Forgetting

Munn, 1967 has defined forgetting as the loss, permanent or temporary of the ability to recall or
recognize something learned earlier. It may also be defined as the loss of information already
encoded and stored in long term memory. It has both positive and negative consequences in life.

Theories of forgetting

1. Decay theory
Decay theory is the oldest explanation of forgetting. It is the widely accepted commonsense
held by layman in understanding forgetting. According to this theory, forgetting takes place
through the passage of time as a result of fading of memory traces. With passage of time,
normal metabolic processes and chemical reaction of brain causes fading or decay of memory
traces so that these traces gradually disintegrates and eventually disappears altogether.
However, there are many instances which decay theory cannot seem to explain like
 Once we learn to ride a bicycle or learn to swim or learn any motor skills, we do not forget
these skills even when we may not have used these skills for years
 Old people have many stories to tell about their youth
2. Interference theory
According to this theory, forgetting occurs because similar memories interfere with storage or
retrieval of information unlike decay theory which states that forgetting occurs with passage
of time. This theory holds that forgetting is due to intrusion of similar memories on one
another. There are two types of interference:
a. Retroactive interference
Information that was learned after the material we want to remember may hinder the
recall of the earlier learned material is called retroactive interference.

Information being learned currently Information learned previously

interferes
b. Proactive interference
Memories that are already stored may be recalled instead of specific recent memory we
are seeking for, this type of interference is called proactive interference.

Information being learned currently Information learned previously

interferes
3. Motivated forgetting/ forgetting for a reason
The concept of motivated forgetting came from Sigmund Freud. This theory implies that there
is a motive behind forgetting. We may engage in forgetting consciously or unconsciously. If we
consciously avoid/forget unwanted thoughts, it is known as suppression. On the other hand,
repression is the unconscious process of excluding unwanted thought from awareness.
 Motivated forgetting states that we are mainly motivated to forget in order to minimize our
anxiety, to get rid of painful and traumatic events that give us so much pain.
4. Retrieval failure
Retrieval means getting an access to the materials we have encoded. It will be easy for us to
get a book in library if books are well organized and if we are provided with cues to help our
search like books of marketing are from Rack no. 10-15. Likewise, retrieval is facilitated by
well-organization of stored material and availability of retrieval cues. Retrieval cues are stimuli
that are associated with information stored in memory and thus can help bring the
information to mind at times when it cannot be recalled spontaneously. Retrieval cues may be
any sound, or word, or odor, or anything that triggers the memory. Encoding specificity
principle, context dependent memory, and state dependent memory all are included in this
theory.
5. Memory dysfunctions
Memory dysfunctions refer to memory losses due to some problems with the brain. Amnestic
disorders and Alzheimer’s disease are two types of memory dysfunctions.
a. Amnestic disorders
Disturbance in memory that is either due to direct physiological effect of a general medical
condition like physical trauma and vitamin deficiency or due to the persisting effects of
substance like drug abuse, medication, or toxic exposure. Amnestic disorders often occur
as a result of pathological processes like closed headed trauma, penetrating missile
wounds, surgical interventions, hypoxia, tumor, etc. There are two types of amnesia:
i. Anterograde amnesia
Anterograde amnesia refers to inability to store new information after a traumatic
physical event. The causes may be brain tumor, lack of oxygen to the brain, brain
surgery, and hard blows on the head or severe malnutrition. A strong example of
Anterograde amnesia is Mr. H.M. He had suffered from major epileptic seizures.
To help him, doctors operated a brain surgery. But after the surgery, his seizures
got reduced but he suffered from Anterograde amnesia. He was unable to
remember things that happened before his brain surgery as he was not able to
store information in LTM and retrieve it later. In other words, his memory got
restricted to STM.
ii. Retrograde amnesia
Retrograde amnesia refers to inability to remember information that occurred
before trauma. The causes may be brain tumor, diseases or strokes. In the
treatment of severe depression or manic, a brief period of retrograde amnesia is
seen. When electro convulsive therapy is used, patients have no memory of the
treatment.
 Anterograde amnesia
Retrograde amnesia (cannot remember
(cannot remember later events that
events that occurs after brain
occurred prior to Brain damage occurs
damage)
brain damage)

