MACHINERY

LUBRICATION
SPECIALIST
CERTIFICATION
COURSE PREPARATION
COURSE HANDBOOK

R.L. Thibault
Lubrication Training& Consulting
Houston, Texas

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 CONTENTS
Section Page
Numbers

Introduction 3-4

1) Lubrication Fundamentals 5-22

2) Lubricant Manufacturing 23-31

3) Bearings 32-43

4) Gears 44-52

5) Hydraulics 53-61

7) Compressors 62-65

9) Lubrication Programs 66-75

Monitoring and Reducing
Lubricant Consumption

10) Oil Analysis 75-83

11) Contamination Control 84-93

13) Storage, Handling, and 94-102

Application of Lubricants

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 INTRODUCTION

Level I Machinery Lubrication Technician (MLT) Certification Requirements

To become certified, an individual must meet the following requirements:

• Education and/or Experience - Candidates must have at least two years

education (post-secondary) or on-the-job training in one or more of the following
fields: machine lubrication, engineering, mechanical maintenance and/or
maintenance trades.
• Training - Candidate must have received at least 16 hours of documented formal
training in machinery lubrication. The MLT training class meets this
requirements.

The exam is closed book and it consists of 100 multiple choice questions. Bellow you
will find the MLT I Body of Knowledge with the subject areas being tested, as well as
their corresponding percentages:

I. Maintenance Strategy (5%)

A. Why machines fail
B. The impact of poor maintenance on company profits
C. The role of effective lubrication in failure avoidance

II. Lubrication Theory (10%)

A. Fundamentals of tribology
B. Functions of a lubricant
C. Hydrodynamic lubrication (sliding friction)
D. Elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication (rolling friction)
E. Mixed-film lubrication

III. Lubricants (15%)

A. Base-oils
B. Additives and their functions
C. Oil lubricant physical, chemical and performance
properties and classifications.
D. Grease lubrication
1. How grease is made
2. Thickener types
3. Thickener compatibility
4. Grease lubricant physical, chemical and performance
properties and classifications.

IV. Lubricant Selection (15%)

A. Viscosity selection

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 B. Base-oil type selection
C. Additive system selection
D. Machine specific lubricant requirements
1. Hydraulic systems
2. Rolling element bearings
3. Journal bearings
4. Reciprocating engines
5. Gearing and gearboxes
E. Application and environment related adjustments.

V. Lubricant Application (25%)

A. Basic calculations for determining required lubricant volume.
B. Basic calculations to determine re-lube and change frequencies.
C. When to select oil; when to select grease.
D. Effective use of manual delivery techniques.
E. Automatic delivery systems.
1. Automated deliver options.
a. Automated grease systems
b. Oil mist systems
c. Drip and wick lubricators
2. Deciding when to employ automated lubricators.
3. Maintenance of automated lubrication systems.

VI. Preventive and Predictive Maintenance (10%)

A. Lube routes and scheduling
B. Oil analysis and technologies to assure lubrication effectiveness.
C. Equipment tagging and identification.

VII. Lube Condition Control (10%)

A. Filtration and separation technologies.
B. Filter rating.
C. Filtration system design and filter selection.

VIII. Lube Storage and Management (10%)

A. Lubricant receiving procedures.
B. Proper storage and inventory management.
C. Lube storage containers
D. Proper storage of grease-guns and other lube application devices.
E. Maintenance of automatic grease systems.
F. Health and safety assurance.

In order to register for ICML exam, candidates should submit the application form online
at: www.lubecouncil.org: click on the link on the left of the page "Apply for exam” and
then, “application form" or just follow this link:
https://www.payitsecure.com/ICML/enrollment_form.asp. The application fee is $200.

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 Section 1
LUBRICATION FUNDAMENTALS

Lubricant Functions
Lubricants:
Clean
Cool
Seal
Reduce friction and wear
Protect against rust

And sometimes act as a dielectric and transmit power or dampen shock.

Reduce friction and wear

All surfaces are rough when examined under a microscope. They are covered with
minute peaks and valleys called asperities. When the peaks come into contact each other,
they momentarily weld together, causing friction, heat and wear. Lubricants form a
slippery film that prevents the peaks from welding together.

Carry away heat

When the asperities weld and release, the heat at that point can exceed 1000°F. Oil
absorbs this heat and can be circulated to a cooler. In some systems, the heat passes from
the oil, through the sides of the equipment or oil reservoir and into the air.

Seal against contaminants

Greases are particularly effective at sealing against contamination from foreign liquids
and solids. The grease in the wheel bearings of your car helps prevent contamination
from puddles and road dirt.

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Prevent rust and corrosion
The presence of a film of lubricant on bearings and gears protects them from rusting by
preventing their contact with air and moisture. Rust prevention can be enhanced by the
addition of rust inhibiting additives.

Corrosion occurs when oxygen or other corrosive material attacks a metal surface. Rust
is the same type of reaction on ferrous (iron-containing) metals.

Remove contaminates
Contamination can come from the outside environment, and it can also be internally
generated. For example, cement dust can get into a gearbox from the outside. The gears,
as they wear, produce metal particles. If there were no fluid to carry the contaminants
away, these abrasive particles would damage gears and bearings.

In gasoline and diesel engines, detergent-dispersant additives suspend dirt, sludge and
oxidation products and carry them from the crankcase into a filter. The flushing action of
lubricants in removing solid contaminants from between bearing surfaces is most
important in the metalworking industry.

Transmit Power
Hydraulic systems are used everywhere – from lifting automobiles in a service station, to
raising the boom on a crane, to controlling the flaps on a jet liner. Fluid is used to
transmit power where it’s not possible to use electrical, mechanical or pneumatic energy.

Act as a dielectric fluid

Imagine being lifted in an aerial lift device (also known as a cherry picker or bucket
truck.) Wouldn’t it be a good idea for the hydraulic fluid to resist conducting electrical
current? It may be the difference between life and death in case the truck inadvertently
bumps into a live electrical wire.

Desirable properties of a good dielectric fluid are:

High dielectric strength
High flash point
Good oxidation stability
Low volatility
Good heat transfer properties

Dampen shock
Petroleum and synthetic fluids are often used in shock absorbers.

Lubrication Regimes
Lubricants primarily operate in the following regimes:

Full fluid film

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 Boundary
Mixed film
Elasto-hydrodynamic

Hydrodynamic lubrication (also known as full fluid film) occurs when the lubricant
film is sufficiently thick enough to separate the moving surfaces completely.
Hydrodynamic lubrication can be found in plain bearings such as the crankshaft bearings
in an engine. Once the engine is started, the molecules clinging to the surface of the
metal are drawn between the sliding surfaces. They form a “hydrodynamic” wedge of oil
and keep a constant fluid film between the bearing and the crankshaft. Since metal does
not contact metal, the viscosity of the fluid is more influential than additives.

Hydrostatic lubrication (another type of full fluid film) occurs when the oil is supplied
to a bearing with enough external pressure to separate the sliding surfaces. An example
is the oil supplied with a high pressure pump to float a shaft to minimize friction at start
up. This technique is used on large turbines during start up.

Boundary lubrication – Under high pressure, there can be metal-to-metal contact. As

gears mesh, the teeth contact each other, and the oil is squeezed out. Chemicals can be
added to the oil that reacts (under locally high temperatures) with the metal surface to
form a slippery metallic-soap type layer. This allows the asperities to slide over each
other instead of welding together. These chemicals are commonly sulfur-phosphorous
extreme pressure additives.

Mixed film lubrication – Some applications are mostly lubricated by a full fluid film,
but may also have some metal-to-metal contact. In this case, you would use a fairly
viscous oil to keep the metal parts separated, but also use a fatty material or extreme
pressure additive to protect the surfaces from metal-to-metal contact. These additives act
like a molecular “carpet” to reduce friction.

An example of mixed film lubrication would be steam cylinders, where steam washes the
oil off of cylinder walls. The lubricant often contains acidless tallow or stable fatty
materials that coat the walls to prevent lubricant wash-off.

EHL – Elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication – A rolling contact bearing can generate very

high pressures between the rollers and the race. Since the rollers are moving so fast,
there is no time for the oil to get squeezed out from underneath the rollers. The fluid is
not very compressible, so the rollers actually deform to allow the fluid to have enough
room to separate the metal parts.

Load has little effect on film thickness because at the pressures involved, the oil film is
actually more rigid than the metal surfaces. Therefore, the main effect of a load increase
is to deform the metal surfaces and increase the contact area, rather than decrease the film
thickness. The EHL regime also takes place in gear sets as the fluid is trapped between
the contacting surfaces, or pitch line, of the gears.

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 “Elasto” refers to the metal’s ability to “flex”
“Hydro” refers to the fluid
“Dynamic” refers to motion

Lubricant Physical Properties

Viscosity, which measures oil’s resistance to flow, is the most IMPORTANT property of
a lubricant. Water has a relatively low viscosity; molasses has a much higher viscosity.
However, if you heated molasses, it would get thinner. Likewise, oils also get “thinner”
as they get hot. Viscosity has an inverse relationship with temperature.

As pressure increases, the viscosity of oil increases, too. Therefore, the viscosity of oil in
service varies with its temperature and pressure.

The viscosity of industrial oils is generally reported at 40°C. The International Standards
Organization uses this as the standard for its ISO VG grading system that ranges from
ISO VG 2 to ISO VG 1500. The ISO VG is defined as the midpoint of a range that is +
10%. For example, a hydraulic fluid with a viscosity of 31.5 cSt at 40°C has an ISO VG
of 32. This is illustrated in the following table

ISO VG MID-POINT LIMITS, KV 40°C ISO VG MID-POINT LIMITS, KV 40°C

2 -1 2 -1
KV 40°C, mm s Min. Max. KV 40°C, mm s Min. Max.
ISO VG 2 2.2 1.98 2.4 ISO VG 100 100 90 110
ISO VG 3 3.2 2.88 3.52 ISO VG 150 150 135 165
ISO VG 5 4.6 4.14 5.06 ISO VG 220 220 198 242
ISO VG 7 6.8 6.12 7.48 ISO VG 320 320 288 352
ISO VG 10 10 9 11 ISO VG 460 460 414 506
ISO VG 15 15 13.5 16.5 ISO VG 680 680 612 748
ISO VG 22 22 19.8 24.2 ISO VG 1000 1000 900 1100
ISO VG 32 32 28.8 35.2 ISO VG 1500 1500 1350 1650
ISO VG 46 46 41.4 50.6 ISO VG 2200 2200 1980 2420
ISO VG 68 68 61.2 74.8 ISO VG 3200 3200 2880 3520

Lubricating oils can range from very low viscosity like solvents and kerosene used for
rolling metals, to high viscosity fluids that barely flow at room temperature, such as
steam cylinder oils or gear oils used in sugar mills.

Crankcase oil and passenger car and truck gear systems viscosities are measured at
100 C. The following viscosity chart illustrates the relationship between the various
viscosity systems

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9
Viscosity Index: This is an empirical number that indicates the effect of change on the
viscosity of a lubricant. A lubricant with high viscosity index does not thin down very
fast as it heats up. It would be used for oils that are used outdoors in summer and winter.
Multi-viscosity engine oils have a high viscosity index. It is calculated by measuring and
plotting the viscosities of oil at 40 C and 100 C and determining the slope of a line. The
steeper the line the more oil viscosity changes with temperature; therefore thee lower the
viscosity index . A high viscosity index is desirable in oil

Density – the mass per unit volume of a substance can be expressed in pounds per gallon,
kg/m
or g/cc. It is a measure of how well a substance floats on top of water
(or sinks below the surface.) Water has a density of approximately 1 g/cc at room
temperature. Petroleum fluids generally have a density of less than 1, so they float. Oil
slicks float on the surface of a puddle. Water drains in reservoirs are positioned at the
bottom of the reservoir. The lower the specific gravity, the better the oil floats. Oil with
a specific gravity of 0.788 floats very well.

The density of oils decreases with temperature; they float better as they heat up.

Density of petroleum products is often expressed as API gravity so it can be expressed in

whole numbers rather than in small decimals. The API Gravity of water is 10. Since API
Gravity is the reciprocal of specific gravity, the higher the API Gravity, the better it
floats; therefore oil with an API Gravity of 30 floats very well.

Pour point of oil is the lowest temperature at which it will pour, or flow, when chilled
without disturbance.

Film strength is a measure of a fluid’s lubricity. It is the load carrying capacity of a

lubricant film. Film strength can be enhanced by the use of additives. Many synthetic
oils have greater film strength than petroleum oils.

Flash point is the temperature at which the vapors of a petroleum fluid ignite when a
small flame is passed over the surface. In order for combustion to occur, there has to be a
certain air/fuel mixture. If there is too much air, the mixture is too lean – there’s not
enough fuel. If there’s too much liquid, it essentially suffocates the flame. The flash

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point is the temperature where there are enough molecules bouncing around in the air
above the surface to produce an air/fuel mixture that will burn (if there is a spark to ignite
them.)

The flash point is directly related to evaporation rate. A low viscosity fluid will generally
evaporate faster than high viscosity oil, so its flash point is typically lower.

