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CONTENTS

4 letters

6 upfront

Emerging issues
14 SA hopes to answer big questions around the impact of small
science

18 Aquatic ecosystems
The hunt’s afoot for Kruger’s amphibians in new kiss-and-tell study

Water history
22 Olifants River – home to one of South Africa’s oldest irrigation
schemes

28 Acid mine drainage


AMD: Local solutions for local challenges

31 Riparian habitat
The fall and fall of Mapungubwe’s riverine forest

34 Agriculture
WRC tools help farmers improve efficiency, cut costs

36 Water personalities
The ripple effect: Liani and Maria are cycling for change

Capacity building

THE WATER WHEEL is a two-monthly


40 The adventure of working together: Promoting transdisciplinarity
between young water scientists

43
magazine on water and water research
published by the South African Water Capacity building
Research Commission (WRC), a Growing Africa’s future water leaders
statutory organisation established in
1971 by Act of Parliament.
Subscription is free. Material in this 44 Water kidz
How much water did you have today?

46
publication does not necessarily reflect
the considered opinions of the mem- Last Word
bers of the WRC, and may be copied CSIR showcases its science
with acknow­ledgement of source.
ISSN 0258-2244 September/October 2010 Volume 9 No 5

Editorial offices:
Water Research Commission, Private
Bag X03, Gezina, 0031, Republic of
South Africa.
Cover: The debate is raging over the benefits
Tel (012) 330-0340. Fax (012) 331-2565.
versus the risks of nanotechnology. See page 14.
WRC Internet address: Cover illustration by Ralf Broemer.
http://www.wrc.org.za
Editor: Lani van Vuuren,
E-mail: laniv@wrc.org.za;
Editorial Secretary: Mmatsie Masekoa,
E-mail: mmatsiem@wrc.org.za;
Nano debate: Revolution or risk?
Layout: Drinie van Rensburg,
E-mail: driniev@wrc.org.za
The Water Wheel September/October 2010 3
Letters

Letters to the Editor


Appreciation for the on irrigation development south of the Burger, Giel Laker, Boet Human (senior Affairs also announced that the plans
Water Wheel Orange River, i.e. in the Karoo. North of lecturer in Agronomy at UOFS), Skroef regarding the areas to be irrigated from
the river provision was to be made only van Zyl (senior lecturer in Agricultural the Vanderkloof Dam had been changed

T he team producing the Water Wheel for a small canal to supply water to the Engineering at UOFS) and Dries van der drastically. Although it was very late, the
magazine deserves a jolly big pat Rama area. Merwe (soil scientist in the OFS region authorities this time at least listened to
on the back. The magazine contents are No soil surveys were done before or at Glen). The Pretoria delegates included soil scientists and adapted the planning
interesting, well written, informative during the planning stage of the Orange Dr SJ du Plessis, Deputy-Secretary of the accordingly. Unfortunately this is seldom
and of a very high quality. The layout and River scheme to determine how much Department of Agricultural Technical Ser- the case, not only in South Africa. An
presentation is superb and very profes- irrigable land there was in the envisaged vices, Mr Kriel, Secretary of the Depart- unused canal section south from the
sional. I particularly enjoy the articles irrigated areas and where these irrigable ment of Water Affairs, Mr Du Plessis, Chief Vanderkloof Dam which was built
on the history of dams and readers’ soils were. Soil surveys were conducted Planning Engineer of the Department of prematurely at a cost of about R2-million
comments. only when the Gariep Dam was already Water Affairs, and others. It was pointed (a lot of money at the time) is still a silent
Having been involved in hydrology being constructed. When soil surveys out to the delegation that the extent ‘monument’ for what could have been a
for some 41 years now, I find the various eventually started in the northern Karoo, of irrigable soils south of the river was major disaster.
articles on climate change and global close to where the Vanderkloof Dam was extremely limited, but that there were It can safely be said that Roelf Burger,
warming intriguing as many theories to be built, it soon became clear that large blocks of irrigable soils north of the through his unwaivering courage and
exist, resulting in our renowned scientists there were extremely little irrigable soils river, especially in the Plooysburg area. perseverance saved the country from an
occasionally being at loggerheads with in the area. There were only a few small The day of tough discussions was fol- economic, agricultural and ecological
each other, often leaving readers amused areas near Hopetown. lowed by a site visit on the Friday. I could disaster.
and sometimes confused. More of this The findings by the young soil scien- not join the visit because of lecturing To date there has been no large-scale
please. tists doing the survey led to great drama. duties. As I left the Agriculture building irrigation development on the irrigable
You can truly be proud of an outstand- They started contacting Prof Roelof the afternoon Skroef arrived full of smiles. areas identified north of the Orange
ing publication. Keep up the excellent du Toit (Roelf or “Tuffy”) Burger, then He told me that before 10:00 the morning River. According to the PhD thesis of Dr
work. Head of the Department of Soil Dr Du Plessis told his advisors that they Koos Eloff (1984) these amount to about
Felix Wulff, Pretoria Science at the University of the Orange had misled him. 370 000 ha, of which about 160 000 ha
Free State, informing him of their find- The next week it was announced that are in the Plooysburg area. Only a few
ings. They knew that he had the strength it was decided to postpone the construc- small areas have since been developed.
Why ORP was never
of character to take this up strongly and tion of the Vanderkloof Dam due to ‘infla- In 2009, a senior Water Affairs engineer
expanded clearly with the authorities in Pretoria, tion’. The fact is that the dam, especially told me that there is presently no water
which he did repeatedly. He invariably the outlets, had to be redesigned and available for development of these large

I n his letter in the Water Wheel of July/


August 2010 Robert Blythe wrote:
“The scope of the project as outlined in the
received nasty letters from Pretoria telling
him to keep his nose out of the matter. I
barely a year later construction of the
dam started. The Minister of Water
irrigable areas. One wonders what would
have happened if there were large areas
was a young lecturer in his department
1962 White Paper was far greater than at the time and he always discussed the
has actually been implemented since. This problem with me and showed me the let-
is particularly true of the irrigated areas ters. After one particularly nasty letter he
to the west. There has been virtually no said to me: “Giel, moet ek nie maar liewer
transformation of the desert.” ophou nie. Dis nie goed vir my gesondheid
The idea of “making the desert bloom” nie.” He had serious heart problems. But
in the Karoo by means of supplying after a while he said: “Maar my gewete
water from the Orange River was simply laat my nie toe nie.”
an illusion. To make a desert bloom by Eventually tenders were invited for
means of irrigated agriculture one needs the construction of the Vanderkloof Dam.
both (a) irrigable soils and (b) water. In One day we received instructions to meet
the planning of the Orange River scheme a delegation from Pretoria in the board
attention was given only to the provision room of the Faculty of Agriculture to once
of water. This consisted only of engineer- and for all tell them what our objections
ing planning, such as identification of and reservations were. I remember we
dam sites, types of dam wall structures, had to meet on a Thursday in about the
identification of water command lines for middle of October in I think 1969, a week
the siting of canals for delivering water before the contract for construction of
from the Vanderkloof Dam to envisaged the dam was to be awarded. The persons
irrigated areas, etc. All emphasis was who received the instructions were Roelf

4 The Water Wheel September/October 2010


Letters

of irrigable soils south of the river and record. The NASA Goddard Institute was selected in consultation with are interested in the answers to the
these were developed or if large areas for Space Studies has found that the Royal Society. It consisted of professor’s questions, there is plenty of
north of the river were developed earlier. global surface temperatures have scientists from Cambridge, Imperial information available. The New Scientist
Ironically there is thus presently not a lack increased significantly since the late College, MIT, University of Arizona has a series “Climate change: A guide
of irrigable land in the central parts of the 1970s. These findings (and many and ETH (Swiss Federal Institute of for the perplexed” and The Scientific
country, just a lack of water. others) vindicate the “hockey stick” Technology, Zürich). Its conclusions American has published “Seven Answers
Prof Giel Laker, Pretoria graph mentioned in his letter. were even more emphatic. According to Climate Contrarian Nonsense”. Both
to the panel’s chairman, they found are easily found on the internet.
Climate change – reader 4 The European winter of 2009/2010 “absolutely no evidence of any Rob Dyer, Durban
provides some answers was one of the coldest on record. impropriety whatsoever”, and
This is not a serious argument against concluded that the allegations had Prof Will Alexander

P rofessor Alexander’s letter in the global warming. Firstly, there is no been made by people “who do not responds:
May/June edition of the Water Wheel evidence that average global tem- like the implications of some of the

C
(Climate Change – More Questions than peratures were cooler than normal, conclusions” reached by CRU. limate change scientists have three
Answers) is a defense of his argument and secondly, climate is a long-term fundamental obligations. First, they
that there is no need to take measures phenomenon. Climate has been 6 The International Panel on Climate have to determine the natural conditions.
to mitigate against climate change. confused with weather. Change (IPCC) has been publishing Second, they have to determine the
In support of his position, he makes a false information to support its posi- departure from these conditions if no
number of points, none of which carry 5 Scientists at East Anglia University’s tion on AGW. action is taken to control greenhouse gas
serious weight: Climate Research Unit have been These are errors in how the panel’s emissions. Third, they have to determine
manipulating the evidence that findings have been communicated, the reduction in the undesirable conse-
1 His research has shown no indication supposedly points to anthropogenic and have no bearing on the quences if these emissions are controlled.
of significant changes to rainfall (human induced) global warming underlying science. To label them as These three responses have to be a
trends in South Africa. (AGW). “fraudulent activities” is ridiculous. numerical format in order to facilitate
Professor Alexander’s interpretation of Professor Alexander’s account of What they indicate is that the IPCC mitigation and adaptation procedures.
his own research has been challenged this episode is highly selective, should exclude non-scientific sources The procedures in turn require the
by South African clima­to­lo­gists. But focusing on the media headlines for information in its reports and cooperation of those of us in the applied
whatever the interpretation, rainfall quoting a few fragments of the improve its editing procedures. and engineering sciences.
in South Africa is but a tiny element many thousands of e-mails released Sadly, climate change scientists refuse
of the global climate. It cannot on its by the hackers. He omits crucial The IPCC’s reports reflect the scientific to consider inputs from those of us in the
own be used to judge whether climate information on subsequent inquiries consensus that anthropogenic global other disciplines. I have yet to see this
models are accurate. into the matter: In January 2009 the warming is happening now. This view is information in a climate change publica-
Science and Technology Committee supported by the large majority of scien- tion. The absence of this information sup-
2 Rainfall trends elsewhere in the world of the British House of Commons tific institutions across the world. These ports my view that there is no need for
similarly show no evidence of climate announced an inquiry and called for include the US National Academy of Sci- concern regarding climate change until
change. submissions. The concerns expressed ences, the UK Met Office, the American such time that this information has been
This is simply incorrect. For example, by the three scientific institutions Association for the Advancement of Sci- produced, verified and distributed.
Australian researchers have found a mentioned by Dr Alexander formed ence, the American Geophysical Union, The following are the responses to Rob
link between surface sea tempera- part of their submissions to the the American Institute of Physics and Dyer’s comments.
ture changes in the Indian Ocean inquiry. The inquiry report was the American Meteorological Society.
and off Indonesia to the significant released at the end of March. It Virtually all peer reviewed climato- 1 Rainfall is the dominant concern glo­
decline in rainfall in South East cleared the scientists of all serious logical research on climate change also bally as well as in South Africa. Without
Australia since 1950. NASA has found allegations. On the integrity of the supports this consensus. it there would be no life on this planet.
a link between drought in East Africa scientists, the inquiry found that The implications of the consensus are If the model outputs predict a drier
since 1980 and higher Indian Ocean “the scientific reputation of Professor that the risk of rapid global warming is climate when the opposite is the case,
temperatures. Jones and CRU remains intact”. On very high, and that the consequences then they are obviously inaccurate.
the actual climate science, it found of this are likely to be catastrophic for
3 There has been no significant increase that “the controversy did not chal- human society. In attempting to refute 2 There is no evidence of a decrease in
in global temperatures over the past lenge the scientific consensus that the scientific consensus, Professor Alex- South African rainfall during the past
few decades. ‘global warming is happening and ander has focused on media headlines 100 years despite increasing global
Again, the scientific evidence is to the that it is induced by human activity”. and has regrettably made unfounded temperatures and emissions. This
contrary. The UK Met Office recently A more detailed inquiry into the attacks on the integrity on fellow scien- demonstrates that there is a funda-
published a report indicating that conduct of the researchers was tists at the University of East Anglia. mental error in the basic theory.
global temperatures have risen 0.75° set up by the University, led by an For any readers who are concerned
over the last 100 years, with 2000 to international team of scientists. The about the risk that global warming 3 The hockey stick growth has been totally
2009 being the warmest decade on “CRU Scientific Assessment Panel” poses to future generations, and who discredited. It is based on studies of tree

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 5


Letters
Letters Upfront

rings and ice cores. It suppresses the


well-documented historical warm
9 Finally, why does the writer not quote
the Royal Society’s decision to rewrite Water by New research
and cold periods during the past its document on the basics of climate
numbers chair to look at
1 000 years. change theory? There are also several
published books that are critical of
food security
4 Climate change scientists are fond of climate change science.
20-million hectares – The land
area of South Africa infested with
and water
claiming that unusual events are the
consequence of climate change, except Editor: The debate on this matter is now
invasive alien plants, according to quality
a new report by the Agricultural
when they are contrary to model pre- closed. No further correspondence will be
dictions when they become weather,
not climate.
published in this regard.
Research Council. This is twice as
large as previously estimated. The
largest infestation of invasive alien
R ising concern over the effect of
deteriorating water quality on the
country’s food security has prompted the
plants occur in the Eastern Cape CSIR to establish a Research Chair in Food
5 The climate gate affair and the need Who is protecting Security and Water Quality.
(600 000 ha affected), followed by
to appoint three committees to imported peat? According to Dr Paul Oberholster, lim-
KwaZulu-Natal (300 000 ha).
investigate it precipitated a flood of
R800 000 – The money set aside nologist at the CSIR, the need to establish
responses worldwide. These, in turn,
resulted in both the Royal Society and
the chairman of the IPC see having
G reat magazine, although I have
some comments regarding the
saving of local peatlands from exploi-
by government for the Luvuvhu
Adopt-a-River project in Limpopo,
such a chair became apparent after the
consideration of the results of recent pre-
according to Deputy Minister of liminary studies conducted on behalf of
to acknowledge that there were still tation (‘For Peat Sakes’, the Water
Water & Environmental Affairs the Loskop Irrigation Board. Among oth-
uncertainties in climate change theory. Wheel July/August 2010). The article
Rejoice Mabudafhasi. Through this ers, the chair will scientifically investigate
Both were previously adamant that was very informative and covered the
initiative around 100 women from the extent and severity of water pollution
the signs were settled. This was also wide ranging effects of the destruc-
villages around Vhembe have been and its effect on the availability and qual-
the consensus view. Obviously the tion of our peatlands, but what was
identified to clean the river for the ity of food in South Africa. Funding will
consensus view is in error. jarring at cross purposes was the way
next year at a stipend. be sought from private-sector partners to
that the use of imported peat was
1 600 – The estimated number achieve its goals.
6 The claims in the IPC reports that the condoned.
of people who lost their lives The Transvaal Agriculture Union (TAU)
Himalayan glaciers would melt within It makes little sense that South
in devastating floods triggered has expressed its whole-hearted support
25 years and that the Amazon forests African peat should not be exploited
by monsoon rains in Pakistan. of the chair. “The elements that go into
were being damaged by climate or removed commercially by opening
According to the UN, more than produce the nation’s food are like the links
change, were both acknowledged to be up the land for agriculture and devel-
300 000 homes were destroyed or in a chain. All of these elements – be
false and misleading. They were by no opment, but the imported peat from
damaged, 14 000 cattle perished it fertilisers, good soil or good water –
means simple editorial errors. They were Europe is obtained at the expense of
and 2,6 million acres of crop land need to be in place to ensure optimal
deliberate erroneous statements. their marshes! Surely what is bad here
was inundated, leaving 17 million crop production,” explained TAU Deputy
is bad there too!
people affected. President Louis Meintjies. “We have been
7 The statement that there is a scientific I would not be comfortable
50% – The percentage of industrial concerned over the deteriorating quality
consensus that anthropogenic global protecting our peatlands and feeling
drainage that is returned for reuse of South Africa’s water for some time, and
warming is happening now is also smug about it when we well know
in urban and industrial areas such we need to understand the overall impact
false. Dr Jones and others have that the imported peat we use is a
as Johannesburg and Pretoria. this is having on crop production and the
acknowledged that there has been no product of the very actions we want
24 hours – The notice given to nation’s food security. We hope the new
sustained increase in global tempera- to stop here!
Coal of Africa to cease all opera- chair will be able to achieve this.”
tures since 1998. The authorities that Riyaz Nakhwa, Cape Town
tions at its Vele Colliery in the area
are quoted by the writer have been
of Mapungubwe, in Limpopo.
challenged. They are fears that the
The mine incurred the wrath of
world could be entering a mini ice age.
environmental groups when it
allegedly started illegal mining
ISSN 0258-2244 July/August 2010 Volume 9 No 4

