CONTENTS

SR.NO. CHAPTER NAME PAGE NO.

1 Abstract 6-7
2 Introduction 8-9
3 Concept of superfinishing 10-12
4 Need of superfinishing process 13-14
5 Superfinishing processes 15-16
6 Present processes 17-27
7 Project phase-1 work 28-29
8 Objectives 30-31
9 Experimentation 32-41
10 Working mechanism 42-49
11 Assembly 50-51
12 Calculation 52-54
13 Expenditure 55-56
14 Conclusion 57-58
15 Advantages and Disadvantages of M.F.G. 59-60
16 Future Scope 61-62
17 References 63-65
CHAPTER 1
Abstract
ABSTRACT

The better finish may be desired for looks, accuracy, weaving qualities or for
any other reason. Some materials like glass, ceramics, acrylic resins & plastics are in
herently brittle in nature, so during conventional grinding the cracks may be
formed, which can significantly reduce the strength & reliability of the material in
service.

The conventional grinding followed by lapping or by direct polishing method

consumes lot of time & add significantly to the cost of manufacture. To minimize
the damage during finishing, it is necessary to process brittle materials under gentle
condition that is under controlled low force, which is not possible in conventional
grinding. The investigation of non-conventional finishing technology called magnetic
fluid grinding in which the cutting force is controlled by the magnetic fluid.
CHAPTER 2
Introduction
INTRODUCTION

Superfinishing, also known as micromachining, microfinishing, and short-

stroke honing, is a metalworking process that improves surface finish and workpiece
geometry. This is achieved by removing just the thin amorphous surface layer left by
the last process with an abrasive stone or tape; this layer is usually about 1 μm in
magnitude. Superfinishing, unlike polishing which produces a mirror finish, creates a
cross-hatch pattern on the workpiece.

Fig showing surface finished workpiece

 CHAPTER 3
Concept of Superfinishing
CONCEPT OF SUPERFINISHING:

After a metal piece is ground to an initial finish, it is superfinished with a finer

grit solid abrasive. The abrasive is oscillated or rotated while the workpiece is rotated
in the opposite direction; these motions are what causes the cross-hatching. The
geometry of the abrasive depends on the geometry of the workpiece surface; a stone
(rectangular shape) is for cylindrical surfaces and cups and wheels are used for flat
and spherical surfaces. A lubricant is used to minimize heat production, which can
alter the metallurgical properties, and to carry away the swarf; kerosene is a common
lubricant.

The abrasive cuts the surface of the workpiece in three phases. The first phase
is when the abrasive first contacts the workpiece surface: dull grains of the abrasive
fracture and fall away leaving a new sharp cutting surface. In the second phase the
abrasive "self dresses" while most of the stock is being removed. Finally, the abrasive
grains become dull as they work which improves the surface geometry.

Types

There are three types superfinishing: Through-feed, plunge, and wheels.

Through-feed
This type of superfinishing is used for cylindrical workpieces. The workpiece
is rotated between two drive rollers, which also move the machine as well. Four to
eight progressively finer abrasive stones are used to superfinish the workpiece. The
stones contact the workpiece at a 90° angle and are oscillated axially. Examples of
parts that would be produced by process include tapered rolls, piston pins, shock
absorber rods, shafts, and needles.
Plunge
This type is used to finish irregularly shaped surfaces. The workpiece is
rotated while the abrasive plunges onto the desired surface.

Wheels
Abrasive cups or wheels are used to superfinish flat and spherical surfaces.
The wheel and workpiece are rotated in opposite directions, which creates the cross-
hatching. If the two are parallel then the result if a flat finish, but if the wheel is tilted
slightly a convex or concave surface will form.

Abrasives
Common abrasives used for superfinishing include aluminum oxide, silicon
carbide, cubic boron nitride (CBN) and diamond.

Aluminum oxide is used for "roughing" operations. Silicon carbide, which is

harder than aluminum oxide, is used for "finishing" operations. CBN and diamond are
not as commonly used, but find use with specialized materials such as ceramics and
M50 tool steel. Note that graphite may be mixed with other abrasives to add lubricity
and to enhance the appearance of the finish.

Abrasive grains must be very fine to be used with superfinishing; usually 5–

8 μm.
 CHAPTER 4
Need of Superfinishing
NEED OF SUPERFINISHING PROCESSESS:-
To ensure reliable performance and prolonged service life of modern
machinery, its components require high surface finish.