For safety, it is a good idea to choose oil that has a flash point at least 20°F higher than
the highest operating temperature in the equipment.

Fire point is the temperature which supports combustion for 5 seconds.

Oxidation resistance affects the life of the oil. Turbines and large circulating systems,
in which oil is used for long periods without being changed, must have oils with high
resistance to oxidation. Where oil remains in service only a short time or new oil is
frequently added as make-up, those grades with lower oxidation resistance may serve
satisfactorily.

The rate of oxidation of petroleum oils tends to double for every 18˚F (10°C) rise in
temperature
In other words, for every 18˚F(10°C) that you raise the temperature of a system, expect to
change the oil twice as often. Another way of stating this is for every 18˚F decrease in oil
temperature, oil life is doubled.

Water separation – Industrial oils must separate readily from water whereas we don’t
water to separate from engine oils and accumulate in the crankcase. We want the water
to flash off at the high engine temperatures. The separation of oil from water is called
demulsibility. Water can cause rust, corrosion and wear, among many other detrimental
factors. Mixing industrial with small amounts of engine oil will ruin the demulsibility of
the oil.

In general, circulating systems require oils that demulsify well. Once-through systems do
not require demulsifiers because the oil doesn’t recirculate and collect enough water to
cause rust. Demulsifiers are not necessary if the system is hot enough to boil off any
water. Emulsions are important for fire resistance and metalworking cooling.

Rust and corrosion protection – When machinery is idle, the lubricant may be called
upon to act as a preservative. When machinery is in actual use, the lubricant controls
corrosion by coating lubricated parts.

Grease Consistency – Consistency is determined according to the depth to which a

sharp, pointed cone will penetrate the grease when dropped from a certain height. This is
called grease penetration and is reported in tenths of a millimeter. The NLGI has

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established consistency grades based on the penetration of the grease. 000 is so soft that
it is considered semi-fluid and 6 is so hard that it is almost a solid block. Most multi-
purpose greases are NLGI 2. Centralized lubrication systems typically recommend NLGI
1 or 0.

NGLI Consistency Number ASTM Worked Penetration at 77F (25C)

000 445 to 475
00 400 to 430
0 355 to 385
1 310 to 340
2 265 to 295
3 220 to 250
4 175 to 205
5 130 to 160
6 85 to 115

The percent and type of thickener have the greatest effect on grease consistency,
although, in application, the temperature and shear stability of the grease can also affect
its penetration number.

Grease dropping point is the temperature at which a drop of grease falls from an orifice.
It is the temperature at which it passes from a semisolid to a liquid, which is essentially
the point at which it melts. Remember that the dropping point is NOT the upper
operating temperature of the grease. You do not want to be using grease close to the
temperature at which it will melt. Normally use grease 100-150˚F below the dropping
point.

Grease pumpability is the ability of the grease to pump through a long line. Two
greases that may be pumped with equal ease at room temperature may not pump the same
at lower temperatures. This is a result of the types and proportions of oils and thickeners
in the two greases.

Grease water resistance is important for wheel bearing applications and equipment with
high exposure to water. Greases with calcium, aluminum, lithium and most complex
soaps have better water resistance than greases made from sodium soaps.

Grease stability and apparent viscosity can make a difference in applications where
there is rubbing or pounding motion that can destroy the thickener of some grease. They
may change their consistency as a result of shear stress. For this reason, grease
penetration is often measured after the grease has been worked with a paddle for 60
strokes, and then after it has been worked for 10,000 strokes, to anticipate the possible
effects of shear. Since greases are non-Newtonian, the viscosity changes with rate of
flow and is called apparent viscosity.

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Grease resistance to oxidation – Both the oil and the fatty constituents in grease tend to
oxidize. When grease deteriorates, it sometimes acquires a rancid odor and a darker
color. Although the organic acids that usually develop in the grease are not necessarily
corrosive, they sometimes soften or harden the grease. Depending on their ingredients,
additives, and processing, various greases have different levels of oxidation resistance.

Grease texture describes greases by how they look or feel, including such terms as
smooth, buttery, fibrous, stringy, tacky, rubbery, etc. Color is also a grease property.
Greases are also categorized by how well balls or rollers channel through them. The
thickener in good channeling grease tends to stay near the outside of the race and does
not slump back into the way of the balls or rollers to cause drag.

Grease base oil viscosity is essential because it has a great bearing on the successful use
of the grease at different speeds, loads and temperatures. Since the oil component of the
grease does most of the lubricating, the same principles apply to choosing the base oil of
the grease as to lubricating oil. High temperatures, high loads and low speeds require
high viscosity base oils.

Grease resistance to oil separation can keep oil from dripping out of grease. In general,
a small amount of the oil is designed to separate from the grease because it is the oil
component that does most of the lubrication. It is common to find a small puddle of oil
floating in a depression of the grease’s surface. If this happens, mix the oil in, or decant
it. Either action will not affect the performance of the grease.

If the oil separates excessively, the grease may harden.

Types of lubricants and their applications

Petroleum oils account for most of the two general categories of industrial and
transportation lubrication. They are refined from crude oil, which, as everyone knows,
was formed from billions and billions of tiny microorganisms that converted over time
and pressure to oil. The term hydrocarbon simply means that it is predominantly
comprised of hydrogen and carbon, although there are small amounts of other elements
such as sulfur and nitrogen.

The two principle types of petroleum oils used for lubricants are paraffinic and
naphthenic. When you think of paraffin, you think of wax. That gives you a good idea
of the strengths of paraffinic oil. Wax is an excellent lubricant; it is slippery and quite
stable at high temperatures. It is ineffective at low temperatures because it turns solid.
For this reason, paraffinic oils are recommended for most industrial and transportation
lubricants, except where they run at cold temperatures. Another characteristic of wax is
that it leaves very little residue when it oxidizes, but the small amount of residue is hard
and sticky.

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Naphthenic oils are not waxy, so they can be used to very low temperatures. While they
tend to leave more deposits than paraffinic oil, what is left behind is soft and fluffy.
Compressor manufacturers often prefer naphthenic oils because the deposits get blown
out with the compressed air rather than building up on discharge valves. Naphthenic oils
are also used in many refrigeration applications because of their good cold temperature
properties.

Physically, paraffinic oils can be distinguished from naphthenic oils because of their
higher pour points and lower density. Paraffinic oils typically weigh between 7.2 and 7.3
pounds per gallons, while naphthenic oils are slightly heavier. Be careful about
characterizing the base stock of a formulated product based on physical properties
because additives can strongly affect physical properties.

With the advent of more sophisticated refining techniques, base stocks have been
categorized into Group I, Group II and Group III. Group I base stocks is conventionally
refined oils. Group II is base stocks that contain greater than 90% saturates and less than
.03% sulfur with a VI between 80-119. They are often produced by hydrocracking.

White oils are highly refined petroleum oils that meet food and drug requirements for
direct food contact. Customers may ask that the product be certified as USDA H-1 for
incidental food contact. While the USDA has disbanded the organization that tested and
approved H-1 lubricants for incidental food contact, producers can now self-certify that
their products were formally approved under H-1 or currently meet the requirements set
forth by that standard.

Synthetic oils are better than petroleum oils for applications running under extreme
conditions. They are recommended for applications with very high temperatures or very
low temperatures or where service life is extended.

Synthetic oils are classified into several families. Here are a few of the more common
ones, and some of their suggested applications.

PAO (Polyalphaolefin) molecules are similar to liquid ball bearings. They are made
from olefins, which are long molecules with a double bond in the alpha (or first) position.
The double bonds in several olefins react together to form a new molecule with the heads
coming together in the middle and the rest of the hydrocarbons going outward like the
spokes of a wheel. This makes a very round molecule that rolls over itself very easily,
giving it excellent lubricity. It is also very stable – very little can attack a round ball – so
it has excellent high temperature and oxidation stability. It also doesn’t form wax, so it
stays fluid down to very cold temperatures.

Synthetic PAO’s are used in worm gear applications for energy savings because of their
great lubricity. They’re also recommended for extremely high and low temperature
applications. Their naturally high viscosity index allows the same oil to be used for
summer and winter applications.

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Alkylated aromatics have excellent solubility for additives. They generally have good
low temperature flow characteristics, which make them a good choice for refrigeration
applications. They can be used in conjunction with PAO’s to enhance solubility and seal
compatibility.

Synthetic hydrocarbons, like alkylated aromatics and PAO’s, are generally less volatile
than petroleum oils. That means that they can be used in engine applications where low
viscosity oil is needed for start-up, but the oil cannot evaporate at high engine operating
temperatures.

Polyol esters are used for fire resistant hydraulic fluids, refrigeration lubricants
compatible with the latest refrigerants such as R-134a, and for jet engine lubricants.

Di-esters have been used for decades as synthetic compressor lubricants because they
keep compressor discharge valves clean. Some diesters have excellent biodegradability
characteristics and are used as the base for “environmentally friendly” lubricants.

Phosphate esters are used in applications where fire resistance is important. They can
be found in aviation hydraulics and in steel mills where a hydraulic hose rupture could
cause a fire.

Polyglycols can be used neat, or mixed with water, depending upon the type of glycol.
The straight oils are often used in gear applications because of their excellent lubricity.
When mixed with water, they are used as fire resistant hydraulic fluids.

Silicone oils are recommended for high temperatures and where petroleum oils may react
to process chemicals. They’re also recommended for highly oxygenated environments
where hydrocarbons can be explosive.

Silicate esters are specialized products used in high-tech areas because of their carefully
controlled dielectric properties and wide temperature ranges.

Fluorocarbon oils are extremely inert and expensive. They are recommended for
temperatures in excess of 500°F and other specialty applications.

One of the advantages of changing from a mineral to a synthetic is the possibility of

extending drain intervals. Other possible benefits include cleaner operation, lower
energy consumption, consolidation of lubricants, wider operating range and better heat
transfer.

Sometimes, because of price or availability, it is necessary to change from synthetic oil to

mineral oil. In this case it is important to consider reduced drain intervals, more deposits,
higher energy consumption and narrower operating temperature range.

IT IS IMPORTANT TO CONSULT WITH THE LUBRICANT

MANUFACTURER ABOUT CHANGE-OUT PROCEDURES FROM MINERAL

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OIL TO SYNTHETIC. Glycols and phosphate esters are not compatible with
petroleum lubricants. It is also important to check seal compatibility, particularly if
changing from a petroleum product to an ester.

Vegetable based oils – Rapeseed or canola oil is often used as a base for biodegradable
hydraulic fluids. Biodegradability can be defined as the ability of a substance to degrade
over time to carbon dioxide and water in the presence of water, nutrients and
microorganisms. There is no universally accepted test for biodegradability of oils.

Grease is defined as a semi-solid to solid dispersion of a thickening agent in a liquid

(base oil.) In simplified terms, it can be described as oil mixed with soap and additives.

What’s the difference between soap and a thickener? Soap is a type of thickener. The
process for making soap is called saponification and is achieved by reacting a fatty
material with an alkaline material. If your grandmother ever made you wash with
homemade lye soap, you’ll remember losing the top layer of your skin along with the
dirt. She probably mixed bacon drippings with caustic soda. Sodium soap greases are
made almost the same way, although the fat may be tallow or lard rather than bacon
drippings. Simple soaps may have dropping points from 250°F to 390°F. Adding a
complexing agent raises the dropping point approximately 100°F or more.

There are materials other than soaps that may be used as thickeners, including clay
(bentonite or montmorillonite,) polyurea, and silica.

In general, grease is used under the following conditions:

1. Where the machine is so designed that there is no way to retain oil for the
parts being lubricated. Examples of this are open gears and many open guide
bearings.
2. When the lubricant must act as a seal to prevent the entrance of dirt into a
bearing.
Grease maintains a seal at the ends of the bearing where oil would quickly run
out.
3. Where a lubricant is seldom added, as in electric-motor bearings.
4. Where speeds are low and pressures are high. An example would be the roll-
neck bearing on the older types of steel mills.

Other advantages of grease over oil include:

Better wear protection at startup. Grease should not leak out of seals so seals can be
nonexistent or less expensive. Hand greased components do not require expensive
circulating pumps, filters or space-consuming reservoirs. Grease level does not have to
be continuously monitored. It is easier to suspend solid fillers such as graphite,
molybdenum disulfide and PTFE in grease than in oil.

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With all of these advantages, why not use grease for all applications?

Actually, oil is probably the preferred lubricant because it can be circulated to remove
heat and contaminants. It can be changed and cleaned, and can be used with smaller
bearing clearances. It generally causes less viscous drag and the amount in an application
can be more precisely monitored. Whereas oils flow of their own accord, pressure must
be applied to most greases to cause them to move or flow.

Be careful when mixing greases with different thickeners. Incompatible grease usually
soften but in some cases may harden. The mixture may lower the dropping point or
change shear stability. There may be increased oil separation.

