ANTENNA
SPECIFICATION GUIDE
ANTENNA GAIN AND POLARIZATION
The most typically discussed antenna performance characteris-
tics are gain and polarization.
GAIN
Gain is an antenna property dealing with an antenna's ability to
direct its radiated power in a desired direction, or to receive
energy preferentially from a desired direction. However, gain is
not a quantity which can be defined in terms of physical quanti-
ties such as the Watt, ohm or joule, but is a dimensionless ratio.
As a consequence, antenna gain results from the interaction of
all other antenna characteristics.
Antenna characteristics of gain, beamwidth, and efficiency are
independent of the antenna's use for either transmitting or
receiving. Generally these characteristics are more easily
described for the transmitting case, however, the properties
apply as well to receiving applications.
Directive Gain From a Hypothetical Antenna. An antenna
does not amplify. It only distributes energy through space in a
manner which can best make use of energy available. Directive
gain is related to and is a measure of this energy distribution.
An isotropic radiator has equal radiation intensity in all direc-
tions. It is said to have 0 dBi directive gain. If the radiation
intensity of the antenna is greater in any direction than that of
the isotropic radiator, it is said to have directive gain in that
direction and it will have less radiation intensity, than isotropic,
in other directions. The ratio of the radiation intensity in the
maximum direction to the total radiation from the antenna is the
directive gain, also known as its directivity. It is important to
note that directivity is related only to the shape of the antenna's
radiation pattern, and does not include efficiency factors.
Efficiencies Related to Power Gain, Realized Gain, and
Directive Gain. A quantity closely related to directive gain is
power gain. For an ideal antenna with a radiation efficiency of
100%, directive gain is equal to power gain. For an antenna with
losses (excluding reflection losses arising from impedance mis-
match), power gain will be lower than directive gain, and is
given by the equation:
Gp = Gd * η
where η is the radiation efficiency, and is always less than
unity.
Radiation efficiency is a measure of those losses internal to the
antenna, such as I2R losses in imperfect conductors and
dielectrics. It is the ratio of the total power radiated by an anten-
na to the net power accepted by the antenna from a connected
transmitter. Excluded from these losses is the power reflected
back to the transmitter because of impedance mismatch. The
implication is that an antenna tested for efficiency must be per-
fectly matched to the transmitter. This is a condition realizable
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under test conditions and at a single frequency, but is not a con-
dition likely to exist under normal operating conditions, espe-
cially in a system which must operate over a wide frequency
band.
The aperture of an antenna is a planar surface near the antenna
that is perpendicular to the direction of maximum radiation, and
through which the major portion of the radiation passes. For
parabolic reflector type and horn type antennas, the aperture is
the area of the paraboloid, or horn opening, respectively, as
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Physical Apertures of Parabolic Reflector
and Horn-Type Antennas
The manner in which energy is distributed over the aperture is
referred to as aperture illumination. It is most simply explained
by considering the field distribution over a parabolic reflector-
horn feed antenna where the field distribution is controlled by
the radiation pattern of the horn feed antenna
Antenna Efficiency - Aperture Type Antennas. Antenna effi-
ciency is concerned with the effectiveness of an antenna's aper-
ture in directing, or collecting, radiated power. It is not related
to radiation efficiency or mismatch loss, and need not be sub-
tracted from directive gain.
Antenna efficiency is often sacrificed to obtain other desirable
characteristics, such as a low side-lobe level, or wide bandwidth
performance. For example, if it is necessary to illuminate a para-
bolic reflector with a horn feed over a band of frequencies, it is
apparent the reflector's illumination will vary with frequency
since a horn radiator's beamwidth is inversely proportional to
frequency (or the aperture dimensions in terms of wavelength).
Therefore, it is necessary to under-illuminate the reflector at the
high-end frequency in order to not over-illuminate at the low-
end frequency of the band.
POLARIZATION
The polarization of an antenna in a given direction is the polar-
ization of the wave radiated by the antenna in that direction.
Alternatively, it is the polarization of a wave incident from the
given direction which results in maximum available power at
the antenna terminals. "Given direction" is usually the direction
of maximum gain of the antenna.
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A radio wave may be considered to consist of two orthogonal Circularly Polarized Antennas. Antennas designed for circular
vectors representing the electric and magnetic fields, and a third polarization are generally more complex than those used for lin-
vector, orthogonal to the first two, representing the direction of ear polarization. Circularly polarized antennas may be divided
propagation. It is conventional in electrical engineering practice into two general categories.
to specify the polarization of the wave by the orientation of the Category I antennas are those which are circularly polarized by
electric field vector, as illus- virtue of the physical structure of their radiating aperture, and
trated in Figure 2. For the pur- are exemplified by such antennas as spirals and helices. This
pose of this discussion, it is not type of antenna produces that sense of circular polarization,
necessary to further discuss the right or left, which corresponds to the physical sense of the helix
magnetic field vector because or spiral.
