrical com-

ponents, the positive, negative and zero-sequence components.
The negative sequence current component produces a magnetic field rot-

ating in the opposite direction to the rotor with synchronous speed. In the
rotor there are induced currents doubling the rated frequency.
The zero sequence current component causes a magnetic field with a

fixed axis and a variable amplitude. The currents induced in the rotor have
the rated frequency.
Most generators are high-resistance grounded and the zero-sequence

current can flow to the ground only during a ground fault. In the ABB
generators the ground fault current is limited to 20 A so that it is less
dangerous for the machine. Nevertheless 0.5 s after any stator ground
fault occurs the generator is tripped.
Another source of a zero sequence current is a sudden line-to-generator

neutral point short circuit. In this case the zero-sequence component of
the generator current is very high, and this fault must be quickly cleared by
a fault protection. The probability of a such fault is very small at modern
construction arangements. Therefore it is expected that such faults are
detected by the differential protection and no special zero-sequence
current protection device is desired.
57
___________________________________________________________________
The negative sequence current results in an increased rotor temperature.

This is dangerous for the rotor surface and especially for some critical
spots of the rotor.Therefore a supervision of the negative-sequence
current is necessary; the NPS current device is to be applied, because
no other device is able to supervise the negative-sequence current.
4.2.1.2. Unbalanced Stator Current Conditions
A negative sequence current occurs due to:

- unbalanced load
- asymmetrical faults.
An unbalanced load can be caused by:

- single-phase loads of the supplied power system
(railways and furnaces)
- asymmetrical three-phase loads
- circuit breaker failures.
The negative-sequence current is mostly a small and almost continuous

current. Nevertheless sometimes the negative-sequence current is higher
and its changes are faster.
The negative-sequence currents circulating during asymmetrical faults are

high transient currents (refer to Table 2-VI). Those fault currents must be
quickly interrupted by a fault protection, so that the rotor temperature rise
is kept less dangerous. During circulating fault currents, the negative-
sequence current protection may pick up but it does not trip. Only a failure
of the fault protection might induce the negative-sequence current device
to trip.
Opening a circuit breaker under load or fault conditions can resolute in an

asymmetrical current if the current is not interrupted by all three poles.
Under load conditions the asymmetrical current caused by a breaker
failure is smaller than the rated current and cannot be detected by any
fault protection. The negative-sequence component of this current is very
dangerous for the rotor (Table 2-I). In this case a breaker failure device
initiated by the NPS current protection device has to operate and trip the
next circuit breakers.
ABB use two different NPS current devices. They operate either with a
definite-time characteristic or with an inverse-time characteristic.
The task of the definite-time NPS current device is the protection at

unabalanced load. The NPS current definite-time device trips with a
certain delay in order to avoid any trip at short-time NPS currents caused
58
___________________________________________________________________
by sudden unablanced load changes or by remote faults before they are

cleared by the fault protection. This device is not suitable to protect the
generator during remote faults.
The task of the inverse-time NPS device is the protection during un-
balanced load as well as during asymmetrical faults.
The negative phase sequence current devices (NPS current devices) eva-
luate the current I2 from the measurement of individual phase currents.
For selection of setting values the thermal rotor capability must be known,
specified by the machine manufacturer with the help of
- permitted continuous negative-sequence current i2 ¥(p.u.)
- permitted product (i2)2 t (p.u.;s)
The permitted negative sequence current value i2 ¥ for generators is

usually in the range between 5 and 10 %.
The allowed product value (i2)2 t is usualy in the range between 5 and
30 s.
For details of permissible values for machines of different types and

various ratings refer to Tables 4.2-II and III.
With respect to low setting values of i2 at large machines, only current

transformers with a sufficient accuracy are to be used.
ABB use the NPS definite-time devices in two stages for an alarm and a
trip (Fig. 4.2-2). The current setting of both stages is selected according to
the value i2 ; the delay of the alarm stage is usually approximately one half
of the trip stage delay. The alarm delay should avoid any false alarm at
short-time unbalanced currents. The trip delay should avoid any trip during
local and remote faults before they are cleared by a fault protection.
The inverse-time device is preferred for higher short-time NPS currents

under transient conditions caused by sudden unbalanced load changes
and faults. This device operates according to the setting value of the
product (i2)2 t. It enables a better protection at fast unbalanced load
changes and at asymmetrical faults, because its setting can be selected
according to the rotor thermal capacity.
4.2.1.4. Application of NPS Current Definite-Time Device
The NPS device with a definite time characteristic usually has to protect
the generator only at unbalanced load. The expected values of the current
i2 are between 0 and 57.7 %. The typical current setting is 0.1 IN for
medium rating machines. The delay for the trip stage must be
- longer than the operating time of all fast fault protection devices
detecting the same current level; e.g.
59
___________________________________________________________________
t >1s
- shorter than the allowed time tm. This time is given by the allowed
product
(i2)2 t and by the expected maximum current i2 = 0.577 IN .E.g. for
(i2)2 t = 10 s the delay is
i
2
2
t 10
tm £ = = 30s
i 2
2 0.577 2
A typical setting value for the alarm and the trip is 5 and 10 s.
4.2.1.5. Application of NPS Current Inverse-Time Device
The NPS inverse-time device operates according to a characteristic given

by the product (i2)2 t and by the current i2¥ . The REG 216 and 316 sys-
tems enable the application of this device according to the requirements
of the IEC 34-1, VDE 0530 and ANSI C50.13 standards.
Used symbols for the calculation:
JO inital temperature
J end temperature I2
Ji instantaneous temperature
Jm steady-state temperature at I2
I2¥ maximum steady-state admissible negative sequence current
I2 instanteneous negative sequence current
IN rated current
J thermal time constant
K,K1, K2 multiplication factors
ti time at instantaneous temperature J i
tm maximum time as well as operating time
tmin, tmax times limiting the activated range of the inverse-time

characteristic
60
___________________________________________________________________
Similarly as for the temperature rise caused by a symmetrial overload it

can be written for stator unbalanced currents:
DJ = J - J O = KI22 Equation 2.1
DJ m = J m - J O = KI22¥ Equation 2.2
æ - i ö
t
2
J i = J O + KI ç 1 - e J ÷
2 Equation 2.3
è ø
According to the condition that the same maximum temperature J m is
permitted for short time unbalanced loading as well as for steady-state un-
balanced loading, we calculate the time tm, at which the temperature is
exceeded:
ti = tm and Ji = Jm
æ -
tm
ö
J m = J o + KI22 ç 1 - e t ÷ Equation 2.4
è ø
and
J m = J O + KI22¥ Equation 2.5
Comparing the last equations we get

æ -
tm
ö
I2 ç 1 - e t ÷ = I22¥
2
è ø
2
æ I2 ö
ç ÷
-
tm
è I2 ¥ ø
e t
= 2
æ I2 ö
ç ÷ -1
è I2¥ ø
and later
2
æ I2 ö
ç ÷
è I 2¥ ø
t m = J ln 2 Equation 2.6
æ I2 ö
ç ÷ -1
è I 2¥ ø
An approximate calculation is possible using the series development of

the exponential function to the equation 2.3:
é ti 1 æ ti ö 2 1 æ ti ö 3 ù
2
J i = J 0 + KI ê - ç ÷ + ç ÷ -...ú
ët 2 è t ø 6èt ø
2
û
61
___________________________________________________________________
ti
For small ratios an approximate solution using only the two first terms of
J
the series can be used:
é ti 1 æ ti ö 2 ù
2
J i @ J 0 + KI ê - ç ÷ ú Equation 2.7
ët 2 è t ø û
2
For the maximum permitted temperature
Jm = Ji tm = ti
we get
é tm 1 æ tm ö 2 ù
2
J m @ J 0 + KI ê - ç ÷ ú Equation 2.8
ët 2è t ø û
2
J m = J 0 + KI22¥ Equation 2.5
Now we compare:
étm 1 æ tm ö 2 ù
KI ê - ç ÷ ú @ KI 22¥
2
Equation 2.9
êë t 2 è t ø úû
2
1
I 22 @ I 22¥ Equation 2.10
tm æ 1 tm ö
ç1 - ÷
J è 2 J ø
tm
For << 1 can be written approximately
J
t 12
I22 @ I22¥ + I2¥ Equation 2.11
tm 2
The operating time is

I22¥ t
tm @ Equation 2.12
1
I22 - I22¥
2
or
i22¥ t K
tm = = 2 1 2 Equation 2.13
1
i22 - i22¥ i2 - K 2
2
62
___________________________________________________________________
where
I2 I2¥
i2 = i2 ¥ =
IN IN
1
K 1 = i22¥ t K2 = i2 ¥ Equation 2.14
2
The REG system device "NPS-Invers" of ABB operates with curves given
by the equation 2.13; for one of its curves refer to Fig. 4.2-3.
The factor K1 is to be set according to the permitted product value of

(i2)2t. Without the limitation by the "tmax" the operating time tm would by
1
infinitely long at the current i2 = K2 = i2¥ (refer to Equation 2.13).
2
The time "tmax" is the maximum permitted duration of the circulating

current i2¥ This time is to be calculated from the permitted product value
(i2)2 t:
i
2
2
t
tmax = 2
i 2¥
At usual values for medium rating machines it is:
(i2)2 t = 10 s
i2 = 0.1
10
tmax = = 1000 s
0,1 2
The time "tmin" must be:
- longer than the operating time of all fast fault protection devices
detecting the same current level; e.g.
tmin > 1 s
- shorter than the allowed time tm .
If the device has to protect the generator only at unbalanced load, the
maximum value of i2 which should be considered is 0.577. From the value
(i2)2 t = 10 the time tmin is
63
___________________________________________________________________
10
t min £ = 30s
0.577 2
A possible setting with respect to both conditions is e.g. tmin = 10 s. If the

device has to protect the generator not only at unbalanced load but also
during asymmetrical faults, then the maximum value of i2, to be
considered, is e.g. 3.33 during a generator line-to-line fault (refer to
Table III). For the value (i2)2 t = 10 s the time tmin is
10
t min £ = 0.90s
3.33 2
The possible setting which can be realized with respect to both conditions
is
tmin = 1 s (minimum possible setting value)
tm
At high currents I2 the second term in the bracket of the equation
2J
t
2.10 is quite small and may be neglected because m << 1; then we get a
2t
second approximate solution:
t
I22 = I22¥ Equation 2.15
tm
I J i J
2¥
2
2¥
2
K1
tm = 2 = 2 = Equation 2.16
I 2 i 2 i 22
This second solution presupposes no heat dissipation and we get a very

simple formula for the rotor thermal capability
i
2
2
t m = i 2 ¥ J
2
Equation 2.17
Some NPS current devices (not involved in the REG216/316 system) ope-
rate according to this simple equation.
The value of the thermal time constant J depends on the rotor surface
and is much larger than the thermal time constant of the winding.
For instance at
K1 = 30 s , i2 = 0.1
the thermal time constant is
64
___________________________________________________________________
K1 30
J = = = 3000 s or 50 min
i
2¥
2
0.01
4.2.1.6. Level of Symmetrical Components at Various Conditions
The symmetrical components of a current system of the phases A,B,C

can be calculated according to the following formula:
1
I1 = ( IA + a IB + a2IC )
3
1
I2 = ( IA + a2IB + a IC )
3
1
I0 = ( IA + IB + IC )
3
where "a" denotes a phase shift of 120°. The calculation of symmetrical

components for various conditions follows.
1. Symmetrical Current System
Referring to Fig. 4.2-4 we get
IB = a 2 IA I C = a IA
and
1
I1 = ( IA + a 3 I A + a 3 I A ) = IA
3
1
I2 = ( IA + a 4 IA + a 2 IA ) = 0
3
1
I0 = ( IA + a2 IA + a IA) = 0
3
because
1 + a + a2 = 0
a3 = 1 a4 = a
2. Interruption of 1 Phase
An interruption of e.g. phase B is followed by a change of current phases

according to Fig. 4.2-5. At an ungrounded system it can be written
IA + IB + IC = 0
65
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For IB = 0 : IC = -IA
and the symmetrical components are
1
I1 = (IA + 0 - a2 IA)
3
1
I2 = (IA + 0 - a IA)
3
1
I0 = (IA + 0 - IA)
3
Because 1 - a2 = 3 and 1- a = 3
we get
1
I1 = IA
3
1
I2 = IA
3
I0 = 0
The negative-sequence current is therefore 0.577 IA or 57.7 % of IA.This

means that the negative-sequence component reaches 57.7 % of the
phase current at the full unbalance of phase currents caused by the load.
3. Reversed Phase Sequence
The supply of a symmetrical load by a negative-sequence voltage causes

a reversed phase current sequence.
According to Fig. 4.2-6 we get
IB = a IA IC = a 2 IA
and
1
I1 = (IA + a2 IA + a4 IA) = 0
3
1
I2 = (IA + a3 IA + a3 IA) = IA
3
1
I0 = (IA + a IA + a2 IA) = 0
3
66
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This shows that a 100 % negative-sequence current can be obtained only