Solid lubricants are thin films of a solid interposed between two rubbing surfaces to
reduce friction and wear. To be effective, they need low shear strength, low hardness and
high adhesion to a substrate material (such as a bearing.) They can be classified as
follows:

Inorganic Compounds
Layer-lattice or Laminar Solids – The materials in this class have crystal lattices
in layers, Graphite and molybdenum disulfide, popularly known as moly, are examples of
this class. Other examples are tungsten disulfide, mica, boron, nitride, borax, silver
sulfate, cadmium iodide, and lead iodide.
Miscellaneous Soft Solids – Examples are basic lead carbonate or white lead used
in threading compounds, lime used as a carrier in wire drawing, talc and bentonite used
as fillers in greases for cable pulling, silver iodide, and lead monoxide.
Chemical Conversion Coatings – These coatings are inorganic compounds
developed on the surface of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction. Phosphate
coats, in particular, are used in the forming and working of metals. The best known films
in this class are sulfide, chloride, oxide, phosphate, and oxalate films.

Solid Organic Compounds

Polymer films – Members of the class are polytetrafluoroethylene (or PTFE sold under
the brand name Teflon) and polyclorfluoroethylene, both of which give low friction as
thin films on metals and excellent wear prevention under conditions of moderate loads
and speeds.

Metal films
A thin film of a soft metal on a hard substrate acts as a good lubricant, especially
if its adhesion to the substrate metal is good.

Gases
There are applications where gas is used as a lubricant. Some low-friction
bearings ride on compressed air, and there are other, more specialized applications that
are not covered here.

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Friction Control
The primary function of lubricants is to control friction. Friction causes wear, heat,
power loss and vibration.

Frictional coefficient is obtained by dividing the force required to move something by

its weight. Surprisingly, frictional coefficient of solids is independent of load. But when
you think about it, it makes sense. The heavier something is, the more force it takes to
push it. The two are proportional to each other.

Friction is not always detrimental. Automatic transmission fluids require certain

frictional characteristics in order to shift properly. Lubricated clutches and backstops
must retain some friction, otherwise their loads would slip.

Friction is often categorized as static or dynamic. Static friction keeps a body at rest. For
example, if a block was resting on an incline, static friction keeps it from sliding.
Dynamic friction occurs between two moving surfaces. Once the block began to slide,
friction becomes dynamic.

Machinery wear is primarily caused by abrasion, corrosion, and metal-to-metal contact.

Abrasive wear, which is the most common type of wear, is caused by solid particles
entering into the area between lubricated surfaces. Abrasive wear usually appears as
scratching or scoring of the surface and may be catastrophic. The flushing action of the
lubricant, especially in forced-feed or once-through systems, serves to remove potentially
harmful solid particles from the area of lubricated surfaces. Seals and filters are
important accessories in a lubrication system exposed to abrasive contaminants.

Corrosive wear is generally caused by the products of oxidation of lubricants or the

presence of water. Corrosion is the principal cause of wear in internal-combustion
engines. Products of combustion are highly acidic and contaminate the lubricating oil.

Lubricants function to minimize corrosive wear in two ways. Proper refinement plus the
use of oxidation inhibitors reduces lubricant deterioration, thus keeping the level of
corrosive oxidation products low. In addition, corrosive preventatives may be added to
protect metal surfaces from those acidic oxidation products that may form. Corrosive
products of combustion or other acidic contaminants (such as are encountered in process
industries, e.g., paper manufacture) may be neutralized by the use of alkaline additives in
the lubricating oil or grease.

Adhesive wear, or wear caused by metal-to-metal contact results from breakdown of

the lubricant film. This often occurs at startup before full fluid-film lubrication is
established. It can also be the result of excessive surface roughness or interruption of the
lubricant supply. Often it is simply the result of a poor choice of lubricants.

18
This type of wear is usually severe. A plentiful supply of the proper viscosity of oil is
often the best way to avoid this condition. In boundary lubrication wear from metal-to-
metal contact is minimized by the proper chemical additives.

Erosion wear is the removal of material from surfaces due to momentum effects. Just
like a river erodes the side of a mountain, fast flowing particles can erode metal surfaces.

Fatigue wear occurs with repeated bending stresses and usually occurs in rolling element
bearings which experience EHL lubrication.

The chain reaction of abrasive wear occurs when:

Abrasive particles become work hardened

Work hardened particles produce more abraded particles

New particles become work hardened

The chain continues until the particles are removed by filtration or the
equipment fails.

Five Rights of Lubrication

Proper lubrication consists of choosing the right type, right quality the right amount at
the right place at the right time

Consider the design of a machine and its operating conditions when selecting the proper
lubricant. Here are some questions to ask:

Is the machine designed for oil or grease? Look for oil reservoirs or grease fittings.
Is the lubricant applied manually or through a centralized system?
What part is being lubricated, bearing, gear, piston, hydraulic system, compressor?
What are its speeds and loads? Does it operate at slow speed and heavy load, at
high speed and light load, or at some intermediate combination of speed and load?
Are the bearings plain or anti-friction?
What is the ambient temperature? Is the machinery indoors or outdoors?
What is the operating temperature?
What contaminants may be able to enter or contact the lubricant?
How long is the lubricant expected to remain in the machine?

19
 What lubricant is recommended in the maintenance manual?
What is the telephone number of the machine manufacturer in case there are any
questions?
Are there any paints, elastomers or seals that might be affected by exposure to
synthetic oil?
Does the application call for a specialized lubricant, such as food grade, fire
resistant, or biodegradable?
What lubricant is already in the application? Can it be flushed out, or are there
samples available for compatibility testing?

Oil Recommendations

The principal properties of lubricating oils are:

Viscosity
Additives
Base oil type

Viscosity of oil is critical, especially if the application is running at temperature or speed

extremes. Choose oil with a high viscosity at room temperature if you know it is going
into a high temperature application because it has to be thick enough to separate moving
parts as the oil heats up. If you know that the oil will be used to start up machinery in
Alaska, choose oil with a low viscosity at room temperature. The oil must be thin enough
to flow at sub-zero temperatures.

In general, high viscosity oils are used at slow speeds under high pressure, since the
heavy oil better resists being squeezed out from between the rubbing parts. Light oils are
used at higher speeds and lower pressures because they do not impose as much drag.

One method of choosing the right viscosity is to find the dN or dmN of a rolling contact
bearing. The dN is the speed of the bearing times it’s inside diameter in mm. dmN is
the speed of the bearing times its pitch diameter in mm, which is the outside
diameter plus the inside diameter divided by two. It is more accurate because it takes
into account the shape of the bearing. There are charts that show the proper value for
different dN or dmN values relating to the viscosity in cSt at the operating temperature of
the bearing.

Additives affect lubricity, viscosity, viscosity index, detergency, dispersancy,

demulsibility, antiwear properties, extreme pressure performance, pour point , rust
inhibition, oxidation inhibition, foam characteristics, tackiness, and many other fluid
properties.

Additives, base oil type (i.e. petroleum, vegetable, synthetic) and solid fillers can also
influence your recommendation for the proper grease for the job. The following is a
chart that shows the typical additive profile of common industrial and transportation
lubricants.

20
 Paper
Additive Turbine Gear Hydraulic Engine Circulating
Machine
Rust Inhibitor 3 3 3 3 3 3
Oxidation
3 3 3 3 3 3
Inhibitor
Extreme
3 (4)
Pressure
Antiwear (1) 3 3 (5)
Detergents 3 3
Dispersants (2) 3
Antifoam 3 3 3 3 3 3
V. I. Improver (3) 3
Demulsifiers 3 3 3 3 3

(1) Some geared turbines require ashless antiwear package.

(2) Gear oils may contain small amounts of dispersant.
(3) Hydraulic oils operating in low temperature environment may contain a V. I.
Improver.
(4) Some paper machine oils contain a non-aggressive antiwear/EP package.
(5) Paper machine oils may contain antiwear such as ZDDP

Base oil type, as discussed above, can have a significant effect on pour point, oxidation
stability, thermal stability, viscosity index and other properties.

Grease Recommendations

When making a grease recommendation, first consider:

Thickener type
Base oil viscosity
Consistency

The thickener is important because it imparts qualities to the grease beyond just its
consistency. For example, if you had an application where water was washing over a
bearing, you would not choose sodium soap grease, yet you might pick it if the conditions
were simply humid.

21
Here are some other examples of applications that are dependent on thickener type:

High speeds – use a channeling type thickener to reduce drag

High temperatures – choose polyurea, a complex soap, fluorinated grease or
silicone
High exposure to water – Calcium greases, complex soaps, polyurea
High humidity – sodium soaps

Base oil viscosity is influential under high- and low-speed applications and also high-
and low-temperature applications. As in the case of lubricating oils, the low viscosity
oils are recommended for high speeds and low temperatures. High viscosity oils are used
for low speeds, high loads and high temperatures.

The consistency of the grease can be critical, particularly if it is to be pumped through a

centralized system. Most automatic lubricators require an NLGI 1 or 0 grade grease.

Moving parts of machine

Lubrication is necessary at all points at which one surface rubs against another. This
occurs in bearings, in gears, and between pistons and the cylinders in which they operate.
A machine may be very large and quite complex in its design, but it can generally be
broken down into these three components. Lubricated parts that are not covered in this
section include, but are not limited to, springs, shock absorbers, valves and diaphragms.
Bearings and gears are discussed in separate sections, but here are a few words on piston
lubrication.

Pistons generally slide up and down or back and forth in a cylinder. The automobile
engine is a good example. Combustion of fuel in the space above the piston drives it
down causing the crankshaft to turn. Many pumps and air compressors use pistons to
move gas or fluids.

Since it is necessary to lubricate rubbing surfaces, it is apparent that a film of oil must be
provided between the piston and the cylinder. Pistons generally have rings that sit in
annular grooves.
Oil not only lubricates the piston rings but also helps to make them seal more perfectly.
It is important to choose oil with high enough viscosity at operating temperature to
provide a good seal.

In internal combustion engines, the lubricant must contain detergents and dispersants to
counteract the effects of combustion gases. In air compressors, it must have high thermal
and oxidation stability to perform at high gas discharge temperatures. The choice of base
oils and additives can contribute to good piston lubrication.

The only boundary lubrication regime that occurs in a piston is at top dead center or when
the slide of the piston reverses.

22
 Section 2
LUBRICANT MANUFACTURING
Definitions
Alkylation – the reaction of the double bond in an olefin with another molecule.

Aromatic hydrocarbon – a compound of hydrogen and carbon containing one or more

benzene rings.

Base stock – the refined oil that is used to blend lubricants.

Catalyst – substance that causes or speeds up a reaction without changing itself.

Cracking – breaking large molecules into smaller ones in the presence of heat or
catalyst. Examples are thermal cracking, catalytic cracking, or hydrocracking (cracking
in the presence of hydrogen) High Temperatures.

Crude oil – a naturally occurring mixture of petroleum hydrocarbons, with small

amounts of oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and other impurities. It was formed by the action of
bacteria, heat and pressure on ancient plant and animal remains and is usually found in
layers of porous rock capped by a layer of shale or clay that traps the oil.

Detergent – additive that prevents contaminants from contacting metal surfaces.

Detergents contain barium, calcium or magnesium, and other compounds and they may
leave an ash residue if burned.

Dewaxing – a refining step that removes wax from crude oil fractions.

Dispersant – additive that suspends very small contaminant particles harmlessly in the
oil. It prevents them from combining into large particles that could cause sludge, varnish
and wear. Dispersants generally do not contain metals and are considered to be ashless
when burned.

Distillation – a process where crude oil is heated so fractions start to boil; the fractions
are collected as they condense.

Extreme pressure (EP) additive – additive that prevents sliding metal surfaces from
seizing under conditions of extreme pressure. At high local temperatures it combines

23
chemically with the metal to form a surface film. EP additives are commonly made of
sulfur, phosphorus, chlorine or boron.

Foam inhibitor - in turbulent systems it helps combine small air bubbles into large
bubbles which rise to the surface and burst. It spreads out on the bubble wall to thin it
out so that it pops.

Hydrocarbon – a molecule predominantly made up of hydrogens and carbons.

Hydrocracking – a process that cracks molecules in the presence of hydrogen.

Hydrotreating – a process where oil streams are treated with hydrogen at elevated
pressure and temperature in the presence of a catalyst to improve color and stability and
reduce sulfur content.

Naphthene – also called a cycloparaffin. A hydrocarbon with the carbons arranged in

one or more rings.

Olefin – a hydrocarbon with one or more double bonds.

Oxidation - the combination of a substance with oxygen. Some products of oxidation of

oils include organic acids (which can cause corrosion), sludge and varnish.

Oxidation inhibitor – additive used to extend the life of lubricants. It can work in three
ways (1) it combines with peroxides (the first chemicals created in the oxidation process)
to make them harmless, (2) it decomposes the peroxides, or (3) it makes metal surfaces
less able to promote oxidation.

Paraffin – a hydrocarbon where the carbons are arranged in a straight line or are
branched off of each other.

Rust inhibitor – additive that prevents rust.

Saponification – process of converting certain chemicals into soaps, which are the
metallic salts of organic acids. It is usually accomplished through the reaction of a fat,
fatty acid, or ester with an alkali.

Saturated hydrocarbon – a compound of hydrogen and carbon with no double bonds.

Solvent extraction – a method of removing unstable components of a refining stream by

dissolving them in solvent.