The surface finish has a vital role in influencing functional characteristics like
wear resistance, fatigue strength, corrosion resistance.

Unfortunately, normal machining methods like turning, milling or even

classical grinding cannot meet this stringent requirement.

Therefore, super finishing processes like lapping, honing, polishing,

burnishing are being employed to achieve and improve the above-mentioned
functional properties in the machine component
 CHAPTER 5
Super Finishing Processes
SUPERFINISHING PROCESSES:-

 Lapping

 Honing

 Superfinishing

 Burnishing
CHAPTER 6
Present Processes
Present Processes

LAPPING:-

Lapping is a machining process in which two surfaces are rubbed together

with an abrasive between them, by hand movement or using a machine.

Lapping is basically an abrasive process in which loose abrasives function as

cutting points finding momentary support from the laps. Material removal in lapping
usually ranges from .003 to .03 mm but many reach 0.08 to 0.1mm in certain cases.

This can take two forms. The first type of lapping (traditionally
called grinding), involves rubbing a brittle material such as glass against a surface
such as iron or glass itself (also known as the "lap" or grinding tool) with an abrasive
such as aluminum oxide, jeweller's rouge, optician's rouge, emery, silicon
carbide, diamond, etc., between them. This produces microscopic conchoidal
fractures as the abrasive rolls about between the two surfaces and removes material
from both.

The other form of lapping involves a softer material such as pitch or

a ceramic for the lap, which is "charged" with the abrasive. The lap is then used to cut
a harder material — the workpiece. The abrasive embeds within the softer material,
which holds it and permits it to score across and cut the harder material. Taken to a
finer limit, this will produce a polished surface such as with a polishing cloth on an
automobile, or a polishing cloth or polishing pitch upon glass or steel.
Accuracy and surface roughness of Lapping Process:-

Lapping can be used to obtain a specific surface roughness; it is also used to

obtain very accurate surfaces, usually very flat surfaces. Surface roughness and
surface flatness are two quite different concepts.

A typical range of surface roughness that can be obtained without resorting to

special equipment would fall in the range of 1 to 30 units Ra (average roughness),
usually microinches.

Fig Lapping Process

Fig Lapping Process

HONING:-
Honing is an abrasive machining process that produces a precision surface on
a metal workpiece by scrubbing an abrasive stone against it along a controlled path.
Honing is primarily used to improve the geometric form of a surface, but may also

improve the surface texture.

Honing is a finishing process, in which a tool any working motioncalled hone

carries out a combined rotary and reciprocating motion while the work piece does not
perform

Typical applications are the finishing of cylinders for internal combustion

engines, air bearingspindles and gears. There are many types of hones, but all consist
of one or more abrasive stones that are held under pressure against the surface they
are working on.

In terms of sharpening knives, a honing steel does not actually hone knives,
but simply realigns the metal along the edge.

Honing Stones :-
Honing uses a special tool, called a honing stone or a hone, to achieve a
precision surface. The hone is composed of abrasive grains that are bound together
with an adhesive. Generally, honing grains are irregularly shaped and about 10 to 50
micrometers in diameter (300 to 1,500 mesh grit). Smaller grain sizes produce a
smoother surface on the workpiece.
 A honing stone is similar to a grinding wheel in many ways, but honing stones
are usually more friable so that they conform to the shape of the workpiece as they
wear in. To counteract their friability, honing stones may be treated with wax or sulfur
to improve life; wax is usually preferred for environmental reasons

Fig Honing Stones

Honing Process Mechanics:-

Since honing stones look similar to grinding wheels, it is tempting to think of
honing as a form of low-stock removal grinding. Instead, it is better to think of it as a
self-truing grinding process

In grinding, the wheel follows a simple path. For example, in plunge grinding
a shaft, the wheel moves in towards the axis of the part, grinds it, and then moves
back out. Since each slice of the wheel repeatedly contacts the same slice of the
workpiece, any inaccuracies in the geometric shape of the grinding wheel will be
transferred onto the part. Therefore, the accuracy of the finished workpiece geometry
is limited to the accuracy of the truing dresser. The accuracy becomes even worse as
the grind wheel wears, so truing must occur periodically to reshape it.
 The limitation on geometric accuracy is overcome in honing because the
honing stone follows a complex path. In bore honing for example, the stone moves
along two paths simultaneously. The stones are pressed radially outward to enlarge
the hole while they simultaneously oscillate axially. Due to the oscillation, each slice
of the honing stones touch a large area of the workpiece. Therefore, imperfections in
the honing stone's profile cannot transfer to the bore. Instead, both the bore and the
honing stones conform to the average shape of the honing stones' motion, which in the
case of bore honing is a cylinder. This averaging effect occurs in all honing processes;
both the workpiece and stones erode until they conform to the average shape of the
stones' cutting surface. Since the honing stones tend to erode towards a desired
geometric shape, there is no need to true them. As a result of the averaging effect, the
accuracy of a honed component often exceeds the accuracy of the machine tool that
created it.