8 The conclusion that the consequences


operations in this historic area.
of increases in global temperatures
15 – The number of transboundary
could be catastrophic for human
rivers in southern Africa, whose
society is unbelievably naive. Varia-
combined drainage area cover
tions in global climate are driven by
78% of the region’s continental
variations in the receipt and redistri-
land area. Major international
bution of solar energy, not variations
rivers in the region include the
in global temperatures. Temperature
Congo, Zambezi, Okavango,
does not feature in the analysis of
Limpopo, Orange, and the
floods, droughts and water resource SA’s peatlands Cunene.
development. facing extinction

6 The Water Wheel September/October 2010


Upfront

Chemicals manufacturer cleans up its act

A company’s efforts to clean up its act


has won it an award.
AECI has received the runner-up award
chlorinated solvent. SRK consequently
developed a rehabilitation strategy for
the reserve containing six elements:
water infiltration. The ET cover provides
long-term sustainability for remediation
since the microbial action associated
bacterial population injected into selected
wells to create a bio-barrier within the
drums area.
in the innovative strategies category hydraulic control of contaminated with vegetation and its growth reduces
of the Mail & Guardian’s Greening the groundwater migration; minimisation maintenance and provides contaminant The Vumbuka dams from the
Future awards. The award was received of rainwater infiltration; management source reduction as roots grow deeper air prior to decommissioning
for the firm’s remediation initiatives at its of surface water run-off on to and from into the waste body. (below) and after
rehabilitation (bottom).
Umbogintwini Industrial Complex near the area; natural and enhanced in-situ After evaluating the likely
Amanzimtoti, KwaZulu-Natal. source reduction; monitoring of perfor- effective­ness of various methods
The remediation project, led by SRK mance; and community liaison. of contaminant source reduction,
Consulting, was initiated in 1995 to Hydraulic controls, such as the including physical removal by excava-
address the contamination of land and abstraction and treatment of ground- tion and/or pumping and treating,
groundwater resources as a result of water, were implemented early in the in-situ bio-remediation was selected
historical activities associated with the project to prevent further ground- as the preferred approach. Monitor-
manufacture, storage and distribution of water contamination from reaching ing of contaminant levels and other
chemicals, agrochemicals and fertilisers. the neighbouring residential area of parameters demonstrated that natural
The Vumbuka Reserve, a 27-ha area in Ezimbokodweni. Dewatering the dams degradation is occurring in the dams
the north-west portion of the complex in the reserve also served to reduce area of the Vumbuka Reserve, but that
proved the greatest challenge to the the hydraulic head that was driving in the so-called drums area (where
remediation team. This area was histori- groundwater beyond the boundaries of drums originally containing chlorinated
cally used for the disposal of liquid and the complex. hydrocarbon wastes have been buried)
semi-solid wastes, and had provided Furthermore, after much investiga- enhanced degradation will be required.
the source for widespread off-site and tion, a vegetative, evapo-transpiration A programme of in-situ trials was car-
on-site groundwater contamination. (ET) cover was implemented to cap the ried out by SRK and has resulted in the
The main contaminants of concern were dewatered dams and thus reduce rain- injection of an organic substrate and

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 7


Nature NGO measures world’s fine
SA government commits
to protecting grasslands paper footprint

G lobal nature non-governmental organi-


sation (NGO) WWF has launched a new
voluntary rating tool for paper companies to
voluntarily disclose their environmental pro-
files on WWF’s new Paper Company Index.
“WWF applauds these companies for their
report on their global ecological footprint. leadership and transparency,” said Harri Kar-
Fine papers have everyday uses, jalainen, WWF’s Pulp and Paper Programme
including copier/printer paper, book Manager. “They are the vanguard of a more
paper, envelopes, forms, writing pads, sustainable paper industry.”
high-quality magazines and brochures, Other fine paper and tissue companies
catalogues and annual reports. The Paper have been invited to follow suit, and
Company Environmental Index assesses show what they have done to reduce their
key environmental criteria, such as the global ecological footprint. “We hope
use of recycled or fibre coming from well- this new online tool can promote some

M inister of Water & Environmental in eight of the country’s nine provinces. managed forests, energy use and carbon healthy competition within the paper
Affairs, Buyelwa Sonjica, together The grasslands biome is one of the most dioxide emissions, water consumption industry as to who can achieve the light-
with eight MECs responsible for environ- threatened biomes in South Africa, with and water pollution. est footprint,” noted Karjalainen.
mental affairs have signed the Grasslands 30% of grasslands irreversibly trans- Five globally significant fine paper Results and profiles of the participat-
Declaration committing government formed and only 1,9% of the biodiversity manufacturers, including Mondi Group ing companies can be found at www.
to the conservation of grasslands target for the biome formally conserved. from South Africa, have been the first to panda.org/PaperCompanyIndex.
biodiversity. According to Sonjica, grasslands
The Declaration is an effort to collabo- sustain the economic heartland of South Are protected areas harbouring
rate in good faith to pursue biodiversity Africa by providing the bulk of its water.
targets and objectives in securing and “Several of South Africa’s priority river invasive species?
sustaining the ecosystem services of the catchments occur in the grasslands biome,
grasslands biome. Among others, it com-
mits government to take active measures
including the Thukela River catchment.
Good management of South Africa’s P rotected areas, long thought of as
safe refuges for animals and plants,
are under increasing threat from invasive
ecosystems, the biggest single threat to
biodiversity. In Zambia, for example, the
Giant Mimosa (Mimosa pigra), originally
to involve stakeholders in the manage- mountain grasslands will result in more
ment and conservation of biodiversity of water being released back into the river alien species, which not only affect biodi- alien to Africa, has spread over 3 000 ha
grasslands. catchment system in the form of 12,8 m3 of versity but also people’s livelihoods. of prime habitat since being introduced to
The South African grasslands biome water in winter river flows. In Rand value, Protected areas can have huge social the Kafue floodplain in the 1980s, pushing
is the second-largest in South Africa, this equates to between R18-milion and and economic value, particularly in Africa, out many large and important aquatic
covering an area of 339 237 km2. It occurs R788,7-million per annum.” where national parks are a major tourist antelopes, water birds, reptiles, amphib-
attraction and a significant source of ians, fish, invertebrates and plants from
income. But according to the Global Inva- their natural habitat.
Biodiversity climbing the sive Species Programme, many managers Mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) is one of
of protected areas in Africa are not aware the most widespread dryland invasive
corporate agenda – study of the severity of the problem which is on species in north and east Africa having
their doorsteps nor how to address it. already invaded 500 000 and 700 000 ha

B usiness leaders in biodiversity-rich


developing economies are concerned
about losses of natural capital, according
biodiversity part of their business plans
may find themselves increasingly out
of step with the market place. “We are
“Habitat conservation is vital for
stemming the decline in biodiversity and
the establishment of protected areas is an
in Kenya and Ethiopia respectively. Under
ideal conditions, it has the ability to
double its range every five years.
to a new report. entering an era where the multi-trillion important mechanism for achieving this “We need to build invasive species
Over 50% of CEOs surveyed in Latin dollar losses of natural and nature-based aim,” said Sarah Simons, Director of the monitoring and management into regular
America and 45% in Africa see declines resources are starting to shape markets Global Invasive Species Programme. “But, protected area management routines,”
in biodiversity as a challenge to business and consumer concerns,” noted UNEP with invasive species rapidly invading our maintained Geoffrey Howard, IUCN Global
growth. In contrast, less than 20% of their Executive Director Achim Steiner. “How ever-increasing protected areas unchecked, Invasive Species Coordinator. “Unfortunately,
counterparts in western Europe share companies respond to these risks, realities we are in danger of exacerbating one of the the vast majority of protected areas in Africa
such concerns. and opportunities will increasingly define greatest threats to our biodiversity.” do not have the capacity or resources to
The findings, compiled by a study of their profitability; corporate profile in the A negligible amount of the funding recognise or identify invasive species. People
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodi- marketplace and the overall development spent on biodiversity conservation projects are largely unaware of how damaging
versity and backed by the United Nations, paradigm of the coming decades on a each year is devoted to invasive species, they can be and, more importantly, do not
indicate that those corporate chiefs who planet of six billion to over nine billion even though they are the second biggest possess the necessary information and
fail to make sustainable management of by 2050.” threat to biodiversity globally, and in some equipment to actually manage them.”

8 The Water Wheel September/October 2010


Shape-shifting fish adapts to
Biodiversity protection
changing river conditions
can save nature and dollars
W hen rivers are impounded many
aquatic species adapted to fast-
flowing waters suddenly find themselves
upstream to spawn, or that some species are
wiped out entirely within a stream when
a dam goes in,” reports Travis Haas, lead
trapped in still reservoirs. author of the study and a PhD student in the
Scientists from Tulane University, in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary
US, have discovered one species of fresh- Biology. “But this is an example of a species
water fish that morphs into a new shape in that remains in a stream that becomes a lake
response to a lake-like environment. and changes in response to it.”
Among the characteristics of the Haas studied the aquatic life in eight pairs
Liese Coulter/CSIRO

reservoir-dwelling C. venusta, commonly of rivers and reservoir sites in the Mobile River
known as the blacktail shiner, are smaller Basin in Alabama. He found that the charac-
heads, lower-set eyes, a shorter dorsal fin teristics of shiners from reservoirs diverged

A more flexible approach to the more of their original extent protected,” positioned closer to the head and deeper consistently from those in rivers. This indicates
expansion of protected area systems Fuller noted. “We can do this if we bodies. that water impoundment – constructing
could ultimately protect much more reverse the protection status of the least “The public hears that dams do things dams – may be an evolutionary driver acting
biodiversity for the same budget. cost-effective sites and use the resulting like prevent salmon from migrating on aquatic biodiversity.
This is according to a paper in scientific capital to establish and manage new
journal, Nature. Lead author Dr Richard protected areas.” New conservation plans for
Fullor of the University of Queensland,
in Australia, said that without spending
Fuller and his co-authors, includ-
ing colleagues from CSIRO and the
endangered wetland bird
extra money “we could dramatically University of Queensland, acknowledge
improve the performance of protected
area systems by replacing a small number
that community values would need
to be incorporated when consider-
N ew conservation plans for the
Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus)
covering its entire range and migration
Global Environment Facility, government
officials, scientists and conservationists
are coming together to adopt strategies
of poor performing areas with more cost- ing changes to the protected status
routes that span continents have now to reduce hunting, improve water
effective ones.” of selected reserves. However, the
been endorsed to save the species from management and mitigate the impact of
Protected areas are one of the most benefits of reducing management costs
extinction. climate change.
important tools in modern nature conser- in low performing areas are also worth
During its annual migration, the Among others, loss of wetland
vation, with over 100 000 sites covering exploring.
Siberian Crane travels 5 000 km from its habitats is a major threat to the Siberian
about 12% of the land and territorial By being informed by this analysis
breeding grounds in Yakutia and western Crane. Water management for wetland
waters of countries worldwide. The paper method, future investments in protected
Siberia, intermediate resting and feeding areas is therefore crucial. Agriculture use,
examines how effectively different sites areas could better protect biodiversity
places, to its wintering sites in southern diversion of water resources and channels
can conserve a range of vegetation types. from threats such as climate change. “As
China and Iran respectively. During these have resulted in severe shortages at the
“Replacing the least cost-effective the rate of investment in new protected
extensive journeys along three migration birds’ critical habitats. This mismanage-
1% of Australia’s 6 990 strictly protected areas has slowed globally in recent years
routes, called flyways, they overcome ment is enhanced by climate change,
areas could more than double the number ensuring the best places are protected is
considerable obstacles such as high intensifying pressure on the species.
of vegetation types that have 15% or more important than ever.”
mountains and vast deserts. Major threats At present, plans are being prepared
like hunting in West and Central Asia and to improve water resource management
the drainage of critical wetlands in East at sites such as the Thanedar Wala Game
Water on Asia put them at even greater risk. Only Reserve and the Taunsa Barrage, both

the web organisations working for the protec-


3 000 to 3 500 birds remain globally.
Now, under the new Siberian Crane
located in Pakistan and recognised for
their importance for migratory water
tion of water birds and their habitats
Wetland Project, supported by UNEP’s birds.
have joined forces to develop this
http://dev.unep-wcmc.org/ tool, which makes it easy to obtain
csn/default.html information on the sites critical for www.iwawaterwiki.org www.wmo.int/youth/
The critical site network (CSN) tool is water bird species. It accesses several The IWA (International Water Associa- This is the youth Webpage of the
a new online resource for the conser- independent databases and analyses tion) WaterWiki provides a platform for World Meteorological Associa-
vation of 294 species of water birds, information at the biogeographical the global water community to interact tion. The site contains interesting
and the important sites upon which population level, so providing a com- and share knowledge online. The site information about the climate and
they depend in Africa and Western prehensive basis for management aims to be a reference for all areas of weather as well as games, videos, a
Eurasia. Leading global conservation and decision making. water, wastewater and environmental library and links to other weather-
science and management. related sites.

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 9


Global news

Simple sari cloth holds UN declares Malaria-proof


key to better health access to clean mosquito a
water and world first
W omen are literally
wearing the
compliance with instructions and the
sustainability of the method, but it also sanitation a
answer to cleaner water
and better health,
shows the need for continuing education
in the appropriate use and benefits of
human right
T he creation of genetically-altered
mosquitoes that cannot infect

S
according to a study in simple filtration,” notes Colwell. afe and clean drinking water and humans with malaria is providing new
Bangladesh. The researchers also looked at the sanitation is a human right essential hope to countries where millions of
Using the simple sari incidence of cholera in households during to the full enjoyment of life and all other people die from the disease each year.
to filter household water the follow-up period. While not statistically human rights, the General Assembly of University of Arizona (UA) ento-
protects not only the significant, they found the incidence of the United Nations (UN) has declared. mologists, who created the mosquitoes
household from cholera, hospitalisation for cholera during the The 192-member Assembly also called which are completely immune to the
but reduces the incidence five-year period between studies reduced on UN member states and international malaria parasite, Plasmodium, aim to
of disease in neighbouring households by 25%. “With the lower rate of filtration organisations to offer funding, technol- one day replace wild mosquitoes with
that do not filter. “During an earlier study, in this follow-up study, it is not surprising ogy and other resources to help poorer lab-bred populations unable to act as
this filtering method was field tested in that the observed reduction in disease countries scale up their efforts to provide vectors. “If you want to effectively stop
Matlab, Bangladesh, and proved to reduce was not as high as the 48% observed in clean, accessible and affordable drinking the spreading of the malaria parasite,
the incidence of cholera by 48%. This the original trial, suggesting that active water and sanitation to all. The text of the you need mosquitoes that are 100%
latest follow-up study, conducted five reinforcement would have been effective in latest resolution expressed deep concern resistant to it. If a single parasite slips
years later to see whether filtering by sari ensuring higher protection,” says Colwell. that an estimated 884-million people lack through and infects a human, the
has persisted, showed that nearly a third Researchers also found an indirect access to safe drinking water and more whole approach will be doomed to fail,”
of the village women continued to filter benefit. Household that did not filter their than 2,6 billion people do not have access says Prof Michael Riehle of the UA’s Col-
water for their households, with both water, but were located in neighbour- to basic sanitation. Studies also indicate lege of Agriculture and Life Sciences,
an expected and unexpected benefit,” hoods where water filtration was regu- that about 1,5 million children under the who led the research effort.
explains Rita Colwell of the University of larly practiced by others also had a lower age of five die each year and 443 million Riehle’s team used molecular biol-
Maryland, a researcher on the study. incidence of cholera. “Results of this study school days are lost because of water- and ogy techniques to design a piece of
Over 7 000 village women collecting showed that the practice of filtration not sanitation-related diseases. genetic information capable of insert-
water daily for their households in only was accepted and sustained by the ing itself into a mosquito’s genome.
Bangladesh were selected from the same villagers but also benefited those who This construct was then injected into
population used in the previous study. filtered their water, as well as their neigh- the eggs of the mosquitoes. The emerg-
Survey data showed that 31% continued bours not filtering water for household ing generation carries the altered
to filter their water, of which 60% used use, in reducing the incidence of cholera,” genetic information and passes it on
a sari. “This is a clear indication of both concludes Colwell. to future generations. For their experi-
ments, the scientists used Anopheles
stephensi, a mosquito species that is an

Waterborne diseases could cost US over $500-m a year important malaria vector through the
Indian subcontinent.
When the researchers studied the
H ospitalisations for three common
waterborne diseases cost the American
healthcare system as much as US$539-mil-
Beach and his colleagues estimated the
hospitalisation cost of three common
waterborne diseases in the US, namely
rhoea, which is a nuisance but quickly goes
away. However, these infections can cause
severe illness that often result in hospital
genetically modified mosquitoes after
feeding them malaria-infested blood,
they noticed that the Plasmodium
lion a year, according to researchers from the Legionnaires’ disease, cryptosporidiosis and stays of more than a week, which can quickly
parasites did not infect a single study
Centre for Disease Control and Prevention. giardiasis. For each case of disease, they drive up healthcare costs,” notes Beach. Other
animal. “We were surprised how well
“These cost data highlight that water- calculated the cost paid by the insurer, the symptoms can include rashes, eye and ear
this works,” reports Riehle. “We were just
related diseases pose not only a physical out-of-pocket cost to the patient and the infections and respiratory or neurological
hoping to see some effect on the mos-
burden to the thousands of people sickened total amount paid. systems, and can be fatal in severe cases.
quitoes’ growth rate, lifespan or their
by them each year, but are also a substantial Total estimated costs for hospitalisation Modest investments in preventing these
susceptibility to the parasite, but it was
burden in healthcare costs, including direct for the three diseases was between diseases could lead to reduced disease
great to see that our construct blocked
government payments, reports Michael US$154-million and US$539-million. and significant healthcare cost savings,
the infection process completely.”
Beach, who led the study. In-patient hospitalisation costs per case aver- maintains Beach. Some examples of
The research has been published in
At present, there are well-documented aged more than US$34 000 for Legionnaires’ possible, low-cost interventions include
the July 15 edition of the journal Public
data on the total healthcare costs asso­ disease, about US$9 000 for giardiasis and public education campaigns, appropriate
Library of Science Pathogens. For more
ciated with all waterborne diseases. more than US$21 000 for cryptosporidiosis. maintenance of water systems, and regular
information, go to www.plospatho-
However, using data from a large insurance “When people think about these diseases, inspection of pools and other recreational
gens.org/home.action.
claims database between 2004 and 2007, they usually think of a simple case of diar- water facilities.