by a negative sequence voltage.
4. H.V. Line-to-Line Fault
Referring to Fig. 2-10
IA + IB + IC = 0
I B = - IA IC = - IA
and
1 1 1 1
I1 = (IA - a IA - a2 IA) = IA
3 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
I2 = (IA - a2 IA - a IA) = IA
3 2 2 2
1 1 1
I0 = (IA - IA - IA) = 0
3 2 2
5. H.V. Line-to-Ground Fault
Referring to Fig. 2-10
IB = 0 IC = - IA
and
1 1
I1 = (IA - a2 IA) = IA
3 3
1 1
I2 = (IA - a IA) = IA
3 3
1
I0 = (IA - IA) = 0
3
6. Testing by Single-Phase Supply
IB = IC = 0
1 1 1
I1 = IA I2 =IA I0 = IA
3 3 3
With respect to the equation for I2 the pick-up value is three times higher
than the setting value.
4.2.2. NPS Protection for Motors
The NPS current protection is also required for induction motors. The
67
___________________________________________________________________
negative sequence current causes a braking torque producing higher

currents and an increased rotor temperature. At motors the current
unbalance can be caused by:
- Network voltage asymmetry
- Circuit breaker failures
- Motor faults.
The characteristic of the NPS motor protection device may be again a

definite-time one or an inverse-time one.
4.2.3. Checking of the NPS Current Device
Sometimes a test by an injected current is required.
At standstill of a generator it is possible to supply only one phase input of

the applied device by an injected current. The pick-up value is then three-
times higher than the setting value.
For the test a generator operating into a symmetrical short circuit arranged
by a link or by a grounding isolator can also be used. After shorting 1 or 2
current inputs the NPS current device operates, if the current value is
sufficient. Never should an asymmetrical short-circuit of the generator be
used for the tests because the danger for the rotor would be too high.
4.3. Voltage Protection
4.3.1. Overvoltage Protection
The overvoltage protection is the protection of electrical machines and

current circuits against damage caused by overvoltage and overheating.
Particularly protected are:
- windings of electrical machines and current circuits against dangerous
electrical stress of the insulation
- laminated iron of electrical machines against overheating caused
by increased iron losses
- stator conductors situated near the air gap of large machines against
overheating from eddy currents due to the high intensity of the radial
magnetic field.
The overvoltage protection is considered as a back-up protection for the

A.V.R., which normally keeps the generator voltage within a certain toler-
ance range.
The overvoltage protection is normally provided with two tripping stages.

The first stage is intended against smaller and longer lasting overvoltages.
The second stage is foreseen against higher and short-time overvoltages.
Both stages have a definite time operating characteristic. A delay is
68
___________________________________________________________________
necessary to avoid any maloperation at short- time overvoltages caused

by:
- sudden load changes
- asymmetrical short-circuits
- switching overvoltages.
The generators are designed for a continuous operation at a rated voltage

with a tolerance of +/- 5 %, sometimes of +/- 7.5 % or +/- 10 %. With
respect to a voltage device accuracy of +/- 5 % the typical setting value
of the
1st stage is higher by 5 % than the highest continuous service voltage
(Fig. 4.3-1):
1st stage: 1.10 VN for VN +/- 5 %

1.13 VN for VN +/- 7.5 % delay 5 s
1.15 VN for VN +/- 10 %
2nd stage: 1.30 VN delay 0.1 s
4.3.2. Undervoltage Protection
An undervoltage is no danger for the generator itself. Therefore an under-

voltage protection is not normally applied for generators. An exception is
the case of a power system with an unusually low short-circuit current
level. An undervoltage caused by underexcitation could result in an
instability of the power system. In this case an undervoltage protection is
to be used additionally to the "loss-of-excitation" protection.
The undervoltage protection is important for motors because the torque

sinks with the voltage squared. Due to the reduced torque the motor
driving capability and especially starting-up is made difficult. Therefore the
undervoltage protection has usually two stages. The first stage is applied
for blocking the motor energization and the second stage for tripping.
4.4. Overexcitation Protection
The overexcitation protection is applied for generators and transformers

against overheating caused by the increased intensity of the magnetic
field. This protection is especially required for modern transformers.
An overexcitation can occur e.g. :
- at rated frequency and overvoltage
- at rated voltage and underfrequency.
An overexcitation occurs e.g. at start-up or running down due to a failure

of the control system.
Overheating due to higher magnetic intensity in electrical machines is
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caused by increased iron losses and by increased additional losses from

eddy currents.
Overexcitation of transformers is not only dangerous due to increased iron

losses and increased eddy currents, it increases also the magnetizing cur-
rent to a value which could cause maloperation of the differential device.
The measuring quantity of the overexcitation device is the ratio of V/f

which corresponds with the magnetic flux (at a neglected voltage drop on
the leakage reactance).
A short delay is recommended to avoid maloperation at sudden load

changes such as load shedding, etc.
As a reference for setting values the diagram specified for Westinghouse

machines (Fig. 4.4-1), the ANSI / IEEE Standard C37.106 or the VDE
Standard 05320 may be applied.
For a protection device operating with a definite-time characteristic the

typical settings are:
1.10 VN/fN 5s
This characteristic is suitable for a longer overexcitation. For a short-time

overexcitation an inverse-time characteristic enables a better
protection.The short-time overexcitation capability is different for various
machines. For settings of a device using an inverse-time characteristic the
required machine capability data must be supplied by the machine
manufacturer.
4.5. Frequency Protection
The frequency protection protects rotating machines against vibration and

overheating.
Frequencies deviating below or above the rated frequency can cause

dangerous vibration of the generator and its driving machine. A consider-
ably increased frequency can be dangerous due to large centrifugal
forces. In this case the frequency protection operates as a back-up
protection for the speed regulator.
A higher frequency causes overheating of the magnetic circuits due to in-

creased iron losses.
When selecting the settings the allowed continuous frequency tolerance of

+/- 2 % for generators is to be considered. For allowed values of the
prime-mover its manufacturer must be consulted.
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4.6. Loss-of-Excitation Protection
The loss-of-excitation protection is applied to protect synchronous

machines, generators and motors operating in parallel with generators of
the power system against dangerous conditions caused by under-
excitation.
The field current of synchronous machines connected to a power system

must be of a level which enables the supply of a required value of MW
and MVAR to the power system (as a generator) or to be supplied by a
required value of MW and MVAR ( as a motor). If the field current is too
low the required value of MVAR cannot be supplied, the inductive current
of the stator is too low and could even get capacitive. Although a
decreased field current cannot cause any stator or rotor overload at
values of xd above100 % the temperature of stator end plates, of stator-
end laminated iron and sometimes also of stator winding ends rises above
the value during rated conditions. This is caused by an increased local
magnetic flux leakage. Depending on the short-circuit current level of the
power system its voltage could be decreased due to the underexcitation.
The operation of an underexcited machine can result in instability and in
the loss of synchronism. If the underexcited machine decreases the
voltage of the power system, the instability of other machines may be
initiated.
An underexcitation can be caused by:

- wrong setting of the A.V.R.
- failure of the A.V.R.
- voltage rise of the power system.
Dangerous conditions for an underexcited synchronous machine are as

follows:
Synchronous running with underexcitation:

- Increased heating of stator end plates,
stator end iron lamination and
stator winding ends
- Instability.
Asynchronous running after loss of synchronism:

- Rotor surface overheating
- Increased rotor mechanical stress
- Field winding overvoltages
(only at excitation systems with
semiconductors).
With respect to the more dangerous consequences of "loss-of-

sychronism" the protection is provided specially for this case. The usually
called "loss-of-excitation protection" is designed and set for the detection
of the majority of the service points at which the synchronism is getting
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lost. The protection device operates by monitoring the angle between two
phasors V and E being the load angle @ (Fig. 4.6-3).
The conditions of an underexcited machine during synchronous operation

are monitored by the A.V.R. A monitoring of the field current by an under-
current device would not be efficient, because the field current varies
between 100 and 250 % or more during operation.
A decreased field current of a generator operating in isolation causes a

decreased voltage. The power factor is given by the load and does not
depend on the field current. An "underexcitation" such as known for
machines operating in parallel with other synchronous machines of the
power system is not possible and the "loss-of-excitation protection" is not
required.
Stability Conditions
The active power of a three-phase synchronous machine under steady-

state conditions is given per phase by the equation
VE
P= sin @ (Fig. 4.6-5)
Xd
V - stator phase voltage

E - phase E.M.F. induced into the stator winding by the field current If
@ - load angle between phasors V and E
The equation for the power P shows that the load angle @ rises if at the
constant value of P the phasor V or E sinks. However the active power
P is zero if:
- the phasor V is zero (short-circuit)
- the phasor E is zero (loss-of-excitation)
- the load angle @ is zero (no-load condition)
Acc. to the above equation the maximum value of P is reached at

@ = 90°. If this value is exceeded, the active power sinks and the machine
is getting unstable. If the load angle is still higher than 90°, the
synchronism is lost, the speed is higher and asynchronous. The generator
then operates as an asynchronous generator running with negative slip.
The rotating magnetic field of the stator induces voltages into conducting
circuits of the rotor. Their frequency is low and is given by the slip. The
induced voltages produce additional field winding currents and rotor eddy
currents. The output power of the prime-mover is transferred to the power
system by the asynchronous power of the machine. The speed of a
turbogenerator is higher and constant if the excitation is zero, i.e. the loss-
of-excitation mode. If the field current is decreased only, than the rotor
magnetic field causes speed swings. Similar swings are caused by salient
poles of salient-pole generators at zero excitation.
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Performance of Synchronous Machines
Generally a synchronous machine operating to a bus of a large power

system can
- supply or receive an active power as generator or motor
- supply an inductive or capacitive power as an overexcited or an
underexcited machine.
The active power can be changed by the power of the prime-mover and
the reactive power by the field current (Fig. 4.6-1, 4.6-2). After the
synchronous machine has been synchronized and connected to the power
system the stator current is still zero at a field current if = 1.
a) Loading by reactive power
Increasing the field current the stator inductive current rises together
with the reactive power. Decreasing the field current the stator
capacitive current rises. At the field current if = 0 the stator capacitive
current for a turbogenerator, directly connected to a power system
according to the phasor diagram on Fig. 4.6-1, is:
V
Xd I = V or I=
Xd
1
In the p.u. system i =
xd
1
At the usual value xd = 2 the current is i = = 0.5
2
and the maximum capacitive power at the constant voltage q = 0.5.
b) Loading by active power
Increasing the power of the prime mover the active power rises (ge-
nerator mode). Decreasing the power of the prime mover the active
power sinks (motor mode). At an increased active power the load angle
rises; the stator current is getting capacitive if the field current is not
increased too. Under stable conditions the load angle can rise up to a
value of 90° (Fig. 4.6-4,5.6). At a load angle @ > 90° the active power
of the generator starts to sink and the operation is getting unstable and
the synchronism is lost.The limit of 90° can be reached only at a
capacitive current (Fig. 4.6-2).
With respect to the danger of damage caused by a loss of synchronism

the "loss-of-excitation protection" is applied to trip the generator. This
protection operates when the load angle value @ = 90° is exceeded. The
locus of all points with @ = 90° is a circle with a diameter given by the
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synchronous reactance Xd (Fig. 4.6-7). This circle is the limit of the

steady-state stability for generators directly connected to a power system.
The load angle @ = 90° can be reached acc.to Fig. 4.6-6 at various
values of V and E, or at V = 0 as well as at E = 0. The case with V =
0 means a short-circuit on generator terminals; the case with E = 0
means " loss-of-excitation". Both these points are on the axis X of the
diagram on Fig. 4.6-7.
The stability of a generator-transformer unit depends on the load angle

between the phasors of the power system voltage VS and E. The locus
of the steady-state stability is then a circle given by the reactances Xd
and XT of the transformer (Fig. 4.6-9).
The protection device uses a modified stability curve for generators as

well as for generator transformer units. Its operating curve (Fig. 4.6-10)
1 '
has the upper point shifted down by X d to avoid any maloperation
2
during
- short-circuits
- out-of-step swings after a longer fault clearing.
The protection operates with a delay of 2 s to avoid any maloperation at

transient conditions such as a sudden voltage change, stable swings, etc.
An integrator is used to enable a trip at stable swings at which the pro-

tection device picks up, drops out, picks up again, etc.(Fig. 4.6-11).
For setting values for turbogenerators the reactance values Xd and Xd'
must be known. For salient-pole generators the point with the maximum
active power is not identical with the point at @ = 90°; nevertheless the
device is often set for the detection of 90° and the reactances Xq and
Xd' are used for settings acc. to Fig. 4.6-3.
A typical application of the device is the detection of load angles of about