The path of the stone is not the only difference between grinding and honing
machines, they also differ in the stiffness of their construction. Honing machines are
much more compliant than grinders. The purpose of grinding is to achieve a tight size
tolerance. To do this, the grinding wheel must be moved to an exact position relative
to the workpiece. Therefore, a grinding machine must be very stiff and its axes must
move with very high precision.
Fig Honing Process

Fig Honing Process

Polishing:-

Polishing and buffing are finishing processes for smoothing a workpiece’s

surface using an abrasive and a work wheel or a leather strop.
Technically polishing refers to processes that use an abrasive that is glued to the work
wheel, while buffing uses a loose abrasive applied to the work wheel. Polishing is a
more aggressive process while buffing is less harsh, which leads to a smoother,
brighter finish. A common misconception is that a polished surface has a mirror bright
finish, however most mirror bright finishes are actually buffed.

Polishing is often used to enhance the appearance of an item, prevent

contamination of instruments, remove oxidation, create a reflective surface, or prevent
corrosion in pipes. In metallography and metallurgy, polishing is used to create a flat,
defect-free surface for examination of a metal’s microstructure under a microscope.
Silicon-based polishing pads or a diamond solution can be used in the polishing
process. Polishing stainless steel can also increase the sanitary benefits of it.

The removal of oxidization (tarnish) from metal objects is accomplished

using a metal polish or tarnish remover; this is also called polishing. To prevent
further unwanted oxidization, polished metal surfaces may be coated with wax, oil, or
lacquer. This is of particular concern for copper alloy products such as brass and
bronze

White & grey aluminium oxide abrasives are used on high tensile strength
metals, such as carbon and alloy steel, tough iron, and nonferrous alloys. Gray silicon
carbide abrasives are used on hard and brittle substances, such as grey
iron and cemented carbide, and low tensile strength metals, such as brass, aluminium,

and copper.

Process:-
The condition of the material at hand determines what type of abrasive will be
applied. The first stage, if the material is unfinished, starts with a rough abrasive
(perhaps 60 or 80 grit) and each subsequent stage uses a finer abrasive, such as 120,
180, 220/240, 320, 400 and higher grit abrasives, until the desired finish is achieved.
The rough (i.e. large grit) passes remove imperfections within the metal surface like
pits, nicks, lines and scratches. The finer abrasives leave progressively finer lines that
are not visible to the naked eye. To achieve a #8 Finish (Mirror) it requires polishing
and buffing compounds, polishing wheels and high speed polishing machines or other
machine tools that can be used for polishing, like an electrical drill. Lubricants like
wax and kerosene may be used as lubricating and cooling media during these
operations, although some polishing materials are specifically designed to be used
―dry.‖ Buffing may be done by hand with a stationary polisher or die grinder, or it
may be automated using specialized equipment.

When buffing there are two types of buffing motions: the cut motion and
the color motion. The cut motion is designed to give a uniform, smooth, semi-bright
surface finish. This is achieved by moving the workpiece against the rotation of the
buffing wheel, while using medium to hard pressure. The color motion gives a clean,
bright, shiny surface finish. This is achieved by moving the workpiece with the
rotation of the buffing wheel, while using medium to light pressure.

Polishing operations for items such as chisels, hammers, screwdrivers,

wrenches, etc., are given a fine finish but not plated. In order to achieve this finish
four operations are required: roughing, dry fining, greasing, and coloring. Note that
roughing is usually done on a solid grinding wheel and for an extra fine polish.

Fig Polishing Process

 Fig Polishing Process

Burnishing:-
The burnishing process consists of pressing hardened steel rolls or balls into
the surface of the work piece and imparting a feed motion to the same. Ball
burnishing of a cylindrical surface is illustrated

Burnishing is the plastic deformation of a surface due to sliding contact with

another object. Visually, burnishing smears the texture of a rough surface and makes
it shinier. Burnishing may occur on any sliding surface if the contact stress locally
exceeds the yield strength of the material.

