S.Y.

– Aeronautical Engineering
FLUID MECHANICS LAB

Experiment
: 02 Date
No.

Title : Flow of visualization by ‘Haleshaw’s apparatus.

Objective : To visualize the pattern of flow around various objects in a fluid stream and
flow through the confined passage.

Theory : Most flow encounter in engineering application are in complex in nature. To

enable understanding of such flow. It is often necessary to have a picture of the
quantitation pattern of flow such a quantitative results for a given flow and thus
enable to achieve at better design or aircraft components such as wings fuselage
control surfaces in design of fluid mixture in determining the shape of bridge,
piers etc.
Background : Among the most common methods of flow visualization in law subsonic flow
Information: are
1. Smoke method
2. Tuft method
3. Dye injection and powder shrinking method.
4. Hydrogen Bubble techniques.
The flow visualization methods can be employed to achieve following
objectives.
Observation and plotting of stream line in a steady flow:
The technique of dye and smoke injection are easily employed to trace the
injected particles since the path-lines consider with the streamline in a steady
flow. The instantaneous picture provides a streamline pattern. In unsteady flow,
some information can be gained by taking the shapes at regular intervals of line.
Observation of streamline in a surface flow:
Tuffs are generally employed at the surface, their directions as well as their
fluctuations are observed.

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FLUID MECHANICS LAB

Estimation of surface friction:

Rate of sublimation of a solid layer of naphthalene or a liquid film is correlated
with the surface shear stress oil dye mixture remains sticking on a surface until
the point if separation. If now a fine powder is blown from the inlet it will stick
on the oil and leave a permanent record of the separation point.
Turbulent mixing in the flow:
The extent of turbulent mixing can be estimated by the intensity of smoke or
color distribution and diffusion in flow
Formation and location of shocks:
Observation of occurrence of shock wave and its intensity is very important in
passages such as nozzle & in external flow such as aerofoils.

Apparatus : For flow visualization by help of Heleshaw, apparatus following contents are
used.
Heleshaw apparatus, water pigment like potassium permanganate for
preparation of dye, rectangle, circular and aerofoil, beaker.

Specifications Test Channel : Made up of transparent acrylic sheet.

Procedure 1. 1. Take the Heleshaw apparatus and water is filled completely in water jet of
apparatus.
2. While filling the water, the water tap must be closed.
3. Then insert the specimens one by one. Let first insert rectangular specimen in
it.
4. Add 4 to 5 drops of potassium permanganate in water.
5. Open the water tab and observe the process, we get the stream tubes are
formed around specimen.
6. Then do some process for circular and aerofoil specimen.
7. We get the pattern of flow depending upon the shape of specimens i.e. for
rectangular specimen we get aerofoil flow pattern.
Application: 1. For aerocraft, designing flow visualization is useful.
2. Bridges, pillars.
3. Natural and artificial channel of waters.

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FLUID MECHANICS LAB

Result: The observed flow pattern should be sketched on laboratory record sheets. For
every sketch, the shape and size of model angle of incidence, Reynold’s number
and shape of flow must be recorded.

Flow Quantitative and qualitative picture of pattern of flow around various objects
Visualization: placed in fluid stream and flow through confined passage is nothing but the
flow of visualization.
Flow visualization mostly depends upon the shape of object placed in the path
of fluid stream.
These are various types of methods of flow visualization, which are as follows.
1. Smoke Method
2. Tuft method
3. Dye injection and powder shrinking method.
4. Hydrogen Bubble Techniques.
Flow visualization is applicable in almost all fields. It has very wide application
in aircraft industry.

Viva-Questions :

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S.Y. – Aeronautical Engineering
FLUID MECHANICS LAB

Experiment
: 03 Date
No.

Title : Bernoulli’s Theorem

Objective : To verify Bernoulli’s Equation

Theory : Statement of Bernoulli’s Theorem

In steady, non-viscous ideal fluid total head at any time remains constants along
with the flow of fluid. Mathematically, Total Head/Wt. of fluid

So formula of Bernoulli’s is

In general

In the Bernoulli’s equation is known as pressure head or static head. The

term is known as datum head or potential head and is known as kinetic head.