10 The Water Wheel September/October 2010


Company news

New packaged wastewater treat- Unusual technology separates


ment units for chemical company hot and cold water at Implats

V WS Envig has been awarded a contract


to supply a KwaZulu-Natal based
chemical manufacturing company with a
Envig GM Wayne Taljaard.
The effluent will be treated in the first
evaporator, recovering 12 m3/day of water. S pecialist contractor BBE has concep-
tualised and designed an unusual
Consequently each dam has been fitted
with five plasticised canvas bladders, with
wastewater treatment plant. Then the treated water or distillate will water thermal storage scheme for Impala a combined capacity of 3 Mℓ per dam. The
The plant comprises two evaporation be returned to the client’s process system Platinum in the North West. largest bladder measures 30 m by 7 m and
technology package units – only the to be re-used. The concentrate from the The system promises to achieve is 6 m high when full. The bladders have
second pair in the country. first evaporator will be transferred to the significant power savings. “The challenge been secured to the base of the dam and a
The initial contract negotiated covered second for further treatment. has been to introduce water thermal piping system feeds and extracts the cold
supply only, however, this was later At this stage, a further 2 m3/day of storage into the cooling systems on seven water in and out of the bladder, while the
converted to a turnkey contract. The water will be recovered, with the result- shafts using existing water storage dams hot water is fed and extracted from the
client required that no liquid discharge ing concentrate being discharged as a for both hot and cold water storage at surrounding area.
should leave the plant. After research and semi-solid. “This plant is unique in that no different times during the day,” explains The capital costs for the simultaneous
consultation, contract engineer proposed pre-treatment is required. The effluent will BBE MD Richard Gundersen. storage of hot and cold water in the same
the so-called EVALED evaporators. be fed directly into the evaporators with Five of the shafts have dams where reservoir has been achieved at a fraction of
“It was established that the effluent significant cost savings,” notes Taljaard. the hot and cold water is stored, relying the cost of a new dam, says Gundersen. “The
produced by the manufacturing plant would With this technology, the produc- on thermal stratification alone. In these electrical operating costs will be reduced by
hardly be treatable using conventional treat- tion plant has the potential to become a dams, the height to diameter ratio is such producing more cold water than is required
ment technology, therefore the decision to complete zero liquid effluent discharge that the hot water remains above the during off-peak tariff periods, then switch-
use these evaporators, which are particularly facility which has far reaching environmen- cold with minimal mixing. The shape of ing the refrigeration machines off during
suited to treating effluent with high chemi- tal benefits. Commissioning of the plant the other two shaft dams (shallow, large the peak tariff periods of the day and using
cal oxygen demand and high concentrations is anticipated during the third quarter of diameter) has required another means of the stored cold water. The saving is achieved
of salts, organics and metals,” explains VWS 2010. keeping the hot and cold water separate. through the tariff differential.”

New pipeline brings more water to iLembe

R obor Pipe Systems has successfully


completed a contract for Umgeni
Water to convey water from the Tugela
systems, concrete reservoirs, 21 km of bulk
supply pipelines and take-off points. Robor
Pipe Systems supplied pipe coating, lining
protection for buried pipelines and covers
performance and quality assurance. This
status elevates Robor Pipe Systems into an
River to the iLembe District Municipality in and jointing, and was involved in cathodic unusual market space and offers customers
KwaZulu-Natal. protection particularly for this scheme. greater value, as well as peace of mind.
The company handled both the bulk Galvanised piping was selected and Robor Pipe Systems GM Gavin Fait
water pumping system and reticula- externally coated with a patented shrink expressed his delight with the company’s
tion, providing a 150NB steel pipe for wrap product that helps to protect the steel involvement in the iLembe project. “It is
the project. More than 16 000 people pipeline from corrosion and deterioration. great that the South African government is
have gained access to potable water The solution also offers cathodic protection. starting to fulfil its promises. The market is
through this scheme. In order to meet the requirements of buzzing with activity as municipalities begin
The project involved the upgrading Umgeni Water, TOSAwrap was re-specified to award projects to speed up the delivery of
of abstraction works on the Tugela River, and is now compliant with the international water to people, and Robor Pipe Systems is
water treatment works and pumping standard EN12068, which governs corrosion very proud to be a part of this drive.”

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 11


WRC reports

New from the WRC


Report No: 1685/1/10 eutrophication of water resources, and some of the major catchments of the and consulting facilities in South Africa;
The Use of 222Rn as a Hydrological Tracer the apparent failure of the legislate Western Cape, with wheat lands in establish protocols for the laboratory
in Natural and Polluted Environments 1 mg/ℓ effluent phosphate concentration the Swartland and Overberg regions culturing and maintenance of selected
(PJ Hobbs; R Lindsay; A Maherry; standard to control this problem, the widely known to contain ‘brak kolle’ indigenous freshwater fish species, for
M Matshaya; RT Newman and SA Talha) WRC identified the need to investigate (saline scalds) where the wheat will not use in ecotoxicity testing; and to establish
Radon-222 (222Rn or simply radon) is an the positive and negative consequences germinate. Numerous salinisation studies fish bioassay protocols which will provide
inert odourless and colourless noble gas associated with the introduction of zero- have been conducted, however, they representative data for ecosystems in the
that occurs naturally in air, water, rocks phosphate powdered laundry detergents do not seem to address the possibility South African context.
and soil. The daughter of 226Ra, it is a into the South African market. Among that changes in land use over the last
radioactive isotope with a half-life of 3.82 others, the project reviewed current century, from extensive pastoral use to Report No: TT 454/10
days. These properties have promoted local and international best practice intensive cropping, may have triggered Integrated Management of Water Hyacinth
its use as a natural tracer in numerous with regards to the use and restriction of salt decantation. This three-year project in South Africa: Development of an Inte-
hydrological and hydrogeological applica- phosphates in detergents; estimated the followed a preliminary study published in grated Management Plan for Water Hya-
tions. The use of 222Rn in groundwater impact detergent phosphates are having 2004, which found convincing evidence cinth Control, combining Biological Control,
studies has not enjoyed much attention on the phosphate loading and efficacy of dryland salinisation impacts on water Herbicidal Control and Nutrient Control,
in South Africa, being limited to the of wastewater treatment plants as well quality in the Berg River. The central aim Tailored to the Climatic Regions of South
tracing of fault zones in groundwater as the frequency and severity of algal was to develop a thorough understand- Africa (M Byrne; M Hill; M Robertson; A
exploration. A study of its local applica- blooms in key dams; and investigated ing of water and salinity dynamics in the King; A Jadhav; N Katembo; J Wilson;
tions as a hydrological tracer in natural the impacts of the introduction of regolith of a small dryland catchment R Brudwig and J Fisher)
and polluted environments is therefore zero-phosphate detergents on the waste representative of semi-arid conditions Water hyacinth is South Africa’s most
both appropriate and opportune, as is a discharge charge system. in the Berg River basin. The perspective damaging floating aquatic weed. Despite
comparison of the results produced by would include not only salt sources and notable success with the biological con-
various measurement methods. Report No 1496/1/10 storage but also groundwater fluxes and trol of other floating aquatic weeds, and a
A Stakeholder Driven Process to Develop a catchment runoff in order to inform future concerted biological control effort against
Report No: TT 446/10 Catchment Management Plan for the Kat large-scale modelling, and to guide the water hyacinth, its populations continue
Investigation of the Positive and Negative Valley (K Rowntree; S Birkholz; J Burt and design of practices that reduce the degra- to reach newsworthy proportions on
Consequences Associated with the Intro- S Farolfi) dation of land and water resources. major rivers and dams. The research
duction of Zero-phosphate Detergents into The WRC has supported catchment presented in this report addressed the
South Africa (LM Quayle; CWS Dickens; management in the Kat River valley, Report No: 1313/2/10 effect of temperature and nutrients on
M Graham; D Simpson; A Goliger; in the Eastern Cape, since 2004. This Development of Protocols for Acute Fish the growth of water hyacinth and some
JK Dickens; S Freese and J Blignaut) report details the process and outcomes Toxicity Bioassays, using Suitable Indi­ of its biological control agents. It also
negative of the development of a catchment genous Freshwater Fish Species (VE Rall; investigated the interaction of herbicide
the positive and
Investigation of ociated with the introduction management plan for the valley by JS Engelbrecht; H Musgrave; LJ Rall; application with biological control. This
conseque nces ass o South Africa
TT 446/10

te detergents int
of zero-phospha , local stakeholders and researchers from DBG Williams; R Simelane) has been done in light of
Dickens, M Graham
Investigation of

LM Quayle, CWS ger, JK Dickens,


D Simpson, A Golinaut Rhodes University. In the Kat River valley, Toxicity testing is playing an increas- In Te gr aT
ed
S Freese & J Blig developme M an ag eM
en T of W
nt
the principle objective of the catchment ingly important role in water resource combining of an integrated aT er
the positive and

biologica manageme Hyac In TH In So


tailored to l co nt uT H af rI
the clima ntrol, herbicidal co plan for water hy ca:
management plan was to establish a management in South Africa. A need was Marcus By
rne, Marti
tic region
s of
ntro
a
acint
South afric l and nutrient cont h control,
rol,
negative conseque

Kin
g, ashwini n Hill,
Jadhav, na Mark robertson,
water allocation plan for present and identified for nationally standardised fish ryan Bru
dvig & Jol weji Katem
ene fishe
r
bo, John
anthony
Wilson,

future water use in the valley, and to bioassay protocols as well as for the use
nces
associated with

facilitate the water licensing process in of indigenous fish representing receptor


the catchment. organisms actually present in aquatic
the introduction

ecosystems to extrapolate meaningful,


of zero-phosphat

Report No: 1503/1/10 relevant and ecologically significant


Land Use Impacts on Salinity in Berg River results and management objectives
e detergents into

Water – Research on Berg River Water from ecotoxicity tests. This project,
Management (WP de Clerq; N Jovanovic initiated in 2002, aimed to, among
South Africa

TT 446/10

and MV Fey) others, develop capacity to ensure the


In response to the growing awareness of
Dryland salinity is widespread throughout continued production of adequate test
the role played by phosphate contained
semi-arid regions of the world, including organisms to be provided to research
in powdered laundry detergents in the
TT 454/10

To order any of these reports, contact Publications at Tel: (012) 330-0340;


fax (012) 331-2565; E-mail: orders@wrc.org.za or visit: www.wrc.org.za

12 The Water Wheel September/October 2010


WRC reports

discovering a sublethal dose of herbicide Report No: 1554/1/10 order to develop reasonable conceptual broad-scale assessment of impacts and
which will retain water hyacinth plants in Kinetic Development of Oxidation Zones in models describing the occurrence and ecosystem services, and socio-economic
a system to maintain populations of the Tailings Dams with Specific Reference to the flow dynamics of groundwater in the and sustainability studies.
agents. In addition, a management plan Witwatersrand Gold Mine Tailings Dams Eastern Karoo Basin.
has been developed to guide water man- (B Yibas; W Pulles and C Nengovhela) Report No: KV 242/10
agers as to what action should be taken The understanding of oxidation zones Report No: 1785/1/09 Developing Sediment Quality Guidelines for
in terms of combining biological control and phreatic water surfaces plays an Review of Technology Used in Strategic South Africa (AK Gordon and WJ Muller)
with herbicidal control under different important role in the prediction of acid Asset Management: Existing and Future The issue of sediment contamination
climatic and nutrient conditions. rock drainage. Many gold mines in South Needs (CJ von Holdt; HMS Belmonte and JE in South African freshwaters has been
Africa are currently engaged in active Amadi-Echendu) largely ignored. Currently no sediment
Report No: TT 458/10 reclamation of gold tailings dams. This This study was commissioned by the WRC quality guidelines exist for freshwaters in
Towards Standards for Municipal Invoices large-scale reclamation of dams provides primarily to determine what technologies this country. The objective of this project
in South Africa (Sarah Slabbert Associates) a perfect opportunity to study tailings are currently available to water utilities was to critically review sediment quality
dam profiles and characterise their that can be used to determine the guidelines derivation methods being
oxidation profiles. This study of oxidation condition of assets deployed for water utilised internationally, and to identify
zones of tailings dams was initiated based extraction, storage and distribution. The specific factors that need addressing in
s for
Towards standard on literature surveys conducted by PHD study also reviewed national and interna- order to derive and implement effective
l invoices in So uth Africa
municipa
ociates
and personal communications, which tional trends in management processes sediment quality guidelines in South
Sarah Slabbert Ass
showed that the reported values for the with regard to condition assessment, Africa.
depth of the oxidation zones of gold-mine and prediction of asset performance and
tailings in the Witwatersrand Basin are asset risk determination techniques as Report No: 1690/1/09
inconsistent and have a considerable applicable to water assets. It is envisaged Remote Sensing as a Tool for Resource
range from 20 cm to more than 7 m. It is that this review would serve as a useful Assessment towards the Determination
believed that the findings of this project point of reference for South African of the Legal Compliance of Surface and
have advanced our knowledge and utilities as they embark on the journey Groundwater Use (L Gibson; Z Münch;
TT 458/10 ability to practically implement improved towards effective management of water J Engelbrecht; N Petersen & J Conrad)
prediction capacity by being able to bet- infrastructure assets. Since South Africa is such a water scarce
ter understand the active oxidation zone country, it is important for water resource
within the tailings dams that need to be Report No: TT 433/09 to managers to have accurate information
The tax invoices or bills that municipali- described in a predictive model. TT 443/09 on all aspects of water resource occur-
ties send out to customers on a monthly Wetland Health and Importance Research rence and use. This includes knowledge
basis are a key interface between local Report No: 1565/1/10 Programme (H Malan – Series Editor) of the level of compliance of water users
government and citizens. Consumers’ Flow Conceptualisation, Recharge and This series of reports (No 1 to 11) is to water use licence legislation and the
level of understanding of their municipal Storativity Determination in Karoo Aqui- an output of the Wetland Health and quantity of unlicensed water usage and
invoices is therefore indicative of the fers, with Special Emphasis on Mzimvubu-, Importance research programme funded storage. The overall objective of this
effectiveness of this communication. Keiskamma- and Mvoti-Umzimkulu Water by the WRC. This programme forms Phase project was to determine the useful-
Local and international research has Management Areas (C Dondo; L Chevallier; 2 of the National Wetlands Research Pro- ness and applicability of using remote
shown that consumers of many municipal AC Woodford; R Murray; LO Nhleko; gramme, and is broadly aimed at assess- sensing technologies as a tool for resource
entities, in both the developed and A Nomnganga and D Gqiba) ing wetland environmental condition and assessment towards the determination
developing countries, struggle to under- The WRC and Department of Water socio-economic importance. The series of the legal compliance of surface and
stand their municipal invoices. A lack of Affairs have invested substantial includes reports on assessing wetland groundwater use.
understanding of invoices has a negative financial resources on research into the environmental condition using biota,
effect on customer awareness, participa- geohydrology of Karoo aquifer systems Wetland He
alth and Im
tion and the regulation of water services. over the past three decades. However, Wetland Health and Importance Research Programme
arch Program
portance Re
se
W
10 A etland Valuation Volum
me
It also leads to distrust in the correctness it has been shown that little geohydro- The Assessment of Temporary Wetlands Tool for the e III
2 Livelihood Va As se ssment
logical research has focused on the Karoo During Dry Conditions lue of Wetla of the
of the invoice, which, in turn, could affect nds
consumers’ willingness to pay. Through aquifers in the Eastern Cape and southern
TT 434/09

TT 442/09

this document, the WRC has created a KwaZulu-Natal, where the basic needs
Wetland
Wetland Health and Importance Research Programme – 2

for clean drinking water are the greatest.