Dragging the ball across the plate will have a different effect than pressing. In
this case, the force on the ball can be decomposed into two component forces: one
normal to the plate's surface, pressing it in, and the other tangential, dragging it along.
As the tangential component is increased, the ball will start to slide along the plate. At
the same time, the normal force will deform both objects, just as with the static
situation. If the normal force is low, the ball will rub against the plate but not
permanently alter its surface.
 The rubbing action will create friction and heat, but it will not leave a mark on
the plate. However, as the normal force increases, eventually the stresses in the plate's
surface will exceed its yield strength. When this happens the ball will plow through
the surface and create a trough behind it. The plowing action of the ball is burnishing.
Burnishing also occurs when the ball can rotate, as would happen in the above
scenario if another flat plate was brought down from above to induce downwards
loading, and at the same time to cause rotation and translation of the ball, or in the
case of a ball bearing

Fig Burnishing Process

 CHAPTER 7
Project Phase-1 Work
PROJECT PHASE-I WORK

3.1 PROBLEM DEFINITION

 The surface finish has a vital role in influencing functional characteristics like
wear resistance, fatigue strength, corrosion resistance.

 Unfortunately, normal machining methods like turning, milling or even classical

grinding cannot meet this stringent requirement.

 . To minimize the damage during finishing, it is necessary to process brittle

material under gentle condition.

 Therefore, in this project we have tried to perform Superfinishing operation on

aluminum material with the help of magnetic fluid grinding. This method can be
used for grinding of brittle materials, which is the future scope of this project.

 This method is based on the Ferro hydrodynamics behavior of the magnetic fluid.
CHAPTER 8
Objectives
OBJECTIVES:

1. To study the conventional system of Grinding.

2. To study the construction and working principle of Magnetic Fluid Grinder.

3. To study the various process parameters of Magnetic Fluid Grinding.

4. To prepare required model for magnetic fluid grinding

5. Taking trials on machine and measure the surface finish of the component.

6. Comparison between the conventional grinding results with magnetic fluid

grinding.
CHAPTER 9
Experimentation
EXPERIMENTATION

Magnetic Fluid Preparation

Ferro fluid is a magnetic fluid made out of nanometre sized pieces of iron or
various iron oxides, suspended in a liquid. The shapes and flow of ferrofluid are
surprising and beautiful, and show how magnetic field lines curve around magnetic
objects.

A ferro fluid is a fluid with magnetic particles in it, and if the fluid is exposed
to a magnetic field, all the magnetic particles will align with the field lines, and
making the fluid much denser.

Fig Ferrofluid

When a ferrofluid is subjected to a magnetic field, magnetic field gradient

and/or gravitational field, in order that the colloidal suspension remains stable the
magnetic particles generally have to be of approximately 10 nm in diameter. Particles
of this size, whether they are ferrite or metal, possess a single magnetic domain only,
i.e., the individual particles are in a permanent state of saturation magnetization. Thus
a strong long-range magneto static attraction exists between individual particles, the
result of which would lead to agglomeration of the particles and subsequent
sedimentation unless a means of achieving a repulsive interaction can be incorporated.

In order to achieve this repulsive mechanism, the particles can either be coated
by a surfactant (surface active material) to produce an entropic repulsion, or the
surface of the particles can be charged thereby producing an electrostatic repulsion.
For dispersions in liquid a metal, stability has not been achieved due to the lack of a
method to produce a repulsive mechanism.

VARIOUS METHODS OF PREPARING MAGNETIC

FLUID:

The various methods of preparing magnetic fluid are discussed below:

• Acetone: We need separate Ferric oxide from plastic tapes. Acetone will melt binder
and separate Ferric oxide

• Cooking oil: Cooking oil is needed so as to mix it with ferrite particles Fig shows
cooking oil.

Fig Acetone
 Fig Vegetable oil

• Magnets:

Magnets are used to produce magnetic field so that when ferro fluid is exposed to
magnetic field, all the magnetic particles will align with the field lines, and making
the fluid denser.

Fig Magnets
PROCEDURE
The procedure to prepare the ferrofluid is as follows:

1) Collect the ingredients as follows:

Table 1: Ingredients for magnetic fluid

Sr.no. Ingredient Proportion

1. acetone 500ml

2. Cooking oil(soya) 5ml

3. magnets Strong magnets

2) Take a large bowl as shown in Fig

Fig Bowl
3) Melt binder and separate Fe2O3:

We need separate Ferric oxide from plastic tapes. Acetone will melt binder and
separate Ferric oxide. Find large enough bowl. Put all tapes in and fill bowl with
acetone. Wait few hours. You should close bowl with something to keep acetone from
vaporizing.