The sum of all the heads is known as total head

This equation holds good for ideal fluid which is impossible to exist so there is
always loss of energy when fluid flows from one point to another point.

= head loss but they are very negligible so we are not considering it in
experiment.
In the experiment, the section through which fluid is flowing as converging and
diverging so that velocity of water increases when it passes through converging
section and hence pressure head is reduced. In diverging section velocity
decreases and pressure head increases.

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FLUID MECHANICS LAB

Apparatus : The equipment is designed as Recirculation type set-up. It has a Sump tank,
Measuring tank and Monoblock pump for water circulation. The apparatus
consists of a Supply tank and Delivery tank, which are connected to a Perspex
flow channel. The channel tapers for a length of 25 cm. And then gradually
enlarges for the remaining length. Piezometer tubes are fixed at a distance of
5cm. center to center for measurement of pressure head

Specifications : 1. Perspex Channel - Fixed in between supply and delivery tank. Length –
750mm, made up of Acrylic. Piezometric tubes - 11 Nos. fixed on the
channel.
2. Sump Tank - Size - 1250 x 500 x 300mm ht.
3. Measuring Tank - Size 500 x 300 x 300mm. ht.
4. Piezometric Glass Tubes with scale fitted on tube for flow measurement.
5. Mono block Pump - Capacity: -0.5 H.P., Single Phase, 230 V. with required
bye-pass valve and suction piping.
6. Flexible Hose Pipe for connecting the basic unit to the Sump Tank.
7. Control valve for controlling the flow rate.

Procedure 1. Keep the by-pass valve fully open and start the pump and slowly start closing
the bye-pass valve.
2. The water will start flowing through the flow channel and the level in the
piezometer tubes shall go on increasing.
3. Open the valve on the delivery tank side and adjust the head in the piezometer
tubes to get a steady position.
4. Measure the heads at all the points and also discharge in the measuring tank
by keeping the drain valve of measuring tank closed. Measure the time taken
for collecting 5cm / 10 cm of water by Stop clock.
5. Change the discharge / flow rate and repeat the procedure as above.
6. Prime the Pump, if it does not suck water from the sump tank. This will
happen in case the unit is started after a gap of long period (say after few
months).

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FLUID MECHANICS LAB

Observation :
Table 1

Piezo- Piezo- Velocity Velocity

Pressure head Area ‘A’ Total
Sr. meter meter X ‘V’ in head
in cm. of flow head
No. Tube Reading cm cm/sec. V2/2 in
(p + X) cm2
No. (p) cm Q/A cm

1 1 1.6 5.5
2 2 1.35 4.75
3 3 1.2 4.00
4 4 1.15 3.25
5 5 1.05 2.50
6 6 1.1 2.75
7 7 1.2 3.00
8 8 1.3 3.50
9 9 1.35 4.25
10 10 1.45 5.00
11 11 1.55 5.40
Observation
Table 2
Height of water in Discharge ‘Q’ Mean
Sr. ‘T’ time
Measuring Tank in Discharge ‘Q’ in
No. in sec.
cm (h) cm3/s. cm3/s.

1 10
2 10
3 10

Precautions : 1. Ensure Sump tank is filled with clean pure drinking water up to 75% of the tank.
2. Ensure if the bye-pass valve is fully opened.
3. Operate control valve gently.
4. After completing the experiments the sump tank / measurement tank is to be

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FLUID MECHANICS LAB

drained completely and kept dry if there is vacation / long gap in conducting
experiments.
Calculation : Pressure Head P/ (cm)

Discharge Q (cm3/s)
( )

( )
Velocity V (cm/s)

Where A1 = area of section of flow channel at point No.1

Velocity Head (cm)

Total Head

Conclusion : Piezometer level decreases at water through convergent section due to increase in
velocity head.After that water pressure head increases as water flows through
divergent section.
Total energy lines inclines as we are working from supply tank toward delivery
tank. This shows the existence of frictional loss.

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S.Y. – Aeronautical Engineering
FLUID MECHANICS LAB

Experiment
: 04 Date
No.