90° (Fig. 4.6-13). At the reactance value Xd' = 0 the operating charac-
teristic would be:
- a circle touching the origin of the R-X diagram
- a straight line in the power diagram.
At a real value of Xd' or XT both characteristics are circles in the R-X

diagram.
The REG216/316 system enables the shifting of the axis of the circles and
thus to set another load angle limit, e.g. 70° (Fig. 4.6-14).
The salient poles of generators produce a component of the active power

which is independent of the field current. Therefore the stability limit char-
acteristic deviates from the characteristic of turbogenerators. The
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diagrams in Fig. 4.6-15,16 show voltage, current and power at various

load angles and should help to better understand the stability limit
characteristics in Fig. 4.6-17,18. For transient values at loss-of-excitation
refer to Fig. 4.6-19,20,21.
4.7. Pole Slipping Protection
Pole slipping protection has been developed to protect the generator rotor
from disturbances causing dynamic instability. Such abnormal operating
conditions are intiated by sudden load changes which cause a loss of
synchronisms (unstable swings).
Loss of synchronism is an onerous condition for the rotor, since it results

in the following:
- Overheating of the rotor surface by induced eddy currents
- Increased mechanical stress
- Possible overvoltages across the excitation winding.
The overvoltages mentioned above occur at synchronous machines

equipped with semiconductor excitation systems.
An active power of a synchronous machine is given by the formula
VE
P = VI cos j = = sin @ (per phase)
Xd
In accordance with that the load angle @ must rise if the voltage drops at a
constant power P. Whilst fast changes of E.M.S. "E" are restricted by the
time constant of eddy currents circulating in the rotor body, the voltage
can be changed suddenly by a short-circuit. Under steady-state stability
conditions the load angle can rise only up to 90°.
When the value 90° is exceeded, the synchronism is lost and the machine
begins to slip.
A well known example of such conditions is the supply of a power system

by a generator through two lines connected in parallel. During a
symmetrical short-circuit of one of the lines the voltage drops to zero and
the transfer of the active as well of the reactive power is interrupted.
Because the power of the prime mover cannot be transferred to the power
system anymore, the turbine-generator accelerates. The load angle rises
up to the instant when the fault is cleared by the line protection. At a fast
clearing the load angle rise is not so high and the stability is still not yet
lost. After several stable and damped swings the load angle is constant
again.
The load angle rise depends on the actual turbine power, on the time
constant J A and on the operating time of the line C.B.
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The load angle can be calculated acc. to the following formula:
180 w N P 2
J = JN + t [° ; 1/s ; s ; MW ; MVA ; s]
p 2t A PN
Example:
P
M N = 314 1/s ; J A = 10 s ; = 0.8 ; @ N = 36°
PN
t - fault duration @ N - rated load angle
ts 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25

@ ° 38 43 52 65 81
After "out-of-step" the stator reactance is reduced to the value of the tran-
sient reactance X'd due to the currents induced into the rotor. The current
then varies between a minimum and a maximum value depending on the
voltage varying between the difference and the sum of voltage phasors of
the protected generator and of the power system. The impedance given
by the generator voltage and current varies between a minimum and a
maximum value too (Fig. 4.7-3, 4.7-4). If the load angle of a generator
rises the service point given by the impedance phasor moves from the
right side (generator mode) to the left side (motor mode) crossing the X-
axis close to the origin. This crossing is considered as a slip. The number
of permitted slips must be specified by the generator manufacturer.
After a longer fault clearing time when the load angle is greater than 90° it
may happen that the load angle rises more and more when the recovery
voltage again enables a power transfer through the healthy line.
If the load angle @ > 90° the loss of the stability is to be expected; if the
rating of the generator is equal or higher than 500 MW or if it is especially
required by the generator manufacturer, a "pole slipping protection" is to
be applied.
Pole Slipping Conditions
Under "pole slipping" conditions the generator active power supplied to

the system varies between positive and negative values causing heavy
mechanical surges.
Under these conditions the rotor of the protected generator is no longer

synchronous with the power system (nG ¹ nS). The simplified behaviour
of the generator and of the system can be represented by their
electromotive forces EG, ES and the reactances. The generator
operates with the synchronous, transient and subtransient reactance
according to the duration of the current-swings. With respect to the usual
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duration of unstable rotor swings in the range up to 1s, the generator can
be represented under these conditions by the transient reactance.
The generator current can be calculated from the instantaneous voltage

difference (R.M.S.) between EG, ES and from the total reactance Xt, which
usually consists of the generator transient reactance Xd', of the generator
transformer restance XT and of the transient system reactance XS.
The phasors EG and ES rotate with slightly different angular velocities.

They can also be considered such that the phasor EG does not move
and that the other phasor ES rotates with a slip angular velocity (Fig. 4.7-
2).The voltage difference between EG and ES varies between a minimum
and a maximum value, as does the current. The impedance measured at
the generator terminals varies between a corresponding maximum and
minimum value:
EG - ES EG + ES
Imin = Imax =
Xt Xt
V V
Zmax = Zmin =
Imin Imax
The measured impedance locus is a circle if EG and ES (R.M.S.) are

constant. The location of the circle is given by the location of the VT's
used for the impedance measurement. The origin of the X-R diagram is
the point where the voltage is zero and the point of the VT's location. For
the following considerations, the usual location of the VT's at the
generator terminals is foreseen.
Let us assume that the electromotive forces of the generator EG and of

the system ES are of the same amplitude. The circulating current (R.M.S.)
then varies between zero and a certain maximum value given by the
double E.M.F. and by the total transient reactance. At the current zero,
the measured impedance is infinite and the load angle is zero. The
impedance point on the R-X diagram moves to the X-axis for a rising load
angle (Fig. 4.7-3). On crossing the X-axis, the load angle reaches 180°.
The next point when the measured impedance is infinite occurs at a load
angle of 360°.
If the E.M.F.'s EG and ES are not equal (EG ¹ ES), the impedance
locus is a circle. The current varies between a minimum and a maximum
value as well as the impedance given by the terminal voltage and the
current.
Generally, three extreme cases are possible:
EG
a) =1
ES
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circle diameter = ¥, the impedance locus is a straight line

b) EG = 0
full loss of excitation, the impedance locus is a point; its location is

given by Xd'. This point is inside the circle of the "loss-of-excitation"
device.
c) ES = 0
full loss of system excitation, the impedance locus is a point; its location is
given by XT + XS .
On the R-X diagram (Fig. 4.7-3) the generator mode is drawn on the right
side of the X-axis and the motor mode on the left side. The upper
quadrants are used for the overexcited mode with the ratio
EG
>1
ES
and the lower quadrants for the underexcited mode with the ratio
EG
<1
ES
E.g. at the ratio
EG
=1
ES
with the rising active power of a generator the measured impedance point
moves to the X-axis and the load angle @ also rises. Crossing the X-axis,
the angle @ = 180°.
Considering, for example the circle where
EG
<1
ES
the upper point on the X-axis corresponds with the highest voltage dif-
ference of EG and ES out of phase and to the highest current at @ =
180°. The lowest point corresponds with the smallest voltage difference of
EG and ES in phase and to the smallest current at @ = 0.
If, for unstable swings of a generator the load angle rises, then the X-axis
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is crossed by the impedance point path anti-clockwise in the

neighborhood of the origin. In this case, nG > nS.
If, for an out-of-step motor, the impedance point crosses the X-axis from
left to right near to the origin, the nM < nS and the locus path is clockwise.
From the maximum and minimum values of the measured impedance the
diameter D of the impedance locus circle can be calculated:
X d' + X T + X S
D=
é ES ùé EG ù
ê + 1ú ê - 1ú
ë EG ûë E S û
and for
EG = 0 : D = 0
ES = 0 : D=0
EG = ES : D = ¥
According to Fig. 4.7-3,5,6 for unstable swings caused by loss of

synchronism, the end-point of the measured impedance phasor crosses
the straight line given by Xd', XT and XS at each slip.
As already mentioned, the impedance end phasor points on the straight

line Xd' + XT + XS are points where @ = 180°. If a circuit breaker interrupts
the current at @ = 180° then it must withstand the highest possible
recovery voltage. Therefore it is preferable to trip e.g. at load angle 270°.
This means a setting value of 90°.
The reactance characteristic is used to define two protection zones of the

generator and of the system. The usual setting of the reactance
characteristic enables the protection to distinguish between the slips of an
overexcited (EG > ES) and of an underexcited (EG < ES) synchronous
machine and to permit different durations of the out-of-step operation in
these two cases. For this purpose, the pole slipping device has 2 stages
No. I and No. II with individual counters for the number of slips.
Thase stages initiate an alarm or trip as follows:
stage No. I slips at EG < ES
stage No II slips at EG > ES

or
slips at EG > ES
and
slips at EG < ES.
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4.8. Reverse Power Protection
The reverse power device is the protection of the

- prime mover against motoring
- generator and prime mover against overspeed.
This device is to be used for the following kinds of prime movers:

- Steam turbines
- Gas turbines
- Hydraulic turbines, type Francis and Kaplan
- Diesel motors.
Motoring is dangerous under various conditions such as overtemperature

on steam turbines, overtemperature and possibility of fuel explosion on
gas turbines, mechanical stress on Diesel motors etc.
The reverse power occurs at

- closed input valves of the prime mover
- faulted prime mover or its supply
- failured control system
- shut down without tripping the C.B. or an inadvertent trip by the
control system or by hand
- changed power system frequency.
Aside from the protection at various motoring conditions the reverse

power device is also suitable to restrict the danger of overspeed.
The motoring power of a generator driving a prime mover with closed

input valves is given by the total losses of the generator-prime mover unit.
4.8.1. Motoring
The power setting value of the reverse power device is to be selected

such that the device picks up at closed input valves of the prime mover.
That pick-up value is very low for steam turbines, e.g. 1 %. In order to
guarantee a trip, the power setting value is usually selected according to
one half of the pick-up value at closed input valves (Fig. 4.8-1).
The motoring conditions cause a danger coming not suddenly but rising
slowly with time. E.g. the temperature of a steam turbine running at no-
load rises according to a relatively long time constant. Therefore the
reverse power device operates with a delay of e.g. 20 s for steam
turbines. This delay is necessary to avoid any maloperation at sudden
load swings, especially after just synchronizing a generator or if it operates
with a small load.
During repeated power swings the applied delay disables the tripping of
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the circuit breaker, because the protection device picks-up and drops-out
again before a trip can be released by the timer. In this case an additional
integrating timer is to be used (Fig.4.8-2). Due to its longer reset time the
trip is guaranteed also during swings. The integrator is used especially for
steam turbines, because their motoring power is small.
For ABB gas turbines two different power setting values are specified, e.g.
1.5 % and 8 %.
4.8.2. Overspeed
After disconnection of a loaded generator, it is accelerated by the prime-

mover; the speed rises .Subsequently the speed is decreased to the
normal value by the speed regulator. For the case of a faulted speed
regulator a back-up protection is required.
In order to restrict the danger of overspeed:

- the circuit breaker is immediately tripped only during dangerous faults
such as short-circuits and some ground faults
- the circuit breaker can be tripped during less dangerous faults after the
prime mover power has been reduced to zero with the help of the control
system and the trip command has been initiated by a reverse or low for-
ward power device
- before any shut down the C.B. is to be tripped by a reverse power device
after the prime mover power has been reduced to zero.
The reverse power protection applied against overspeed should be fast.

Only a short delay of 0.5 or 1 s is used to avoid any maloperation. With
respect to a required high sensitive setting of the protection device for
steam turbines, causing an increased danger of maloperation, the tripping
is initiated by an auxiliary contact, after all inlet valves of the steam turbine
have been closed. This interlocking has the task to avoid any inadvertent
tripping of the loaded generator.
4.8.3. Conditions on Voltage and Current Transformers
Most steam turbines have such small losses that the power device
sensitivity is required to be very high. The measurement of such very low
power values may be affected by phase-angle displacements of the
supplying voltage and current transformers, specially at lower power
factors. It is therefore recommended to connect the reverse power device
only to protective or measuring transformers of a sufficient accuracy and
of a very small phase-angle displacement.
4.9. Inadvertent Energization Protection
The inadvertent energization protection is applied to protect the prime

mover-generator unit against:
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- overcurrent and overtemperature

- winding dynamic stress
- mechanical stress of rotor and bearings.
This protection is also known as standstill or dead machine protection.