Synthetic base stock – fluid made by reacting specific chemical compounds to produce a
produce with planned and predictable properties.

Vacuum distillation – separation of crude oil fractions by applying heat under a vacuum.

24
Base Stock Refining
Crude oil, as it comes from the ground, contains many substances other than gasoline,
diesel fuel and lubricant base stocks. The natural gas that is used to power many city
buses, or that heats burners can be dissolved in crude oil. You can find the building
blocks for plastics and chemicals in its mixture of molecules. It is also a source of wax,
asphalt, solvents, petroleum jelly and many other substances.

Fuels are the principle products that come from crude oil. Gasoline is the biggest
component, followed by diesel fuel and jet fuel. Lubricants and waxes only constitute a
little over 1% of the crude oil barrel.

Crude oil comes in many forms, depending upon its source. It can be as thin as gasoline,
or it can be so thick that it needs to be heated or pressurized to flow. It can range from
amber colored to pitch black.

The three major types of crude oil are paraffinic, naphthenic and asphaltic. Paraffinic
crudes are the primary source of “neutral” base oils, while naphthenic crudes produce
“coastal pale” oils. Asphaltic crudes are generally not acceptable for lubricant base
stocks other than some open gear compounds, highly viscous lubricants or rust
preventives.

Crude oil is sold by the barrel (42 gallons per barrel) by pipeline or in tanker ships.
From there, it is transported by barge or pipeline to a refinery, where it is processed
according to the steps described below. Lubricants are further processed in blending
plants.

Crude oil is converted to lubricating oil through a series of refining steps including
distillation, vacuum distillation, solvent extraction, hydrotreating, dewaxing and
sometimes hydrocracking and alkylation. The yield of lubricating oil from a gallon of
crude can be increased first through de-bottlenecking steps, second by a series of steps
called cracking and alkylation.

When oil comes out of the ground, the first things that are released are gases. These
include methane, ethane, propane and butane, as well as the mixture called natural gas.
These gases can generally be captured without heating the oil.

Distillation towers, of which the atmospheric tower is the tallest in the refinery, work on
the same principle as stills worked during Prohibition. Alcohol was made by fermenting
grain or another substance and then heating it. Alcohol boils at a very low temperature,
so it would start to boil, while the rest of the mash was left in the pot. The alcohol vapors
would rise and get funneled into some coils, where they would cool and condense back
into liquid.

25
Gasoline is a liquid at room temperature, but it evaporates very fast, and it boils at a very
low temperature. In order to separate it from crude oil, the crude is heated until the
gasoline starts to boil. The vapors above the boiling liquid are collected and sold as
gasoline. Many of the solvents such as mineral spirits are collected at the same time
before they are further refined.

Once the gasoline fractions are removed, the crude oil is heated further. Kerosene, jet
fuel and diesel fuels are the next liquids that boil off. These fractions are also allowed to
condense and are collected and sold.

After most of the light fuels have been removed from crude oil, you would think that they
would just heat it up even more and boil off the lubricant fractions. But that is not energy
efficient, and besides, if they had to heat up lubricants to 600°F to boil them off, they
could destroy the lubricant.

Substances boil at a lower temperature if they are subject to a vacuum. Think of the
vacuum as trying to pull the molecules out of the liquid. A lot less heat is needed to get
them to boil. It is much more energy efficient to apply a vacuum to the oil to remove
lubricant fractions, and it is much less harmful to the lubricant. Vacuum distillation
prevents the cracking of lubricant fractions that would occur at higher temperatures.

Vacuum distillation separates lubricant fractions from crude oil. Re-refining and
reprocessing do not require this step because their feedstock, used lubricants, should
contain minimal amounts of fuels, waxes or asphalt.

The lubricant stream that is separated from crude oil still contains many impurities and
must be further refined. The next three refining steps, hydrotreating, solvent extraction,
and dewaxing, can occur in any order, or may be optional depending upon the quality of
the finished base oil.

Hydrotreating essentially bombards the stream with hydrogen to remove sulfur and
other impurities. It makes base stocks more stable. Treating base stock with hydrogen
has the following advantages.

1. Minimizes use of solvents

2. Reduces solvent disposal
3. Increases yield
4. Permits use of different crude sources
5. May reduce processing temperatures
6. Produces base stocks with higher VI, which may increase fuel efficiency in
engine oils
7. Produces bases tock with lower volatility – lower evaporative losses
8. Base oils that have been severely hydrotreated don’t require a carcinogen label

Solvent extraction dissolves reactive components such as aromatics to improve the oil’s
oxidation stability, viscosity index and response to additives. Sulfur and nitrogen

26
compounds are also selectively extracted. The oil and the solvent are mixed in a tower,
which results in two distinct liquid phases. The heavy components are dissolved in the
solvent. The lighter phase, which contains the clean, high quality oil, is separated and the
small amount of solvent is distilled off.

Solvent dewaxing removes wax, lowers the pour point, and improves the low-
temperature properties of the oil. The solvent dissolves the wax and the mixture is
chilled until the wax turns solid. The wax is filtered out and stripped of solvent and
dried. The wax from this process can be used in crayons, candles, paper cups and fire
logs.

Hydrodewaxing (catalytic dewaxing) accomplishes the same result, but by a different

method. The oil is exposed to hydrogen at elevated temperature and pressure. This
cracks the normal paraffins, which are converted to light compounds that can be used as
building blocks for plastics and chemicals.

Finishing steps can include acid treating and clay filtration to remove trace impurities.

Refining severity is a compromise. Some of the more undesirable compounds,

asphaltenes and unsaturates, which reduce oxidation resistance, also tend to improve
boundary lubrication. An oil which has been only mildly refined may have poor
oxidation resistance but relatively good boundary lubrication. On the other hand,
severely refined oil has good oxidation resistance and a high viscosity index. The other
required properties are then obtained by the use of additives.

A lubricant formulator can specify a base stock by type, i.e. paraffinic, naphthenic,
synthetic, vegetable, and also by performance properties such as viscosity index,
viscosity, pour point, flash point, color, or sulfur level. Paraffinic base stocks generally
have higher viscosity index than naphthenics. Natural VI’s of 90 to 105 are not
uncommon for paraffinic oils, while naphthenic oils typically have VI’s in the order of 30
to 65.

Base stocks also have varying natural resistance to oxidation. Here is a general guide for
oxidation resistance of petroleum base stocks.

Paraffins Most resistant

Naphthenes
Aromatics
Asphaltenes
Unsaturates Least resistant

As a rule, synthetic base stocks are designed to have better oxidation stability than
petroleum oils, while vegetable oils have significantly lower resistance to oxidation.

27
Additives
Lubricants are comprised primarily of base oils and additives. Grease is comprised of
base oils and additives along with thickeners.

The following is a brief description of lubricant additives and their functions.

Anti-wear additive – Zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP) is the most common anti-

wear additive, although there are many zinc-free additives based on sulfur and
phosphorus that also impart antiwear properties. The zinc-sulfur-phosphorus end of the
molecule is attracted to the metal surface allowing the long chains of carbons and
hydrogens on the other end of the molecule to form a slippery carpet that prevents wear.
Not a chemical reaction, rather a super-strong attraction.

Demulsifier – affects the interfacial tension of contaminants so they separate out from oil
rapidly.

Dispersant – additive that suspends very small contaminant particles harmlessly in the
oil. It prevents them from combining into large particles that could cause sludge, varnish
and wear. Dispersants generally do not contain metals and are considered to be ashless
when burned.

Dye – any oil-soluble dye can be added to oils for leak detection. Water-soluble dyes
such as food coloring won’t work because oil and water don’t mix).

Emulsifier – added to some metalworking fluids, air tool oils and fire-resistance
hydraulic fluids to allow them to mix with water.

Extreme pressure (EP) additive – additive that prevents sliding metal surfaces from
seizing under conditions of extreme pressure. At high local temperatures it combines
chemically with the metal to form a surface film. EP additives are commonly made of
sulfur, phosphorus, or chlorine. They become reactive @ high temp. (170°+F) and will
attack yellow surfaces. Generally, it is a good idea to stay away from extreme pressure
additives if they are not needed but when in doubt always use EP gear oils. EP additives
are generally pro-oxidants, in other words, they shorten the life of the oil. They also can
be slightly corrosive to some metals, especially at elevated temperatures.

Foam inhibitor – in turbulent systems it helps combine small air bubbles into large
bubbles which rise to the surface and burst. It decreases the surface tension of the bubble
to thin and weaken it so that it pops.

Rust inhibitor – absorb onto metal surfaces to prevent attack by air and water.

Oxidation inhibitor – antioxidants act by interrupting the free radical chain reaction that
results in oxidation. Essentially, as the oil starts to decompose in the presence of oxygen,

28
these inhibitors interrupt the reaction. They also keep metal from speeding up the
oxidation reaction by deactivating the metal.

Oiliness agent – fatty materials that have two benefits. They add extra lubricity at low to
moderate temperatures, and they help prevent water from washing oil off of surfaces.

Pour depressant – disrupt the crystal structure of wax so that the oil will flow at lower
temperatures.

Solid additives – graphite, moly and PTFE are added to some oil and grease
formulations

Tackiness additive – polymer added to allow oils to adhere to metal surfaces.

Viscosity index improvers – polymers that change shape with temperature. At high
temperatures they are somewhat bulky and prevent the oil from thinning down as much.

Grease Manufacturing

Lubricating grease is a solid or semisolid lubricant consisting of a thickening agent in a

liquid lubricant. Greases generally contain additives to enhance properties such as
oxidation stability and lubricity. Other ingredients imparting special properties may be
included.

Greases that are thickened with soap can be made according to the following steps. The
steps may vary according to manufacturing plant.

• Charge kettle with fatty material, complexing agent and metallic hydroxide
• Heat to dehydrate
• Cut back with mineral oil
• Quench and add additives
• Mill
• Deaerate
• Filter
• Package

Complexing agents are added to grease to increase their high temperature stability. These
are very stable soaps generated by reacting an alkali with a high and low molecular
weight fatty acid.

29
The reaction of a fatty acid and a base is very similar to the reaction of an acid and a
base. The acid and base react to form salt and water. The fatty acid and base forms soap.

Acid + Base = Salt + Water

“Fatty Acid” + Base = Soap

Grease is typically made up of 75% to 96% percent oil. The oil is designed to separate
from the thickener, so it is not uncommon to see some oil separation if the grease has
been sitting. 12-hydroxy stearic acid is the most common type of fatty acid used in
grease manufacture.

Grease Soaps and Thickeners

In addition to conventional and complex soaps, other materials may be used to thicken
grease. Here is a partial list of thickeners.

Soap Base

Aluminum
Aluminum complex
Barium
Barium complex
Calcium
Calcium-complex
Lithium
Lithium complex
Sodium
Sodium complex
Mixed soap such as sodium calcium

Non-soap Base

Polyurea
Modified bentonite and other clays
Colloidal silica
Organic compounds
Fluorinated compounds

Grease Additives

The additives used in greases are very similar to those used in lubricating oils, which are
listed in Section 2C. Some additives that you would expect to find in grease include:

Antioxidants or oxidation inhibitors

Corrosion inhibitors

30
 Color stabilizers
Dyes
EP or film-strength agents
Metal deactivators
Rust inhibitors
Stringiness additives
Structure modifiers for soap-oil systems

Grease Fillers

In addition to soap, base oil and additives, solid fillers can be added to grease to enhance
its lubricity and load carrying ability. Some of the fillers used in lubricating greases are
listed below:

Graphite:
Colloidal
Flake
Powdered
Lead powder Molybdenum disulfide
Red lead Lead powder
Zinc oxide Copper flake
Zinc dust

31
 Section 3
BEARINGS
(Sect. 3A) Definitions

Anti-friction bearing – ball or roller bearing

Axial load – load in the direction of the axis. In the case of most rolling contact
bearings, it will be the load in the direction of the shaft.

Bearing – A device that is positioned between two moving parts to reduce friction, aid in
alignment and support load.

Bore diameter – the inside diameter of a bearing.

Cage – the element of a rolling contact bearing that separates the balls or rollers.

Elastohydrodynamic lubrication – found in rolling contact bearings where the rolling

elements deform since they are more elastic than the fluid.

Hydrodynamic lubrication – commonly found in plain bearings, it is a full fluid film

that develops between moving surfaces.

Hydrogen embrittlement – cracks that occur when water molecules pass through the
load zone on a bearing. High temperatures break the water down to hydrogen and
oxygen. Hydrogen ions are forced into micro cracks in bearing surfaces, which expands
subsurface cracks.

Hydrostatic lubrication – occurs when lubricant is applied to a bearing under pressure,

generally where a full fluid film cannot be maintained by the motion of the surfaces
alone.

Inclusions – contaminants that enter steel during the manufacturing process.

Interference fit – a shaft diameter that is slightly larger than the bore diameter of the
bearing, resulting in a tight fit.

Journal bearing – a plain bearing that fits around a journal, or shaft. An example would
be the bearing around the crankshaft in an automobile.

Race – the inner and outer rings of a rolling contact bearing that have grooves for balls or
rollers.