4) Ferric oxide from the plastic tapes is mixed with the cooking oil which makes a
substance that's liquid when it's sitting around, but turn solid in the presence of a
magnetic field as shown in Fig 24.Therefore magnetic fluid is prepared.

Fig Placing tapes in the bowl containing acetone

 Fig Ferrofluid Prepared

METHOD 2 (USING MAGNETIC INK)

This is also an easy and best way of preparing magnetic fluid. The ingredients
required for its preparation are as follows:

• Magnetic (MICR) ink: The ink is a dry magnetic ink that's used to print checks and
other documents that use magnetic character recognition.

• Household oil: Many types of oils can be used, but it seemed like a light lubricating
oil works best, but any cooking oil will work fine, as well. The amount of oil you
have is pretty much the amount of ferrofluid you'll get out-- about 50mL is good for
starters.
Fig Magnetic ink

Fig vegetable oil

5.Procedure:
Following steps shows procedure for preparing method 2 type of
ferrofluid:-

1 Pour some oil into a mixing cup. Add a bit of the ink, and stir it into the oil.

Fig Poured oil in a mixing cup

Fig Addition of ink into the oil

2) You're making a suspension, so the ink won't dissolve in the oil. Just stir it.

3) Keep on adding ink and stirring until you have a thick solution

Fig Thick solution of ferrofluid

4) A good guideline for identifying a well-mixed fluid is that if you tip your mixing
cup, the fluid should ooze rather than slosh.

5) Therefore ferrofluid is ready.

Fig Ferrofluid
CHAPTER 10
Working Mechanism
 7.WORKING MECHANISM

This method is based on the Ferro hydrodynamics behaviour of the magnetic fluid
which has the ability to float a nonmagnetic abrasive under the influence of the
magnetic field. Magnetic fluids are colloidal dispersions of sub domain ferromagnetic
particles, usually magnetite, in various kinds of carrier liquids. One particular class of
Ferro fluids is made stable against particle agglomeration by the addition of a surface
active agent. When magnetic fluid is placed in magnetic field gradient, it is attracted
towards the higher magnetic field side. If a nonmagnetic substance is immersed in a
magnetic fluid, it is discharged relatively to lower magnetic field side as shown in fig
12. When the magnetic field gradient is set in the gravitational direction the
nonmagnetic material is made float on fluid surface by the action of the magnetic
buoyant force.

Fig Working mechanism of M.F.G.

Table2: Specification table:-

Sr. no parameters specification

1. Motor speed 1440 RPM

2. Workpiece aluminium
material

3. Supply voltage 240v

4. Abrasive Aluminium Carbide

5. Magnetic particles Magnetic ink

8.COMPONENTS:-

 ABRASIVES
abrasives are used for soft work materials. The grain size of abrasive used is about 4
to 34 microns and is very fine powder. The most commonly used abrasives are silicon
carbide (Sic) and aluminum oxide (A12O3). Silicon carbide is used for rapid stock
removal and aluminum oxide for improved surface finish. In this experiment
aluminum oxide is used as abrasive. Photograph shows the fine white powder of
aluminum oxide (A12O3).The abrasive grains used are non-magnetic.
Fig Abrasive Particles
  PERMANENT BAR-MAGNETS

To obtain magnetic field, assembly of permanent magnets are used. In order to obtain
a large buoyant force, large magnetic field gradient as well as large magnetic field is
necessary.

For satisfying such condition, several permanent magnets are placed so that the
magnetic poles of adjacent magnets are opposite. Magnets used are neodymium-iron-
boron magnets or samarium cobalt magnets having magnetic induction of 0.8 to 1.2 T
(Tesla).

It is interesting to note that in the magnetic field of 1.1 Tesla a magnetic induction of
10 A/m is generated. Depending upon the requirement of magnetic field, number of
magnets to be used is decided.

Fig Permanent bar-magnets

  WORKPIECE

Work piece to be polished in this experiment used is aluminium. Due to unavailability

of hard brittle materials in the desired shape and size we have chosen aluminium. The
reason behind selecting aluminium is it's easily available in required shape and size.
one end of the aluminium is held in the fixture, and other end is free to rotate in the
magnetic fluid for its grinding. The outer diameter of work piece to be held is equal to
the internal diameter of the fixture.