Time

A schematic definition of retrograde amnesia and Anterograde amnesia

b. Alzheimer’s disease
Alzheimer’s disease is one of the types of dementia. Dementia refers to gradual loss of
intellectual ability that is sufficient to interfere with social or occupational functioning.
There are memory impairment, decline in ability to exercise good judgment, and engage in
abstract thinking, loss of self control, confusion, language, and motor problems. In this
disease, there is progressive loss of intelligence, memory, and general awareness. At first,
people may have difficulty remembering appointments and sometimes fail to think of
words or other people’s names. As time passes by, they show increasing confusion, and
increasing difficulty with different cognitive tasks. The memory deficit must critically
involve recent event5s. If people with Alzheimer’s disease venture outside alone, they are
likely to get lost.
There is a strong correlation between amount of Acetylcholine in an individual’s brain and
the severity of that person’s dementia. A genetic basis for many cases of early onset
familial Alzheimer’s disease that runs in family has now been established. (Lopera et. al.,
1997)

Improving memory/factors affecting memory

1. Meaningful organization
a. Hierarchy
b. Chunking
2. Use of imagery
a. Method of loci
b. Peg method
3. Motivation for learning/role of motivation
One important aspect of successful academic performance is motivation for accomplishing a
given task. A desired, a wish to learn is necessary if we are to learn effectively.
4. Speed and quantity of learning
 Over learning refers to continued practice of a skill beyond that point at which some desired
level of mastery is reached. Goal of over learning is to make original level of performance
more resistant to forgetting. If we over learn, the task or material can be replicated
automatically. The person who over learns can manipulate the task easily.
5. Methods of learning
a. Massed vs. distributed practice
Distributed practice is the practice when short practice periods are used separated by rest
intervals while massed practice is working continuously until the task is mastered or at
least for long period of time.
Research with a wide variety of different tasks and rest intervals of various lengths has
shown that there is advantage of distributed practice. Reasons for this result are:
 If the work is prolonged, fatigue may occur and hamper the effectiveness of one’s
efforts
 Short work periods usually produce higher motivation than a long one because of the
reinforcing conditions of reaching a goal more often
 Rest in between the learning trials reduce resistance to learning

However, massed practice works better than distributed practice for those individuals who
take long time to warm up to the task and commencing working. It has been found that
distributed practice is better for retention whereas massed practice for immediate recall.

b. Whole vs. part method of practice

The issue here is whether it is more efficient to learn a task as a whole without breaking it
into parts or it is more effective to divide it into small parts and master it in this fashion. In
whole practice, a task is learned without breaking it into units whereas in part practice,
learning is done by breaking a large unit into few small units. Each small part is learned
before they are combined. If material is long, complex, and difficult to organize, part
method is better while if material is continuous in thought and logical structure is present,
whole method is better.
Choice of whole versus part practice is also determined by other factors like material to be
learned, intelligence of learner, level of motivation, tec. It has been found that bright,
skilled children usually learn better by following the whole method while slow learners
learn better b following part method.
c. Recitation vs. mere reading
Recitation means actively trying to recall what is being learned. Following is the study
done by Gates in 1917. Large group of children from several grades memorized nonsense
syllables and historical information:

Categories Group A Group B Group C Group D Group E

Time spent 100% 80% 60% 40% 20%
 on reading
by %
Time spent 0% 20% 40% 60% 80%
on recitation
by %
Results showed that larger the proportion of time spent in recitation, greater was the
efficiency of learning.

In another study done by Forlano in 1936, children memorized nonsense syllables,

arithmetical facts, difficult English vocabulary works and spellings. The result was both
reading and recitations were more efficient than those with only reading with no
recitation.