32
Radial load – load that is perpendicular to the axis, i.e. weight of a shaft pressing on a
bearing.

Rated life – the number of revolutions, at a given constant speed, that 90% of identical
bearings will complete before the first evidence of fatigue.

Shield – a metal disc fitted to the bearing outer ring with a small clearance with the inner
ring. It prevents ingress of gross contaminants and may help retain lubricant.

Spalling – propagation of destructive pitting. It results from excessive loads coupled

with the rolling forces that remove metal from the bearing service. It is the cracking or
flaking of metal caused by repeated stress.

Thrust load – Generally, load in the axial direction.

Tolerance – the amount of variation from the absolute exact measurement that is
permitted during manufacture.

Slider bearing – Only has linear motion, not circular like a journal bearing.

Bearing Types
Bearings are generally categorized into two main groups, plain (or sliding), and anti-
friction (rolling contact).

Advantages of plain bearings are that they are easy to install, carry high loads, are less
expensive, repairable, and are less sensitive to particle and water contamination. Anti-
friction bearings may be sealed for life, can be used for high speeds, can accommodate
misalignment, and use less energy than plain bearings.

Plain bearings can be divided into two main types based on how the lubricant film is
maintained in the bearing:

Hydrodynamic bearings run on a full fluid film. The shape and relative motion
of the sliding surfaces generate film pressures large enough to support the load.
As a general rule for these bearings, the higher the load, the lower the film-
thickness.

Hydrostatic bearings depend upon the lubricant being supplied from an external
source such as pump.

33
Plain bearings are further classified according to function as journal, slider (guide), and
thrust bearings.

Slider bearings are used to prevent wear where there is linear (or back-and-forth)
motion. The simplest and most basic form of hydrodynamic bearing is the fixed-pad
slider bearing. More complex plain bearings have tilting pads. Guide bearings guide and
hold in proper position the reciprocating part of a machine.

Journal bearings are so named because they support or operate against a rotating shaft.
The shaft that is surrounded by the bearing is known as the journal. Hydrostatic journal
bearings have the following advantages: extremely low friction, ability to support a load
with no shaft rotation, ability to sustain appreciable loads with low-viscosity fluids (such
as water, liquid metals, etc.), and ability to control stiffness by varying the fluid pressure.
Journal bearings cannot carry thrust loads.

Journal bearings can be further categorized by their configuration.

Solid bearings, also referred to as a sleeve or a bushing are, as their name

implies, solid.

Split bearings are divided lengthwise into two pieces. They can be replaced on a
shaft more easily than a solid bearing because it is not necessary to slide them on
from the end.

Half bearings encircle only one half of the journal, leaving the other half
exposed. It is used when the load is carried on the top of a shaft.

Multi-part bearings usually consist of four separate parts, or quarters. These

bearings are found on the crankshafts of such machines as air compressors and
steam engines. The four-piece construction permits these bearings to be
readjusted to the crank-pin to take up slack when wear takes place.

Thrust bearings prevent a shaft from moving endwise, or for an axial load to
creep down the shaft.

A Kingsbury thrust bearing is a bearing with tilted shoes that form an oil wedge
between the shoe and collar.

Components of a plain bearing can include the following: overlay (babbitt), oil holes, oil
grooves, and housing.

Plain bearings are usually made from bronze, babbitt, or some other softer-than-steel
material so that wear will be on the bearing rather than on the steel part rubbing against it.
Bearings are sacrificial since they are easier and cheaper to replace than shafts. The
following chart shows that babbitts are generally softer than many other metallic
coatings.

34
 Materials used in Sliding Bearings

Bearing Material Hardness, Room

Temp, Brinnell

Tin-base babbitt 20-30

Lead-base babbitt 15-20
Alkali-hardened lead 22-26
Cadmium base 30-40
Copper-lead 20-30
Tin bronze 60-80
Lead bronze 40-70
Phosphor bronze ---
Aluminum alloy 45-50
Silver (over plated) 25
Three-component bearings
Babbitt surfaced ---

All babbitts are inherently weak, and high temperatures reduce their strength even
further. Therefore, babbitts are usually bonded to a stronger backing material such as
bronze or mild steel.

(Sect. 3C) Plain Bearing Lubrication

Lubricants for plain bearings in industrial applications should be selected on the basis of
bearing load, sliding speed of the bearing and viscosity of the lubricant at operating
temperature. They must be viscous enough to maintain a full fluid film, be thin enough
to prevent excessive internal friction, conduct heat, remain stable under severe operation
conditions, and be reasonably economical. There are charts available from bearing
manufacturers or oil supplier that recommend oils and greases based on load, speed and
temperature.

In a plain bearing fluid friction is used to carry the lubricant into the load zone of the
bearing. When the machine is started and the journal begins to rotate, a wedge-shaped
film of oil develops under the journal. This wedge of oil actually lifts the journal away
from contact with the bearing. This film of oil allows the machine to run easily by
reducing friction and also guards the bearing and journal against wear. By this
mechanism, lubrication of journal bearings is accomplished by hydrodynamic lubrication,
i.e., the establishment of a full-fluid film between the sliding surfaces.

To distribute a lubricant through a bearing, shallow grooves or holes and channels are
often provided in the bearing surface. To properly locate a lubricating groove, it is first
necessary to determine what part of the bearing is to be under high pressure. The
orientation of oil grooves in fluid-film journal bearings falls into two main categories,

35
circumferential and axial. Usually, oil grooves and holes should be placed parallel to the
shaft axis 90º to 120º ahead of the load zone.

There should be no holes or grooves in the areas of highest load. The wedge of oil that is
formed under high pressure prevents metal-to-metal contact and should not be broken by
grooves.

Chamfered grooves prevent oil from being scraped off the shaft, promote cooling, greater
flow and better distribution of oil, and reduce foaming.

Journal bearings are often lubricated with a ring, which rides around a journal or shaft. It
picks up oil from the sump and distributes it to the bearing as it rolls around the shaft.

Plain bearings are either oil-lubricated or grease-lubricated, depending on their design.

Grease-lubricated plain bearings are usually found on slow-moving machinery and where
inadequate seals or other conditions are such that oil would be unsuitable.

Gas lubricated bearings, like their liquid lubricated counterparts, fall into the categories
of hydrodynamic bearings and hydrostatic bearings. They are used in applications
involving small shaft diameters, high speeds, high or low temperatures, and light loads.
The primary disadvantage of hydrostatic bearings is that a pressure source is required.

Hydrostatic bearings can often be made to support greater loads than hydrodynamic
bearings. Other advantages include no contact and very low friction at starting and
stopping. Precise spacing of two surfaces is possible with hydrostatic bearings, thus
making them very attractive for instruments and machine tools.

Plain Bearing Failures

Some of the reasons why plain bearings fail are lack of lubricant, excessive load, fatigue,
misalignment, high heat, contamination, vibration, improper fit, improper grooving, and
inadequate bonding of Babbitt to sleeve or corrosion.

Anti-friction bearings

An anti-friction bearing is one in which a series of rollers or balls separates two moving
parts. These rollers or balls are usually, but not necessarily, mounted in a cage or
separator and enclosed between rings known as races. The races are supported in a
housing. The dimensions of a rolling contact bearing are the inner diameter, outer
diameter, radial clearance, pitch diameter and width.

Some types of rolling contact bearings include needle, cylindrical roller, spherical roller,
thrust or tapered roller, ball, angular contact, and deep groove Conrad bearings.

36
The ball bearing is probably most widely known. Ball bearings can be used at higher
speeds than roller bearings and may be less expensive than roller bearings. Single
row ball bearings should be considered for moderate radial loads, while double row ball
bearings should be considered for heavy radial loads. The ball thrust bearing is used to
prevent a shaft from moving endwise.

When the balls of a ball bearing are elongated into a cylinder or barrel shape, they are
called rollers. If the axis of each roller is parallel to the axis of the bearing it is a straight
roller. Cylindrical roller bearings with axially fixed inner and outer rings are not suitable
for thrust loads.

A thrust bearing is defined as a bearing that prevents the lengthwise motion of a shaft.
Three types of thrust bearings are tapered roller bearing, angular contact ball bearings and
spherical roller thrust bearing.

The rollers in a tapered roller bearing are somewhat cone-shaped to that it can carry
axial load as well as radial load. A tapered roller bearing is used to support a rotating
shaft and also to prevent the shaft from moving endwise. In this respect, it acts as a thrust
bearing. It can carry higher loads than ball bearings

The needle bearing differs from the others in that it generally has no inner race and no
separator or cage, and its small rollers or needles are just slightly separated by the
lubricant. The name comes from the fact that the length of each roller is so much greater
than its thickness. It offers the largest capacity and the smallest cross section obtainable
for a given shaft size.

When there are two anti-friction bearings on a shaft, one should be fixed (or held) and the
other should be floating (or loose). The most common mounting for a roller bearing is
interference fit against a shoulder. In general, rolling bearings handle dirt better than
ball bearings because there is more area supporting the load, so the pressure at any one
point is less concentrated.

Limiting Speed
The limiting speed for rolling contact bearings is a function of the bearing design, the
load applied, the lubricating system, and the ambient conditions. Speed is usually limited
by the rate at which the heat of friction of the bearing can be dissipated.

37
Bearing Type Limiting speed, rpm

Radial ball bearings

Normal operation 3,500
Under very light load 15,000
Angular contact bearings 3,500
Cylindrical roller 3,000
Tapered roller 2,500
Spherical roller 2,500
Thrust bearings 1,500

The operating or dynamic clearance of a bearing depends upon the speed, load and
lubricant viscosity. Under a constant load, the life of a bearing is inversely proportional
to speed.

Most anti-friction bearings have an operating temperature limit of 250°F.

Surface Roughness

Rolling contact bearings can have fluid films of ten- to twenty-millionths of an inch
thick, depending on speed and lubricant viscosity. If the surface roughness of rolling
elements and races is less than half the film thickness, no actual solid contact occurs
during operation except for starting and stopping. Bearing manufacturers can specify
surface roughness. If a bearing manufacturer specifies a bearing specification of 2μ,
RMS, it means that the average of the distance between the peaks and valleys of
asperities is no more than 2 millionths of an inch. RMS stands for Root Mean Square, or
average surface roughness. The centerline average is the average of the height of the
peaks and depth of the valleys.

Friction and Wear

Approximate 90% of bearings fail prematurely. Some common causes of bearing failure
are improper type and viscosity of the lubricant, inadequate lubrication, installation,
contaminants, improper selection, maintenance practices, fatigue, overload,
misalignment, and unbalance. Most bearings in commercial applications do not fail from
fatigue. Poor lubrication, faulty mounting, and misapplication are sole or contributory
causes of the failure.

Eventually, a properly installed and well-maintained bearing will fail of fatigue. The
fatigue failure, which usually commences as a small crack below the rolling surface at a
point of high shear stress, is observed as a spall or pit formed in the surface.

Spalling (destructive pitting) results when normal loading is combined with sliding. It
occurs when large wear particles are generated from cracks that are propagated from
surface defects.

38
Brinelling and false brinelling are two other mechanisms of failure. Brinelling occurs
when a bearing race is marred by balls or rollers due to shock impact, often caused during
handling and installation. Care must be taken during installation. Bearings should not be
hammered onto or off of a shaft. The recommended method of removing a bearing from
a shaft without damaging it is to use an arbor press or hydraulic bearing puller. The
evidence of false brinelling can be seen by the grooves in a race that are formed by
vibration, for example, when bearings jiggle back and forth in a case while they’re
transported by train or over the road.

Fretting corrosion occurs when there is relative movement between the bearing bore and
shaft or the bearing OD and the housing. Its appearance looks much like marbleized
patches of rust. This type of corrosion is caused by insufficient interference fit. This
produces rust-type material that causes wear in the bearing itself and increases internal
clearances.
.
Sometimes it is possible to diagnose bearing failures by listening to them. A low-pitched
noise can indicate misalignment. A high pitched whine is a symptom of overload.
Rattles can occur as a result of inadequate interference fit. And a low rumble may be
caused by poor surface finish. The most pronounced noise that can come from a bearing
sounds like marbles rolling around. This is almost always an indication of cavitation.

Rating Life

If a group of apparently identical rolling bearings is operated at identical speeds under

identical loads, all bearings will not fail simultaneously but will be distributed according
to a statistically predictable pattern. The L10 life is the fatigue life in millions of
revolutions (or hours) at a given operating speed which 90 percent of a group of
substantially identical rolling bearings will survive under a given load. The L10 life is
frequently called the “rating life.” Some manufacturers base their ratings on the median
life, i.e., the life which 50 per cent of the bearings will survive. Considerable endurance
testing has demonstrated that L50 is approximately five times L10.

Rolling Contact Bearing Lubrication

When choosing a bearing lubricant, it is important to know the speed, load, environment
(including temperature, exposure to water or chemicals), type of bearing, size, and how
the lubricant is applied. The right choice of lubricant depends on the type of bearing, and
how and where it is used.