Title : Reynolds Experiment

Objective : To study the nature of dye filament and determination of Reynold’s Number

Theory : Osborne Reynolds, in 1833 conducted a number of experiments to determine the laws
of resistance in pipe. By introducing a filament od dye into the flow of the water along
a glass pipe, he showed the existence of two different types of motion. At low
velocities the filament appeared as a straight line while passed down the whole length
of the tube indicating laminar flow. At high velocities, the filament, after passing a
little way along the tube, suddenly missed with the surrounding water, indicating that
motion had now become turbulent.
Experiment with pipes of different diameters and with water at different temperatures
led Reynolds to conclude that parameter which determines whether the flow shall be
laminar or turbulent in any particular case is :-

Here

Apparatus : The apparatus consists of an acrylic tube with one end having bell mouth entrance
connected to a water tank. The tank is of sufficient capacity to store water. At the other
end of the glass tube, a cock is provided to vary the flow rate of water. A capillary
tube is introduced centrally in the bell mouth. To this tube, dye is fed from a small
container placed at the top of the tank through polythene tubing.

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FLUID MECHANICS LAB

Procedure : 1. Open the main supply valve and fill the tank of apparatus with water with the outlet
of the glass tube partly open so that no air is trapped in the glass tube.
2. Close the outlet valve of the glass tube and the inlet valve of the tank when tank is
full.
3. Leave the apparatus for some time so water in the tank is at rest i.e. no disturbance.
4. Partially open the outlet valve of the glass tube and inlet of the tank so that the
velocity if the flow is very small and the water level in the tank is fairly constant.
5. Pour the dye in the container so that dye stream moves as a straight line through the
tube showing the flow is laminar. Measure the discharge.
6. Increase the velocity of flow and again measure the discharge.
7. Take five to six readings till dye stream in the glass breaks up and get diffused in
water.
8. Calculate the Reynolds number for each reading to confirm visual observation.

Observation Table

Volume of Velocity (m/s) Reynolds

Time Discharge
Sr. Water v=Q/ cross No. Type of
Required ‘Q=V/T’
no. Collected ‘V’ section area of Flow
‘T’ (Sec.) (m3/s)
(lit) tube
1

Calculation : Inner Pipe Diameter ( d ) = 20 mm

Discharge

Velocity of the flow through Acrylic Tube

m/sec

where A = Area of Acrylic Pipe =

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FLUID MECHANICS LAB

For water where ‘ ’ = 1.006 x 10-6 m2/sec

Conclusion : 1.

2.
3.

Viva- :
Questions

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FLUID MECHANICS LAB

Experiment
: 05 Date
No.

Title : Calibration of Venturimeter

Objective : To calibrate the Venturimeter i.e. to find out the coefficient of discharge.

Theory : Discharge through Venturimeter is given by

√
( )
√

( )

Apparatus : This equipment is designed as Re-circulation type set-up with a standard Venturimeter
fitted in a pipeline. A Sump Tank, Measuring Tank, pump & piping is provided as
basic set-up. A Venturimeter of d/D ratio 0.5 – 1” dia is provided in the line.
Connections of pressure tapping are given to the differential manometer.

Procedure : 1. Connect the manifold with flexible pipe from the main pipe line for water
connection.
2. Keep the downstream valves of both the pipelines open and start the water
connection.
3. Confirm that the water is flowing through both pipelines properly.
4. Now choose the pipeline connected with Venturi-meter and close the valve of the
other line tightly. Adjust the flow rate of the water accordingly.
6. Take readings of the manometer connected after closing the tappings,
7. Also measure discharge in the measuring tank.
8. Change the discharge and take same more readings.
Observation : d1 = dia of inlet of Venturimeter = mm
d2 = dia. Of throat of Venturimeter = mm
Sh = Specific gravity of manometric fluid mercury = 13.6

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FLUID MECHANICS LAB

Observation Table
‘x’ Rise in Time in
Sr. in cm of ‘ h ’ of water Water level sec. for Qact in Qth in
Cd.
No. mercury =x( 1) in m in measuring (z) m rise m3/sec. m3/sec
tank (z) (m) ‘T’
1

Calculation : ( )
( )
( )
√
( )
√

( )

( )

( )( )

Conclusion :

Viva- :
Questions

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S.Y. – Aeronautical Engineering
FLUID MECHANICS LAB

Experiment
: 06 Date
No.