Health and

platform for South African municipalities


Importa

to work towards improving compliance Thousands of boreholes have been drilled


nce Rese

in the area and the data collected, such


arch Prog

and standardising their domestic munici-


ramme –

pal invoices. The standards document is as borehole depths, water strikes, strike
10

an effort to steer municipalities, financial yields and pumping tests, were not previ-
services, businesses and customers ously organised into a useful and easily
towards quality and efficiency in water accessible format. The need was therefore
management. identified to properly restructure it in Author: J Tur
pie
Series Editor
: H Malan
Authors: J Day, E Day, V Ross-Gillespie & A Ketley
Series Editor: H Malan
TT 434/09

TT 442/09

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 13


SA hopes to answer big questions
Emerging issues

around the impact of small science


From everyday consumer products
such as socks, paints and sunscreens to
sophisticated applications in healthcare
and water treatment, nanotechnology is
fast becoming one of the most important
drivers of innovation in the twenty-
first century. But whereas promoters of
engineered nanomaterials are hailing
it as the catalyst of the next industrial
revolution, South Africa has recognised the
need for action against potential health,
safety and environmental risks. Article by
Lani van Vuuren and Ndeke Musee.

M
aterials with nano-scale present, there are more than 1 000 has grown rapidly since the launch
dimensions are as old as nanotechnology-enabled consumer of the National Nanotechnology
time and often occur natu- products available to the public Strategy in 2006. To date, the gov-
rally in the environment, for example, globally and the number is growing ernment, through the Department
volcanic dust, pollen grains and min- exponentially on a daily basis. of Science & Technology (DST),
eral composites. However, our ability Today, one can find these tiny has invested over R170-million in
to manufacture engineered nanomate- particles in everything from non-stick different aspects of nanotechnol-
rials is relatively new. The small size of cookware and batteries to T-shirts and ogy R&D. The core R&D efforts are
these materials (one nanometre equals health supplements. It is estimated chiefly focused on the development
a billionth of a metre) means they that at the present rate, the inventory of engineered nanomaterials.
have different properties than those will reach the 1 600 mark within the Academic institutions, for
of larger particles of the same sub- next year. By 2014, nanotechnology is instance, the universities of Johan-
stance; they may be more conductive, expected to contribute up to 15% of nesburg, Witwatersrand, Zululand
stronger, or more chemically reactive, the global manufacturing output, with and Stellenbosch, have developed
for example. a worldwide economic value exceeding strong nanotechnology research
Because of these novel proper- US$2,6-trillion. The USA, Japan and centres. Similarly, the potential of
ties engineered nanomaterials offer European countries such as Germany, nanotechnology has been recognised
considerable promise, from business France and the United Kingdom are by organisations such as the CSIR,
opportunities to meeting global chal- the global nanotechnology leaders in Mintek and the Water Research
lenges in energy, water treatment, business. However, ‘newcomers’ such Commission (WRC), and it is
healthcare and climate change. To date, as China, India and Korea are fast expected that others, particularly
billions of dollars have been invested growing in this field with respect to from industry, will soon follow suit.
in research and development (R&D) the number of patents registered and This year the WRC, for example,
in this field by governments (including scientific papers published. is investing more than R1,7-million
South Africa) and private investors. in nanotechnology R&D projects,
Since the Water Wheel first intro- mostly towards the treatment of
duced nanotechnology to its readers
Nanotechnology in water and wastewater (domestic,
in 2008 (January/February edition) South Africa industrial and mining) and for envi-
the number of consumer products ronmental remedial applications,
containing engineered nanomateri-
als has increased considerably. At I n South Africa, nanotechnol-
ogy, while still in its infancy,
such as the treatment of acid mine
drainage. The Commission is also

14 The Water Wheel September/October 2010


Emerging issues

represented on the Steering Com- nanoparticles are potentially toxic to in the toxicity of nanoparticles
mittee of Mintek’s Nanotechnology human tissue and cell cultures. when exposure of them occurs in
Innovation Centre as well as on the Unlike macro-scale chemicals the workplace, or near the point of
International Water Association’s whose toxic effects are dependent on manu­facturing due to the high con-
Water and Nano Specialist Group inherent chemical composition, in the centrations of mobile nanoparticles at
to closely track global advances in case of engineered nano­materials, the or near that point, explains Stéphan
nanotechnology. toxicity is dependent on numerous fac- Roux of CSIR’s National Resources
“The potential benefits of nano- tors, particularly the physico-chemical and the Environment (NRE). “Once
technology are staggering – and properties (e.g. surface chemistry, released into the environment,
almost limitless,” reports Dr Jo size, shape, surface area, etc) and nanoparticles may well become bio-
Burgess, WRC Research Manager. environmental factors (surrounding unavailable very quickly due to the
“Just looking at the water sector, pH, organic matter, ionic strength, aggregation in natural, often aqueous
nanotechnology has endless poten- cell membrane, etc.). This large num- surroundings,” he notes. “It is there-
tial applications from drinking water ber of factors has made it difficult to fore likely that significant fractions of
treatment (both routine and in emer- adequately elucidate the toxicological nanoparticles released into the envi-
gencies), treatment of sewage, new effects of engineered nanomaterials to ronment may become inert, or at least
water pipes that are hydrophobic and the receptor organisms. far less toxic than the characteristics
do not corrode, to selective ways of Because the properties of engi- of these nanoparticles may suggest
removing metals from wastewater, neered nanomaterials are distinc- when studied in isolation.”
one at a time.” tive from those of their counterpart If these questions are not answered
macro-scale chemicals the present adequately it may jeopardise the long-
Benefits vs risks risk assessment tools used for the term sustainable use and exploitation
latter may not be adequate to evaluate of nanotechnology capabilities for

W hile the potential benefits of the risk of materials with nano-scale the good of society. This would be an
nanotechnology in all aspects dimensions. We simply have not yet unfortunate scenario especially given
of human life is beyond debate, there developed the tools or the human the numerous benefits associated with
is growing global concern over the capacity to assess the risk of engi- this technology.
potential health, safety and environ- neered nanomaterials and/or monitor
mental implications of this technol- their movement in the environment. Regulating
ogy both to humans and ecosystems. For this reason, tracking the fate and nanotechnology
It is recognised that because of the behaviour of engineered nanomateri-

R
widespread use of engineered nano- als in the environment is currently egulators all over the world
materials in consumer products and impossible. (Looking for a nanopar- are entering unknown ter-
industrial applications our exposure ticle in a river, for example, is like ritory with respect to legislating
to them is practically unavoidable. kicking a soccer ball somewhere on nano­technology. Last year, Canada
For example, engineered nano­ Earth and then attempting to deter- became the first country in the world
materials used in products such as mine where it fell). to introduce a mandatory safety
fuel additives, cosmetics, and sprays It is for these reasons that, accord- reporting scheme for companies pro-
will interact directly with people and ing to Dr Burgess, finding a way of ducing engineered nano­materials.
the environment. adequately assessing the risk of engi- In this country, any company pro-
Another example is silver nano- neered nanomaterials is extremely ducing more than two kilograms
particles used in socks and other important. Among the questions of engineered nanomaterials must
products for antibacterial purposes, remaining are those surrounding
which have been shown by US sci- the potential bioaccumulation and
bio-persistence of these materials in
Further reading
entists to result in unexpectedly high
increases in the concentrations in species; links between the physico-
• Musee N et al (2010) ‘A South African research agenda to
biosolids in wastewater systems and chemical properties of engineered
investigate the potential environmental, health and safety risks
are suspected to kill many of the nanomaterials and the observed
of nanotechnology’ in Journal of Science 106 (3-4), accessible at
microorganisms that are essential for ecotoxicity in animals and plants; and
http://www.sajs.co.za/index.php/SAJS/article/view/159
the optimal functioning of biological the effect of weathering of both engi-
• Visit: http://nanohealth.org.za/nano_discussions for more
wastewater treatment systems (e.g. neered nanomaterials and covalent
information about the First National Workshop on Risk Assess-
nitrogen removing bacteria respon- surface modifications under diverse
ment of Nanotechnologies and Nanosciences.
sible for the removal of nitrates from environmental conditions, just to
• Visit: http://www.nanotechproject.org/inventories/consumer/
wastewater). Other preliminary name but a few.
browse/categories/ for a global inventory on consumer products
international scientific research has It is also important to note that
containing nanomaterials.
shown that many types of engineering there may be a substantial difference

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 15


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Emerging issues

regulations to govern nanotechnol- apparent change in attitude of indus-


Nano glossary ogy. “As with all new technologies, try role-players, researchers working
nanotechnology holds potential in the field of nanotechnology, and
Nanotechnology – The ability to risks – to health, safety and to government officials from different
measure, see, manipulate, manufacture, ethical practices,” said Science & departments.
and apply materials at between 1 and Technology Minister Naledi Pan- It also provided important impe-
100 nanometres. dor at a nanotechnology workshop tus to the establishment of a national
Nanometre – Equals one billionth of in Harare, Zimbabwe, earlier this nanotechnology research platform
a metre. A human hair, for example, is year. “The department is working to aimed at systematic investigation of
80 000 nm wide. provide a platform for the proactive aspects related to health, safety and
Nanoparticle – A particle with at identification and mitigation of such the environment, which is currently
least one dimension less than 100 nm, risks.” in early phases of development. This
and that exhibits novel properties in According to JJ Molapisi, DST platform, funded by DST, is aimed
comparison to counterpart macro-scale Director: Emerging Research Areas, at promoting the development of
chemicals. the government is actively look- human capacity, necessary infra-
Nanomaterials – Materials which ing to address the issue, however, structure and a dedicated research
have structured components with at any regulations considered must be programme whose primary goal is
least one dimension less than 100 nm. based on sound scientific principles. to elucidate the potential effects of
This includes nanowires and nanotubes “The situation is challenging as we engineered nanomaterials as well as
that have two dimensions at nano scale, have no precedent to follow. As far as how they can be adequately miti-
and colloids and quantum dots (tiny nanotechnology regulation is con- gated. “Ultimately we would like to
particles of semiconductor materials) cerned South Africa is in the same have two parallel research streams:
that typically have three dimensions at boat as the rest of the world.” one developing engineered nano­
nano scale. Among other proactive measures materials and the other for undertak-
Nanomanufacturing – Manufac- DST has formed a Nanotechnology ing the necessary risk assessments,”
turing at the nano scale. The industrial Ethics Committee whose primary notes Molapisi.
application of nanotechnology. focus is ensuring that the develop- In the end, there remains a real
ment of nanotechnology nationally need to find the balance between
report the volumes to the regulatory is undertaken in a manner that does harnessing the benefits and novel
authorities and provide the necessary not undermine ethical considera- capabilities that nanotechnology
safety data. tions. The committee has already bring while preventing and/or
Present environmental and health developed ethical guidelines for mitigating any potential risk stem-
regulations, developed long before South Africa, which will govern con- ming from this technology. All
the advent of nanotechnology, are duct in the local development and role-players, be they government,
application of nanotechnology. funding organisations, researchers or Storm in a teacup?
considered inadequate to deal with Globally, concern is
these new materials. For example, the public have a duty to ensure the
being raised over the
the surface area and chemical com- Nanotechnology responsible and sustainable develop- potential health, safety
position of nanoparticles might also research platform ment of nanotechnology for a better and environmental risks
have to be taken into account – an future for all.  of nanotechnology.

aspect unanticipated by the current


approaches of dealing with macro-
scale chemicals.
S outh Africa held its first National
Workshop on Risk Assessment of
Nanotechnologies and Nanosciences
When dealing with nanoparticles last year. Among others, the work-
it may be important to give signifi- shop was aimed at providing a basis
cance to the number of particles per to illustrate the need for risk assess-
volume or mass of material. Current ment of engineered nanomaterials in
regulatory limitation terms were South Africa. It was a notable mile-
developed mainly to deal with parti- stone in the country as it marked the
cle-air pollution and with nanoparti- start of a systematic and nationwide
cles, the number ingested or exposed coordinated programme to address
to have more significance than the the potential risks of nanotechnol-
mass of the substance, as is the case ogy. Following the workshop, the
with conventional chemicals or toxic need for the risk assessment of
compounds. engineered nanomaterials in South
www.sxc.hu

The South African government Africa has begun to enjoy wider


has recognised the need to establish acceptance as evidenced by the

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 17


Aquatic ecosystems

The hunt’s afoot


for Kruger’s
amphibians in
new kiss-and
Drinie van Rensburg

-tell study
Once upon a time, a kiss and a frog were and fragmentation, alien plants and Another concern, he says, is the
afforestation as well as pesticides and increase in air pollution from nearby
enough for a happy ending. In fact, the
pollution. Threatened species occur industrial areas and Mozambique.
humble amphibian has fared well in the predominantly in the Eastern and It is suspected that the KNP lies in a
realm of fiction. However, show-stopper Western Cape, as well as Kwazulu- ‘cloud’ of pollution as a result of its
Natal. However, the species in the location. Questions are now being
names like the Golden Leaf-Folding Frog,
northern parts of the country could raised about the effect of increased
the Eastern Olive Toad and the Shovel Foot also be, metaphorically speaking, water pollution, and possibly that of
Squeeker have not seen them shine in the sitting in the boiling pot. acid rain, on the aquatic stages of the
Frogs and toads in the Kruger amphibian’s life.
area of conservation. Now researchers are
National Park (KNP) may be In 2009, the KNP tasked a group
looking to save what is left of the Kruger protected against many of the of researchers, under the helm of
National Park’s frog population. threats faced by relatives elsewhere, Dr Wynand Vlok, to find the
but they are far from unaffected. answers to some of these slippery
Article by Petro Kotzé.
Dr Andrew Deacon, Programme subjects. Vlok and his team are busy
Manager for Small Vertebrates with an assessment of the current

I
ndeed, life for a frog is no fairy­ of the Savanna Unit of the KNP biodiversity of amphibians associ­
tale. Amphibian population explains that about 10% of the ated with the major river systems
declines and species extinction park’s frogs live in its rivers, while and wetlands of the KNP, as well as
are occurring around the world. thousands converge at smaller, the physical and chemical factors
Locally, the picture is just as gloomy. seasonal wetlands during breeding affecting their distribution. The
According to James Harrison, pro­ seasons. These habitats are espe­ Water Research Commission (WRC)
ject leader of The Atlas and Red Data cially vulnerable to air and water is one of the sponsors of the project.
Book of Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho pollution. Problems with the park’s
and Swaziland (published in 2004) rivers became glaringly obvious Assessing the situation
locally, 25 species are classified as after recent, comprehensive media

V
threatened or as near threatened, coverage of the death of hundreds lok, of BioAssets, is no stranger
more than 20% of the total number of crocodiles in the Olifant’s River to WRC-sponsored projects.
of species. He adds that as new spe­ Gorge (also discussed in the Water He was previously involved in the
cies are still being discovered and Wheel edition of January/February assessment of the water quality
described, the number of threatened 2009). Deacon says that some of parameters of the Nylsvley flood­
species is likely to grow. the rivers’ predicament relates to plain catchment. He explains that the
During Harrison’s study, 14 a decrease in water volume and an absence of many of the mentioned
threats to South African frogs were increase in the amount of pollution common threats to amphibians
identified, of which the four most due to continuous irrigation and makes it a good place for a com­
important are habitat destruction development outside the park. parison of the current biodiversity

18 The Water Wheel September/October 2010


Aquatic ecosystems

and chemical influences to histori­ Top right: The study is


cal data. An added plus is the sheer concentrated across 41
wetlands and six rivers
diversity of amphibians present.
in the park.
The study is being conducted
across 41 wetlands throughout the Middle right:
park, while 14 sites in the six riv­ Amphibians are most
ers (winter breeders) are also being conspicuous at breeding
ponds or along rivers
studied. The rivers being sampled are
during the appropriate
the Luvuvhu, Shingwedzi, Letaba, breeding period.
Olifants, Sabie and the Crocodile.
Adult frogs are counted along Bottom right: A fine
visual and aural transects. In other example of the tadpoles
of the Muller’s Platanna
words, they are physically counted
(Xenopus muelleri)
or through identifying the differ­ under close inspection.