6. Knowledge of result/feedback
Knowing how a person is performing offers a strong incentive for the learner to put forth
additional effort. Feedback should be provided as soon as response occurs. Feedback
increases the individual’s effort and directs attention. Constant feedback is necessary
particularly in the development of complex motor skills. It has been found that the improved
performance associated with knowledge of result may be attributed to
a. Repetition of responses known to be successful
b. Attempts to correct responses known to be inadequate
c. Subjects working with knowledge of results find the task more interesting and try hard to
improve their performance
7. Sleeping effect, brain injury
In 1924, Jenkins and Dallenback did an experiment to see the effect of sleep retention. There
were two adults who had to study 10 nonsense syllables one before a certain period of daily
activity and the other before a certain period of sleep. The results were as follows:

Categories Percentage of syllables recalled

Number of waking For subject one For subject two
hours after which he
recalled
1 46 70
2 31 54
4 22 55
8 9 56
The study showed that after the periods of sleep, the recalling was higher than after waking
activity.

It is found that information presented just before sleep is rarely remembered. But information
presented one hour before sleep is well remembered.
8. Intention to learn
A person who read the same morning prayer in church about an estimated 5000 times over a
period of 25 years was unable to recite it without the book before him as found by Dockery
and Lane, 1950. This explains that we can learn that learning with attention diverted
somewhere else will not result in accurate learning. In intentional learning, the subject realizes
that he/she is learning to reach his/her particular goal. Such type of learning is planned and
purposeful and the learner is absorbed in his/her work and the mind is less likely to be
directed elsewhere.
9. Role of reinforcement
Children learn the lesson better if they hope to get a reward afterwards.
10. Study techniques and habits
a. SQ3R method
It was developed by Francis Robinson in 1941. It is an acronym for Survey, Question, Read,
Recite, and Review.
Surveys goes through the chapters quickly, glance at the headings, think about what it says
or implies.
Question means before you read the first headed section, turn the heading into a question
in your mind and formulating a question for each heading that will force you to think
about what you are about to use.
Read is to find the answer to the questions that actively involves you to read
Recite as to recite the answer to the question in own words without looking at the text.
Review is to look at each heading and recall the questions formulated and the answers
found.
b. Habits of study
 Make a schedule to study to maximize time and energy
 Begin to study with enthusiasm
 Refer to more books, visit libraries, check the meaning of words you don’t know while
studying
 Take a break if you are exhausted and frustrated
 Try to keep you mind free from things happening in your life while studying
11. Media of instruction
There has been a growth in devices to facilitate learning process. In addition to books, we can
learn through audio tapes, visual films, visual lectures, internet, etc.
a. Programmed instructions
The procedure known as programmed instruction consists of a carefully prepared
sequence of material called program and sometimes a device for holding and presenting
this program, known as teaching machine.
Here the focus is on self-teaching. It consists of materials structured in a logical and
empirically developed sequence or sequences. It allows students to progress through units
 of study at their own rate checking their own answers and advancing only after answering
correctly.
b. Computer assisted instructions (CAI)
Here, computer is used to present learning tasks directly to the students. The chief
advantage of CAI is that students’ prior response can be stored in the memory system of
computer and then computer can utilize this information in deciding what material should
be presented next. It also provides feedback and reinforcement to student as he/she
progresses.
Memory

Memory refers to a process that allows us to record, store, and later retrieve experiences and
information. It may be defined as the capacity to preserve and recover information. Model
showing how memory works can help us think about how we form and retrieve memories. One
model that has been used is Computer’s Information Processing System which is in some ways
similar to human memory. It regards mind as a processing system that encodes, stores, and
retrieves the information.

Encoding refers to getting information into the system by translating it into neural codes that our
brain can process. This is like what happens when we type on a computer keyboard, we type in
keyboard and it gets translated into electrical code that the computer can understand and process.

Storage involves retaining information over time once information is in the system. It must be filed
and saved as happens in the computer stores information temporarily in RAM and more
permanently in hard drives.

Retrieval refers to processes that access stored information on a computer, retrieval occurs when
we give a software command that transfers information from the hard drive back to RAM or
screen.