Caused by a failure of the control system an inadvertent energization can
happen at:
- standstill
- start-up
- running without or with voltage.
A sudden energization at standstill is most dangerous. It causes a high cir-

culating current and the highest dynamic as well as mechanical stress.
The danger of damage is the highest for bearings at low oil pressure.
Therefore a fast trip is required.
The circulating current is given at a standstill energization by the generator

reactance Xd'', the transformer reactance XT, the power system
reactance XS and by an active current component supplying generator
and prime-mover mechanical losses. Monitoring of the stator current or of
the power can be applied for the protection. Naturally the applied
protection device must be stable during normal operation as well as during
external faults and transients.
With respect to the applied delays of the generator overcurrent protection

and of the reverse power protection, these devices cannot be considered
as suitable for an inadvertent energization protection, and another
protection device is to be applied. There are two different protection
devices applied, operating either with overcurrent or power.
The overcurrent method uses an instantaneous overcurrent device

released by an undervoltage device. A maloperation of the overcurrent
method at nearby short-circuits is prohibited by a pick-up delay of the
undervoltage device.
The power method uses an instantaneous power device detecting a

power received to supply the desired reactive power and the active power
given by total losses. A power setting should be higher than the setting of
the reverse power device, e.g. for 10 % at steam and 15 % for gas
turbines. A suitable phase angle setting is around 60°.
4.10. Voltage Unbalance Protection
The voltage unbalance protection is used to detect any loss of an AC

voltage desired for the supply of some protection devices which could
maloperate due to a loss of an AC voltage; it is the minimum impedance
device, the minimum reactance device, the reverse power device and the
undervoltage device if applied.
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The voltage unbalance device operates by monitoring the difference bet-

ween the voltages of two sets of VT's. A detected voltage difference can
be caused by:
- a blown fuse or open miniature C.B. on the L.V. side
- VT faults
- a blown fuse on the M.V. side.
Features of the voltage difference monitoring:

- Restricted influence of the M.V. level fluctuation (at continuous as well as
short-time conditions)
- Phase-selective detection.
If this protection device operates, it has to block the above mentioned

protection devices in order to avoid maloperation.
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5. Protection Current Transformers
Current transformers applied for the protection must be able to transfer the
primary current to the secondary side also at high fault currents with a
sufficient accuracy.
The current transformers, which must not saturate under given fault
conditions, are to be designed such that a certain maximum flux density,
allowed with respect to the maximum permitted current error, usually being
1.8 Vs/m2, will be not exceeded. The CT's are to be designed according to
the overcurrent factor n, given by the ratio of the maximum magnetic flux to
the flux at the rated current. This factor n is calculated by the ac fault
current component i (p.u.) and by the factor k corresponding to the dc fault
current component:
n=ki
The factor n depends on
- the frequency
- the AC fault current component i (p.u.)
- the time constants of the faulted ciircuit t and of the CT secondary side
circuit t2
- the time t.
The current transformer is to be specified according to the highest fault

current. On the generator side this is the 3phase short-circuit current and on
the main transformer HV side the line-to-ground fault current (refer to Table
2-VI). The fault current comprises an ac and a dc component. The ac
component is to be calculated by transformer reactances, generator sub-
transient and inverse reactances. At the calculation of fault currents used
for the specification of CT's the damping of the dc component is considered
but no damping of the ac component. For examples of the ac component at
H.V. faults on a generator-transformer unit refer to Table 2-VI. The dc
component depends on the instant of the fault. It is approximately zero
when the fault occures at the peak of the voltage sinus wave and it is the
highest for faults at a voltage equal to zero. The damping of the dc
component is involved in the calculation by means of the time constant for
the dc component t.
The fault current during a short-circuit on a certain unit supplied by an ac

voltage can be calculated from the equation
diF
V 2 sin ( M t + = ) = R iF + L
dt
where
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V phase voltage of the supplying power system (RMS)

iF instantaneous fault current
w angular velocity
t time
a angle of the voltage curve at the time t = 0.
R, L resistance and inductance of the faulted unit (transformer,
generator)
The fault current given by the solution of the above equation is:
-t
V 2
iF = K e J + sin ( w t + a - j
Z
where Z is the impedance given by R and L and t is the time constant of the
faulted unit (generator, transformer or both). The factor K is to be
determined for the current iF at the time zero. If the current iF is zero at the
instant of the fault we get
V 2
iF (t=0) = K + sin ( a - j = 0
Z
-V 2
K = sin ( a- j
Z
and the fault current is
-t
V 2
iF = ( sin ( w t + a - j - e J sin ( a- j )
Z
The dc component depends on the angle (a-j). This component is zero at

the angle a = j. The fault current is then:
V 2
iF = sin M t
Z
or using the RMS value of the fault current IF
V
IF =
Z
iF = IF 2 sin M t
A fault current limited especially by a resistor, as is the case of a ground

fault on a resistance grounded transformer, is given by the same equation.
The full dc component is developed at the angle (a-j) = -90°. It may be e.g.
at a = 0 and j = 90°. In this case the fault current is:
85
___________________________________________________________________
-t
V 2
iF = ( sin ( M t - 90 ° ) - e J sin (-90 ° ) )
Z
-t
V 2
iF = ( eJ
- cos w t )
Z
or using the RMS value of the ac component of the fault current
-t
iF = IF 2 ( e J - cos M t )
5.1. Current Transformers with Closed Magnetic Core
Fault Current without a DC Component
The desired overcurrent factor n is to be calculated from the function of the

magnetizing current, given by the difference of the CT primary and
secondary ampere turns. The applied angles are a = j. For the calculation
the following basic equations can be used:
i1 = iF
i1 = IF 2 sin ( M t)
di 2 di1
0 = (R2 + RB ) i 2 + L 2 -M
dt dt
where
i1, i2 CT primary and secondary instantaneous currents
R2 CT secondary winding resistance
RB burden resistance (the burden by static protection systems is

resistive)
L2 CT total secondary winding inductance
M CT mutual inductance
At first we have to calculate the CT secondary current; applying the time

constant of the CT secondary circuit:
L2
J2 =
R2 + R B
86
___________________________________________________________________
di1
= IF 2 M cos M t
dt
di 2 1 M
0 = + i2 - IF 2 M cos M t
dt J2 L2
-t t
i2 J MM J J22 1
= e 2 (K + e 2 ( cos M t + M sin M t) )
IF 2 L2 1+ ( MJ )
2
2
J2
At the instant t = 0 the secondary current is also zero. The constant K is

MM -J
2
K =
L 2 1+ ( MJ ) 2
2
and the current i 2
-t
i2 MM -J J
= 2
(e 2 - ( cos M t + MJ sin M t) )
IF 2 L2 1+ ( MJ ) 2 2
2
With the help of the equation for CT ampere turns
N1i1 = N1i1exc + N2i2
where N1 and N2 are numbers of primary and secondary winding turns, we

get the equation for the instantaneous magnetizing (excitation) current
i1exc:
i1exc 1 N2
= (i1 - i2 )
IF 2 IF 2 N1
Neglecting the secondary winding leakage inductance L2L, we get

L2 = L2exc and therefore the ratio of the secondary self-inductance L2 to
the mutual inductance M is
L2 N2
=
M N1
The value of L2exc can be calculated from the CT magnetizing current. If

this current is still unknown, its value can be estimated according to the
current error allowed by the used CT class. E.g. at the class 5P20 the
allowed magnetizing current is up to 5% at 20 I1N.
For the instantaneous magnetizing current i1exc we get :
87
___________________________________________________________________
-t
i1exc 1 J
= ( sin M t + MJ (e 2 - cos M t ) )
IF 2 1+ ( MJ 2 2
2
Applying the factor k corresponding to the influence of the dc component of

the magnetizing current
-t
J
k = e 2 - cos M t
we get a simplified formula for the instantaneous value of the magnetizing

current at a fault if MJ2 >> 1:
-t
i1exc 1 J 1
( e 2 - cos M t) = k
IF 2 MJ MJ
2 2
The magnetizing current at the rated load is
N1 N2
E2N ( ) (R 2 + RB )I2N ( )
E1N N2 N1 1
I1excN = = = @ I1N
X 1exc N1 2 M L 2exc MJ
X 2exc ) 2
N2
when we neglect the magnetizing current in the equation for CT ampere-

turns for the calculation of the ratio of the primary and secondary currents
and put N1 I1N ( N2 I2N. The currents I1N and I2N are rated currents.
For the p.u. value of the magnetizing current at rated load (refer to
Fig.3.2-7)
I 1
i excN = 1excN (
I1N MJ
2
is also the CT current error of the CT primary rated current I1N under the
assumption that the CT turn-ratio is correct. According to this formula the
time constant of the secondary circuit J2 must be equal or higher than 318
ms at magnetizing currents up to 1% and at 50 Hz. It means that in this
case the product MJ2 >> 100. According to the class 5P20 the allowed
magnetizing current is 1% at the rated current and at the rated load.
The p.u. value of the ac component of the fault current IF:

I
i = F
I1N
88
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The instantaneous magnetizing current at a fault and based on the

amplitude of the magnetizing current at the rated load i1excN:
-t
i1exc IF J MJ
= (e 2 - cos M t ) 2
= ki
I1excN 2 MJ I1N
2
The ratio of the instantaneous magnetizing current at a fault to the peak

value of the magnetizing current at the rated load causes an increased
magnetic intensity, important for the design of the CT magnetic core. This
ratio is called overcurrent factor n, used for the specification of protection
CT's. This ratio:
i1exc
n = = ki
I1excN 2
According to the equation with factor k as a function of the time, the factor k
reaches values up to 2 in the worst case with a large time constant
J2 . Therefore the CT's are to be specified at least with the factor k = 2 ,
also in cases with no dc component of the fault current. This is e.g. the case
of ground fault currents on a resistance grounded power system.
Fault Current with a DC Component
The CT primary current i1 comprising a full dc component is:

-t
i1 = IF 2 (e J - cos M t)
Similarly as at fault currents without any dc components we get now:
-t -t
i2 -M t2 -t
t2 M (wt )2 t2
=
t - t2
( et - e ) + 2
)e +
IF 2 L2 L2 1 + (wt )2
2
2
M (wt )
+ 2
L 2 1 + (wt )2
( w1t sin w t - cos w t )
2 2
and for MJ2 >> 1:
-t
i2 -M J -t
J J 1
( ( 2 eJ - e 2 + cos M t - sin M t )
IF 2 L2 J - J J - J MJ
2 2 2
The instantaneous magnetizing (excitation) current given by the difference

of primary and secondary ampere turns:
89
___________________________________________________________________
-t -t
i1exc J -t J J ( MJ ) 2 J
= eJ - 2
e 2 - 2
e 2 -
IF 2 J- J J- J 1+ ( MJ ) 2
2 2 2
( MJ 2
1
- 2
( sin M t - cos M t ) - cos M t
1+ ( MJ ) 2 MJ
2 2
The simplified formula for this current at (MJ2)2 >>1:

-t
J -t J
i1exc
( (e J - e 2 -
1
sin M t
IF 2 J- J MJ 2
2
The approximate peak value of the magnetizing current at each negative
peak value of the sinus wave and at (Mt)2 >> 1:
-t
i1exc 1 MJJ -t J
( ( 2
(e J - e 2 ) + 1 )
IF 2 MJ J- J
2 2
The p.u.value of the magnetizing current can be calculated according to the

Fig.3.2-5
E1n 1
I1excN = ( I1N
X 1exc MJ
2
-t
i1exc I1excN MJJ -t J
( ( 2
(e J - e 2 ) + 1 )
IF 2 I1N J- J
2
-t
i1exc MJJ -t J IF
@ ( 2
(e J - e 2 ) + 1 )i where is i =
I1excN 2 J- J I1N
2
With the factor k the overcurrent factor n is:

-t
MJJ -t J i1exc
k = 2 e J - e 2 + 1 n = = ki
J -J I1excN 2
2
For the factor k of CT's with a large time constant J2 >> J we get a
simplified formula
-t
k ( wJ (1 - e J ) + 1
and for the time t = ¥
k ( wJ + 1
90
___________________________________________________________________
For the comparison of the curves for the factor k according to above three
formulas see Fig. 5.1-1.
For curves of the desired factor k as a function of time t refer to Fig. 5.1-2.
These curves have a peak value
t
J 2 -t
t
km = M J ( ) + 1
J
2
at the time
J J2 J
tm = ln ( )
J -J J
2 2
For the curves of the factor km as a function of the time constant J2 at given
time constants J see Fig.5.2-3.
Often very large and expensive CT's are specified as a result of above
equations. Therefore often a certain saturation is allowed or the time
without saturation reduced in order to reduce the factor n (refer to
Fig. 5.1-1).
According to above equations the time constant J2 depends on the CT no-

load current (magnetizing current). For the class 5P20 the allowed limits are
1 and 5% for the current error at I1N and 20 I1N. Nevertheless the actual
values are usually smaller. Especielly at CT's for the generator current the
actual no-load currents and corresponding error values are very low, e.g.
0.002 due to the high number of ampere turns. The current error of a CT for
10 000 A may therefore be on the level of 0.2%. The value of J2 is then
much higher e.g. 1.6s at 50 Hz or more. In such a case it is possible to
calculate the factor n according to approximate formulas as considered in
Chapter 3.2.4.2.
Estimation of CT Data for Steady-State and Transient Conditions
For each project it is necessary temporarily to specify the protection CT's

with respect to steady-state and transient conditions. Therefore
approximate values of the magnetic core cross section and of the
resistance R2 are desired. The value of the core cross section determines
whether the CT can be realized and built in; at CT's for generators this
value should not exceed 100 cm2. The value of the resistance R2 is
required in order to check the transient performance of the CT's at high fault
currents.
For the development of the desired formulas for the factor n the following
equations can be used. The electromotive force E2 desired for the cal-
culation of the CT
91
___________________________________________________________________
E2 = 4.44 f N2 B A [V; Hz; Vs/m2;m2]
or
E2 = 4.44 f N2 B A 10-4 [V; Hz; Vs/m2;cm2]
The cross section A of the magnetic core with the sides a
R2 g s
A = a2 = ( wire length )2 = ( )2 cm 2 ; m ; W; Sm / mm 2 ; mm 2
4 x1,25 xN2 5 N2
The factor 1.25 is a safety margin, because the actual length of one turn is
longer than the size of the magnetic core. The value s is the wire cross
section.
Applying the specific copper conductance C = 50 S m/mm2 we get:
A = 10 6 ( R 2 s )2
N2
and using the typical values of the wire cross section we get
for I2N = 1 A and s = 0.6 mm2: A = 0.36 x10 6 ( R 2 )2