BioAssets
ent species’ calls to potential mates
and rivals. In addition to the adult
frog inventory, tadpoles, often
found in larger concentrations at
breeding sites over longer periods
of time, are sampled. Surface-water
and deep-water temperatures are
also recorded. This data can now
be used to estimate species rich­
ness at the sites and to determine
which sites are more suitable for
amphibians’ development. The
primary goal of these habitat-based
studies is a species inventory but,
in addition, other aspects such
as the effects of pollution and
the presence of predators can be

BioAssets
determined.
Chemical factors that might
affect amphibian distribution are
tested at the University of Johan­
nesburg. Amphibians from some
of the most abundant species are
dissected for biochemical analysis.
Of special importance for this pur­
pose are the livers, adipose tissue
and for histological examination,
the gonads.
Further tests are done on water
and sediment samples from the test
areas. Different chemical factors
such as metals are identified and
quantified, as well as organic con­
BioAssets

stituents and pH levels from the


rivers, pans and rainwater. Lastly,
the effect of different concentra­
tions of acid water is tested on The primary goal of these habitat based
amphibian eggs and the develop­ studies is a species inventory, but other
ment of the tadpoles. aspects such as the effects of pollution
Finally, the physical inven­ and the presence of predators can also
tory and the biochemical analysis be determined.
together will create a clearer picture

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 19


Aquatic ecosystems

Top left: By studying


the piospheres Frog facts
surrounding the pans,
decisions can be made The four critically endangered frog
in regards to broader
species of South Africa are:
Kruger National Park
management issues, • Table Mountain Ghost Frog
such as grazing (Heleophryne rosei), found only in
patterns. four streams on Table Mountain.
• Hewitt’s Ghost Frog (Heleophryne
Middle left: PhD
student Clayton Cook at
hewitti), found only in the Elands-
work gathering tadpole berg Mountains of the Eastern
samples from a pan in Cape.
the Kruger National • Mistbelt Moss Frog (Anhydro­
Park. phryne ngongoniensis), found
only on a small part of the eastern
BioAssets

Bottom left: Clayton


Cook assisted by a escarpment in KwaZulu-Natal.
park field ranger while • Micro Frog (Microbatrachella
gathering samples to capensis), found in a few undis-
be used in laboratory turbed fynbos wetlands in the low-
testing.
lands of the south-western Cape.

An analysis of conservation hotspots


for South African frogs revealed that
most threatened and near threatened
species are concentrated in five areas:
• Western Cape lowlands (five
species)
• Western Cape uplands (six species)
• KZN coastal region (four species)
• KZN midlands (four species)
• Amatola Mountains (two species)
BioAssets

Source: Atlas and Red Data Book of the Frogs


of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland

the breeding sites, an abundance of


Ornate Frogs (Hildebrandtia ornate)
have been found – even though they
were thought to be quite scarce.
What’s more, the Giant Bullfrog
(Pyxicephalus adspersus), while listed
in the historical data, has not been
found up to date. At Harpi Pan East,
researchers have come across a new
species that was not previously listed,
namely the East African Puddle Frog
BioAssets

(Phryno­batrachus acridoides).
According to Harrison, the sig­
of the distribution of amphibians Further developments nificance of surveys lies primarily in
in the park, as well as the effects of revealing patterns of distribution and

T
pollution on this. Frogs and tad­ he study has already yielded the location of threatened species,
poles can then not only be used as some exciting results outside in order to identify priority areas for
indicators of water quality but, says of the expected areas of perfor­ conservation action. In an area like
Deacon, to put pressure on decision mance. From the historical list of 37 the KNP with unique management
makers to curb pollution through amphibians that should be found at problems, research findings can also
legislation.

20 The Water Wheel September/October 2010


Aquatic ecosystems

be applied to other areas. For exam­ Top right: A school


ple, to cater for specific needs, some of African Bullfrog
(Pyxicephalus edulis)
of the water supplies are man-made.
tadpoles.
Vlok and his team are also looking at
the piospheres surrounding the pans, Bottom right: The
and if it is found that a specific water flamboyant tadpole
source is under too much pressure, of the aptly named
Red-Legged Kassina
management strategies can be adapted
(Kassina maculate).
in accordance.
Another important outcome of
the study should be information
dissemination, stresses Deacon, and
creating public awareness of the
situation. Vlok adds that an exciting
possibility could be the training of
KNP field guides to identify the dif­
ferent amphibian calls. In this way,
they can continue and update the
inventory with GPS coordinates after
the researchers have left the field.
They may not be the most glam­
orous inhabitants of the famed
Kruger National Park, but hopefully,
with an increase in research into the
lives and times of amphibians, they
might stand a sporting chance to live
happily ever after. 

Call for Expression of Interest: WDM Projects


The Water Demand Management (WDM) Programme is hosted by the Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA), and supported
by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida). The Programme is focused on building a WDM culture in the
Southern African Development Community (SADC) region to ensure effective and sustainable use of water that contributes to the
SADC goals of regional integration and poverty alleviation.

Support from the WDM Programme will be considered for projects which embody the Programme objectives. The Programme
Implementation Unit (PIU) invites Expressions of Interest (EOIs) for WDM projects. The EOI should outline the project details,
the WDM intervention required, an estimated budget, and proposed time frame. It should be no longer than 10 pages. There are
three fundamental criteria an EOI should exhibit, namely (1) pro-poor impact, (2) cost effectiveness, and (3) demonstration value.

The types of projects the WDM Programme will consider supporting include technical as well as community based projects.

Who should apply?


Municipalities * Water Utilities * Water Services Institutions, including water user associations and international
water management bodies * State owned enterprises * Government departments.

Once an EOI is received, an assessment is made by the PIU and a decision is taken, in consultation with the
Reference Group (RG), regarding support for implementation.
EOI guidelines are available from the WDM Programme website as well as from the PIU.
The process is flexible and tailored to each case.

Tel +27 (0)11 313 3362


Fax +27 (0)11 206 3362
Email: info@wdm-in-sadc.net
Website: www.wdm-in-sadc-net

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 21


Water History

Clanwilliam Dam was raised in 1962 through


the installation of 13 crest gates.
eWISA

Olifants River –
Home to one of South Africa’s
oldest irrigation schemes
It took two walls across the Olifants River to one of the ten oldest towns in the century small-scale irrigation was well
country, Clanwilliam’s beginnings go established. Originally known as Jan
provide enough water for irrigation farmers
as far back as 1660 when a team of Disselsvlei (after Jan Dissel, a local
in this part of the Western Cape. Lani van Dutch explorers sent out by Jan van pioneer), the area first formed part of
Vuuren takes a look at the history of the Riebeeck first reached the Olifants the district of Stellenbosch, but was
River. The river was named by Jan declared a sub-district of its own in
Bulshoek and Clanwilliam dams.
Danckaert, the Dutch cadet in charge 1808 by the Earl of Caledon, then Gov-

K
of the party, who, upon entering the ernor of the Cape. In 1814, Caledon’s
nown today for its rooi- valley, saw 300 elephants frolicking successor, Sir John Cradock, renamed
bos and wine, the hamlet on the riverbank. the area after his father-in-law, the
of Clanwilliam lies at the The first farm in the Olifants River Earl of Clanwilliam.
foot of the Cederberg Mountains valley was awarded to Pieter van Zyl Originally, farmers planted crops
in the Western Cape. Regarded as in 1732, and by the late eighteenth in the fine alluvial deposits on the

22 The Water Wheel September/October 2010


Water History

banks of the Olifants River. These A historic photograph


crops would be irrigated every time of the Bulshoek Dam,
completed in 1920.
the river overflowed (the first flood
ever recorded occurred in the Olifants
River in 1822). However, vast destruc-
tion of riparian vegetation caused the
river’s banks to widen and deepen,
until after a while it rarely overflowed.
Between 1822 and 1870 the river had
widened from an average 29 m to
about 38 m.

The first survey

eWISA
O n 16 October, 1858, Patrick
Fletcher left Cape Town for
Clanwilliam on orders from the Colo-
nial Secretary to undertake one of
the first surveys for a potential large
irrigation scheme in the Cape. He
travelled to the Olifants River mouth
and surveyed the latter upstream
for about 37 km. His report, which
included estimates for two possible
dams, was submitted in 1860.
Around 120 people were living
around the irrigable portion of the
Olifants River at that time. Accord-
ing to Fletcher, however, the farm-
ers were not very successful: “The
total income of the whole valley
could not have exceeded £1 400 per
annum during the last nine years.
Except when the river overflows they
scarcely grow sufficient bread for

DWA/eWISA
their own consumption.”
In 1883, Hydraulic Engineer to
the Cape Colony, John Gamble, sug-
gested the construction of a series The Bulshoek Dam production. During the following Kanthack was at first sceptical
of moderately-sized weirs to restore features 15 hand- decades the farmers would appeal to of the possibility of such a scheme.
operated gates of the
original conditions in the river i.e. government time and time again for In his 1909 report he writes: “Local
Ashford type. These
resulting in floodwaters once again gates, which sit on top assistance in various forms without opinion as to the suitability of the
spilling over its banks. Despite peti- of the solid weir, slide success. Finally, in 1907, the Cape land for irrigation was very conflict-
tions from farmers in the area to the in cast-iron grooves of government asked the Director of ing and it was with some feeling of
government, Gamble’s plans were special construction Irrigation, Francis Edgar Kanthack, uncertainty that I authorised a trav-
with a patented system
rejected due to the prohibitive cost to determine the possibility of an erse line of levels along the Olifants
of anti-friction rollers.
of the scheme. Not long after that Each gate is 4,6 m high irrigation scheme on the Olifants River...some 20 miles below
the post of Hydraulic Engineer was and 6 m wide. River. His brief was to investigate the Clanwillian down to the mouth.”
abolished as a result of economic possibility of introducing irrigation
circumstances prevailing at the Cape, on a perennial basis by means of a Bulshoek Dam
and Gamble returned to England. canal system fed from a high weir

T
Meanwhile, local farmers started with ‘considerable storage capacity’ his was followed by a contour
their own irrigation initiatives, as much land as possible on both survey and a soil survey, and, in
including the use of steam pumps, banks of the Olifants River and along September 1908, Kanthack himself
windmills and bucket pumps the lower reaches of the Doorn and visited the district. He must have
(bakkiespompe) to boost their Hol Rivers. cut quite the scene in his motorcar,

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 23


Water History

the first to visit the area. He visited


the upper portion of the valley
from Clanwilliam to the Hol River
mouth during September 1908 to
‘get a clear idea of the nature of the
area’.
When the plans were sufficiently
advanced, in June 1909, Kanthack
laid down the final alignment for the
main canal and branches, fixed the
site of the headworks and designed
the weir. This proved a difficult task
as a result of the irrigable land being
only available on the left bank with
distributaries crossing over to the
right bank. The headworks were thus
designed to compensate for this fact.
While it was the Director’s
original intention to keep the weir
as low as possible (to save costs), to
keep grades as steep as possible and
allow for the irrigation of the great-
est amount of irrigable land, it was
decided to construct the weir with a
maximum height of about 7 m above
the riverbed.
In 1911, an irrigation district
was proclaimed and Parliament
approved the sum of £155 000 for
the construction of the weir and
the associated (unlined) irrigation
canals, which were to extend down
the Olifants River valley for about
80 km. The site originally selected
for the weir and offtake was at
the head of a rocky rapid named
Oshoek, on the farm Rondeberg.
The original design was for a solid
masonry weir (in Roman style) with
falling shutters, each 1,8 m wide and fill the irrigation canals at periods A full Bulshoek Dam of special construction with a pat-
0,9 m high. of greatest demand. It also showed in 2004. The weir was ent system of anti-friction rollers. The
originally supposed to
However, when the project was that storage above the solid weir gates, each 6 m wide, are capable of
be constructed at a rocky
initially prepared little or noth- crest originally proposed (about rapid in the Olifants River being raised clear of flood by lifting
ing was known of the flow of the 1,8 m) would not be sufficient. known as Oshoek, but gear mounted on an overhead super-
Olifants River at the proposed weir As s result it was decided to was later moved to the structure and is supported by 2 m wide
site. Observations by the Cape Irri- increase this storage by erecting farm Bulshoek, a few sandstone masonry pillars. (Each gate
kilometres downstream
gation Department between 1909 gates 4,6 m high above the solid weir. has since been provided with a sand-
of the original site.
and 1912 indicated that if the origi- These 15 hand-operated gates are filled counterweight to ease operation).
nal design were to be carried out, of the Ashford type, which consists A 16th gate of 6,9 m clear span, but
the flow would not be sufficient to of gates sliding in cast-iron grooves 5,7 m high, was placed on the
extreme left flank near the head
gates of the canal to act as a scour,
The gates, each 6 m wide, are capable of being
the sill being considerably lower
raised clear of flood by lifting gear mounted on an than that of the other 15 gates. The
overhead superstructure and is supported by 2 m final design was undertaken by
wide sandstone masonry pillars. the firm Glenfield & Kennedy of

24 The Water Wheel September/October 2010


Water History

which time materials (particu-


larly cement) and equipment were
extremely scarce and expensive.
Many labourers also left to join the
war effort. During October 1918,
construction halted for a third time
as a result of an outbreak of Spanish
Influenza as those who remained
unaffected were left taking care of
the ill.

DWA/eWISA
By 1920, the canal on the left
bank was completed up to Baklei­
plaas and the masonry of the
143,3-m-long weir and headworks as
well as the erection of the steel gates
and superstructures were practically
finished by 31 March of that year.
The entire scheme was eventually
completed in 1924 at a total cost of
£601 569.

Clanwilliam Dam

DWA/eWISA
D espite the construction of
Bulshoek Dam water demand
soon again outstripped supply,
especially during the hot summer Top: The Clanwilliam employed. White workers earned
months. In 1927, a start was made Dam shortly after its 4 shillings and eight pennies a day,
to line the canals with concrete, and completion. The original
while their coloured counterparts
dam was a mass concrete
by 1932 nearly £89 000 was spent gravity structure with earned two shillings and 6 pennies a
on this endeavour. Meanwhile, a centrally situated day. In his 1934 report, Director of
the Union Irrigation Department overspill section. Irrigation Alfred Lewis complains
undertook surveys along the Olifants about the productivity of the white
River and its tributary, the Doorn Bottom: The outlets of
workers. Recruited by the Depart-
the Clanwilliam Dam
River, in search of a suitable site for a in 1936. ment of Labour, many of these
new storage dam. It was hoped that workers probably had no construc-
this new dam would not only store tion skills (in subsequent reports the
eWISA

enough water for the existing irriga- aversion of many of these workers to
tion scheme, but allow for the expan- hard, physical labour is also noted).
Scotland in cooperation with engi- sion of agricultural activities. Staff housing comprised wood
neer WM Watt. The firm also over- A suitable site was found just houses with tin roofs, along with a
saw the construction of the weir. The outside Clanwilliam. Work started combined mess hall and entertain-
site selected was now on the farm with the construction of staff hous- ment area. Meals were supplied to
Bulshoek, a few kilometres down- ing and the erection of machinery in workers daily at a cost of one shil-
stream of the original site. September 1932. As with many water ling, and the mess hall was managed
Floods as well as an apparent lack infrastructure schemes at the time, by the farmer on whose farm the
of labour prevented construction only white workers were employed dam was being built.
of the weir and canals from start- on the construction of the dam. By December 1933, the founda-
ing until March 1913. The project However, as the new dam would tions had been completed and plac-
mainly employed white workers, inundate part of the Clanwilliam- ing of concrete started in January
who earned two shillings and eight Piketberg Road, a new bypass had to 1934. Clanwilliam Dam was com-
pennies a day. Cement was imported be created, and here use was made of pleted in March, 1935. The original
from England, while the sandstone ‘coloured’ labour. dam was a mass concrete gravity
was obtained from a nearby quarry. At the height of construction structure with a centrally situated
Work was disrupted again by the (1934) an average of 428 whites overspill section, 117 m long.
First World War (1914-1919), during and 366 coloured workers were By 1962 the Olifants River valley

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 25


Water History

Department of Water Affairs, the


raising of the dam will increase the
yield of water supplied from the dam
by 70 million m3/year. “This will
stabilise the current irrigation devel-
opment and provide an opportunity
to establish resource poor farmers
to promote food security and decent
employment through inclusive eco-
nomic growth.”
At least 75% of the additional
water is earmarked for the develop-
ment of resource poor farmers. The
project has the potential to create
about 3 800 jobs and provide tax rev-
enue, including about R700-million
on wine produced on the scheme.
In addition to the raising of
the dam, the existing conveyance
infrastructure needs to be improved
and new conveyance infrastructure

Sources
André Roux
• Cape of Good Hope. ‘Report on a
proposed irrigation project in the Clan­
william and Van Rhynsdorp districts,
was inhabited by about 13 000 Canals filled with water project will not only see the
from the Bulshoek Weir 1909’ by FE Kanthack
people. The ever increasing need increase of storage capacity of the
and Clanwilliam Dam • ‘Clanwilliam’, www.sahistory/org.za/
for water resulted in the dam being dam, but also aims to upgrade
supply water to the places.villages/westernCape/clanwil­
raised between 1962 and 1964. The members of the Lower and strengthen the wall to ensure
liam.htm
overspill crest was increased in Olifants River Water its safety and long-term viability,
• ‘Dam project could improve aquatic
length, remodelled and raised by the Users Association. especially during flood events. This
The area is especially environment’ by L van Vuuren in the
addition of 3,05 m of mass concrete will entail increasing the width and
renowned for its Water Wheel, January/February 2006
on top of the crest, and the instal- height of the wall and spillway. A
viticulture and rooibos • ‘Die Bulshoekdam’ by J Butler in The
lation of 13 crest gates, each 7,77 m tea-growing activities. new multi-level outlet structure
Civil Engineer in South Africa, May 1991
wide and 3,05 m high. will also be constructed.
• Large Dams and Water Systems in South
In addition, the non-overspill A portion of the N7 national
Africa by SANCOLD
flanks were raised by 4,88 m by road will be affected by the raised
• ‘A short history of irrigation develop­
means of mass concrete. A bridge water level and will be re-aligned by
ment in South Africa’ by CO Linscott
superstructure was constructed the South African National Roads
in South African Irrigation Department
across the dam to provide access for Agency. Minor roads, property
Magazine, June 1924
the operation of the gates. For stabil- developments and cultivated land
• Union of South Africa. ‘Report of the
ity, the dam was tied to its founda- surrounding the dam basin will also
Director of Irrigation for the period
tions by means of post-tensioned be affected by the raised water level.
1 January 1912 to 31 March 1913’
cables positioned along the centre According to the National
• Union of South Africa. ‘Report of the
line of the dam. Clanwilliam Dam Water Infrastructure Branch of the
Director of Irrigation for the period
has a present height of 43 m, and a
1 April 1933 to 31 March 1934’
capa­city of around 122 million m3.
This dual-purpose project will not only • Union of South Africa. ‘Report of the
see the increase of storage capacity of Director of Irrigation for the period
Future plans
the dam, but also aims to upgrade and 1 April 1934 to 31 March 1935’
• Thanks and appreciation to eWISA

A t present, plans are being strengthen the wall to ensure its safety
and André Roux for photographs, and
finalised to raise the dam by and long-term viability, especially the Department of Water Affairs for
another 13 m. This dual-purpose during flood events. additional information.