Encoding

There are two types of encoding

1. Automatic encoding
Encoding that occurs without intention and that which requires minimal attention without our
conscious effort, we automatically process information about:
a. Space
While studying we often encode the place on page where certain material appears
b. Time
While going about our day, we unintentionally note the sequence of the day’s events
c. Frequency
We effortlessly keep track of how many things happen
d. Well learned information
When we see words in our native language like on the back of a truck, we cannot help to
register their meanings
2. Effortful encoding
Encoding that is initiated intentionally and requires conscious attention as explained by Hasher
and Zacks in 1979. For example, when we take notes, make lists we are engaging in effortful
 processing. Effortful encoding often produces durable and accessible memories. Several
factors influencing effortful encoding are as follows:
i. When learning novel information such as names, telephone number, we can boost our
memory through rehearsal, conscious repetition. German philosopher Hermann
Ebbinghaus decided that he would scientifically study his own learning and forgetting of
novel verbal materials. He created a list of nonsense syllables. He rapidly read aloud eight
times over the list he created. It was found that the more frequently he repeated the list
aloud on day 1, the fewer repetitions was required to relearn the list on the second day.
Simple principle is that the amount remembered depends on the time spent on learning.
Even after we learn material, additional rehearsal increases retention. Therefore for novel
verbal information, practice-effortful processing makes a perfect way of learning.
ii. We retain information better when our rehearsal is distributed over time, a phenomenon
called the spacing effect. More than 300 experiments over the last century consistently
reveal the benefits of spacing learning times (Copeda et. al, 2006). Massed practice can
produce speedy short term learning and feelings of confidence but distributed study time
produces better long term recall.
iii. Another phenomenon, the serial position effect, also illustrates benefits of effortful
encoding. Serial position effect is defined as our tendency to recall best the last and the
first items in a list. Experiments have demonstrated the serial position effect by showing
people a list of items like words, names, dates and then immediately asking them to recall
the item in any order. It was often found that people often remember the last and first
items better than they do those in the middle.
iv. Level of processing
Below there are three words and each word is followed by a question. We just have to
answer yes or no.
 POTATO”Is the word in capital letters?”
 HORSE”Does the word rhyme with course?”
 TABLE”Does the work fit in the sentence below?
The man peeled the _____________.”
Each of the above questions requires effortful encoding but each differs from one another
in an important way. Question one requires superficial structural encoding as we only
have to notice how the words look like. Question two requires a little more effort. Here
we must engage in phonological encoding by sounding out the word to oneself and then
judging whether it matches the sound of another word. Question three requires semantic
encoding because here we must pay attention to what the word means.
According to level of processing, the more deeply we process information, the better we
will remember it (Craik and Lockhart, 1978).
Mere perceiving the structural properties of words like uppercase or lowercase involves
shallow processing and phonemically encoding words involves intermediate processing.
 Semantic encoding however involves the deepest processing because it requires us to
focus on the meaning of information.
v. Exposure and rehearsal
Mere exposure to a stimulus without focusing on it represents shallow processing.
Rehearsal, repetition goes beyond exposure. When we rehearse information, we think
about it. There are two types of rehearsal
i. Maintenance rehearsal
ii. Elaborative rehearsal

Maintenance rehearsal is simple rate repetition. It keeps information active in working

memory. However, rate memorization usually is not an optimal method to transfer
information into long term memory. While elaborative rehearsal involves focusing on the
meaning of information or expanding on it in some way. According to Craik and Lockhart,
1972, elaborative rehearsal involves deeper processing than maintenance rehearsal and
experiments show that it is more effective in transferring information into long term
memory (Benjamin and Biork, 2000)

vi. Organizing information for encoding

We process information more easily when we can organize it into meaningful units or
structures. Here, we look at two ways of organizing information.
i. Chunking
Chunking is combining separate items of information into a larger unit, or chunk
and then remembering those chunks of information rather than individual items.
For example to remember eleven digit phone numbers, we break it into five
chunks like 97715542094 into 977-1-55-42-094.
Similarly while organizing alphabetical information, creating a meaningful units
such as letters, words, and phrases are easily recalled (Hintzman, 1978)
 <~ M" ®€σ
 KlcIsne