Lubricants in rolling element bearing have four basic functions. First, they reduce the
friction that increases temperature and promotes wear. Second, lubricants dissipate some
of the heat that is generated in the action of the bearing. Third, the coating action of the
lubricant helps prevent corrosion on bearing components. Fourth, greases, in particular,
seal out contaminants.

39
Relubrication intervals for bearings depend upon the speed, size, temperature and load.
Bearing manufacturers will generally issue charts that give relubrication intervals based
on these criteria.
A rolling-contact (anti-friction) bearing has highly finished surfaces and, as a rule, does
not require large amounts of lubricants or frequent replenishing. Consequently, lubricant
quality is especially important, and only the best oils and greases should be used.
Remember: Don’t wash the original lubricant from a new bearing.

Oil bath lubrication is widely used method in the case of low or medium speeds. The
oil should be at the center of the lowest rolling element. It is desirable to provide a sight
gauge so the proper oil level may be maintained.

The constant level method maintains oil supply by having a reservoir in which a small
quantity of oil is always trying to work its way into the lower portion of the outer
raceway of the bearing. This is good for slow speed, horizontal applications in immobile
units. The oil level must be constant to avoid problems.

The regulated drip method is used often, but there can be problems controlling the drip.
Other problems can be plugging the orifice, oil waste, messiness, and a loss of supply.

Splash systems are based on oil splashing from adjacent machine elements finding its
way into the bearing. This system is practical for many relatively high-speed applications
with large reservoirs of oil. An example is in auto transmissions.

Channels, holes, grooves, rings, collars, and discs can be incorporated into bearing
assemblies to assure adequate lubrication. Lubrication chains are also used to pick up
lubricant from the sump and deposit it on the bearing as they rotate around the shaft.

Circulating oil systems are complicated but also practical. The most common types are
wick feed and circulating pump feed. Circulating lubrication is commonly used for high
speed operation requiring bearing cooling and for bearings used at high temperatures. Oil
is supplied at the top of the bearing. It travels through a pump and a filter and then
through the bearing. The oil discharge pipe should be larger than the supply pipe so that
an excessive amount of oil will not back up in the housing.

In the wick feed system, oil is fed from a reservoir through the wick to a smooth rotating
disc, which feeds the oil into the bearings. Oil leaving the disc is generally in the form of
fine droplets. This method uses capillary action to move the oil.

Oil mist systems are generally purchased commercially and installed into high-speed
applications. The unit atomizes drops of oil and forces it into the bearings with low-
pressure dry air, supplied from an external source. The oil supplied to the bearing is
finely atomized, so very little interference is encountered. Surplus air creates positive
pressure in the spindle, preventing dirt from entering the unit. The airflow helps cool the
bearings and also can apply a positive pressure to the cavity and can prevent ingress of
contamination.

40
Jet lubrication is often used for ultra high speed lubrication such as bearings in jet
engines with a dmN value (dm is the pitch diameter of rolling element set in mm; N is
the rotational speed in rpm) exceeding one million. Lubricating oil is sprayed under
pressure from one or more nozzles directly into the bearing.

If you don’t know the right viscosity of a bearing lubricant, it would be better to err on
the side of viscosity that is too high rather than too low. A high viscosity lubricant causes
energy loss, viscous drag, overheating and oil oxidation. Viscosity that is too low may
cause metal-to-metal contact, wear, and eventual failure.

Sintered brass or bronze are excellent materials for oil impregnated bearings. There are
spaces in the metallic lattice that retains the oil. A sintered (also called porous or
impregnated) metal bearing can contain up to 35% liquid lubricant impregnated between
the metal pores.

Rolling bearings are lubricated with grease or oil. Grease is generally preferred, as it is
easier to retain in the housing, provides a better barrier to contaminants and is less likely
to drain away from the bearing surfaces, therefore providing more reliable lubrication. It
also requires less frequent re-lubrication. The lubricant stays in place. It can be used in
sealed-for-life applications.

Bearing Greases

Whether hand packed or applied by grease gun, the primary recommendation for rolling
contact bearings is NLGI 2 or 3 grease. NLGI 0 or 1 is used where temperatures are low
or if dispensed through a centralized system. Channeling soap greases are generally the
first choice for high speed rolling element bearings. Complex soap greases are
recommended for high temperatures.

The procedure for changing out grease in a bearing is:

1. Purge out old grease by adding new grease until old grease appears at vent.
2. Rotate bearing and add grease until new grease appears.
3. Rotate bearing and vent grease for about 20 min. to prevent over greasing.

There are several methods for determining the correct amount of grease for roller
bearings. One method for calculating the amount of grease to be used in rolling contact
bearings is to use the formula.

(1) G = 0.005 DB
(2) G = 0.114 DB

(1) G = Grease quantity (grams), D = Bearing outside diameter (mm), B = Bearing

width (mm)

41
 (2) G = Grease quantity (ounces), D = Bearing outside diameter (inches), B =
Bearing width (inches)

Fill the available space in the bearing and housing between one third and two thirds full,
depending upon the speed of the bearing. The higher the speed, the less grease is
necessary.

Never fill bearing housings completely full of grease. When a bearing rotates, it is
lubricated by a thin film of grease. Excess grease is moved into the cavities of the
bearing and housing. If these cavities are already filled with grease, the excess has
nowhere to go and remains in the bearing where it is "churned”. This causes overheating
so the grease liquefies and can run out, starving the bearing of lubricant.

When a properly packed bearing starts up, there will be an initial rise in the temperature
while the grease disperses throughout the bearing and housing, before falling off to a
steady operating temperature. If the temperature does not lower then there is too much
grease in the bearing, or there is a problem with the bearing fit.

Greasing electric motors

The bearings are the most critical lubrication points on electric motors. They are
typically lubricated with high-quality NLG1 grade 2 non-EP grease that is made with a
polyurea or lithium complex thickener. These motors may be lubricated for life. Some
electric motors bearing run in a bath of oil, typically with a viscosity of ISO 68 when
running at1800 rpm and ISO 32 at 3600 rpm

Care and Handling of Bearings

Cleanliness

New bearings must be protected against foreign bodies and condensation. Keep new
bearings in their original wrappings as long as possible, and store them away from
moisture where the temperature can be kept reasonably constant. To prevent
contamination, do not flush the original lubricant from a new bearing.

Anything that may come into contact with bearings should be kept clean, including
workers’ hands, benches, tools, solvents, and cloths. Perspiration, condensation – any
type of moisture should also be kept away from bearings. Handle bearings with clean,
lintless cloths. Protect bearings with an oil film and make every effort not to break that
film.

In general, roller bearings handle dirt better than ball bearings because there is more area
supporting the load, so the pressure at any one point is less concentrated.

Use extreme caution when using compressed air around bearings. Compressed air is a
source of moisture, which can cause corrosion in bearings.

42
Make every effort to avoid nicking bearings, which can be caused by striking them with
hardened steel tools or sharp objects. Even though bearings are heat-treated, surfaces are
brittle and fractures can easily occur. Nicks on the exposed surfaces can cause bearings
to be improperly mounted, which will reduce bearing life.

Proper mounting techniques

A major load should never be applied through the ball complement when mounting
bearings. Bearings should never be struck any blows with hardened steel implements.
Use a hydraulic bearing puller or arbor press to install or remove bearings.

Caution should be used to prevent loose particles from falling into bearings while being
mounted. This danger might occur on an arbor press or while using the drift tube
technique.

In heating bearings for easier mounting, it is best to heat the bearing in an oven with
circulating heat or use a hot oil bath or induction heating. Heating temperatures should,
in general, not exceed 200°F.

43
 Section 4
GEARS
Types of Gears
Gears serve to transmit motion from one shaft to another or from a rotating shaft to a
reciprocating element, and to vary turning speeds. Gears are better at transmitting power
than belts and ropes because they are more efficient, there is less slippage, and they last
longer and are able to carry higher loads. The basic types of gears include spur, helical,
herringbone, rack and pinion, bevel, spiral bevel, worm and hypoid.

A spur gear is a toothed wheel whose teeth are parallel the shaft or axle. It is the classic
gear shape for transmitting motion from one shaft to another that is parallel to it. If one
gear is small, and the other larger, the small gear is usually called the pinion and it
usually has the fewest teeth.

Spur gears can have external teeth around the outside of cylindrical gear or internal teeth
on the inside of a ring. When the teeth are on a straight bar, and are driven by a classic
cylindrical gear, the gear set is called a rack and pinion. The toothed bar is called the
rack and the small gear is the pinion.

Elliptical gears are used to convert the uniform rotary motion of a driving shaft to a
rhythmic, pulsating rotation of the driven shaft.

An equalizer gear and eccentric pinion are sometimes used to drive large chain
conveyors in order to prevent the changes of conveyor speed that would occur when the
long bar links pass around the sprockets at the driving end. The eccentric driving pinion
revolves at a constant speed, but imparts an irregular motion to the equalizer gear that is
calculated to provide a smooth, unvarying speed to the chains. This type of drive reduces
what otherwise might be excessive shock on the chains.

Planetary gears usually have three sets of gears. The innermost gear is called the sun
gear and had teeth around its outside circumference. Meshing with the sun gear are one
or more planetary gears. They rotate around the sun gear just as planets would rotate.
Holding the set together is an outside ring gear. The teeth of the planetary gears mesh
with the teeth on the outside of the sun gear. They also mesh with teeth that are on the
inside circumference of the ring gear.

What makes planetary gears so useful is that speed and motion can be varied depending
upon which gear is held stationary. Automatic transmissions work on the principle of
planetary gears.

Helical gears are similar in shape to spur gears, but their teeth are placed at an angle on
the face of the gear, so they appear to be curved. In meshing helical gears, more teeth are
in contact at one time than in the case of spur gears. Helical gears run smoother than spur

44
gears. Like spur gears, they transmit motion between parallel shafts. Even though they
run smoother, the angled teeth of helical gears cause thrust.

Herringbone gears have the appearance of two helical gears side by side with teeth
inclined in opposing directions. They are used when it is desired to obtain smooth
operation and to eliminate the end thrust on a shaft that would be present if only a helical
gear were used.

A rack and pinion combination is a spur gear meshing with a straight element. It is used
to produce reciprocating motion from rotating motion.

Bevel gears are used to transmit motion between shafts that are at an angle to each other.
The straight bevel gear has straight teeth on a slanted or beveled working surface. The
spiral bevel gear has spiral teeth and gives smoother operation than does the straight
bevel gear.

In worm gear sets, the small element, called the worm, usually drives the large element
known as the wheel or gear, the shaft of the worm being perpendicular to the shaft of the
wheel. The worm is expensive to machine, so the sacrificial gear, the driven gear, is
often made of a softer metal like brass or bronze.

Worm gears have advantages over conventional gear sets. They have a high capacity to
accept shock loads, can transmit energy along right angles, have a high turn down ratio,
and are smooth and quiet. Conversely, worm gears are not very energy efficient, are
fairly expensive for the horsepower output and develop high thrust loads.

Worm gears require lubricants with higher viscosity than spur or helical gears because a
worm gear has a higher degree of sliding motion and requires oil with greater lubricity.
Worm gear lubricants may also contain fatty materials (called compounding) that form a
molecular carpet on the metal that resists being stripped off by the sliding motion of the
worm.

Screw and nut combinations may be considered a type of gear since the threads in the
nut transmit motion.

Hypoid gears are found in the transmission of many standard shift automobiles. They
are similar to spiral bevel gears, but the shafts are offset. They were designed to
eliminate the hump that ran down the middle of a car.

Flexible couplings are not considered gears, but the American Gear Manufacturer’s
Association (AGMA) sets specifications for them just like they do for gears. A flexible
coupling is a device that connects two shafts in such a way that the rotation of one results
in the synchronized rotation of the other. It compensates for misalignments or shifts in
position of the machinery. An example would be the connection between an electric
motor and gear box were the shafts of the two were not exactly aligned.

45
Grid couplings are all-metal couplings, which combine sliding (like chain couplings)
and flexing (like rubber tire designs). The grid, a piece of zigzag tempered steel wire, fits
between radial slots in the hubs. Flexible-disc couplings transmit torque through a stack
of thin, high carbon steel or stainless wafers acting as leaf springs.

Combinations of gears are often used in place of simple gear pairs to reduce load on
gear teeth and to minimize thrust load. Power can be transmitted from one gear, to
another, then to another. Triple and quadruple reductions are not uncommon.