N2
I2N = 5 A and s = 3 mm2: A = 9 x10 6 ( R 2 )2

N2
The protection CT's have to transfer the primary current to the secondary
side with a certain accuracy up to the highest current specified by the
overcurrent factor. With respect to the required accuracy the magnetic flux
density should not exceed the value 1.8 Vs/m2. Therefore we take
B = 1.8 Vs/m2
and we get
E 2 = 4.44 f N2 1.8 x10 6 ( R2 s )2 10 -4

N2
2
(R 2 s)
E 2 ( 800 f = n (R 2I2N + V2N )
N2
The equation for the resistance R2
s2
(R 2 2 f - R 2 (n I2N - n V2N = 0
N2
The solution of this equation gives

92
___________________________________________________________________
800 f s 2 n V2N
n I1N
+ n I1N )2 +
2 2 N2
R2 =
800 f
s2
N2
1. Equations for f = 50 Hz
1.1 Secondary rated current I2N = 1 A and s = 0.6 mm2
n = optional value :
n
+ n) 2
+
14400
n V2N
2 2 N2
R2 =
14400
N2
A = 0.36 x10 6 ( R 2 )2
N2
n = 20 :
288
10 + 100 + 103 V2N
N2
R2 = A = as above
360
103
N2
1.2 Secondary rated current I2N = 5 A and s = 3 mm2
360
2.5 n + 6.25 n 2 + 10 3 n V2N
N2
R2 = A = 9 x10 6 ( R 2 )2
360 N2
10 3
N2
n = 20 :
7200
50 + 2500 + V2N
N2
R2 = A = as above
360 3
10
N2
2. Equations for f = 60 Hz
2.1 Secondary rated current I2N = 1 A and s = 0.6 mm2
93
___________________________________________________________________
n
+ ( n )2 +
17.28
10 3 n V2N
2 2 N2
R2 = A = 0.36 x10 6 ( R 2 )2
17280 N2
N2
n = 20 :
345.6
10 + 100 + 103 V2N
N2
R2 = A = as above
17280
N2
2.2 Secondary rated current I2N = 5 A and s = 3 mm2
432
2.5 n + 6.25 n 2 + 10 3 n V2N
N2 R
R2 = A = 9 x10 6 2 2
432 N
10 3 2
N2
n = 20 :
8640
50 + 2500 + 10 3 V2N
N2
R2 = A = as above
432
10 3
N2
With the help of the above formulas the secondary winding resistance,
losses and the magnetic core cross section were calculated as example for
the following CT's with four various current ratioes.
CT ......../5 A 50 Hz 5P20 30 VA
window, bar or bushing-type with only one primary turn (N1 = 1).
item CT ratio R2 R2 20 E2 DPCu2 A

No. [A] [W] I2N [V] [W] [cm2]
[V]
1 100/5 0.084475 8.4475 128.45 2.11 160
2 1000/5 0.28747 28.747 148.75 7.18 18.6
3 10000/5 1.1402 114.02 234.02 28.50 2.9
4 50000/5 3.6829 368.29 488.29 92.07 1.2
Remarks to
item No. 1: - Small losses
94
___________________________________________________________________
- Magnetic core cross section too great;

possible help: - reduction of the rated output (especially
important for cable summation CT's provided
for a sensitive ground fault protection)
- prefer a wound-type CT, which has
a higher number of ampere turns
item No. 2 : - Losses and size of the magnetic core are suitable
- If a much higher rated output is required,
- prefer a H.V. CT with 2 or 4 primary winding
turns
item No. 3: Acceptable losses and a small size of the magnetic core.
Using an increased magnetic core a much higher rated output
can be reached. For details refer to the next table.
item No.4 : High losses and a very small size of the magnetic core. Such
very high losses must be excepted. Try to restrict the number
of proposed CT's and apply them for various protection,
measurement and control circuits.
CT's with the ratio 1000/5 A, number of primary turns N1 = 1, number of

ampere-turns N1 I1N = 1000 A at various rated outputs:
SN V2N 20 V2N R2 R220I2N E2 DPCu2 A

[VA] [V] [V] [W] [V] [V] [W] [cm2]
15 3 60 0.2124 21.24 81.24 5.3 10.15
30 6 120 0.2875 28.75 148.75 7.1 18.60
60 12 240 0.3940 39.40 279.40 9.8 34.90
100 20 400 0.5000 50.00 450.00 12.5 56.25
According to the above table a large magnetic core would be necessary for
ratings 60 and 100 VA. Using a higher number of ampere turns the core
cross section would be smaller. For the influence of several primary winding
turns refer to the next table.
CT's with the ratio 1000/5 A , at various numbers of primary turns N1 . The
rated output is 100 VA, the rated output voltage V2N = 20 V, 20 V2N = 400
V.
N1 N1 I1N N2 R2 R220I2N E2 DPCu2 A

[W] [V] [V] [W] [cm 2]
1 1000 200 0.5000 50.00 450.00 12.5 56.25
2 2000 400 0.7245 72.45 472.45 18.1 29.5
4 4000 800 1.0604 106.04 506.04 26.5 15.8
It is obvious that the rising number of ampere-turns N1 I1N enables to

decrease the cross section of the magnetic core "A". Unfortunately only
some types of H.V. current transformers have the possibility of several
primary turns.
95
___________________________________________________________________
Sometimes it is necessary to check the CT phase displacement. Using the

Fig. 3.2-5 it is possible for small values of the phase error to write
1
@ ( arc tg rad; 1 / s; s
MJ
2
and
360 1 10 943
d¢ = 60 1000 = min; 1 / s; ms
2p wJ J
2 2
E.g. application of a time constant t2 = 60 ms means a phase displacement

of 182 min.
Note
The calculation of the resistance R2 and of the magnetic core cross section
A described above is to be applied for preliminary values only, desired at
the begin of the project. The final values are to be asked from the CT
manufacturer.
5.2. Linear Current Transformers
Sometimes an application of linear current transformers with an air-gap is

required in order to improve the transfer capability of the ac current
component under transient conditions and thus to reduce the CT size.
The transfer of the less important dc component to the secondary side is

reduced.
The features:
Advantage: - much smaller cross section of the magnetic core

- smaller copper losses
Disadvantage: - higher magnetizing current.
- secondary winding leakage inductance not negligible
Requirement: The same time constant of the secondary circuits of §
both CT's for the differential protection if possible.
Remark: The application of linear CT's is not favourable for a
small number of ampere turns.
For linear CT's the same basic equations as those developed for CT's with
closed magnetic core may be used, only the leakage inductance of the
secondary winding is not negligable.
At given overcurrent conditions the desired overcurrent factor n for linear

current transformers is much smaller than this factor for current
transformers with a closed magnetic core. The linear CT's operate with a
reduced magnetizing inductance. Due to the reduced magnetizing
96
___________________________________________________________________
inductance the core cross section sinks. Naturally the reduced magnetizing
inductance causes an increased magnetizing current. Depending on the
reduction of the magnetizing inductance the cross section of a linear
magnetic core may be e.g. 3 up to 5 times smaller than the cross section of
a closed magnetic core.
At CT's for differential protection the increased magnetizing current must be

kept so small, that a possible difference between magnetizing currents of
both CT's supplying this protection does not cause a maloperation
especially at external faults. Therefore a maximum magnetizing current of
3% at CT's for differential protection should not be exceeded. For other
protection funtions supplied by one CT only the magnetizing current is less
important; it is possible to accept its values of up to 5 or 6% and thus to
reach a reduction of the magnetic core up e.g. up to 5-times.
Determination of Desired Data for Linear CT's
At the begin it is necessary to select the allowed current error. At protection

CT's with a closed magnetic core, the allowed current error is e.g. 1% for
the class 5P20 in the range of normal service currents; this current error
may rise up to the value of 5% at the current 20 I1N. In contrast the
selected current error of a linear CT is a constant value e.g. of 5% in the
total range of currents for steady-state as well as transient conditions,
specified by the overcurrent factor n, it means in the total range of CT linear
current transfer capability.
Therefore the allowed current error should be selected according to the

application of the CT. For the CT's used for overcurrent or distance
protection current errors up to 5 or 6% may be allowed. In contrast to the
protection operating with a difference of currents such as the differential
protection lower values of the allowed current, e.g. 3% should be preferred.
With the help of the selected current error, given by the magnetizing current
I1excN according to Fig. 3.2-5, the CT secondary circuit time constant t2
can be calculated:
1 I1N 1 N1 I1N 1
J ( or J ( or J (
2 M I1excN 2 M N1 I1excN 2 M i excN
E.g. at a selected current error of 0.01 (iexcN = 0.01 or 1%) and w = 314 1/s
the time constant t2 = 0.318 s or 318 ms. For several examples refer to the
following table.
Magnetizing currents at various values of the time constant t2 (at 50Hz):
t2 [ms] 60 90 120 150 180 318.3 3 183 31 830

iexcN[%] 5.3 3.54 2.6 2.12 1.77 1 0.1 0.01
97
___________________________________________________________________
According to the above recommendation of allowed current errors the CT's

for a differential protection can be specified by a time constant t2 = 120 ms
and the CT's for other protection functions by t2 = 60 ms.
The required air-gap g is given by the ratio of magnetizing ampere-turns

(peak) n N1I1excN Ö2 to the magnetizing force H or to the flux density B:
n N1 I1excN 2 n N1 I1excN 2
g = = 10 -6 m; A; Vs / m 2
H 0.8 B
or
n N1 I1excN 2
g = 10 -3 mm; A; Vs / m 2
0.8 B
According to the above formulas the lengt of the air-gap is proportional to

the number of ampere turns. The air-gap is quite short at low values of
Ampere-turns and it is long at high values of ampere turns.
The air-gap length at various ampere turns:
I1N [ A ] 500 1000 10 000 20 000 40 000

g [ mm ] 0.5 1.0 5.0 10 20
It is evident, that short air-gaps are difficult to be adjusted. The applied air-
gap or gaps cause an irregular distribution of the magnetic in the magnetic
core. The result is a magnetic flux leakage and the value of the secondary
leakage inductance L2L is not longer negligible. In order to keep the
magnetic flux leakage as low as possible, the length of the air gap must be
much smaller than the size of the magnetic core cross section. Therefore it
is sometimes necessary to split the calculated value of the gap into several
short air-gaps. This is especially the case for CT's for very high currents, as
the above table shows.
Specification
The formulas developed for CT's with a closed magnetic core and
negligeable secondary winding leakage inductance cannot be used for
linear CT's. Due to the applied air-gap the secondary leakage inductance is
not negligible. The formula for the calculation of the inner E.M.F. E2 as the
sum of V2N and R2 I2N is not longer correct. The calculation of the
secondary winding leakage inductance L2L is not simple and should be
made by the CT manufacturer. Therefore the cross section of the magnetic
core cannot be calculated and consequently the value of the secondary
winding resistance cannot be estimated.
Without any knowledge of L2L and R2 it is better to specify the transient

performance of the required linear CT's by:
98
___________________________________________________________________
- the actual burden (given by connection leads and by the protection

system)
- the maximum fault current (ac component in RMS value)
- the time constant of the faulted circuit
- the percentage of the dc component which should be considered
- the desired time constant of the CT secondary circuit and its tolerance.
Naturally the secondary circuits of both CT's for a differential protection

must be specified by the same values of the time constant.
Conclusion
Although the linear CT has important advantages, its application should be

restricted with respect to disadvantages and possible maloperations of the
differential protection caused by differencies between both CT's.
99
___________________________________________________________________
6. FIGURES AND TABLES
Fig. 1-1 Generator protection.

Single-line diagram acc. to ANSI standard
IF - interturn fault
100
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 1-2 Generator protection.