26 The Water Wheel September/October 2010


Water History

Clanwilliam Dam has


a present height of
43 m although plans
are afoot to raise the
dam another 13 m.

needs to be provided for land


allocated to resource poor farmers.
These actions, in parallel to
construction work on the dam,
will be required from the relevant
agencies, such as the Lower Olifants
River Water Users Association,
and responsible government
departments, such as the Western
Cape Department of Agriculture.
A coordinating mechanism has
been established to clarify roles and
responsibilities in this regard.
Environmental authorisation for
the project was received in February
and, at the time of writing, Ministe-
rial approval for the implementa-
tion of the project as a government
waterworks was being sought. Con-
André Roux

struction of the project is scheduled


to start during April 2012. 

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 27


Acid mine drainage

Much funding of the Water Research


Commission has been dedicated to finding

Lani van Vuuren


solutions to the environmental legacy of
the mining sector.

AMD: Local solutions for local challenges


Current concerns around the present and predicted decanting of acid mine effluents and on the rehabilitation
of mining spoils. In the last ten
drainage (AMD) from gold mines on the Witwatersrand have again thrust years the emphasis has shifted to the
this complex pollution issue into the limelight. But, as Water Research development of predictive tools and
Commission Research (WRC) Manager Dr Jo Burgess points out, the local modelling techniques, with the focus
on treatment options shifting to
research fraternity has a range of world-class solutions on offer. implementation and passive systems.
A brief description of South Africa’s

M
ine-water related research Prior to 1990 most South African contribution towards finding solu-
has become an important mine-water related research was tions for AMD follows.
research area for the WRC conducted by the now disbanded
and millions of Rands are spent every Chamber of Mines Research Organi- Improved predictive
year on projects investigating solu- sation. The WRC’s involvement in ability
tions to one of South Africa’s most mine-water research was limited to
complex water pollution dilemmas.
The Commission is the newest mem-
ber of the Global Alliance of research
determining the water requirements
and pollution potential of gold and
uranium mines. Between 1990 and
T wo aspects of research related to
improved predictive ability have
received special attention: firstly, the
organisations, which supports the 2000 research focused on the impact ability to predict the generation of
activities of the International Network mining has on the surface environ- acid drainage, and secondly, the abil-
for Acid Prevention. ment, on treatment options for mine ity to predict the rise in water levels

28 The Water Wheel September/October 2010


Acid mine drainage

Continued efforts to re-mine and con-


and/or time and point of decant
solidate the tailings into mega-dumps,
Reducing AMD
when pumping associated with
active mining stops. the contamination and reclamation
production and
In view of the plethora of tech- of the footprint beneath them and impact
niques used to predict the likelihood the degree to which tailing properties
of acid mine drainage, research
targeted at opencast coal mining
and time affect the depth and rate of
weathering of typical tailings dams, S everal approaches have been
evaluated in an attempt to reduce
the production and impact of AMD
led by the Institute for Groundwa- have been investigated. An empiri-
ter Studies at Free State University cal model was developed to predict associated with mining.
started in 1999 to standardise the the likely period over which tailings A regional closure strategy was
methods used to quantify the poten- dams will produce acid mine drain- developed and is being implemented
tial and magnitude of AMD. Based age. Efforts are currently underway to by the regulating authorities to
on extensive testing of existing static develop a coherent process to facilitate ensure the orderly and responsible
methods, standardised methods of transparent and effective regulatory closing of mines which exploit the
measuring initial pH, neutralisation decision-making regarding the sus- same orebody. This represents a fun-
potential and acid potential of water tainable design, operation and closure damental change from the previous
have been recommended. of residue disposal facilities. A pre- dispensation where the approach to
liminary decision support system to address mine closure from the per-
facilitate decision-making has recently spective of individual mines resulted
“Several approaches in the last mine standing in an area
been completed, while a refinement of
have been evaluated in the system is nearing conclusion. to be saddled with the responsibility
an attempt to reduce the The ability to predict the rise in for the combined decant and AMD
production and impact water levels, and hence when and pollution potential of interconnected
of AMD associated with where decant to surface would take neighbouring mines.
Under experimental conditions
mining.” place after the cessation of mining,
has received considerable attention. the use of soil to cover acid generat-
An easy-to-use spreadsheet tool, This ability is particularly important ing discard material was found to be
ABACUS, has also been developed in view of the recovery of water effective in reducing the ingress of
to standardise the interpretation of levels in deep gold mines and the oxygen and water and thus the vol-
static acid-base accounting (ABA) seepage of AMD from old shafts. ume and strength of AMD percolate.
data and, where the suggested Pioneering research in this regard However, under field conditions,
sampling methodology has been was undertaken in the 1990s by the where large discard dumps had to be
followed, to provide a method for Institute for Groundwater Studies covered, it proved difficult to source
extrapolation to the field through whereby the flooding of Central The Emalahleni Water sufficient soil for an effective cover
volume-weighted techniques. Reclamation plant thickness and to prevent erosion
and East Rand gold mines, which
outside Witbank where reducing cover depth on side slopes.
Although the project focused on have become largely interconnected polluted mine-water
ABA, it strived to define a suite of through mining activities, were inves- is treated to drinking
An evaluating and modelling of
acid-drainage prediction tools. tigated. Among others, the research water standard for the the impact that the release to surface
The researchers coined a new identified the controls over the inflow local municipality. streams of stored saline neutralised
acronym, ABATE (derived from rate and water quality and was able to
Acid-Base: Accounting, Techniques predict the future decant points and
and Evaluation), for the approach timeframes for different scenarios.
that integrates a range of tools to Elsewhere in South Africa, a
predict the potential for acid genera- series of collaborative research pro-
tion. This also helps to prevent con- jects between the WRC and Coaltech
fusion arising in the use of the term (a non-profit organisation funded
ABA, since most people associate by coal-mining companies) captured
ABA with the static test component the mine plans and coal seams in a
of drainage chemistry prediction, three-dimensional GIS, enabling the
rather than the entire suite of tools. mines to determine decant points
Research is in progress regarding and the extent of intermine flow
the use of geochemical modelling within the Mpumalanga coal fields.
techniques to predict the evolution This ability is currently used to
of AMD over time. determine the position and capacity
Lani van Vuuren

There are about 270 gold-mine tail- of plants to treat the AMD emanat-
ings covering 180 km2 in South Africa. ing from the coal fields.

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 29


Acid mine drainage

AMD during high flow conditions Treatment treat 75 Mℓ/day of AMD from
would have on water quality contrib- gold mines using the CSIR’s ABC
uted to the development of a strategy
technologies (Alkali-Barium-Calcium) desalina-

I
whereby AMD from Mpumalanga tion process, which uses barium to
n contrast with water-rich min-
coal mines is released periodically dur- precipitate sulphates. A pilot plant
ing regions, South Africa does
ing years with above average runoff. using the degrading packed bed
not only face the high acidity and
Several research projects have reactor, which overcame the failure
dissolved metal problems associ-
highlighted the benefits in the form that is commonly experienced with
ated with AMD. The limited dilu-
of smaller volumes of water that passive sulphate removal systems
tion potential associated with low
would accumulate in underground once the easily oxidisable organic
rainfall exacerbates the contribu-
mines if the ingress of water through material has been depleted, and
tion of salinity associated with this
surface cracks and fissures could be that significantly improved the effi-
water to the salinisation of water
reduced. The Department of Miner- ciency of passive systems, is also
resources. For example, effluents
als & Energy initiated a multimillion currently being constructed.
from gold mines contribute about
Rand project through the Council The cost saving associated with
35% of the salt load but only 6% of
of Geosciences to identify and close using limestone (calcium carbon-
the water flow at the Barrage in the
these ingress points as a priority. ate) rather than lime (calcium
Vaal River (the major water source
Two interesting projects aimed at hydroxide), and the effectiveness
of the industrial heartland of South
minimising the impact of produc- of the technology for the neutrali-
Africa). For this reason much of
tion of AMD are currently being sation of acid waters, have been
the research into treatment tech-
conducted. The first is assessing the demonstrated in a number of
nologies undertaken in the country
viability of extracting good quality applications.
are focusing on developing tech-
groundwater in aquifers overlying
nology that would remove sulphate
deep mines in order to reduce the
in addition to metals and the Technology transfer
percolation of good quality water into
neutralisation of acidity.

T
the mines. The potential benefit is to he Department of Water
The research into water treat-
prevent the subsequent contamina- Affairs has completed a series
ment technology is currently being
tion of this good quality water with of Best Practice Guidelines for
implement and evaluated at a range
AMD and in the reduction of the Resource Protection in the South
of pilot and operational scales at
volume of AMD requiring mitigation. African Mining Industry. The
a number of locations. In a joint
The second is an investigation into series deals with various aspects
venture, Anglo Coal and BHP
the feasibility of either removing or The patented BioSure from the department’s water
Billiton constructed a 20 Mℓ/day
accelerating the oxidation of pyrites process, which uses management hierarchy (integrated
sewage sludge as
reverse osmosis plant at 99% water
associated with mining. In this way, mine-water management through
energy source for recovery to produce potable water
mining may be able to deal with to water treatment); through to
the neutralisation of from AMD. Treated water from
AMD problems during the lifespan of acid mine drainage general water management strate-
the Emalahleni Water Reclamation
a mine, so that mines would not have has been successfully gies and specialised mining activi-
Plant is sold to Emalahleni Munici-
a post-closure AMD legacy. applied at full scale. ties, such as small-scale mining.
pality to supplement its water sup-
ply. Two similar plants are planned Workshop and symposia on
for the treatment of AMD from aspects surrounding AMD, mine
other Mpumalanga coal mines. closure and other related activities
Funded by the WRC, the Rhodes are organised regularly. In 2009,
BioSure process, whereby sewage the Mine-Water Division of the
sludge is used as energy source for Water Institute of Southern Africa,
the biological reduction and removal together with the International
of sulphates from AMD, has been Minewater Association hosted a
implemented at ERWAT’s Ancor successful International Minewater
wastewater treatment works. At Conference.
times, as much as 10 Mℓ/day of toxic South African activities have made
mine-water from Grootvlei has been significant contributions on several
treated this way. fronts in the quest to deal with the
The Western Utilities Corpora- problems associated with AMD ema-
tion, established to treat AMD nating from mining activities.
from four basins in the Witwaters­ To access the WRC’s AMD-related
rand goldfields, is planning to research, visit: www.wrc.org.za. 

30 The Water Wheel September/October 2010


Riparian habitat

T
he Mapungubwe area in
Limpopo is renowned for its
golden rhino artefact that
has become the icon of a society
which settled close to the Limpopo
River for some 400 years between
about 900 and 1300 AD. The river
was not only the lifeblood of this
society, which depended on flooding
for irrigation of soils to be cropped,
but is also offered a multitude of
other resources. Riverine forest
provided some of these. Stretches of
forest along both the Limpopo and
Shashe rivers support monarchs of
sycamore figs, ana trees, nyala trees,
fever trees, marulas, weeping boer-
beans, and a smattering of other
species.
These verdant pockets of forest
are in stark contrast with the sur-
rounding landscape of semi-arid
savanna dominated by the ubi­
quitous mopane tree. Most of our
savanna trees in the lowveld support
open riverine woodland, but in their
classification of the vegetation of
South Africa, Mucina and Ruther-
ford recognised the Limpopo river-
ine forests of this region as a distinct
forest type.

Time brings change

T
Drought probably caused the
oward the end of the thirteenth dieback of this fever tree.
century, owing to a rapid change
in climate as the effects of the

The fall and fall of


‘Little Ice Age’ began to manifest,
the Mapungubwe society moved
on to other pastures. A sequence of
three mega-floods over a period of

Mapungubwe’s
a century or so occurred during the
middle of the Little Ice Age, with
unknown impacts on these forests,
but their presence today indicates
that they recovered.
Once most humans had departed,
elephants once again became lords of
riverine forest
the forest. White agricultural settle-
ment started occurring toward the The Greefswald riverine forest along the Limpopo River on
end of the 1800s. Hunting intensi- the northern South African border is increasingly threatened
fied, and by the 1900s elephants had
by natural and anthropogenic activities. SAEON Observation
been displaced further north. By
the 1950s almost all land along the Science Specialist Prof Tim O’Conner tracks the impact of
Limpopo River had been committed these outside influences on this unique habitat.
to agriculture.