Parallel Shaft Gears

Types Advantages
Disadvantages
Spur Transmits power on parallel shafts
Lower load carrying ability
Economical
Moderate to low speeds
No thrust induced
10 – 1 ratio limit
No axial alignment problems

Helical (Similar to spur gear except teeth at angle, one is right hand and mate is left
hand)

Transmits power to parallel to shafts

More costly than spur gears
Greater load carrying capacity than spur gears
Produces axial thrust
Runs better at high speeds due to tooth overlap
10 – 1 ratio limit
No axial alignment problems

Herringbone or double helical (has both right and left-hand helix)

Transmits power on parallel shafts

Expensive
Greater load carrying capacity than spur gears
Requires careful axial alignment
Runs better at high speeds due to tooth overlap
Transmits no thrust
10:1 ratio limit

46
 Right Angle Shaft Gears

Types Advantages
Disadvantages

Straight Bevel

Easy to manufacture
Low load carrying ability
Economical
Relatively low speed
Low thrust
Careful mounting
6:1 ratio limit

Spiral Bevel

Greater load capacity than straight bevel

Produces axial thrust
Capable of higher speeds due to tooth overlap
Runs smoother and quieter
Careful mounting
6:1 ratio limit

Hypoid Gears
Greater load capacity than straight bevels
Low efficiency
Ratio’s as high as 100 – 1
availability Supporting shafts can pass each other making it compact

Worm Gears
High shock capacity
Low efficiency and run hot
Smooth and quiet
High thrust
Ratios as high as 100 – 1
High price per HP
High availability
Supporting shafts can pass each other

47
Lubrication methods
Enclosed gears can be lubricated by a variety of methods including bath/splash,
circulating system, spray, mist or drip. AGMA recommends changing gear lubricants
every 2,500 hours or six months, whichever comes first.

A bath system is not generally recommended for low or high speeds in gearboxes. Under
low speeds, a low viscosity lubricant drips off the lower gear before it can be distributed
to upper gears. At high speeds, the lubricant may be slung off.

Be careful to maintain an adequate level in the bath. Under filling a gearbox sump
obviously can cause lack of lubrication. But overfilling may be equally destructive. It
can cause the oil to overheat, produce foam and air entrainment, and the fluid may
overflow. Eventually, higher temperatures and increased exposure to air can cause the oil
to oxidize, which causes sludge, varnish and corrosive by-products.

Many gear manufacturers recommend breaking in gear sets for a set amount of time
before adding the operating charge of lubricant. Break-in oils can be lapping compounds
or light viscosity oils with small amount of an anti-wear additive like tricresyl phosphate.

Lubricants

When selecting a gear lubricant it is important to consider the load, speed, temperature,
gear type and finish, and application method. In general, higher viscosity fluids are
needed for higher loads and temperatures, lower speeds, rougher finishes, and for worm
gears. Extreme pressure additives should be used for heavy loads and moderate
temperatures, but are not effective with yellow metals such as bronze or brass.

Synthetic oils such as polyalphaolefins (PAO) and glycols can extend the life of the gear
and oils, reduce temperatures, save energy and can be used over wider ranges of
temperature. They are frequently recommended when consolidating lubricants. Because
of their naturally high viscosity indices and exceptional lubricity, synthetic oils can often
be substituted for petroleum oils that are one ISO viscosity grade higher or lower. For
example, after checking with the equipment manufacturer, many plants will substitute a
PAO based EP 220 viscosity grade where ISO 150, 220 or 320 oils are used. Worm
gears that normally take an ISO 680-petroleum oilcan often use an ISO 460 PAO
synthetic.

Gear oils contain many of the same additives as bearing lubricants such as rust inhibitors;
oxidation inhibitors and foam inhibitors but they also contain extra lubricity additives for
heavily loaded applications. Extreme pressure additives can be formulated from sulfur,
phosphorus, chlorine or boron, although it is rare to find gear oil with chlorine because of
environmental disposal concerns.

48
There are several tests that determine the load carrying ability of gear oils. These include
the Timken OK load test, the Falex test, the FZG test and the 4-ball EP test. The
presence of a fatty material can be determined by the saponification number test.

Determine the right viscosity to use by following the guidelines established by AGMA
for viscosity grades. There are charts available from gear manufacturers and from oil
suppliers that can determine the proper viscosity based on the speed, size or load, and
temperature of the application. Choosing too low of a viscosity can accelerate wear, and
cause an increase in noise, vibration and temperature due to lack of film strength. Too
high of a viscosity can contribute to overheating and rapid oil oxidation.

If, because of consolidation, you have the choice of using a lubricant with a viscosity
lower than what is recommended or one that is more viscous than optimum, choose the
higher viscosity. The more viscous oil will provide more load carrying ability and
maintain better film strength. A lighter oil may contribute to adhesive wear, low load
carrying ability and tooth damage. Ensure that the oil is not so viscous that it cannot be
distributed properly through the gear case.

Although AGMA has established standards for several levels of gear oils based on
viscosity, base oils and additives, they are being phased out. However, because they are
still printed on equipment tags that will be in service for years to come, it is still good to
know them. The AGMA viscosity grades range from 0 to 15R. Rust and oxidation oils
fall into grades 0 to 13, which correspond to ISO grades 32 to 1500. Extreme pressure
gear oils use grades 2 EP to 13 EP, which are ISO grades 68 through 1500. Synthetic oils
have their own category with grades from OS to 13S.

Oils with fatty materials fall into the compounded category; their grades range from 7
comp to 8A comp, which are ISO 460 to 1000. There is a special category for residual
gear oils normally recommended for open gears, 14R and 15R.

A typical recommendation for a worm gear is an AGMA 7 comp lubricant, which would
be ISO 460 oil with about 3 – 10% of a fatty additive. Sulfur phosphorus extreme
pressure additives are not very effective in worm gear applications because the localized
temperatures of a ferrous metal contacting brass or bronze does not get hot enough to
activate the EP additive to form the slippery metallic soap. Extreme pressure additives
are also not recommended because they can be corrosive to yellow metals at elevated
temperatures.

A better recommendation for worm gears is an AGMA 7S lubricant. Synthetic PAO and
glycol-based lubricants have both demonstrated energy savings in worm gear
applications. Some studies have shown energy savings up to 10% with PAO’s in some
applications.

Hypoid gears in automotive use gears require a high level of extreme pressure additive,
both because of the sliding motion, and because automotive gear oils are not changed

49
regularly. The American Petroleum Institute set standards for hypoid gear lubricants in
automotive use. The most current standard is GL-5.

Open gear lubricants are frequently made of residual materials such as asphalt that help
the lubricant stick to the gears. They may be cut back with a solvent to make application
a little easier. Once the solvent has evaporated, the lubricant left behind is more viscous
and has a higher pour point and flash point than a fluid lubricant. Extra tacky greases are
also used to lubricate open gears. They often contain solid fillers such as molybdenum
and /or graphite.

Roller chains are another method of transmitting motion, and have the advantage over
gears in that they are flexible. Pin links and roller links require oil, grease or a residual
product. To lubricate a chain, apply the lubricant to the lower strand before the
sprocket/gear. Lubricant can be applied using a brush, oil can, bath, spray, slinger, or by
using drip or mist lubrication.

Gear Failure Modes

A number of factors affect gear life, including load, environment, temperature, speed
and contamination. Each gearbox should be given a thermal rating by the manufacturer.
It is given in terms of the recommended maximum speed, reduction ratio and
horsepower. If the gearbox is used above this value, it will overheat.

AGMA (American Gear Manufacturers Association) lists the following gear failure
modes: Tooth breakage, surface fatigue (spalling), wear and scoring (galling), plastic
flow (deformation). Also, wiping, scuffing, abrasive wear, overload, Hertzian fatigue,
brittle fracture, ductile fracture, rolling, bruising, peeling, pitting, scratching, cutting,
gouging, denting, seizing, flaking, feather edging, brinelling, rippling, fish scaling,
ridging, tip-to-root interference, adhesion, corrosion, fretting, cavitation, electrical
discharge damage, polishing, burnishing, welding, smearing.

AGMA considers the four major causes of gear failure to be surface fatigue, wear
plastic flow and tooth breakage. Misalignment, overloading and soft gear metal can
lead to plastic flow of gear material. Clearly tooth breakage is one of the most
catastrophic of failures, but seizing, galling, and degrees of several of the other failure
modes can be equally destructive.

Most gear tooth failures occur through the process of surface fatigue. The result is pitting
of tooth surfaces. The severity of this type of failure follows the progression of initial
pitting, destructive pitting, and sometimes, spalling and usually occurs in the dedendum
or lower half of the gear tooth.

50
Initial pitting – Asperities on the tooth surfaces of new gears can weld and break off
under high load leaving small pits. When the surface roughness is at some distance from
the pitch line, where there is sliding as well as rolling action, they may be worn smooth
during run-in before fatigue and pitting can occur. On the other hand, initial pitting
frequently occurs near the pitch line where there is rolling but little or no sliding action.
This is often referred to as “pitch-line pitting”.

Teeth surfaces which are rough usually require higher viscosity oil.

The gear tooth dedendum (below the pitch line) will normally show initial wear and
pitting. Gear manufacturers will increase the hardness of the gear, increase its face
width, increase the pinion pitch diameter or improve the geometry of the gear in order to
decrease pitting.

Beam strength and Hertzian strength refer to the ability of a gear tooth to withstand
repeated loadings. Fatigue occurs when a gear is pushed beyond its design capacity.

Destructive pitting – In progressive or destructive pitting, pits continue to form and

enlarge as edges crumble or as pits break into each other. Eventually, tooth shape may be
destroyed, the gears may become noisy and rough running, and if the condition
progresses far enough, one or more teeth may fracture.

Destructive pitting is sometimes termed spalling, especially where large chips of metal
“spall” out or where small pits merge into each other and form large ones.

Spalling may also describe the surface damage that occurs when large chips flake off
near tooth tips or ends. This type of damage may be the result of subsurface defects or of
excessive internal stresses due to heat treatment. The type of spalling may occur after a
relatively few cycles of operation.

Scoring (sometimes called galling) is a form of wear in which gross damage to tooth
surfaces occurs. Scuffing is a mild form of scoring. The actions that take place under
boundary film conditions (shearing, deformation, plowing, welding) result in the
development of high temperatures in the minute contact areas. These local temperatures
are of short duration and are known as flash temperatures. Under heavy loads and high
sliding speeds, the number of contacts in a given area may be so great that the heat
developed cannot be dissipated and the surfaces run hot. Extensive welding, tearing and
flow of metal surfaces may occur. The resulting damage is called scoring or galling, or in
its mildest form, scuffing.

The term plastic flow refers to deformation of gear tooth surface metal as a result of
heavy loading, especially impact loading. This form of failure usually occurs with soft,
ductile metal, but may also occur on gear teeth that are case-hardened.

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Tooth breakage is relatively uncommon. When it does occur, however, it is more
serious than other forms of failure, as it usually makes the gears unsuitable for further
operation. Tooth breakage can be classified as (1) fatigue breakage or (2) over-load
breakage.

Fatigue breakage – This form of breakage is the result of many repetitions of bending
stresses that are above the endurance limit of the material.

Overload breakage – Breaks of this type occur suddenly as a result of shock overloads.
Gear wear can lead to failure. The three stages of gear wear are normal (slow loss of
material), moderate (not destructive but life may be shortened and noise develops), and
destructive (deterioration and change in tooth shape).

Two design features that can affect lubricant efficiency are backlash and clearance.
Clearance is the distance between the top of one tooth to the base of the tooth on the other
gear. It is a function of the height of the tooth. In gear terms, it is the amount by which
the dedendum in a given gear exceeds the addendum of its mating gear.

Backlash is the distance between the back of one tooth and the front of the next mating
tooth. It is a function of the width of the teeth. If there is not enough backlash, lubricant
may not coat the teeth properly, and that can lead to overheating, noise, tooth wear and
failure.

The basic causes of gear failure are common to other machine elements and are covered
in other sections. These include:

1. Original surface roughness

2. Foreign matter in the lubricant
3. Mechanical damage
4. Metal failure
5. Lubrication failure

Checking gear tooth contact

Parallel shaft helical gear tooth contact can be checked two ways. Soft machinist blue or
transfer blue can be applied to the teeth of one gear and that gear can then be rolled by
hand through mesh with its mating gear. The transfer of the blue from one gear to the
other gear is read as the contact. Another method is to paint the gear teeth with hard blue
or layout blue (paint) and run the gear unit. Then observe the pattern or the “wear-off” of
the bluing.

Look for evidence of even load across much of the gear tooth, both flank and face width.
The contact between gear teeth is line contact; therefore, the alignment between rotating
elements is critical.

52
 Section 5
HYDRAULICS
Hydraulic Systems
A hydraulic system is a way of transmitting power. It’s not always efficient or practical
to use a mechanical linkage, or electrical power, or pneumatic (air) power to move an
object. With the press of a button and the whir of a pump, the pressure of the hydraulic
fluid can lift the boom of a heavy crane. Or with some physical energy, a person with a
strong arm and a hydraulic jack can lift a car.

Pascal’s Law says that the pressure inside a container will be the same at all points in the
container. That means that if you sat on a piston and put 200 pounds of pressure on it,
there would be 200 pounds of fluid pressure throughout the entire cylinder. In a
hydraulic jack, every push of the lever puts a few pounds of fluid pressure into the
cylinder which raises the car ever so slightly. With this hydraulic leverage, even a 90-
pound weakling can lift a car weighing over a ton.

There are two basic types of hydraulic systems. The simplest is the hydrostatic system –
an example is the hydraulic jack for lifting a car. The force applied to the small piston is
transferred to the greater area of the large piston. The second hydraulic system is the
hydrodynamic type in which the velocity imparted to the fluid by a pump is converted to
energy when the rapidly moving fluid strikes against some driven member. Hydraulic
couplings and converters are examples of this type.