it is always oriented in the
same way with respect to the Category II antennas usually consist of orthogonal elements
electric field vector. If the ori- which are combined in phase quadrature. An example of a cate-
Figure 2. Electromagnetic Field entation of the E vector does gory II antenna is the crossed dipole with an external 90-degree
not deviate from a straight line as it appears to move in the hybrid coupler. This type of antenna, and also the dual linear
direction of propagation, the wave is linearly polarized. If the E polarized horn antenna is capable of producing both right hand
vector appears to rotate with time, then the wave is elliptically and left hand circular polarization simultaneously. A variety of
polarized. The ellipse so described may vary in ellipticity from a category I and II antennas are shown in Figures 4 and 5.
circle to a straight line, or from circular to linear polarization. In
a general sense, then, all polarizations may be considered to be
elliptical. In engineering practice, linear polarization and circu-
lar polarization confirm to precise definitions, but elliptical
polarization is
sometimes
called circular
polarization,
with a toler-
ance added to
define the
permissible
ellipticity.
Figure 3 is an
illustration of
a circularly-
polarized
Figure 3. Field Rotation of Circular Polarization wave with the
radial lines representing the successive E vectors along the
direction of propagation. If a smooth curve is drawn connecting
the tips of the successive vectors, a helix is formed. The sense of
polarization, either right-hand or left-hand, is derived from the
apparent rotation of the vectors. When the thumb is placed
along the direction of propagation, the fingers will point in the
direction of the apparent rotation of the vectors as they seem to
pass through a plane. The polarization is named for the hand, Figure 4. Category Antennas
right or left, whichever is appropriate.
Linearly Polarized Antennas. Antennas designed to radiate Polarization Diversity. It is possible, with the dual linear polar-
and receive linearly polarized waves are numerous, but the ori- ized antenna connected in the system shown in Figure 6, to
gins of all can be traced to two basic types: the dipole and its selectively receive or transmit any of the six major polarization
complement, the slot antenna. The polarization of the wave radi- and, further, to transmit or receive any two orthogonal polariza-
ated by the dipole is oriented along the long dimension of the tions simultaneously if dual channel transmitters or receivers are
dipole, whereas, the polarization of the slot antenna is oriented available. This latter arrangement is called a polarization diver-
across the short dimension. The dipole evolves into such anten- sity system, which is particularly useful when it is imperative to
nas as monopoles, log-periodic dipole arrays, Yagis, and others. maintain communications during changing polarization condi-
The horn antenna can be considered an evolutionary product of tions, or when the need occurs to estimate the polarization of a
the slot antenna. received signal by comparing received amplitudes with different
polarizations.

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Figure 5. Category II Antennas Figure 6. Polarization Diversity
Polarization and Reflection. The components of a wave
reflected from a conductive surface undergo a change in relative
phase, as well as direction in a manner similar to the change
undergone by an “image” in a mirror. While the image in the
mirror has its left and right sides interchanged, the top and bot-
tom of the image remain the same as in the original object. This
same principle accounts for one advantage of circular polariza-
tion; a transmitting circularly polarized antenna illuminating a
reflector is isolated from the reflected energy. For example, the
central feed antenna on a parabolic reflector transmits energy
which is reflected by the parabola. Some of the energy is reflect-
ed back into the feed, posing an interference problem. If the
feed is circularly polarized, the reflected energy will also be
circularly polarized, but in the opposite direction. That is, if the
primary polarization is right hand, the secondary or reflected
polarization will be left hand.
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Polarization Mismatch. As previously discussed, an antenna's
polarization is demonstrated by the polarization of the wave
produced when transmitting or by the wave which produces
maximum energy at the receiver antenna terminal. When anten-
na gain is specified or tested, the assumption is generally made
that the polarization of the field is optimum; that is, the charac-
teristic polarization of the antenna and the field in which it is
measured are the same. If the wave is polarized differently than
the antenna receiving it, then the power available at the antenna
terminals will be less than maximum. Loss resulting from polar-
ization mismatch can be any value between infinity and zero.
Losses associat-
ed with some of
the more com-
mon polariza-
tion mismatches
are shown in
Figure 7.
Attenuation for
the six polariza-
tions listed is
based on the
polarization
Figure 7. Polarization Mismatch Loss
being either
purely linear or
purely circular.
Note that an antenna of any one polarization is blind, or cross
polarized, to one other polarization. A given antenna may radi-
ate different polarizations in different directions, but in a specif-
ic direction there is always one polarization which it cannot
transmit or receive.
Conclusion. It should be evident from this discussion that circu-
lar polarization is more difficult to produce than linear polariza-
tion. From a systems point of view, circular polarization
requires greater care to ensure proper use. Circular polarization,
however, finds an application in situations where it is necessary
to receive signals whose polarization is unknown, such as with
reconnaissance or surveillance systems. Airborne vehicles, such
as missiles, usually transmit telemetry data via linearly polar-
ized antennas; a circularly polarized antenna on the ground can
usually receive the signals despite the ever-changing attitude of
the missile. Another use of circular polarization is in the "fre-
quency re-use” technique employed in stellite communications.
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 GLOSSARY OF STANDARD ANTENNA TERMS
Taken from IEEE definitions, this glossary defines the most
commonly used antenna terms. Particular attention has been
paid to include the terms used elsewhere in this catalog, thus
making this glossary the common basis for the specifications
published in the catalog. The importance of standard definitions
for commonly used terms cannot be overemphasized. Consistent
application of standard definitions will eliminate much confu-
sion regarding antenna specifications.