Single-line diagram acc. to IEC standard
101
___________________________________________________________________
Item Protection Device ANSI

device
number
1 Overcurrent 50;51
51 V
2 Overload 49
3 Unbalanced load 46
4 Voltage protection 59; 60

27
5 Overexcitation 24
6 Frequency 81
7 Loss-of-excitation 40
8 Pole slipping 78
9 Standstill 67
10 Reverse power 32
11 Differential 87
12 Buchholz or SPR*) 63
13 Minimum impedance 21
14 Interturn fault -
15 Stator ground fault 59 GN

64 GN
16 Rotor ground fault 64 F
17 Transformer ground fault 51 NT

87 NT
18 Breaker Failure 51/62 BF
*) SPR = sudden pressure relay
Table 1-I Generator and transformer protection devices
102
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 1-3 Possible kinds of faults on a generator stator winding

a) Short-circuit
b) Interturn fault
c) Ground fault
103
___________________________________________________________________
Rating [MVA] <5 5-20 20-50 50-200 200-500 500>
I>/U< 51V x x x x x x
D I> (overall) 87GT x x x (x) x
DIG > 87G x x x x
Z< 21 (x) x x
Interturn fault - x x
95% Stator 59GN (x) x x x x

ground fault
100% Stator 64GN x
ground fault
Rotor 64F (x) x x x x
ground fault
DJstator > 49 (x) x x
DJrotor > 49F (x) x x
I2 > def. time 46 (x) x

inverse x x
U> 59 x x x x
U< 27 x
Æ> def. time 24 (x) x

inverse x
f> 81 x x x
f<
Loss-of-excit. 40 x x x
Pole slipping - (x) x
-P> 32 x x x x
Inadvertent 50/27 (x) x

energization or 67
Table 1-II Generator protection

x = typical application
(x) = non-typical application
104
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Rating £ 0.5 0.5 ¸ 1 1¸2 2¸5 5 ¸ 10 10 ¸ 100 > 100

[MVA]
Fuses · - - - - - -
Buchholz - - · · · · ·
Overcurrent - · · · · · ·
I>
Overcurrent - - · - - · ·
I >>
Overload - - - - - · ·
DJ >
Differential - - - · · · ·
current DI >
Ground fault - - - - · · ·
IE >
Restricted - - - - - · ·
ground fault
DIE
Overexcitation - - - - - - ·
Æ>
Overvoltage *) - - - - - · ·
U>
Table 1-III Transformer protection

*) only at tap-changer transformers
105
___________________________________________________________________
i 10
9
8
7
6
5
i sc
4
3
2
i
N 1
t
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-10
HEST 905 011 FL
Fig. 2-1 Transformer-Kurzschlussstrom

uo = umax und xT = 0,1
106
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Fig. 2-2 Generator-short-circuit current
107
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 2-3 Field discharge circuit breaker
108
___________________________________________________________________
di
U = Uarc + Ri + = L
dt
current suppression:
di U - U + Ri
= arc
dt L
U
at the instant t = 0 is i0 = and
R
di U
- = arc or by the time constant T
dt L
di U
- = arc
dt RT
the instantaneous current
Uarc - Tt Uarc - U
I= e -
R R
the arcing time
Uarc
t arc = T ln
Uarc - U
Fig. 2-4 Current suppression by dc circuit breaker
109
___________________________________________________________________
Ea Ua2
Ea Ic Ua1 Ua2
Ua1
Uc1 Uc Ub Ub1
Uc1 Ub1 Ub2 Uc2
Uc2 Ub2
Uc Ub I
b
Ic2
a Ic1 Ic2 Ic
Ic1
Ia1 Ia2
c b Ib1
Ib
Ib1 Ib2
Ib2
Fig. 2-5 Line-to-line fault

symmetrical components
110
___________________________________________________________________
Ua1
Uc2 Ub2
Ua = 0 Ib = Ic = 0
Ia
Ua2 Ua0 Uc0

Uc Ub Uc1 Ub1 Ub0
Ua1 Ua2
Ua0
Uc2 Uc1 Ub1 Ub2
Uc0
Uc Ub Ub0
a Ic1 Ib2
Ia0
Ia1 Ia2 Ib0
c b Ic0
Ib1 Ic2
Ic2 Ic1
Ic0 Ia
Ib0 Ia1 Ia2 Ia0

Ib2 Ib1
Fig. 2-6 Line-to-ground fault

symmetrical components at x1 = x2 = x0
111
___________________________________________________________________
Ua1
Uc2 Ub2
Uc Ua = 0 Ub
Ib = Ic = 0 Ia
Uc1 Ub1 Ua2
Ua1 Ua2
Uc Ub
Uc2 Ub2
Uc1 Ub1
a Ic1 Ib2
Ia0
Ia1 Ia2 Ib0
c b Ic0
Ib1 Ic2
Ic2 Ic1
Ic0 Ia
Ib0 Ia1 Ia2 Ia0

Ib2 Ib1
Fig. 2-7 Line-to-ground fault

symmetrical components at x1 = x2 and x0 = 0
112
___________________________________________________________________
T
1 2
input output
T
1 2
input output
Fig. 2-8 Asymmetrical short-circuit of transformers

with the connection group Yd and Dd
113
___________________________________________________________________
T1
input
output
T2
Fig. 2-9 Line-to-ground fault of 2 transformers connected in parallel

The neutral point of the one transformer is solidly grounded,
the neutral point of the other transformer is ungrounded.
114
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 2-10 Asymmetrical short-circuit currents of the

generator - generator transformer unit
115
___________________________________________________________________
a Ia = I b = Ic E
X1
c b
a Ö3E
Ib = Ic
X1 + X2
X2
Ub = Uc E
c b X1 + X2
2X2
Ea E
X1 + X2
3E
Ia
a X1 + X2 + X0
Eb = Ec Ö3E
X1 + X2 + X0
2X2 + X0
c b Ebc Ö3E
X1 + X2 + X0
a Ib = Ic Ö3E
X1(X2 + X0)+ X2X0
3X2
E
I0 X1(X2 + X0)+ X2X0
c b
3X2 X0
Ea E
X1(X2 + X0)+ X2X0
Table 2-I Formulas for the calculation of short-circuit

currents and voltages
116
___________________________________________________________________
I1 I2 I0 E1 E2 E0
E
0 0 E 0 0
X1
E -E X2 X2
0 E E 0
X1 + X2 X1 + X2 X1 + X2 X1 + X2
E E E X2 + X0 -X2 - X0
E E E
X1 + X2 + X0 X1 + X2 + X0 X1 + X2 + X0 X1 + X2 + X0 X1 + X2 + X0 X1 + X2 + X0
X2 + X0 - X0 - X2 X2 X0 X2 X0 X2 X0
E E E E E E
X1(X2 + X0)+ X2X0 X1(X2 + X0)+ X2X0 X1(X2 + X0)+ X2X0 X1(X2 + X0)+ X2X0 X1(X2 + X0)+ X2X0 X1(X2 + X0)+ X2X0
Table 2-II Formulas for symmetrical components at short-circuits
117
___________________________________________________________________
phase subtransient transient steady-state

current current current
A A 6.7 4.0 1.25
B B 6.7 4.0 1.25

C
C 6.7 4.0 1.25
A
A 0.0 0.0 0.0
C B B 5.8 4.3 2.0
C 5.8 4.3 2.0
A A 7.5 6.0 3.33
B 0.0 0.0 0.0
C B C 0.0 0.0 0.0

A
A 0.0 0.0 0.0
B 7.2 4.9 1.8

C B
C 7.2 4.9 1.8
Table 2-III Generator short-circuit currents
x''d = 0.15 x'd = 0.25 xd = 2.0 x2 = 0.15 xo = 0.1
i
fmax = 2.5
i
fo
118
___________________________________________________________________
1 Ö3 3 Ö x2T+ xT xT0+x2T0
xT0 Ö3
xT 2 xT 2 xT + xT0 x2T+2 xT xT0
1.0 10 8.66 2.5 8.69
0.1 10 8.66 10 10
Table 2-IV Transformer short-circuit currents

at connection groups Yy, Dy and Ydy
xT = 0.1
119
___________________________________________________________________
1 Ö3
xT 2 xT
10 8.66
10 8.66
Table 2-V Transformer short-circuit currents

connection group Yd and Dd
xT = 0.1
120
___________________________________________________________________
subtransient current steady-state current
generator transformer generator transformer
1 2.5
x''d + xT 4.0 4.0 1.19 1.19
xd + xT
Ö3 4.0 2.5 x Ö 3
3.46 2.13 1.84
x''d + x2 + 2xT xd + x2 + 2xT
2.0 *
3 2.5 x 3
2.89 5.0 1.77 3.06
x''d + x2 + 3xT xd + x2 + 3xT
Table 2-VI H.V. side short-circuit currents of a generator-generator transformer

unit
i
x''d = 0.15, x2 = 0.15, xd = 2.0, xT = 0.1, fmax = 2.5
i
fo
* one generator phase is loaded by i = 4.0 and the other by i = 2.0
121
___________________________________________________________________
Min through fault

current
2.0
2
I Possible current
IN setting range
1.5
1.3
Max service
1 IN current
0 t
Fig 3.1-1 Generator overcurrent protection
122
___________________________________________________________________
0 t
0 t
Start
signal
0 t
Delay Trip
0 t
Fig. 3.1-2 Generator current, voltage and signals of the protection device 51 V.
123
___________________________________________________________________
50 43
Min. HV fault current
I
15 Possible setting range of
IN
the instantaneous stage
10 Max through fault current or

10 max. inrush current
8.66
Min through fault current
Possible setting range of

the definte time stage
1.5
1.3
Max service current
1 IN
0 t
Fig. 3.1-3 Overcurrent protection of a generator transformer
124
___________________________________________________________________
sN (MVA) 0.5 1 5 10 50
I0 peak
16 14 10 10 9
IN
sN (MVA) 0.5 ... 1 1.67 ... 10 > 10
t (c) 8 ... 10 10 ... 60 60 ... 3600
t (s) 0.16 ... 0.2 0.2 ... 1.2 1.2 ... 72
Fig. 3.1-4 Transformer magnetizing inrush current

possible inrush current values, duration between the full
and half peak value in cycles and seconds
125
___________________________________________________________________
I
IN Ö2
1.5 IN Ö2
IN Ö2
0 ts t
Fig. 3.1-5 Suitable settings at a certain level of the inrush current.
126
___________________________________________________________________
G
Power system T AT
1000 MVA 100 MVA 10 MVA
10 % 10 % 10 %
~
50T 50.1 51.2
51T 51.1
866 866 IATN

º 86.6 ITN
150 50T
150 IATN º 15 ITN 83 83 IATN
100 IATN º 8.3 ITN
º 10 ITN
15 51T 50.1
15 IATN
º 1.5 ITN
10
ITN
º 10 IATN
7.8
7.8 IATN
2.0 51.1 51.2

2 IATN
1.0
IATN
Minimum fault current

Rated current
Current setting
Fig 3.1-6 Transformer overcurrent protection.

Fault current level and current settings
127
___________________________________________________________________
I>> I>
50 T 51 T
t
I>> I>
50 51.1
t1
AT
G ~ I>
51.2
t2
50 T
150 IATN
I
IATN 51 T
50.1
15 IATN
51.1
2 IATN 51.2
IATN
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
t (s)
Fig. 3.1-7 Grading of overcurrent device settings

for machine transformer T and auxiliary transformer AT.
128
___________________________________________________________________
G G
, I>
, I>
Fig. 3.2-1 Principle of differential protection

at internal and external faults.
129
___________________________________________________________________
is
1.5
1 iN
0.5
ts
0 t
1 iN
is
0 t
Fig. 3.2-2 Comparison of overcurrent- and

differential device operating curves.
130
___________________________________________________________________
U
1.3
U
1.2
1.1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
iexc
Fig. 3.2-3 Transformer excitation current as a function of voltage.
131
___________________________________________________________________
I,
IN
0,75
0,5
0,25
g b
IH
0 0,5 1 1,5 IN
Fig. 3.2-4 Operating characteristic of the transformer differential protection for

high through-fault currents
132
___________________________________________________________________
R1 L1L L2L = 0 R2
input L1 exc
E1=E2 U2 Z
I1 Iexc I2
E1 = E2
R2I2
Phasors for L2L = 0 I1 @

Z=R I2
U2=R I2
Iexc
.
Fig. 3.2-5 Equivalent ct circuit at N1 = N2
Used symbols:
I1 , I2 , E 1 , E 2 primary and secondary currents and E.M.F's

U2 secondary voltage
Iexc., L1exc. excitation current and inductances
R1, R2 primary and secondary resistances
R, Z burden resistance and impedance
L1L, L2L leakage inductances
N1, N2 number of primary and secondary winding turns
@ phase displacement
133
___________________________________________________________________
H.V. FAULT
87T 87T
FAULT IN THE
GENERATOR ZONE
87G
G 87G
G
b) FAULT IN THE GENERATOR ZONE

a) H.V. SIDE FAULT
0,4kV
c) FAULT IN THE 0.4kV SYSTEM
Fig. 3.2-6 Various fault points.
134
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 3.2-7 Factor "k" as a function of time.
135
___________________________________________________________________
I1 = 0
I 20
R V V 220 V
2 2
HEST 905 043 FL
U = 20 x U2N + 20 x R2I2N
U
2
E2 (at I 2 = 20 I 2N )
E2 (at I 2 = I 2N )
I 20 £ 0,05 x 20 I 2N = I 2N
0 I 20 £ 0,01 x I 2N I2
HEST 905 048 FL
Fig. 3.2-8 Measurement of the no-load characteristic of a current transformer.

I1 = 0
Influence of iron losses neglected.
136
___________________________________________________________________
Protected CT Transformer Tap changer Total Typical

machine current error no-load range value setting
current g (%)
Generator
Motor 10% -- 15% or
-- 10%
20%
Reactor
Transformer 10% 10% 10% 30% 30%
Table 3.2-I Component of the differential current at rated current.