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 31


Riparian habitat

in the 1980s. A diamond pipe was of, and tagged, 428 canopy trees
discovered on the farm Venetia, des- that were each measured for their
tined to become the largest diamond size, degree of creeper infestation,
mine in South Africa. The decision and canopy volume lost to drought-
to develop the mine required water. dieback or windshear.
Where else to look in this arid land-
scape than toward the Limpopo Drought, flooding and
River some 40 km north? elephants
Geography and access dictated

F
that the Greefswald Forest was the ifteen years later I was in a posi-
most obvious point of supply. As the tion to follow up on what had
water was to be pumped from within happened to this forest. But what
the forest interior, a comprehensive are the chances of three infrequent
assessment of potential impacts of events occurring within such a short
Tim O’Connor

water abstraction on vegetation was time interval – short measured by


required. Contrary to popular belief, the presumed lifespan of centuries
a diamond mine does not use as for these trees?
much water as some other land uses. Water abstraction for the mine
The amount is equivalent to two had commenced in 1991. Shortly
centre-pivot irrigation schemes (duly thereafter the country experienced
purchased and discontinued by the one of the worst droughts on record
mining company). – the 1991/2 season being the most
affected – during which flow of the
Baseline survey Limpopo River ceased completely
during the summer. This had never

A n approach for direct moni-


toring of the effect of water
abstraction on the forest was devised
been recorded before.
Second, the February 2000 flood
was one of the largest on historical
and implemented by the relevant record. The Shashe River resem-
conservation agency. As a prelude to bled the mighty Zambezi it used to
these efforts, baseline information be before river capture took place.
of the composition and structure of Third, the creation of the Mapun-
the forest was provided in a scoping gubwe National Park signalled the
report, which forms the basis of the return of elephants to the southern
subsequent account. banks of the Limpopo.
Composition and structure It is obviously easier to estab-
of riverine forest or woodland is lish what has caused the death or
influenced primarily by access of disappearance of a tree if a survey
plants to the water table, which is conducted shortly following an
Tim O’Connor

in turn is a function of distance event, but various lines of evidence


from and elevation above the river. can be used to ascribe the mortality
Accordingly, for the baseline sur- of an individual tree to an agent of
Although an attempt to create Above top: An intact vey undertaken in 1990, the 60 ha mortality for long-lived trees even
the Dongola National Park failed, a stretch of the riverbank of forest were divided into differ- over such a long interval. This is
handful of properties, including the lined with fig trees. ent physiographic units reflecting only as good as the potential agents
farm Greefswald, were maintained as these variables and each was sam- of mortality that are considered,
Above bottom: The
State properties. A substantial por- first recorded elephant pled for shrubs, sub-canopy and and whether each would be distinct
tion of riverine forest downstream of mortality in the canopy trees. Forest both upstream either in its spatial pattern or effect
Greefswald was lost to the erection Mapungubwe National and downstream of the area of on the plant.
of a double electric security fence Park – a ring-barked abstraction was sampled in order The set of mortality agents con-
marula tree.
along the border, thereby increasing that comparisons could later be sidered was drought, water abstrac-
the conservation significance of the made if so desired. tion, flood, wind-throw, salinisation,
remaining forest upstream. At the time I thought it might be elephant use, lighting, creepers, and
The bucolic serenity of the interesting if changes in the forest ring-barking by porcupine. In 2005,
mopaniveld north of the Soutpans- could be followed up at some later no trees had been killed through
berg was set to change even further time, and so mapped the location ring-barking by elephants, although

32 The Water Wheel September/October 2010


Riparian habitat

about half the trees had been Each of the main canopy species Perhaps other surveys could be
debarked to a degree. experienced a different degree of influenced in a similar manner.
The individual and cumulative impact from the different agents of Following the fate of individual trees
impact of different agents on canopy mortality. Species such as rain trees, rather than simply measurement of
trees was quite dramatic. Overall boerbeans, and nyala berries had been stands of vegetation improved con-
a quarter of the trees were lost, an less affected by most agents, such siderably the quality of the study –
effect which was greater than it may that woodland composition was now all the more easily accomplished now
sound because many of these were becoming dominated by these seem- Below top: A fever tree
in an era of GPS.
the larger rather than the smaller ingly more drought-tolerant species. is slowly smothered by
canopy individuals. As a conse- Initial concern about the impact a climber (Combretum • This article first appeared in the
quence, the forest was transformed of water abstraction on riparian microphyllum). South African Environmental
to open woodland. forest was ultimately dwarfed by Observation Network (SAEON)
Below bottom: An
Drought accounted for 76% of the impacts of severe drought in eroded section of the
newsletter, June 2010. Visit
trees lost, and the 2000 flood for an combination with climber infesta- riverbank where many www.saeon.ac.za for more
additional 21%. Creepers were impli- tion, mega-flood, and elephants. The fig trees have been lost. information. 
cated in the drought-related death of dominant species of this forest can
nearly half of the trees which suc- live for centuries, such that a 17-year
cumbed to drought, but interestingly study is of short duration.
their effect was felt mostly by species
with microphyllous (small) leaves, Useful pointers for
such as Acacia xanthophloea, rather SAEON
than broad-leaved species.

I
It could not be determined t may have been fortuitous
directly whether a tree had suc- to capture the effect of three
cumbed to natural drought or major events that transformed the
deprivation of water supply by Greefswald Forest, but it may also
abstraction, but tree mortality presage future patters of riparian
within the area of abstraction was forest change globally in response to
approximately one and a half times increasing climatic variability and
that of what it was without – a ever-increasing demands on water.
hard lesson learned, but pumping At this time, a large water impound-
patterns now better accommodate ment on the Shashe River is close to
drought. completion, and increasing amounts
Sycamore figs had lined the banks of water will be abstracted from
of much of the 4,4 km riverfront that the Limpopo catchment for power
was sampled, but a large proportion generation. The South African
of these were lost downstream when Environmental Observation Net-
Tim O’Connor
the 2000 flood eroded up to 60 m of work (SAEON) has this data as one
bank for a distance of at least 1,6 km. small means of assessing anticipated
There was no evidence in support of impacts of decreased flow on ripar-
mortality by ingress of saline water, ian habitats.
porcupine, or windthrow, although This account offers some useful
the latter had reduced the size of a pointers for SAEON in achieving
number of trees. its goals. First, it was born of an
By 2007 the first deaths result- environmental impact assessment
ing from elephant ring-barking had process. These are being undertaken
started to occur, and more were all the time yet the data generated by
likely to follow as the overall extent this process is not easily accessed.
of debarking, had increased. The Second, it resulted from the
species most targeted were marulas, interest of an individual rather than
fever trees, and sycamore figs. being the outcome of a formal pro-
Elephants, however, had also cedure, yet most thinking is centred
severed most of the creeper con- on organisational links. Third, even
nections with the supporting tree, though it was not required, it was
Tim O’Connor

thereby reducing this stress on easy to set up sampling so that a


remaining canopy plants. follow-up could be conducted.

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 33


WRC tools help farmers improve
efficiency, cut costs

South African farmers face many


challenges in meeting the country’s
food security needs, from a variable
climate to rising production costs and
the pressures of a globalised market.
The Water Research Commission (WRC)
has invested in the development of
several tools to help farmers prosper in
a volatile environment.
34 The Water Wheel September/October 2010
Agriculture

C
ompared to other countries, information on which decisions can developed with funding from the
the level of subsidisation of be based. It supports, but does not WRC, namely SWB (Soil-Water-
agriculture in South Africa replace, the decision-maker in risk Balance) and the international
is one of the lowest in the world. management. award-winning WAS (Water Admin-
This means that local farmers have RiskMan is especially suitable for, istration System).
to continually raise the efficiency of among others, the quantification of The FARMs program generates
their operations to remain profit- interest rate, irrigation cost, product short-term whole farm plans and
able. Over the past few years, local price, yield or production variation enterprise budgets with fixed quanti-
agriculture has also been hard hit and hail damage; evaluating different ties and prices. Tested for several
by exceptionally high input price production management strategies; farmers in the irrigation areas of Riet
increases, for example, fuel, fertilis- and determining the effect at whole River, Rama and Loskop, training has
ers and electricity. farm level of including or excluding also been extended to agribusinesses,
Water management, mainly in a crop or livestock enterprise from bureau services and advisors in the
respect to irrigation practice, is one a farm plan. It can also assist in the main irrigation areas of South Africa.
of the most critical determinants of verification of risk data; simulate the Technology is one of the greatest
economically efficient crop produc- total margin above specified costs drivers for progress in agriculture,
tion, particularly in a seasonally dry or net cash flow at whole farm level; however, new technology is only
country such as South Africa. In the and rank production management valuable when it is appropriately
case of pivot irrigation, for example, strategies, taking risk attitudes into applied. The tools developed by the
the cost of the pump, maintenance account. WRC have already proven to make
and water levies can make up to 25% a difference in the lives of farmers,
of the production costs per hectare, IrriCost and others are encouraged to make
thus it is a considerable expense full use of these programs, which are

I
requiring the necessary attention. At rriCost is an aid for the manage- available free of charge.
the same time, there is pressure from ment of irrigation costs. Both the For more information on the
government on the agricultural seg- capital and operating costs must be agricultural tools available from the
ment to reduce its overall water use. considered when purchasing a new WRC, contact Publications at Tel:
Through the years the WRC has irrigation system. Thus the IrriCost (012) 330-0340, E-mail: orders@wrc.
funded the development of several cost-accounting program has been org.za or visit: www.wrc.org.za. For
computer-based tools to assist farm- developed to estimate both the advice on implementation of these
ers in managing their costs and annual fixed and variable costs of decision support tools, please contact
Water management
risks. Hundreds of commercial and irrigation systems. Dr Bennie Grové or Prof Klopper
is one of the most
emerging farmers have already been This Windows-based program Oosthuizen at the Department of critical determinants of
trained on, and are already benefit- can be used by all farmers, exten- Agricultural Economics, University of economically efficient
ing from, these tools. sion officers and advisers involved the Free State in Bloemfontein. crop production.
in centre pivot and hand-line irriga-
RiskMan tion who have access to a personal
computer. The scope of IrriCost’s

R isk management should form an


integral part of the daily deci-
sion process while managing a farm
field of application is wide, and the
program can be used to compare the
costs of alternative system designs, to
business. RiskMan is a simulation evaluate annual costs and to budget
model of net cashflow for water use irrigation costs.
and crop combinations at specific
risk levels, generally applied at farm FARMS
scale. The main aim with the devel-

R
opment of this program was to pro- iskMan and IrriCost have now
vide risk-management information also been combined in a single
to bridge the gap between theory and system, FARMS (Farm level Agri-
practice at whole farm level. cultural Management Simulator).
Any agribusiness advisor or This computer program combines
farmer can make use of the pro- the benefit of the two programs with
gram. RiskMan weighs up alterna- other tools to form a comprehensive
tive actions to reduce exposure to farm management decision-support
www.sxc.hu

unfavourable financial outcomes system. FARMS can also be used


and provides reliable and relevant in conjunction with other systems

35
www.sxc.hu

The Water Wheel September/October 2010


Water personalities

Liani and Maria are cycling for change


Ripples for Good

Many people realise the challenges South Africa is pollution. The tight team of four is just their jobs and packed their bags to
as inspirational as their campaign, “do something that matters”. Maria
facing with regards to its water, but not many people
Ripples for Good. Travelling by any was 24 years old and Liani 32 when
will stand up and do something about it. Maria Botha means possible, they are spreading they first cycled from St Lucia to Cape
and Liani Broodryk are two of those rare people. their words of wisdom through south- Town. “Our country is amazing”, they
ern Africa. They’ve almost drowned, say. “We haven’t met one person along
These modern-day water disciples have hit the rivers
been without water for days and our way that has made us feel like we
and roads, preaching for change in our water ways, survived a serious road accident, but are in danger,” Maria adds. Dante and
one town at a time. Petro Kotzé got them to stand still their spirits have not been dampened. Katryn are also great travel buddies.
“People’s inherent goodness” make “We know that if they are uncomfort-
long enough to report on their activities.
up for it, they say. As Maria puts it, “it able, we should move camp.”


W
hat is needed along puts a smile on your dial.” After Cape Town they continued
with fresh water is fresh After touring South Africa, their to Upington, got a lift with farm-
thinking.” When Nobel mission will take them to Mozambique, ers to Springbok and decided to
Peace Prize winner and 7th Secretary Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia and canoe down the Orange River. “We
General of the United Nations, Kofi Angola, where they will have a closer had never done anything like that
Annan uttered these word, he could look at transboundary water resources. before,” explains Liani. “We didn’t
have been speaking of two women But this is just a continuation of a even know that we needed a guide”.
right at the southern tip of Africa. journey that started a while back. Admittedly, they might have gotten
Indeed, Maria Botha and Liani into hotter water than expected. One
Broodryk, along with their two dogs, With or without a near drowning and a lost canoe later,
Dante and Katryn, have devoted them- paddle it was time to move on again.
selves to motivating others to value Next, they cycled from Springbok

T
water and share the knowledge that he Ripples team reached the to Potchefstroom. A year passed and
something can be done about water tipping point six years ago, quit the girls took a break to gather their

36 The Water Wheel September/October 2010


Water personalities

strengths. They always supported explains Liani. “Basic water is free.” Top right: Dante
causes close to their hearts during Their campaign’s slogan aptly states takes a closer look
at the Olifants River
their trips and before long, people that “it starts with you”. “If you have to
outside Witbank in
asked them when their next adven- wait for the government to solve your Mpumalanga.
ture would be. problems, you’re waiting for better
Middle right: Liani and
“At the end of the day we all have an idealistic Katryn share a moment
on the road.
picture in our heads of what we want out of life.
The majority of people are really good at heart, Bottom right: The
have a dream and are on their way somewhere.” mighty Vaal River – an
impressive sight in spite
of the problems that the
Soon, Dante and Katryn were days,” she says. It’s no use pointing team encountered on
loaded up for an expedition from the finger at somebody else for the their way.
Rustenburg to the Drakensberg solution if you are not also making an
Mountains, where they wanted to effort to change your own habits.
walk from Witsieshoek to the Sani Maria and Liani believe that
Pass. Somewhat unprepared for what the more they tell their story, the
lay ahead, they eventually reached more they empower people with
their destination a month later. the knowledge that they can change
“We’ve also tackled the Transkei”, their own environments. “As soon as
says Maria, “and we got stuck in our message touches one person, and

Lani van Vuuren


floods at Kei River Mouth”, adds they start changing their ways, the
Liani. Between botched donkey-car ripple effect starts.” They can now be
trips through the Karoo and planned an example to others, like a family
Swaziland adventures, they eventu- member, a community and eventu-
ally travelled to Parys in the Free ally, on a global scale.
State, where the friendly locals They believe that creating fear
helped them by sponsoring their around pollution is not the answer,
next escapade. They decided to but rather the provision of solu-
canoe down the mighty Vaal River to tions and knowledge. “You want
Douglas. “It was a huge awakening.” people to wake up and get involved
The women relate how they had to in a combined, positive effort.” At
battle through raw sewage and near least, they say, they’ve noticed a
solid stretches of hyacinth in the “huge” difference in people’s per-
river. Sometimes, they had no choice spectives over the past six years.
but to get out and carry the canoe for “You can find a boer omie that has
kilometres. “The Vaal is used for so just finished his dop somewhere in
Ripples for Good

many things, like growing our food a small town, and then he’d sud-
and as a source for drinking,” they denly start telling you all these
exclaim. “If this continues, what will amazing things about pollution
happen to our children?” and water conservation.”
“We realised something was hap- The ripples have also circled out
pening to the country’s water, and to bigger organisations. Currently
we decided it would be our mission travelling on motorcycles sponsored
to fight it.” Maria, Liani, Dante and by Yamaha, Ripples for Good are able
Katryn took an eight-month break to visit more communities quicker.
to regroup and research water issues Dante and Katryn get Royal Canin
and role players in the industry. food couriered to them wherever
Ripples for Good was born. they are and Garmin ensures that the
girls know in what direction they’re
The ripple effect aiming most of the time. Compa-
nies like Avroy Shlain also organise

“People audiences where possible along their


Ripples for Good

have a basic right to clean


water. They shouldn’t have to way. Even the CSIR has expressed its
go out and buy the bottled version”, support for the quartet.

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 37


Water personalities

Another day at the


‘office’ for Maria, Dante
Getting in deeper
and Katryn.

E xcept for the Queen’s Corgi’s,


Dante and Katryn are probably
the only two dogs that have been
invited to their country’s Parliament,
muses Maria. They were invited for
a visit by DA parliamentary member
in Cape Town, Gareth Morgan.
Indeed, the ripples of the past six
years have generated more and more
attention. They’ve been featured in
Beeld and on Kwêla. Environmental
interest television programme 50/50
has interviewed them and plan to
Ripples for Good

follow them as their trip continues.


They were also shortlisted for the
Mail & Guardian’s annual supplement
in celebration of 200 of the country’s
Maria explains that their main linked up with is the Water Research brightest under 35’s for their contri-
purpose is not only to educate, but Commission (WRC). “The WRC bution to civil society. According to
to facilitate. They identify positive is making a huge impact, especially the paper’s criteria, “this is the gen-
role-players in communities and link through providing educational mate- eration that will define and lead the
them with people and organisations rial to communities.” country in the future.”
that can offer continued support. “Eventually, the way we all look at Having just completed a pro-
One of the organisations they have our water has to change.” motional run on their bikes for the

38 The Water Wheel September/October 2010


Water personalities

World Cup, the Ripples team is Ripples for Good visit


on the road again and heading for the Tirisano Day Care
Centre, this time to
Mozambique via Swaziland. Just like
talk about solar water
the issues at stake, the trip is also disinfection.
a global effort. After the southern
African leg of the trip, they will
head to South America, then North
and Central America, India and the
islands as part of their two year plan.
But Liani is quick to point out that
their lifestyle is not as glamorous as
one might think. “It’s no joke push-
ing an 80 kg bike up a hill, being
constantly on the lookout for good
camping spots and not being sure

Ripples for Good


where your next drinking water will
come from.”
Looking back at the past six years,
they feel content with what they have “Your mindset has everything to do wants to leave a good ripple effect”.
achieved. “It’s great to open yourself with your reality”.
up a bit and to realise that you’re “At the end of the day we all have • To support Maria and Liani’s
unique. There’s so much to life that an idealistic picture in our heads of efforts search for ‘Ripples for
we don’t know about yet.” Just as their what we want out of life. The major- Good’ on Facebook: and join
mindsets have changed over the past ity of people are really good at heart, their group; follow their blog at
years, this trip is also about changing have a dream and are on their way www.ripplesforgood.com; or
others’ perceptions. somewhere,” they say. “Everybody E-mail: maria.botha@gmail.com 

Call for Registration: WDM Specialists


The Water Demand Management (WDM) Programme is hosted by the Development Bank of
Southern Africa (DBSA) and supported by the Swedish International Development Cooperation
Agency (Sida).

The Programme is focused on building a WDM culture in the Southern African Development
Community (SADC) region to ensure effective and sustainable use of water that contributes to
the SADC goals of regional integration and poverty alleviation.

The WDM Programme invites all WDM specialists in the region to register with the Programme’s
WDM Specialist Database.