 Klcisne Nvese Yna Ni Csttih Indo

 Nickels Seven Any In Stitch Don’t
 Saves Ago A Score Time And
 Nine Wooden Four Years Take

 Don’t Take Any Wooden Nickels

 Four Score And Seven Years Ago
 A Stitch In Time Saves Nine
ii. Hierarchy
 Hierarchy is composed of a broad term concept which is divided and subdivided
into narrower concepts and facts organizing knowledge in hierarchy to help in
retrieving information efficiently. A logical hierarchy enhances our understanding
of how individual items are related as we proceed from top to bottom; each
category serves as a cue that triggers our memory for the items below it. For
example,

Encoding

Automatic Effortful
processing processing

Elaborative rehearsal Maintenance rehearsal

(Deep processing) (Shallow processing)

Links to your life and Meaning of Organization Imagery

existing knowledge information
 vii. Role of imagery
Images are powerful aid to memory. Images may be defined as partial or altered
representations of what is in the world around us. Words for which visual images can be
easily formed are called concrete images while those words that evoke very little visual
images may be called abstract words like desk, door, book as concrete while justice,
freedom, mercy as abstract. Many experiments have been conducted in relation between
imagery and memory. In one such experiment, paired-associate has been used. Using the
paired associate technique, following experiment shows that the role of imagery in
encoding (Poivio, 1965, 1971). In this experiment, concrete words and abstract words
were paired in various ways. Equal number of all pair types of C-A, A-C, C-C, and A-A were
included in the lists to be learned where A stands for items that evoke little image and C
evokes concrete image. The results showed that total recall was maximum in case of C-C
association and least in A-A association.
There are two types of mental imagery
i. Method of loci
It is an encoding technique that creates visual association between already
memorized places and new lists to be memorized. Steps in method of loci are as
follows:
 Memorize a visual sequence of places such as places in your house or college.
Always select easily remembered places.
 Create a vivid association for each item to be memorized
 Once you have created a list of vivid associations, mentally put easy items in one
of the selected places like bread in main door, milk is spilled in the floor,
newspaper is in the notice board, flowers are in the playground, umbrella is
hanging on the door of the classroom, etc.
ii. Peg system
It is the Encoding technique that creates association between number-word rhymes
and items to be remembered. Rhymes act like pegs on which we hang items to be
memorized. In first step, we rhyme the number with the word like one is a bun, two
is a shoe, three is a tree, four is a door, and five is a hive. Then we associate each of
the items we wish to memorize with the peg words in step two like Sameer is eating
a bun, manoj is wearing a new show, bhabana is hanging on tree, samjhana is
standing on the door, bivek is hitting a hive.. In step three, we remember the list of
names of students by recalling each peg along with the names of students that has
been placed.

Storage

Storage is simply retaining the memory. It can be simply explained by the three stage model of
Atkinson and Shiffrin provided in 1968.
Sensory input Attention Rehearsal
Sensory LTM
STM
Register

Retrieval

Memory output

According to this model, memory starts from sensory input being received by sensory register.
Sensory register holds information for a very brief time. That information which is attended gets to
short term memory. Information present in short-term memory if gets rehearsed moves to long
term memory. When we remember something, the representation of the item is retrieved from
LTM and the memory output is from STM.