Antenna Efficiency of an Aperture Type Antenna. For an
antenna with a specified planar aperture, the ratio of the maxi-
mum effective area of the antenna to the aperture area.
Aperture of an Antenna. A surface, near or on an antenna, on
which it is convenient to make assumptions regarding the field
values for the purpose of computing fields at external points.
NOTE: The aperture is often taken as that portion of a plane sur-
face near the antenna, perpendicular to the direction of maxi-
mum radiation, through which the major part of the radiation
passes.
Aperture Illumination. The field over the aperture as described
by amplitude, phase, and polarization distributions.
Aperture Illumination Efficiency. For a planar antenna aper-
ture, the ratio of its directivity to the directivity obtained when
the aperture illumination is uniform.
Axial Ratio. The ratio of the major axis to the minor axis of the
polarization ellipse. This ratio varies between infinity and 1 as
the polarization changes from linear to circular.
Beam. The major lobe of the radiation pattern.
Cross Polarization. The polarization orthogonal to a reference
polarization. Two fields have orthogonal polarizations if their
polarization ellipses have the same axial ratio, major axes at
right angles, and opposite senses of rotation. If the reference
polarization is right-handed circular, the cross polarization is
left-handed circular, and vice versa.
Directive Gain. In a given direction, 4π times the ratio of the
radiation intensity in that direction to the total power radiated by
the antenna.
Directivity. The value of the directive gain in the direction of its
maximum value.
Effective Area of an Antenna. In a given direction, the ratio of
power available at the terminals of a receiving antenna to the
power per unit area of a plane wave incident on the antenna
from that direction, polarized coincident with the polarization
that the antenna would radiate.
Front-to-Back Ratio. For directional antennas, the ratio of the
antenna’s effectiveness toward the front, to its effectiveness
toward the back.
Half-Power Beamwidth. In a plane containing the direction of
the maximum of a beam, the angle between the two directions in
which the radiation intensity is one half the maximum value of
the beam.
Isolation. The power level output from one port of a two port
antenna, relative to the power level input to the other port.
Isotropic Radiator. A hypothetical antenna having equal radia-
tion intensity in all directions. NOTE: An isotropic radiator rep-
resents a convenient reference for expressing the directive prop-
erties of actual antennas.
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Polarization. In a given direction, the polarization of the wave
radiated by the antenna. Alternatively, the polarization of a
plane wave incident from the given direction which results in
maximum available power at the antenna terminals. When the
direction is not stated, the polarization is taken to be the polar-
ization in the direction of maximum gain.
Power Gain. In a given direction, 4π times the ratio of the radi-
ation intensity in that direction to the net power accepted by the
antenna from the connected transmitter. NOTES: (1) When the
direction is not stated, the power gain is usually taken to be the
power gain in the direction of its maximum value. (2) Power
gain does not include reflection losses arising from mismatch
of impedance.
Power Gain in Physical Media. In a given direction and at a
given point in the far field, the ratio of the power flux per unit
area from an antenna to the power flux per unit area from an
isotropic radiator at a specified location with the same power
input as the subject antenna. NOTE: The isotropic radiator must
be within the smallest sphere containing the antenna. Suggested
locations are antenna terminals and points of symmetry, if such
exist.
Power Gain Referred to a Specified Polarization. The power
gain of an antenna, reduced by the ratio of that portion of the
radiation intensity corresponding to the specified polarization to
the radiation intensity.
Radiation Efficiency. The ratio of the total power radiated by
an antenna to the net power accepted by the antenna from the
connected transmitter.
Radiation Intensity. In a given direction, the power radiated
form an antenna per unit solid angle.
Radiation Lobe. A portion of the radiation pattern bounded by
regions of relatively weak radiation intensity.
Radiation Pattern (Antenna Pattern). A graphical representa-
tion of the radiation properties of the antenna as a function of
space coordinates. NOTES: (1) In the usual case the radiation
pattern is determined in the far-field region and is represented as
a function of directional coordinates. (2) Radiation properties
include power flux density, field strength, phase, and polariza-
tion.
Radiator. Any antenna or radiating element that is a discrete
physical and functional entity.
Realized Gain. The power gain of an antenna in its environ-
ment, reduced by the losses due to the mismatch of the antenna
input impedance to a specified impedance.
Realized Radiation Efficiency. The efficiency of an antenna in
its environment reduced by all losses suffered by it, including:
ohmic losses, mismatch losses, feedline transmission losses, and
radome losses.
Relative Power Gain. The ratio of the power gain in a given
direction to the power gain of a reference antenna in its refer-
ence antenna in its reference direction. NOTE: Common refer-
ence antennas are half-wave dipoles, electric dipoles, magnetic
dipoles, monopoles, and calibrated horn antennas.
Side Lobe. A radiation lobe in any direction other than that of
the intended lobe. When the intended lobe is not specified, it
shall be taken to be the major lobe.
Squint Angle. A small difference in pointing angle between
a reference beam direction and the direction of maximum
radiation.
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