Typical values of the basic setting value "g".
137
___________________________________________________________________
GT
Protection zone
I>
Z<
HEST 905 019 FL
Fig. 3.3-1 Underimpedance protection
138
___________________________________________________________________
x
+0.07
0 r
Z-setting
-0.07
HEST 905 027 FL
Fig. 3.3-2 Operating characteristic of the underimpedance function

Setting: Z-Setting = 0.07
Z = actual impedance
139
___________________________________________________________________
R S T
Voltage
transformer
Generator Voltage
relay
Fig. 3.4-1 Voltage detection of generator interturn faults
R S T
Current
Neutral points relay
Current
transformer
Fig. 3.4-2 Current detection of generator interturn faults
140
___________________________________________________________________
R S T
Current
Neutral points Relay
ct 1 ct 2
Earthing resistor
Fig. 3.4-3 Current detection of generator interturn faults
141
___________________________________________________________________
R S T
R1 S1 T1 R2 S2 T2
ct 4 ct 5 ct 6
ct 1 ct 2 ct 3
R1 0 R2 S1 0 S2 T1 0 T2
R S T
Differential relay
Fig. 3.4-4 Differential current detection of generator interturn faults
142
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 3.4-5 Interturn fault of generator stator winding

measured voltages
a) Circuit breaker open
b) Circuit breaker closed, generator connected to a big power system
143
___________________________________________________________________
N = N1 + N2
N N N1 I1 = 0
N2 I2 X
N N N N N = N3 N1 I1
N2 I2 X
I1
1
I1 I>
Fig. 3.4-6 Interturn fault of generator winding

Circulating branch currents at circuit breaker open position
a) No winding branches connected in parellel
b) Winding with 2 branches connected in parallel
N1, N2, N3, N - number of winding turns
144
___________________________________________________________________
I1 E1 X1
N1
X31
E X13
I1
N3 = N
X
X32 X12
I2 X
X23 X21 X2
N2
E2

Circuit breaker open; 2 winding branches connected in parellel
Self and mutual reactances
N1, N2, N3, N - number of winding turns
145
___________________________________________________________________

Currents i1, i2, and voltage u1 of the faulted branch as a function the
number of shorted stator phase turns N2.
Circuit breaker open; 2 winding branches connected in parellel
N3 = N1 + N2 = N = 40
146
___________________________________________________________________
T
xs i1
1 2
w1 r
N2 - N2K
Feeder
N2K i2K
i1
xs i1
xs
Fig. 3.4-9 Interturn fault of transformer secondary winding

Currents i1 and i2sc as functions of the faulted winding length
[x = (N2sc/N2)100%].
Cicuit resistance not involved.
Power system reactance xs = 0.005. Transformer reactance xT = 0.10.
Variable leakage reactance: i1 - curve Nr. 1
i2sc - curve Nr. 2
Constant leakage reactance i1 - curve Nr. 3
i2sc - curve Nr. 4
147
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 3.4-10 Interturn fault of transformer secondary winding

[x = (N2sc/N2)100%].
Cicuit resistance involved.
Power system reactance xs = 0.005.
Transformer reactance xT = 0.1, circuit resistance r = 0.01.
i2sc - curve Nr. 2
i2sc - curve Nr. 4
148
___________________________________________________________________
xs i1
1 T 2
A
i1 N1-N1K
i1K N1K
xs i1 B
xs
C
Fig. 3.4-11 Interturn fault of transformer primary winding

[x = (N1sc/N1)100%].
Cicuit resistance not involved.
Power system reactance xs = 0.005.
Transformer primary winding leakage reactance x1l = 0.05.
i1sc - curve Nr. 2
i1sc - curve Nr. 4
149
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 3.4-12 Interturn fault of transformer primary winding

[x = (N1sc/N1)100%].
Cicuit resistance involved.
Power system reactance xs = 0.005. Circuit resistance r = 0.01.
Transformer primary winding leakage reactance x1l = 0.05.
i1sc - curve Nr. 2
i1sc - curve Nr. 4
150
___________________________________________________________________
UA
UE;IE
UE º Uph; IEmax
UC UB
C RE UE L
IC IL
IR IE
G
(ground)
G
UE = UA
UAG = 0
IE IR UA
UCG UBG
IL
UC UB
IC
Fig. 3.6-1 Stator ground fault.

Generator neutral point high-resistance grounded.
151
___________________________________________________________________
UA
I3
Re
UC UB
U3
C L
IC IL IE
G
(ground)
UC3
UA3 = 0
U3
G G
UA IE IR
UCG UBG UC3 UB3 I3
IL
UC UB
IC
Fig. 3.6-2 Stator ground fault.

Generator terminal side high-resistance grounded.
152
___________________________________________________________________
IEmax
C RE
B
IE >
Ground
Fig. 3.6-3 Stator ground fault protection applying a measurement of the

grounding resistance current.
153
___________________________________________________________________
Generator Generator transformer

1 2 Ic
U2ph
3 C12 Ic
Ic
vt
R
E UE>
3C12 Ic
U2ph
Ic RE C Ic
Fig. 3.6-4 Influence of the H.V. ground fault on stator ground fault protection
for generators operating with generator transformers.
154
___________________________________________________________________
3~
RPS RES
G
UiP N12
Ugen/Ö3
100V
REr RPr
N11
2*2 mF
US
Ur Uir
+ -
Uis Uir Ui
110V 50V 25.8V

Injection
110V
Transformer
Block
WU30Z
US Ur
REX 011
P8
UStator UStator URotor Ui

95% 100%
U N=100V UN=15V UN=100V U N=25V
[V]
110
-110 A
Injection Test
D
[ms]
Coded 12.5Hz injection Signal
Voltage
(95%) StEF Stator-EFP Rotor-EFP
Injection Unit CPU

UDC
110V
REX 010 REG 216
Fig. 3.6-5 100% stator and rotor ground fault protection.
155
___________________________________________________________________
G1
T1
G2
T2
G3
T3
G4
zone of zone of the bus and

generator feeders of transformer feeders
Fig. 3.6-6 Generators directly connected to a busbar.
156
___________________________________________________________________
Generator Zero sequence ct
Transformer
3 C 12
Voltage transformer
UE> Re
Rp
voltage transformer
Interposing VT
IE> UE>
Fig. 3.6-7 Stator ground fault protection for generators directly connected to
busbars
157
___________________________________________________________________
Rotor C
Rotor shaft
C1 50 V 100 V C2
R R
R R
100 V 50 V
C1
C2
C
HEST 905 016 FL
Fig. 3.7-1 Rotor ground fault protection
158
___________________________________________________________________
50% of Uph
UE
UE >
Fig. 3.8-1 Ground fault protection for ungrounded systems.
159
___________________________________________________________________
,I>
i1
l
x
i2
output
input
i1
ZE i2
IIEE >>
E >
1,0
0,8 Grounding impedance

i1 i2
ZE >> XT
i2
0,6 1
3
80%
0,4 42%
i1
is
0,2
0 20 40 60 80 100
x [%]
Fig. 3.8-2 Restricted ground fault protection at impedance grounded transformer

neutral point.
a) grounding impedance determined for the maximum earth fault
current which is equal to the rated current
b) relay setting selected for 80% for the protected winding; this
means a setting value of is = i2 = 20%
160
___________________________________________________________________
1 T 2
RE CT's
CT
RS
IE >
Fig. 3.8-3 Restricted ground fault protection of a delta - wye connected

transformer.
161
___________________________________________________________________
IE >
Fig. 3.8-4 Transformer tank leakage protection.
162
___________________________________________________________________
I>
current I 50 BF
timer
62 remote trip
trip signals
I>
current I 50 BF
release
remote trip
timer
trip signals 62
C.B.
+
remote trip
timer
trip signals 62
Fig. 3.9-1 Breaker failure protection schemes.
163
___________________________________________________________________
~ ~
Correct operation Maloperation

of B.F. protection of B.F. protection
(C.B. is right and already open)
Fig. 3.9-2 Current detection at a breaker failure
164
___________________________________________________________________
local
C.B. closed open
fault
fault clearing
current
time
setting level
50 BF
reset time
local
C.B. operating
trip signal time
margin
remote delay by 62
trip signal
0 t
local
closed
C.B.
fault
fault clearing
current
time
setting level
50 BF
local
trip signal
remote C.B.
remote delay by 62 operating time
trip signal
remote
closed open
C.B.
0 t
Fig. 3.9-3 Time chart of the device 50/62 BF.
165
___________________________________________________________________
local
C.B. closed open
fault
fault clearing
current
time
reset time
local
C.B. operating
trip signal time
margin
delay by 62
0 t
local
closed
C.B.
fault
fault clearing
current
time
local
trip signal
remote C.B.
remote operating time
trip signal
remote
closed open
C.B.
0 t
Fig. 3.9-4 Time chart of the device 62 BF
166
___________________________________________________________________
i
1.5
JNw = 100 ° C D JNw = 60 K

1.0
JNoil = 90 ° C D Joil = 50 K
i = iN
t w = 10 min toil = 120 min
0 t
Jw (t = ¥)
Joil(t = ¥)
J (°C)160
J
140 w
120
Joil
JNw 100
JNoil
80 toil
60
40
D Joil
tw
20
D Jw- D Joil
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
t (min)
Fig. 4.1-1 Temperature rise at a sudden increased current
167
___________________________________________________________________
J = 126.4° C
140
winding temperature
120 simulated temperature rise
130
J (°C) DJ (%)
overload i = 1.2
temperature rise at DJNw - DJNoil = 10 K tw = 10 min
120 rated current DJNoil = 50 K t oil = 120 min
relay setting of the thermal time constant t = 90 min
110
110
10 100
0 100 200 300 400 500
t (min)
Fig. 4.1-2 Comparison of an actual winding temperature rise and of a

temperature rise simulated by a thermal relay
168
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 4.1-3 Temperature rise at a sudden current change.
169
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 4.1-4 Short-time overload capability.
170
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 4.1-5 ABB stator overload device.

Operating curve acc. to ANSI C50.13. specified by the following
values:
I 2.26 1.54 1.3 1.16

IN
t [s] 10 30 60 120
171
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 4.2-1 Temperature rise at a sudden negative-sequence current change.
172
___________________________________________________________________
I2
IN
I2 Tripping stage
IN
Alarm stage
0 t HEST 905 015 FL
Fig. 4.2-2 Operating characteristics of the definite time NPS protection device.
173
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 4.2-3 ABB device "NPS-Inverse" operating curve.
174
___________________________________________________________________
A B C
IA IB IC
a2 IC
IA
a IB
3 I1 IB
a2 IB
IA IA
IA a IC IC
IC IB
3 I1 = 3 IA 3 I2 = 0 3 I0 = 0
I1 = IA I2 = 0 I0 = 0
Fig. 4.2-4 Symmetrical components at a symmetrical load.
175
___________________________________________________________________
A B C
IA IC
a2 IC
a IC
IA 3 I1
IA IA
IC
IA
3 I2
IC
3 I1 = Ö 3 IA 3 I2 = Ö 3 IA 3 I0 = 0
I1 = Ö 33 IA I2 = Ö 33 IA I0 = 0
Fig. 4.2-5 Symmetrical components at fully asymmetrical load.
176
___________________________________________________________________
A B C
IA IB IC
a IC
I2 a2 IB
IA
aIB
IB
IA IA
IA
a2 IC IC
IB IC
3 I1 = 0 3 I2 = 3 IA 3 I0 = 0
I1 = 0 I2 = IA I0 = 0
Fig. 4.2-6 Symmetrical components at symmetrical load supplied by negative

sequence load.
177
___________________________________________________________________
unbalanced generator asymmetrical

load line-to-line H.V. short circuits
or fault
M.V. circuit
breaker fail.
X
at IN X
X
I2
100 (%) 1 ... 57.7 333 200 167
IN
H.V. circuit breaker

failure at IN
X X
I2
100 (%) 57.7 33.3
IN
Table 4.2-I Values of the negative sequence current at various conditions.
178
___________________________________________________________________
Generator type i2 ¥ [%] i22 t [s]
Indirectly cooled rotor

air-cooled 10 15
hydrogen-cooled 10 10
Turbo- Directly cooled rotor

generator ... 350 MVA 8 8
350 ... 900 MVA 8 .. 6 8 .. 5
900 ... 1250 MVA 6 .. 5 5
1250 ... 1600 MVA 5 5
Salient pole Indirectly cooled 8 20

generator Directly cooled 5 15
Table 4.2-II Generator capability at unbalanced stator currents according to

IEC 34-1 / VDE 0530.
179
___________________________________________________________________
Generator type i2 ¥ [%] i22 t [s]
Indirectly cooled rotor 10 30
Directly cooled rotor

Salient pole ... 960 MVA 8
generator 961 ... 1200 MVA 6
1201 ... 1600 MVA 5
... 800 MVA 10
800 ... 1600 MVA 10 ...5
Table 4.2-III Generator capability at unbalanced stator currents

according to ANSI C50.13
180
___________________________________________________________________
U set 2
U set 1 Stage 2
Stage 1
UN
Delay 2 Delay 1
0 t
Fig. 4.3-1 Operating characteristic of the definite time overvoltage function

UN = rated voltage of the protection
181
___________________________________________________________________
E
Xd I
G Us
If
U
Ss = ¥
Us = constant
jXdI
E U Us
jXdI U
E U
E
j I I j
I=0 If If If
Fig. 4.6-1 Synchronous machine operating in parallel with a large power system.
Reactive and capacitive power loading.
182
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 4.6-2 Current curves of a synchronous machine with xd = 2.0.
183
___________________________________________________________________
E jXdI
a) Turbo-
U
generator
I
j
d
jXqI
jXdI
b) Salient-pole
U
generator
I
j
d
Fig. 4.6-3 Generator phasors under normal operating conditions.
184
___________________________________________________________________
Xd I XdI
U U
E E
@ @
Fig. 4.6-4 Synchronous machine with cylindrical rotor

Active power loading.
P
P
0 90 180 270 360 d [°]
Fig. 4.6-5 Active power of a synchronous generator as a function of the load

angle d
185
___________________________________________________________________
Xd Icos j
j P = U I cos j
E j
sin d = Xd Icos
jXdI E
UE sin d
P =
Xd
U
If
I
d j
jXdI
U
I
E d
I U jXdI U
jXdI I
jXdI
d I
E E E=0
Fig. 4.6-6 Voltage diagram of a turbogenerator for different load conditions.
186
___________________________________________________________________
E
Xd I
G Us
U
XdI U Xd U
I
E E
I
U
X
I E
@ I
R
0
Xd
Fig. 4.6-7 Turbogenerator directly connected to a power system.