Title : Calibration of Orifice Meter

Objective : To calibrate the Orifice-meter i.e. to find out the coefficient of discharge.

Theory : Discharge through Venturimeter is given by

√
( )
√

( )

Apparatus : This equipment is designed as Re-circulation type set-up with a standard orifice meter
fitted in a pipeline. A Sump Tank, Measuring Tank, pump & piping is provided as
basic set-up. Orificemeter of d/D ratio of 0.5 – 1” dia. are provided in the line.
Connections of pressure tappings are given to the differential manometer

Procedure : 1Connect the manifold with flexible pipe from the main pipe line for water
connection.
2. Keep the downstream valves of both the pipelines open and start the water
connection.
3. Confirm that the water is flowing through both pipelines properly.
4. Now choose the pipeline connected with Orifice-meter and close the valve of the
other line tightly. Adjust the flow rate of the water accordingly.
6. Take readings of the manometer connected after closing the tappings.
7. Also measure discharge in the measuring tank.
8. Change the discharge and take same more readings.
Observation : d1 = dia of inlet of Orificemeter = __mm
Table d0 = dia. of Orificemeter = __ mm
S = Specific gravity of manometric fluid mercury 13.6

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‘x’ Rise in Time in

Sr. in cm of ‘ h ’ of water Water level in sec. for Qact in Qth in
Cd
No. mercury =x( 1) in m measuring (z) m rise m3/sec. m3/sec
tank (z) (m) ‘T’
1
2
3
4
Calculation :
( )
( )
( )
√
( )
√

( )

( )

( )( )

Conclusion :

Viva- :
Questions

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S.Y. – Aeronautical Engineering
FLUID MECHANICS LAB

Experiment
: 07 Date
No.

Title : Calibration of Notches

Objective : To calibrate the Triangular and Rectangular Notch

Theory : Notches are actually used to measure the rate of flow liquid from a tank or channel to
determine time required to the empty tank or channel. Notches are actually classified
all the shape of openings –
1) rectangular
2) triangular
3) trapezoidal
4) stepped
1) Rectangular notch-
This notch is generally used to measure quantity of water in channel generally for
discharge
2) triangular notch-
This notch is used to measure the discharge. This is because which rectangular notch
may so small that it accordingly.
Notches are also classified to affect to side an emerging notch as,
1) notch with end contraction
2) notch without contraction
The sheet of water flowing through a notch is called ‘Nappe or Vein’
The bottom edge of a notch, over which water flows is known as ‘Crest or Sill ’

Apparatus : A notch is used for measuring rate of flow of a liquid through a channel. Liquid is
allowed to pass over a particular shaped opening constructed across the flow such that
the top of opening is above the surface of flowing liquid.

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Procedure 1. Fix up the rectangular / V notch in the flow channel.

2. Pass the water over it, stop the flow and allow water it to be steady at crest or sill
level
3. Take the readings of the level of the notch i.e. S1.
4. Stat the flow and allow some discharge to pass over the notch. Note down rise in
the height of water level S2
5. Increase or decrease the flow of water by adjusting by-pass valve and take more
readings
Observation :
Table
Crest level Final level H Time
Sr. Type of Qact Qth
reading reading (S2 – S1) required for Cd
no. Notch (m3/s) (m3/s)
(S1) mm (S2) mm ‘mm’ X m height
1 Triangular
2 Triangular
3 Rectangular
4 Rectangular

Calculation :
(
( ))
( ( )) ( )

For ‘V’ or Triangular Notch : Angle : 600

⁄
√ ( )

For Rectangular Notch : L – 50mm

⁄
√ ( )

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FLUID MECHANICS LAB

Precautions : 1. Run the equipment once in a week.