Download the Specialist CV template from the Programme website :


www.wdm-in-sadc.net or send an email to the
Programme Implementation Unit (PIU) :
info@wdm-in-sadc.net requesting the template.

The WDM Specialist Database will be accessible to


all registered members on the website, as well as
potential Clients.

Tel +27 (0)11 313 3362


Fax +27 (0)11 206 3362
Email: info@wdm-in-sadc.net
Website: www.wdm-in-sadc-net

Photos courtesy WRP

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 39


Capacity building

The adventure of working together:


Promoting transdisciplinarity
between young water scientists

A national forum for young water scientists states have limited water resources, and outbreaks of disease which
which may constrain future eco- impact on water needs and use.
aims to bring multiple disciplines together
nomic development. This makes it
around one goal. Shanna Nienaber and imperative to work carefully with Towards a trans­
Inga Jacobs report. this resource to ensure its continued disciplinary response

T
availability, at an affordable price,

T
he water resources of the to existing and future generations. raditionally, the technical and
Southern African Develop- In addition, there are pronounced scientific communities have
ment Community (SADC) developmental differences in SADC, been called on to respond to the
are highly sensitive and complex to rendering some countries more concerns of the water sector. This
understand, govern, use effectively effective than others at mobilising had led to much technical and
and distribute fairly. This reality is necessary human, financial and tech- scientific innovation to respond to
created by many overlapping factors, nologies resources to address water water challenges. However, emerging
among others the fact that water is scarcity and related human welfare water concerns and complexities are
fundamentally a shared resource in needs. Finally, SADC is confronted demanding more integrated levels
the region. by numerous social challenges, such of ingenuity and expertise from
Some of the most economi- as population growth, urbanisation, a diverse set of backgrounds. No
cally developed southern African climate change, refugee movements, amount of technical and scientific

40 The Water Wheel September/October 2010


Capacity building

ingenuity is adequate if the solutions the region. Furthermore, a primary manner. It is transdisciplinary, and
generated are not relevant, digest- goal of social science is to influence has strong links with the South
ible and acceptable to the specific public policy by general practical African Young Water Profession-
socio-political and socio-economic knowledge that can help policy-mak- als (YWP), which provides linkages
contexts of our time. ers make informed decisions and in and access to a wider national and
Given this realisation, there is so doing help to foster more effective global water network with the Water
growing recognition of the need for policy and governance options. Institute of Southern Africa and the
more transdisciplinary responses International Water Association.
to the challenges facing the water Young Scholars Forum
sector. Transdisciplinarity is about Activities
G
rising to the challenge of working iven the complexity of the chal-

T
together; understanding the con- lenges facing the water sector o date YSF has been involved in
cepts, contributions and language of in SADC and the obvious value of a number of initiatives to pro-
different disciplines; and integrating transdisciplinarity in responding to mote its mission and aims, including
the perspectives of different actors these issues; it is essential to rise to three events held in collaboration
into comprehensive solutions for the this challenge. with the YWP Gauteng Chapter as
water sector. The Young Scholars Forum (YSF) well as other events held in Pretoria
One of the hindering factors to in Transboundary Water Governance and Durban.
transdisciplinarity is the reality that is funded by the Water Research In November the YSF will host
there is an ongoing lack of social Commission, and aims to incentiv- a workshop in transdisciplinarity
scientists dealing with water issues. ise transdisciplinarity in the water at the CSIR, in Pretoria. The theme
This can be, at least in part, attrib- sector. The WRC’s commitment to of this event is ‘Exploring transdis-
uted to university curricula that do funding this initiative is a clear indi- ciplinarity to address change in the
not adequately equip social science cation of the growing recognition, by SADC water sector: establishing the
students with the skills needed to institutions in the water sector, of the role of social scientists in the vision’.
grapple with environmental issues; need to build capacity in transdisci- To overcome the challenges of the
funding agendas that tend to favour plinarity in order to foster a sector SADC water sector, it is essential to
natural science methodology and thus that is equipped to respond to the come to grips with working across
support less social science research; challenges of water management and disciplines, across boundaries, and
and an organisational bias favour- governance. with a diverse spectrum of actors.
ing natural scientists and technical YSF’s mission is to facilitate col- Young water professionals are stra-
experts in research organisations. laborative exchange between young tegically placed to respond to this
Dr Inga Jacobs of
This is tied to the (mis)perception water professionals and students unique challenge. YSF is a construc- the CSIR speaks to a
that ‘hard science’ is more accurate around issues facing the water sector. tive way to help promote transdisci- group of young water
and valuable than the ‘soft’ and often Conscious effort is made to accom- plinarity, and to groom, recruit and professionals at an
qualitative science of social scientists. modate multiple voices, facilitate mentor young professionals who are event organised by
Despite these challenges, there the Young Scholars
understanding of the language and moving into the sector. This ulti-
Forum in collaboration
is growing recognition of the need perspectives of different disciplines, mately assists in paving the way for with the Young Water
for social scientists equipped with and to nurture the presence of more effective, impactful and relevant Professionals Gauteng
skills, understanding and passion minority voices in the water sector solutions for the SADC water sector.  Chapter.
for governance issues in the water such as social scientists.
sector. A social science presence The specific aims of the YSF are
is important as social scientists to build a community and network
have unique expertise in cultural, of professionals who have an interest
behavioural and societal realities. in dealing with the social dimensions
This equips them with the skills to of water challenges in our region, to
interpret subjective, objective, inter- create opportunities for younger and
subjective and structural aspects of more experienced professionals to
society. This aids understanding of interact and share knowledge, and
the social developments, needs and to increase social science literature
drawbacks of a context. Also, social output relating to water issues.
science has a familiarity with institu- This forum is unique in that it is
tional capacity building mechanisms focused on the specific issue of water
and thus can offer critical support governance. It is theme-based, allow-
to the bodies and individuals that ing young professionals to develop
are mandated to manage water in their expertise in a focused, proactive

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 41


Capacity building

Growing Africa’s
future water leaders
T
he African water sector faces
many challenges and inspi-
rational leaders are required
to pick up the torch of effective water
management into the future.
One institution aiming to grow this
leadership is the International Water-
Centre (IWC) Water Research Node at
Monash South Africa.
While there are experienced people
working at the coalface of the African
water sector already, they are in short
supply and overworked. More skilled
young people are required to pick up
the slack, reports Dr Dirk Roux, Direc-
tor of the IWC Water Research Node.
According to Dr Roux, these leaders

Monash SA
require a depth and breadth of knowl-
edge to direct sustainable use, effective
management and wise governance need to develop creative and critical Current students is placed on working with other
of water resources. “They need to be thinking skills to solve the complex- at Monash SA’s research organisations, universi-
humble enough to serve, yet have the International
ity of problems Africa is now faced ties and implementation agencies in
WaterCentre Water
vision and energy to inspire people to with and to manage water projects South and Southern Africa.
Research Node, Liezl
treat water resources like the finite and in a holistic way. Craig and Karin
most precious resources that they are.” Breytenbach. Finding solutions for
The IWC Water Research Node IWC Water Research Node the future
was set up at Monash South Africa to

T
help create these water leaders.

“I
he IWC Water Research Node f you want to make a difference
uses integrated water manage- in the African context,” says Liezl
Integrated water ment as a critical theme to make Craig, one of the current students,
management both a practical and theoretical con- “water management is the field to
tribution to an inter- and transdis- enter. There are numerous challenges

I ntegrated water management is a


holistic approach to water manage-
ment. It considers the whole water
ciplinary understanding of water
management in Africa. The Node is
a collaborative partnership between
and a severe lack of champions to
address them.”
The water leaders envisioned by
cycle and takes into account the socio- Monash University and the Interna- the Water Research Node will have
economic, political and environmental tional WaterCentre – a joint venture the skills to initiate dialogues between
factors affecting water challenges, in of four Australian universities. professions, peoples, cultures and
order to achieve sound, sustainable The Node was set up to address countries. They will understand the
solutions for water and water-related some of the key water resource man- specialty areas involved in water –
problems. Understanding the inter- agement challenges of contemporary engineering, law, politics, agriculture,
connectedness of water in human and Africa through research, education etc. – and be able to communicate
natural systems, and the need to take a and community engagement. Its and work between them. They will
much bigger perspective than just the flagship educational offering is the create diverse teams and develop
single-issue approach, are vital if effec- two-year research intensive degree, partnerships with and between pro-
tive solutions are to be found. Master of Philosophy in Integrated fessionals, communities and govern-
Social, cultural and environ- Water Management. ments and play leadership roles in the
mental factors must be taken into Because the Water Research critical interface between science and
consideration. Water practitioners Node is a small unit a lot of emphasis management of water resources. 

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 43


How much water did you have today?
W
e all know how important it large water footprint because vast volumes
is to turn off the tap while we of water are used to grow the feed con- How much water
are brushing our teeth and sumed by the animals that we derive our in that meal?
that the average shower uses much less meat from. This is increasingly important
water than the bath. But did you know that considering that globally meat production
what you eat can also affect your water increases every year. Even a small reduc-
consumption? tion in the animal protein we consume can
People obviously use large amounts reduce our water footprint without depriv- • To produce one
of water through drinking, cooking and ing our bodies of nutrition. litre of milk
washing, but even more water is used to Generally, meat, dairy, and processed requires 1 000
produce our food, clothes, paper, appli- foods require far more water to produce litres of water.
ances and everything else we use every than fresh fruit, vegetables and whole • To grow one
day. From the sandwiches in your lunch- grains. That beef hamburger you like eat- kilogram of wheat
box, to the apple for the teacher and your ing takes 2 400 litres of water to produce. needs 1 300 litres of water.
home computer everything requires water One bag of 200 grams potato chips (crisps) • To grow one kilogram of rice needs 3 400
whether it is grown, produced, processed alone has a water footprint of 185 litres. litres of water.
or manufactured. However, even a seemingly harmless bread • More than 140 litres of water goes into
The total volume of water that is required and cheese sandwich requires lots of water every cup of coffee.
to grow or make a product is called its water to make, with 690 litres of water needed to • It takes 2 500 litres of water to produce
footprint. While the world’s population keeps produce a half of kilogram of wheat and 1 big (500 g) chunk of cheese.
on growing the volume of water we have on 2 500 litres of water needed to make a half • It takes 4 650 litres of water for one steak
Earth stays the same. If we don’t want to run a kilogram of cheese. Adding a glass of (300 g).
out of water we need to become more aware milk requires another 250 litres of water! • The average water footprint for one apple
not only of the physical water we use, but also According to the Water Footprint is 70 litres. One glass of apple juice takes
of the water footprint of the things we buy, Network the average South African has a about 190 litres of water to make.
eat, use and dispose of every day. yearly water footprint of about 930 cubic • Every slice of bread uses about 40 litres
metres. That is all the water used to make of water.
Water footprint the food, clothing and other water-driven • One kilogram of chicken meat has a water
products we consume. If you times that footprint of 3 900 litres.

S o just how much water are you con- number by the number of people in the • One egg requires 200 litres of water.
suming every day? It really depends on country then the water in the yearly water • One kilogram of sheep meat has a water
your diet. Animal protein has an especially footprint for the entire South African footprint of 6 100 litres
• About 50 litres of water is used to pro-
duce one orange.
• One kilogram of maize requires 900 litres
of water.

Our love of animal protein is driving


up water consumption, with every
steak requiring 4 650 litres of
44 The Water Wheel September/October 2010 water.
Left: The water footprint of an average-sized
margherita pizza is 1 200 litres.

Right: Fresh vegetables use much less


water than processed foods.

population is enough to fill 1 488 000


Olympic-sized swimming pools! This is a
large number, however, our water footprint
is still less than the global average, which
is 1 243 cubic metres per person per year.
In the United States of America, where
people consume a lot of animal protein, the
average yearly water footprint per person
is 2 483 cubic metres (the largest on the The water footprint
planet). In Asian countries such as Japan, of a product does not
only take into account
where people are more dependent on
the water it needs
seafood, the water footprint is only 1 153 to grow, but also its
cubic metres per person per year. processing, packaging
and transport to
What you can do market.

T here are a few things you can do to


reduce your water footprint. Firstly,
only buy enough food for your own and

Further reading
• Visit www.waterfootprint.org to your family’s consumption and plan meals electricity, and this adds to the water foot-
find out more about the water foot- accordingly. Tossing out leftover or spoilt print of the products we consume. Water is
print of different products and to food means wasting every drop of water also used to make the plastic packaging that
calculate your own water footprint. that went into growing that food (think of we buy our produce in.
• Visit www.h2oconserve.org for that every time you don’t ask for a doggie We all need to become more conscious
quizzes and tips on how to reduce bag when eating in a restaurant). about how much water it takes to maintain
your water footprint. Secondly, eat healthier. Your mother our lifestyles. So drop that packet of crisps
• Visit: http://tlc.howstuffworks.com/ was right when she told you to eat your and reach for that orange!
home/going-green1.htm for vegetables. Not only is it better for your
general tips on greener living. body (and your waistline), it is good for the
environment too. Meat requires five to ten
times more water to produce than vegeta-
bles. Even better, grow your own fruit and
vegetables. Supermarket produce is machine
agitated, power-washed, fan-dried, refrig-
erated and kept from freezing, all which
requires electricity. Water is used to make

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 45


Last word

CSIR showcases its science


T
he CSIR held its Third opportunity to showcase its work projects that would directly impact
Biennial Conference during and engage with its shareholders. on the country’s poor. “There is no
August/September 2010. Presentations represented various point in having technology, research
The theme of this year’s conference subjects in the fields of health and and development if we still have peo-
was ‘Science: Real and Relevant’. safety, built environment, defence ple without access to energy, health-
The conference has become a major and security, industry, energy and care and other basic services. Science
event on the Council’s calendar. This natural environment. Minister and technology is a key enabler in
year, close to 900 delegates attended, of Science & Technology, Naledi boosting the economy. We must look
more than 50% from outside organi- Pandor, who delivered the keynote at how technology, research and
sations. According to Dr Thulani address, made a passionate plea to development respond to local and
Dlamini, CSIR Group Executive: the CSIR and other science councils global problems, and increase sci-
Research and Development, the to not only focus on ‘creative and ence’s supportive role in developing
event offers the Council the perfect imaginary’ research, but to tackle and modernising South Africa.”

All photographs by
Lani van Vuuren

a, all from
and Ivy Ndhundhum
a-Lemboumba
rnin Ombind
Minister of Science & Technology Naledi Pandor delivered the keynote address.
ti en ce M thunzi, Satu e CSIR.
Dr Pa re at th
l Laser Cent
the Nationa

ican
, all of the South Afr
s Coetzee, Rob Wallis and Ryan Cowley Dr Nqaba Ngcobo
Pieter de Beer, Mariu , Chair of the Parli
Technology. amentary Portfoli
o Comm ittee on Science &
Air Force.

There were 67 po
sters on display at
the conference.
Andri Barnard, Lara Kotzé-Jacobs and Ilse Wepener, all from CSIR Polymers and
Composites.
46 The Water Wheel September/October 2010
A campus of Monash University Australia

The course is designed to prepare a next generation of research


leaders to address complex and interlinked water management
issues. Endorsed by four world-class universities, the course is Water leadership for the future
delivered at Monash South Africa by international leaders and local The course comprises an interdisciplinary foundation semester consisting
experts in a broad spectrum of disciplines. of four compulsory units and a three-semester research project.

The masters research thesis will form the bulk of the course weighting,
The course while the coursework component introduces students to some of the
• Commences in Semester 1 of each year at the Monash South Africa
complex underlying concepts, such as biological, social and economic
campus in Ruimsig, Johannesburg
factors, which affect sustainable water management.
• Full-time over two years
• Focus on interfaces between science, policy and management
• Lectures and supervision by various experts from South Africa and
Admissions criteria
• A four-year qualification or equivalent honours degree
Australia
• 70% achievement or higher in this qualification
• Small intake of students to allow personal coaching and mentoring
• Proficiency in written and spoken English
• Attractive scholarships available
It is recommended that applicants have a science background,
• Internationally-recognised degree endorsed by four leading Australian
research aptitude, an interest in multi-disciplinary water issues and
universities
some work experience.

Student profile
Learning objectives This course is ideal for professionals with an interest in research from a
At the end of the course students will be able to: variety of water-related backgrounds such as engineering, social sciences,
service provision, environment, conservation, health and many others. The
• appraise freshwater ecosystems as complex social-ecological systems
course can be used as a gateway to a PhD program or to work in the
• evaluate the imperative of sustainable development in relation
interface between science and management of water resources.
to the planning and management of water resources
• design an integrated water resource management plan
More information
• develop a research project proposal
Tel: 011 950 4143
• execute an integrated water management research project Email: hester.stols@monash.edu
• present their research findings Web: www.monash.ac.za/research/water-research-node
• prepare an academic paper ready for submission to a scientific journal. Deadline: 31 October 2010
Monash South Africa is registered with the Department of Education as a private education
institution under the Higher Education Act 1997. Registration number: 00HF02.

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