Steady-state stability curve.
187
___________________________________________________________________
Icmax Iactive U = const
Iactive max.
E
Xd I
j
d Ireactive
U 0
Xd
Qcmax P
U = const
P max.
EU
Xd S=UI
j
d Q
U2 0
Qexc= X
d
Fig. 4.6-8 Synchronous machine with cylindrical rotor

Power diagram at constant stator voltage.
188
___________________________________________________________________
I GT
E G Us
Xd U XT
jXdI
jXTI jXTI
E
U Us jXdI U Us
@ @
E
X Us
I
@ E
XT I
R
0
Xd
Fig. 4.6-9 Generator with the generator transformer operating to a power

system.
Steady-state stability curve.
189
___________________________________________________________________
I GT
E G Us
Xd V XT
Steady-state
X U
Z= stability curve
I
XT
0
R
X'd
2
Xd
Loss-of-
excitation
device curve
Fig. 4.6-10 Coordination of steady-state stability curve with characteristic of the

loss-of-excitation device.
190
___________________________________________________________________
protection
device
start signal
reset t
delay
extended
signal
t
tripping trip delay

signal trip
protection
device
start signal
t
extended
signal
reset t
delay
tripping trip delay

no trip
signal
t
Fig. 4.6-11 Loss-of-excitation device.

Trip at rotor swings.
191
___________________________________________________________________
G U = Us = const
Xd
I
X j
U d
B
0 j R
V
Z=
I E
Z jXdI
Xd
Point A, A': 90° Point B:
E=0 U=0
U E
I= A I=
Xd Xd
j = 90°cap j = 0°
jXdI U E jXdI
j B' P
I U = const I
EU
Xd
E
S=UI
A'
j j jXdI
d d
U2 0 Q U
Xd I
B'
Fig. 4.6-12a Turbogenerator directly connected to a large power system with a

constant voltage.
Steady-state stability limit (d = 90°)
192
___________________________________________________________________
E U
G T Us
Xd XT
X'd
X
R
I
X'd 0 j US
2 B j
@
jXTI
U
Z
jXdI E
U
Z= Xd
I
Us=U=const
P EU
Point B': (XT=0) Xd Point A':
U jXdI U
j UI= S
j j
I I
A'
E B' @
Q
U2 0
jX'dI
Xd
-E = U E=0
2U U
I= U2 I=
X'd 2 X’ Xd
d
j = 90°cap j = 90°cap
@ = 180° @ = 90°
Fig. 4.6-12b Turbogenerator

Typical device characteristic (90° < d < 180°).
R-X and power diagram.
193
___________________________________________________________________
E U
G T Us
Xd XT
X U I
Z= US
B I
j
d @G
0 jXTI
XT j U
R
d dG
jXdI E
Xd
A
P
Point A': Point B':

jXTI
EU
Us Xd
E jXdI
jXdI U=const.
U
S = UI
j
I
A' @G B' Q
U2 0 U2 jXTI
Xd XT U
j I
E=0 Us = 0
j = 90°cap j = 90°ind
@ G = 90° @G = 0°
U U
I= I= X
Xd
T
Xd+XT Xd+XT
Us = U E= U
Xd XT
Fig. 4.6-13 Generator transformer unit.

Steady-state stability limit (d = 90°)
194
___________________________________________________________________
D3
B3
No.3
B2 D2 E2 E3
F3
R
@ No.2
0
B1
No.1
D1
C1
C2
A1=A2=A3
C3
P B'2
No.1 U=const
B'1 E'2
E'3
No.3
A'1=A'2=A'3
C'1 0 D'3
Q
D'1 C'3 U 2
U2
Xd XT
B'3
@
No.2 F'3
D'2
Fig. 4.6-14 Application of the REG216/316 device "Minimum-reactance" at

different load angle limits
195
___________________________________________________________________
j Xq Iq
j Xd Id
E U
I
Id
j
Iq
d
X
j X q IL
d
j Iq
j Id
E
Xd
jI
U
Xd
I
E Id
Xd j
Iq
d
Xd - Xq
Xd Xq U
d
Fig. 4.6-15 Voltage and current diagram of a salient-pole generator.
196
___________________________________________________________________
j U Iq
jU Id
j UI U2
Xd
EU
Xd I
EU j Id
Xd Iq
d
Xd - Xq 2
U
d Xd Xq
EU
Xd EU sin
P 1= d
S = UI Xd
j
U2 Xd - Xq sin2d
P 2=
d 2 Xd Xq
U2 0 Q
U2 Xd
Xq P = P1+P2
Fig. 4.6-16 Power diagram of a salient-pole generator.
197
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 4.6-17 Steady-state stability limit for a salient-pole generator.

———— salient-pole generator
------------ turbo generator
198
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 4.6-18 Steady-state stability limit for salient-pole generator and generator-
transformer units.
———— salient-pole generator
------------ turbogenerator (for comparison)
199
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 4.6-19 Impedance locus after loss of excitation.
200
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 4.6-20 Power components after loss of excitation.
201
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 4.6-21 Stator voltage, current and speed after loss of excitation.
202
___________________________________________________________________
GT
network
EG G system
Xd XT XS
EG G G ES
U US
XdI
EG (XT + XS)I ES
XSI ES
I
U XT + XS
U
ES XTI @ I
@
U
@
XdI EG Xd EG
I
Fig. 4.7-1 Generator with generator transformer operating to the network

system under steady-state conditions.
203
___________________________________________________________________
,E EG
,E
EG EG
ES ES ,E
ES
Fig. 4.7-2 Phasors EG and ES under 'out-of-step' conditions.
204
___________________________________________________________________
EG > ES
XS
XT @ @ EG = ES
@ R
0
X'd
EG < ES
Fig. 4.7-3 Impedance locus under out-of-step conditions.
205
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 4.7-4 Locus of the impedance measured at the generator terminals during
pole slipping in relation to the power system A.
X'd : transient reactance of the generator

XT : short-circuit reactance of the step-up transformer
ZS : transient impedance of the power system A
206
___________________________________________________________________
3.0
EG=1.2
2.0
EG=1.3
EG=1.4
EG=1.6
EG=1.8
1.0
EG=3.0
ES=0
xS
xT R
0
x'd
Fig. 4.7-5 Impedance locus on the R-X diagram at ES = 1.0 and different
voltages EG > ES.
x'd = xT = xS = 0.2 (non-typical values).
207
___________________________________________________________________
xS
EG=ES=1.0
xT R
x'd
ES=0.2
EG=0.4
1.0
EG=1.8
EG=1.6
EG=0.7
2.0
EG=0.8
3.0
EG=0.85
X'D = XT = XS = 0.2
Fig. 4.7-6 Impedance locus at ES = 1.0 and different voltages. EG < ES.
- × - × - × - operating curve of 'loss-of-excitation' relay.
208
___________________________________________________________________
PG
Qcap 0 Qind
reverse
power device
setting
generator and
turbine no-load
losses
PM
Fig. 4.8-1 Reverse-power device characteristic.
209
___________________________________________________________________
Block
U t 1>
P>
I t 2>
TRIP
t 3>
Integrator
HEST 935 018 FL
Fig. 4.8-2 Tripping circuit of a reverse power protection scheme for

steam turbines
210
___________________________________________________________________
t = 300 ms
t2 = 0.63662 (i.e. i0 = 0.5%)
w = 314.16 1/1
Fig. 5.1-1 The factor k calculated according to 3 different formulas.
211
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 5.1-2 The factor k as a function of the time t.
212
___________________________________________________________________
Fig. 5.1-3 The factor km as a function of the time constant T2.
213
IMPORTANT NOTICE!
Experience has shown that reliable operation of our products is

assured, providing the information and recommendations contained
in these Instructions for Installation and Operation are adhered to.
It is scarcely possible for the instructions to cover every eventuality

that can occur when using technical devices and systems. We
would therefore request the user to notify us directly or our agent of
any unusual observations or of instances, in which these
instructions provide no or insufficient information.
In addition to these instructions, any applicable local regulations

and safety procedures must always be strictly observed both when
connecting up and commissioning this equipment.
Any work such as insertion or removal of soldered jumpers or

setting resistors, which may be necessary, may only be performed
by appropriately qualified personnel.
We expressly accept no responsibility for any direct damage, which

may result from incorrect operation of this equipment, even if no
reference is made to the particular situation in the Instructions for
Installation and Operation.
ABB Network Partner
ABB Network Partner AG ABB Network Partner AB ABB Transmit Oy ABB Power T&D Co.
Haselstrasse 16/122 S-72171 Västerås, Sweden Relays and Network Control Relays
CH-5401 Baden/Switzerland Phone +46 21 32 13 00 P.O.Box 699 Coral Springs, Fla. 33065, USA
Phone +41 56 205 77 44 Fax +46 21 14 69 18 SF-65101 Vaasa, Finland Phone +1 305 752-6700
Fax +41 56 205 55 77 Phone +358-61-162 111 Fax +1 305 752-6700, ext. 2283
Fax +358-61-161 094
Printed in Switzerland (9810-0000-0)

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1MRB520046-Len

Edition October 1998

2. Currents and Voltages During Faults...................................................... 6

3. Protection Devices for Fault Conditions.................................................. 7

4. Protection Devices for Abnormal Operating Conditions........................ 47

5. Protection Current Transformers .......................................................... 84

6. Figures and Tables ............................................................................. 100

The task of the generator and transformer protection is maintaining operation

1.1. Fault Conditions

During a short-circuit between generator and transformer (refer to Fig.1-1 or

1.2. Abnormal Operating Conditions

Under abnormal operating conditions the normal electrical, mechanical and

The abnormal operating conditions can be caused by:

In cases of a chance to correct the abnormal conditions to normal ones, the

1.3. Basic Requirements

The basic requirements on the protection system are:

The high protection availability is enabled by:

In order to reinforce the protection during dangerous faults, additional devices

1.4. Basic Conditions

The suitable settings depend on the sufficient knowledge of minimum fault

The fault current level is

1.5. Additional Requirements

Additional requirements on the protection system are:

1.6. Overall Protection of a Generator-Transformer Unit

With respect to safety and selectivity a number of different protection devices

For a suitable application of individual protection devices at different ratings

2. CURRENTS AND VOLTAGES DURING FAULTS

The field-discharge circuit breaker is a modified DC circuit breaker with a

Varc > V (Fig. 2-4)

For symmetrical current components during asymmetrical short circuits refer

For current distribution during a line-to-line fault of transformers refer to

For current distribution during a line-to-ground fault of two transformers

For current distribution during asymmetrical short circuits of a generator-

3. PROTECTION DEVICES FOR FAULT CONDITIONS

3.1. Overcurrent Protection

The overcurrent protection is used:

The overcurrent protection for generators and transformers is different due to

3.1.1. Overcurrent Protection for Generator-Transformer Units

3.1.1.1. Definite Time Overcurrent Protection

The current curve of a suddenly shorted generator comprises damped

The definite time overcurrent characteristic with a desired delay of several

For satisfactory tripping a combination of an overcurrent and an undervol-

The current setting must be chosen between the minimum through-fault

This maximum short-time overcurrent is to be determined in accordance

- switching conditions in the H.V. power system

An example of calculated short-circuit currents supplied by a generator-

A suitable current setting is usually i = 1.5. The undervoltage setting value

3.1.1.2. Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection

Sometimes an instantaneous stage is asked for. This stage should enable

For selective protection the current value setting is to be chosen in the

The minimum short-circuit fault current would be a line-to-line fault. The

If, for example, we use the following reactance values

xd'' = 0.15 x2 = 0.15 xT = 0.1

for the minimum fault current (at a voltage of 90%)

For protection devices with a significant restriction of the influence of the

If the generator-transformer unit has no generator circuit breaker, the in-

3.1.2. Overcurrent Protection for Generator Transformer

The application of a generator circuit breaker enables the supply of the

The preferred type of the transformer overcurrent protection has a definite

3.1.2.1. Definite Time Overcurrent Protection

overcurrents. This device must operate at all short-circuits on the M.V.

3.1.2.2. Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection

The task of the instantaneous overcurrent device is the protection against