1. Sensory register/Sensory memory

Stimuli detected by our senses can be either deliberately ignored in which case they disappear
almost instantaneously or in case if they are perceived, they enter our sensory memory. The
form of sensory memory that automatically holds visual information for about a quarter of a
second or more is called Iconic memory while the form of sensory memory that holds auditory
information for 1 to 2 seconds is called echoic memory.
In 1950s, George Sperling made the participants see 12 letters arranged in 3 rows and 4
columns for a very brief period of time i.e. 1/20 seconds and the subjects were asked to recall
them. The results were as follows;
Number of letters recalled Time after presentation of letters
9 0.0 sec
6 0.5 sec
4 1 sec
This shows that, as time passes by, the information hold in sensory memory gets lost. In other
words, information in iconic memory gets stored for a brief time only.
2. Short term memory/STM
Originally short term memory was viewed as a temporary store station that holds information
coming from sensory memory. And the information that it receives if gets rehearsed get to the
long term memory. In short term memory, information stays for up to about 30 seconds and
along it holds small amount of information of 7±2 items. But now cognitive psychologists view
it as not passive, instead the working memory. Working memory is a limited capacity system
that temporarily stores and process information (Baddeley, 2002). It is also defined as the
mental work space that stores information, actively manipulates it and supports other
cognitive functions as problem solving and planning. Working memory comprises of four
components:
 a. Phonological loop
b. Visuo-spatial sketchpad
c. Episodic buffer
d. Central executive
3. Long term memory/LTM
This is the memory which is for permanent stay. It has two types:
a. Declarative memory
Declarative memory refers to memory related to facts, names, dates, knowledge, etc.
these are called declarative because to demonstrate our knowledge, we have to declare it
i.e. we tell others that we know it. e.g., Kathmandu is the capital of Nepal, Twin towers
was attacked in 2001etc. these memory are also called as explicit memory as we put in a
conscious effort to retrieve it.
b. Procedural memory
It refers to memories relating to procedures for accomplishing various tasks and skills such
as how to make an omelet, how to brush teeth. Contents stored in this memory is not easy
to describe hence is also called as implicit memory. These are automatically retrieved
without putting conscious effort.
According to Tulving, there are two types of declarative memory
i. Episodic memory
It contains biographical details of our lives. Memories relating to our personal life
experiences constitute the episodic memory and it is for this reason that its
contents are generally emotional in nature.
ii. Semantic memory
It is the memory of general awareness and knowledge. All the concepts, ideas,
rules of logical etc are stored in semantic memory. Since, contents of semantic
memory relate to facts and ideas of general awareness and knowledge, it is affect-
neutral.

Retrieval: getting information out

Retrieval is defined as the process of assessing stored information to make it available to

consciousness. Psychologists have distinguished to three ways of retrieval

1. Recall method
It is a process of bringing past experience into present consciousness in eh absence of stimulus
just like at the time of examination.
2. Recognition method
It is the process of bringing past experience into present consciousness in the presence of
stimulus we have already experienced just like in multiple choice tests.
3. Relearning method
 When we learn the same material for the second time, it becomes easier than original learning.
It saves time, effort, and is simpler than original learning process.

Though some memories seem to be retrieved effortlessly, others depend on the availability of
retrieval cues. Retrieval cues are the stimuli that are associated with information stored in
memory and thus help bring the information to mind at times when it cannot be recalled
spontaneously. It may be any sound, word or anything that triggers.

According to encoding specificity principle, the retrieval of particular memories will be more
successful when cues available during recall are similar to those that were present when the
information was originally encoded. Some of the memory effects that affect the retrieval are:

1. Context dependent memory effect

Tendency for information to be better recalled in the context in which it was originally learned.
Stimuli present in settings in which material is originally learned may be encoded along with
the material itself. These stimuli may then serve as retrieval cues to help bring this information
back to our consciousness.
Experiment was done by Duncan Godden and Alan Baddeley in 1975 on the members of
University swim club. They were divided into two groups: one was made to learn a list of
words sitting on a beach and the other group under 10 feet water. The results of recall showed
that words learnt underwater were best recalled underwater and words learnt on land were
best recalled on land.
2. State dependent memory effect
It states that physical or psychological states may also serve as retrieval cues. It occurs when
people can better recall information when they are in the same physical or psychological state
as when they first acquired the information. An experiment was done by Schramke and Bauer
in 1997. In this experiment, participants were either made to rest or exercise immediately
before learning a list of words. Later on, it was found that recall of information was better
when participants were tested under the same condition as the original learning.
Similarly, people are generally better able to recall information when they are in the same
mood as when they learnt the information. (Bower, 1992)