2. Use clear water in the Sump Tank.
3. Always keep the by-pass valve open, while starting the pump and adjust required
flow rate.
4. Operate the valves carefully.

Conclusion :

Viva- :
Questions

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FLUID MECHANICS LAB

Experiment
: 08 Date
No.

Title : Pipe Friction Apparatus

Objective : Determination of loss of friction

Theory : When a fluid is flowing through the pipe, it is subjected to resistant flow due to
shear forces between the pipe wall and fluid particles also. This resistance is generally
called frictional resistance. This resistance depends upon the velocity of flow and area
of surface contact. It also depends upon the type of flow i.e. laminar or turbulent. A
frictional resistance causes loss of pressure in the direction of flow.

Apparatus : The apparatus consists of three pipes with different I.D.’s. of G.I.Pipes, one Steel Pipe
and one Brass Pipe, so the head can be compared for different diameters. Control valve
is provided at the outlet of pipes which enables to conduct the experiments at different
flow rates i.e. at different velocities.
Tappings are provided along the length of pipes so that drop of the head can be
observed along the length of pipe. Each pipe is provided with valve for controlling the
heads.

Procedure 1 Fill up the clean water in the Sump Tank.

2. Open all the outlet valves and start the pump.
3. Check for leakage by closing three of outlet valves, for each pipe. Correct the
leakages if any.
4. Open the outlet valves of the pipe to be tested.
5. Remove all the air bubbles from manometer and connecting pipe.
6. Reduce the flow. Adjust outlet valves so that water heads in the
6. Manometer will be at readable height.
7. Note down the heads and flow rate.
8. Now, increase the flow and accordingly adjust the outlet valve so that water
will not overflow. Note down heads and flow.
9. Repeat the procedure for other pipe.

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FLUID MECHANICS LAB

Observation :
Table

Piezometer Piezometer diff.

Sr. Type Pipe Q Velocity
diff. x m of hf m of H2O 3
V2
No. of Pipe Diameter m /s V
Hg h=x(13.6-1)

1 G.I.
2 G.I.
3 G.I.
4 Steel
5 Brass

Calculation :

find out coefficient of friction for each pipe

Conclusion :

Viva- :
Questions

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FLUID MECHANICS LAB

Experiment
: 08 Date
No.

Title : To Determine the Hydraulic Coefficient of orifices

Objective : To determine the Hydraulic Coefficient of orifices like Cd, Cv, Cc

Theory : This equipment is designed as Recirculation type set-up. It is meant for conducting
experiments on different orifices. The equipment consists of constant head tank with
arrangement for fitting of orifices, arrangement for measuring X & Y coordinates of
the jet, overflow arrangement which helps in keeping the head constant above orifice
and a drain channel for the jet coming out.

Apparatus : i) An orifice tank with mouth piece filled near bottom in vertical site of tank.
ii) Sliding scale to measure co-ordinate iii) Stop watch

Procedure 1. Fill water in the Sump Tank, prime the pump, keep the bye-pass fully open
2. Fit suitable orifice/mouthpiece to the tank.
3. Start the pump and slowly close the bye-pass valve and the water will start
flowing in the orifice/mouthpiece tank.
4. Adjust the overflow pipe to get constant head above the orifice level with
minimum overflow.
5. The water will start flowing out as a jet and which will be collected in
Measuring Tank with the help of drain channel.

6. Adjust the pointers for measuring co-ordinates of the jet.

7. Repeat this procedure for mouthpiece.

8. Measure the flow rate with help of Stop clock for different flow rates.

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Observation
Table:

Head ‘h’ X
Dia. Y t
mm Co- z in
Sr. Of Co- mm time Qa
Above ordina 3 Cd Cv Cc
No orific ordina in m /Sec.
centre of te Tank
e te sec.
orifice

Calculations Diameter of orifice. a) d = 8.5 mm.

Area of Orifice = a

Actual Discharge Qact- Volume/Time

Theoretical discharge. Qth=a√

Cd=Qth/Qact

Cv=
√

In case of orifices: Coefficient of contraction.

Cc = Cd/Cv

Conclusion :

Viva- :
Questions

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