Fig workpiece

Table 3: Specifications of work piece:-

Sr. no. parameters specification

1. Workpiece material aluminium

2. Outer diameter at fixture 13mm

end and free end
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP:-
 Rigid body:-

Fig rigid body

 MOTOR:-

Fig Motor
 AUTOTRANSFORMER:-

Fig Autotransformer

 FIXTURE/CHUCK:-

Fig Chuck/Fixture
CHAPTER 11
Assembly
ASSEMBLY:-

The components required for the project are discussed in above points. The
final stage in the setup is to assemble all the components so that it is ready for
experimentation. The assembly is carried out in following steps:-

1. Clamp motor to rigid body with the help of nut and bolt arrangement.

2. Attach fixture to the motor shaft with the help of bolting arrangement.

3. Press fit the beaker filled with magnetic fluid against the wooden arrangement

4. Fix the workpiece to fixture by tightening the bolts provide on it

5. Connect all the motor terminals to the autotransformer.

6. Locate workpiece below beaker by providing required support beneath it

7. Start the motor by supplying 3 phase power supply

Fig Showing Assembly

CHAPTER 12
Calculation
Calculations:-

Sr.no. Input Current (volts) Motor Speed (R.P.M)

1. 60 2780

2. 80 2824

3. 100 2890

4. 120 2920

5. 140 2930
Table 5: Observation table:-

Sr. no. Time Initial Final

required for roughness roughness
grinding value 'Ra' µm value 'Ra'
µm

1. 15 3.50 2.8

2. 15 2.8 2.2

3. 15 2.2 1.55
CHAPTER 13
Expenditure
EXPENDITURE

Sr. no. Component Cost

(In rupees.)
Frame work
1 900

Motor
2 1500

Beaker
3 400

Vegetable oil
4 200

Magnetic ink
5 90

6 Alen Keys 30

Fixture
7 70

Boring operation on fixture

8 800

Carbide
9 1000

Permanent magnets
10 300

Total
5290
CHAPTER 14
Conclusion
12. CONCLUSION

With the help of magnetic fluid grinding it is possible to grind aluminum material
which is a nonmagnetic material. This method is also applicable to various
nonmagnetic materials such as ceramics, hard plastics and glass.

The initial roughness before grinding process is carried out was 3.50µm, which
reduced to -1.55µm after process is completed. Therefore the purpose of doing this
project is accomplished
 CHAPTER 15
Advantages & Disadvantages of
M.F.G.
10. ADVANTAGES OF M.F.G

 Uses controlled low level force

 Low cost of manufacturing

 Both higher material removal and smoother surface finish obtained

simultaneously

 Capital cost is low

11. DISADVANTAGES OF M.F.G.

 Running cost is too high

 Highly effective only for nonmagnetic materials

 Only economical for finishing brittle materials

CHAPTER 16
Future Scope
13. FUTURE SCOPE

 Can also be applied on brittle nonmagnetic materials like ceramics , hard

plastics , glass ,etc

 Can optimize all the parameters for faster and accurate grinding

 A big role of abrasives particles

CHAPTER 17
Reference
14.REFERENCES

―The Preparation of Magnetic Fluids‖; Stuart W. Charles; Department of Chemistry,

University of Wales, Bangor; 2002.

―Variable Frequency Drive‖; Carrier Corporation Syracuse, New York; October

2005

NPTEL; IIT Kharagpur.

―Machine Tool Design Handbook‖; CMTI; McGraw Hill Publications

Manufacturing technology volume-2; P.N. Rao; McGraw Hill Publications; 2nd

edition

Magnetic Fluids and Applications Handbook , edited by B. Berkovski and V.

Bashtovoy, Begell House Wallingford (1996).

M. Magalhães, A. M. Figueiredo Neto, A. Bee, anA.Bourdon, J. Chem. Phys. 113,

10246 (2000).
U.S. Patent 3,843,540 (1974).

S. W. Charles and J. Popplewell, in Ferromagnetic Material, edited by E. P. Wohfarth,

NorthHolland Publishing Company,Vol. 2, Amsterdam (1980).
http://www.ferrotec.com/usa/index.htm

R. Massart, IEEE Trans. Magn. 17, 1247 (1981).

J. Depeyrot, G.J. da Silva, C.R. Alves, E.C. Sousa, M. Magalhães,A.M. Figueiredo

Neto, M.H. Sousa, and F.A. Tourinho, Braz. J. Phys. 31, 390 (2001).