A typical hydraulic system is illustrated in the following diagram and consists of the
following major components:
Reservoir which stores cools and allows contaminants to settle.
Hydraulic fluid which transmit the power in the system and lubricates cools, and carries
contaminants to the filter
Pumps which create flow and not pressure, which is resistance to movement, are the
heart of the system
Fluid conductors which transport the fluid through the system and consist of tubing, pipe,
hoses, and fittings
Pressure control valves which help regulate the pressure in the system such as the
pressure control valve which prevents the system from over pressurizing
Filters which maintain oil cleanliness to prevent contamination of the sensitive valves in
the system
Flow control valves which help regulate the flow rate through the system
Directional control valves which regulate the flow direction of the pressurized fluid
resulting in the direction of movement for the working element
Working element which is a piston in a cylinder which moves or holds the load

53
 Hydraulic System

Pumps and Components

The heart of a hydraulic system is the pump. Hydraulic pumps convert the mechanical
energy transmitted by a prime mover (electric motor, internal combustion engine) into
hydraulic working energy or hydraulic horsepower.

All positive displacement pumps generate an increasing volume at the suction side and a
decreasing volume at the pressure side. While flow is created by increasing and
decreasing volume, pressure is created by restrictions in the lines or the fluid working
against an actuator (the working element). This makes sense because liquid flows freely
without pressure until there is something to stop it. Interestingly, as hydraulic flow
increases, the pressure stays the same, provided there is no increase in resistance.

The positive displacement pump is the type of pump used in most industrial hydraulic
systems. The output of a fixed displacement pump is independent of pressure. That
means that with each rotation of the pump, a fixed amount of fluid is moved. Three of
the most common positive displacement pumps are vane, piston and gear pumps.

Vane pumps generate a pumping action by causing vanes to track along the inside of a
ring.

Visualize a shaft (called a rotor) spinning inside a cylinder. The rotor is significantly
smaller than the cylinder so there is empty space between the shaft and the inside wall of

54
the cylinder. Cut about six longitudinal slots into the sides of the rotor. Insert flat blades
(called vanes) into the slots so they can move freely in and out. When the rotor spins
inside of the cylinder, centrifugal force flings the vanes out so they scrape against the
inside of the cylinder wall. The volume of the space between each of the vanes is the
same as its neighbor’s.

Now move the rotor off center so that it almost touches the cylinder wall. Now there are
different sized chambers between the vanes. Where the rotor is close to the cylinder on
the bottom, the volume of the space is very small. At the top of rotation, where the rotor
is far away from the cylinder, the volume is large. Remember that increasing and
decreasing volume causes pumping action. If the cylinder is enclosed, except for a small
area where fluid could get sucked in and another where it could be pushed out, you have
made a vane pump.

The beauty of a vane pump is that by varying the distance of the cam ring (the cylinder in
our example) to the rotor, it is easy to control the output of the pump.

A vane pump consists of a rotor, vanes, ring, and a port plate with kidney-shaped inlet
and outlet ports. The rotor is positioned off-center to the ring. As the rotor is turned, an
increasing and decreasing volume is formed within the ring.

The vanes can generate a lot of wear on the ring since they scrape all the hydraulic fluid
off the walls of the ring. For this reason, most hydraulic oils for vane pumps have anti-
wear additives that form a molecular carpet to protect the ring.

Gear pumps generate a pumping action by causing gears to mesh and unmesh.

A gear pump consists of housing with inlet and outlet ports, and a pumping mechanism
made up of two gears. One gear is attached to a shaft, which is connected to a motor or
engine, and it drives the other gear. The action of teeth meshing and unmeshing
generates an increasing and decreasing volume. And wherever you have increasing and
decreasing volume, you can have pumping action.

An internal gear pump consists of one gear that is shaped like a ring with teeth on the
inside of the ring. These teeth mesh with another gear that is inside the ring. This type
pump is sometimes referred to as a gear-within-gear pump. The most common type of
internal gear pump in industrial systems is the generator pump.

Piston pumps generate pumping action by causing pistons to reciprocate within a piston
bore.

The piston pump basically consists of a cylinder barrel, pistons with shoes, swashplate,
shoeplate, shoeplate bias spring, and port plate.

55
Several pistons are arranged in a cylindrical barrel, much like bullets in a revolver. The
bottom of each piston has a shoe that sticks down out of the cylinder. All the shoes ride
on a single round plate called a swashplate. If the cylinder was vertical and the
swashplate sat flat, the pistons wouldn’t move up and down if the cylinder were rotated.
But the swashplate is at an angle.

As the cylinder barrel is rotated, the piston shoes follow the surface of the swashplate.
(The swashplate does not rotate.) Since the swashplate is at an angle, it pushes the
pistons up and down within the bore. This generates increasing and decreasing volume.

Piston (reciprocating) pumps can generate the highest pressure of the three positive
displacement pumps.

Centrifugal pumps do not work on the principle of increasing and decreasing volume.
They spin the fluid, just like a pinwheel. The spinning motion can generate some thrust
loads so most centrifugal pumps have a radial and a thrust bearing. Centrifugal pumps
operate at low pressures and are generally not used in hydraulic systems.

Actuators in a hydraulic system convert the fluid pressure to motion, or, in other words,
they convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. They generally fall into two
categories – cylinders, which transmit linear motion, and motors, which transmit circular
motion. A hydraulic motor can be a pump set up in reverse; instead of a prime mover
driving a pump to produce fluid flow, the fluid drives the hydraulic motor to produce
rotary motion.

Pressure relief valves protect the system from dangerous over-pressurization. Other
valves that might be found in a hydraulic system include brake valves, sequence valves,
loading and unloading valves, proportional valves and solenoid valves. Balancing valves
in each suction line can balance the flow between pumps in parallel.

56
Reservoirs also play an important part in a hydraulic system. The typical components of
a reservoir are:

1. Reservoir tank
2. Cleanout cover
3. Suction, return and drain lines
4. Oil level gauge
5. Filler/breather cap
6. Baffles
7. Filters, screens and strainers
8. Vent

Baffles are an important component in a hydraulic reservoir. They allow the fluid time to
cool, de-aerate, and to settle out water and dirt. A good rule of thumb to use for
residence time in a reservoir is 2 to 3 times the pump output. If the system is highly
contaminated, residence time may be 10 times the GPM (gallons/minute) of the pump.

Return lines into the reservoir should be larger than the intake line and should generally
be positioned below the surface of the oil to minimize air entrainment. Locate the return
line as far away from the suction as possible to allow the oil as much residence time as
possible. If this is not possible, install a baffle or weir between the suction and discharge
lines. One suggestion to improve oil flow in the reservoir is to cut the return line at an
angle so that it directs flow back toward the tank wall.

Fluid conductors, the pipes and hoses needed to transport the fluid through the system,
can have a significant impact on the system’s efficiency. Some suggestions for
connectors that can help minimize leakage between piping are straight threat, flare weld,
o-ring and flange connectors. NPT (National Pipe Taper or National Pipe Thread)
designations can be found on many fluid conductors.

It is important to choose fluid conductors that are rated with a burst pressure above the
pressure of the system. The burst pressure is at the point at which a hydraulic line yields.

An accumulator is often added to a hydraulic system if there is a need for instantaneous

fluid flow. It can be a bladder that holds excess fluid under pressure that can be released
as needed. It can also serve as a buffer to absorb impulses. Accumulators can fail
because of poor padding, incompatible bag materials, improper installation, over-
pressurization or overheating.

Hydraulic fluids
Principal requirements of a hydraulic fluid are:

• Satisfactory flow properties

• A high viscosity index

57
• Low compressibility
• Good lubricating properties
• Low vapor pressure
• Compatibility with system materials
• Chemical stability
• Protection against corrosion
• Rapid air-release and demulsibility
• Good thermal conductivity
• Fire resistance
• Electrically insulating
• Environmentally acceptable

One of the most important characteristics of a hydraulic fluid is its viscosity. Most vane
type pumps use an ISO VG 32, 46 or 68, while piston pumps use ISO VG 100. There is
considerable variation in this recommendation based on temperature, pressure and
application.

The viscosity index of most hydraulic oils is generally 90 or above. However, viscosity
index means little for systems with a relatively constant temperature. Mobile systems,
where temperatures may range from below 0°F to over 100°F, use oils with much higher
V1 to avoid having to change the oil with the seasons.

The most common hydraulic oil anti-wear additive is based on zinc, sulfur and
phosphorus. These three chemicals form a base that is strongly attracted to a metal
surface. Attached to this base is a long chain of hydrogens and carbons. As these
molecules line up with the zinc compound on the metal and the hydrocarbon tail waving
in the oil, they form a carpet that is hard to scrape off the metal surface.

There are other anti-wear additives that do not contain zinc. Some are based on sulfur,
and some on fatty materials. Anti-wear additives, as a rule, are not as aggressive as
extreme pressure additives. Oils that contain anti-wear additives are often called AW oils
in the US or carry the HLP designation in Europe.

Oxidation inhibitors are added to extend the life of the oil. Oxygen reacts with the oil to
produce weak acids that can pit surfaces. Oxidation inhibitors slow the rate of oxidation.

Rusting and corrosion - In the context of a hydraulic system, corrosion refers to a

deterioration of a component surface due to a chemical attack by acidic products of oil
oxidation. Rusting refers to the process of a ferrous surface oxidizing due to the presence
of water in oil. Oils that contain rust and oxidation inhibitors are known as R&O oils in
the US, and HL oils overseas.

Most oils contain foam inhibitors that work by altering the surface tension of the oil. It
allows bubbles to combine and break. Foam inhibitors are either based on silicone or are
organic antifoam agents.

58
Pour point of a hydraulic fluid is the lowest temperature at which it will pour under an
ASTM laboratory test. Pour point of oil should be at least 20°F below the lowest
expected temperature.

Rapid air release and demulsibility are necessary to minimize cavitation and inaccurate
pressure response.

Hydrolytic stability is the ability of the oil to resist degradation in the presence of water.
This is important because any hydraulic system open to the atmosphere will be exposed
to some moisture from humidity and condensation. Some ester-based fluids have
relatively poor hydrolytic stability and will rapidly turn acidic in the presence of water.

Aerial lift devices, also known as cherry pickers and bucket trucks, are used around
electrical power lines. For this reason, it is important for the oil to resist conducting
electricity. In case the boom touches a live power line, this protects the person from
being electrocuted. Most non-detergent oils have inherently high dielectric strength.

Dielectric strength is not a legitimate test for this application and was voted out of the
ANSI standards. The test is designed for electrical insulating oils, and is measured across
electrodes that are less than a tenth of an inch apart. Since hydraulic lines are much
longer than a tenth of an inch, the test does not apply. It is more important for the oil to
be clean and dry, to have a high viscosity index, low pour point, good anti-wear
performance, and to be non-detergent.

Fire resistance is important when a hydraulic fluid is used around extremely high
temperatures, for example hydraulic lines that travel over hot ingots in a steel mill. Fire
resistant hydraulic fluids will burn, but they don’t propagate the flame back to the source.
This is important if a line bursts and hydraulic fluid sprays into a hot area. The fire is
contained in the small area and does not cause the entire system to explode.

The major types of fire resistant hydraulic fluids are oil-in-water emulsion, water-in-oil
invert emulsion, water-glycol, phosphate ester and polyolester.

“High water base fluid”, “HWBF”, “95:5 oil”, “soluble oil”, and “oil-in-water emulsion”
are all terms to describe water base hydraulic fluid made up of water emulsified with 1-
10% oil. These fluids are usually milky. They are mostly used in leaky systems because
they are inexpensive. Their main disadvantages are that they contain 95% water, and
therefore have poor lubricity and grow bacteria.

An invert emulsion is generally a creamy-white liquid made up of 60% oil and 40%
water. Since oil is the dominant liquid, the equipment sees the oil rather than the water.
Oil is a better lubricant and provides better rust protection than water. When switching
from petroleum oil to a water base fire resistant fluid, some problems could occur with
protective coatings. If a reservoir interior is protected with petroleum compatible paints
and varnishes, a water base fluid may dissolve the coating.

59
Water glycol fluids are usually red, have excellent fire resistance, and can be used over a
wider temperature range (0°F to 140°F) than invert emulsions. However, they can be
used only for moderate pressures and are incompatible with other fluids. Their viscosity
may increase as water evaporates. They’re also not compatible with zinc, cadmium and
magnesium, and they have poor corrosion protection. They contain 35 to 50% water.

Phosphate ester hydraulic fluids are sometimes used instead of mineral-based fluids in
certain high-risk applications such as aviation flight-control hydraulics and steam turbine
electro-hydraulic control systems. They are not compatible with many seal materials.
Different references recommend different seal materials. Some recommend fluorinated
materials such as Viton, while others recommend ethylene propylene (EPR, EPM,
EPDM), Nylon or polyethylene.

Detergents are not commonly recommended for industrial systems because they typically
absorb water. Water should be kept out of a system because it promotes rust and
oxidation. Water can also plug filters and affect oil viscosity. Most industrial fluids drop
water to the bottom of the sump where it can be drawn off.

Mobile hydraulic systems, such as construction equipment hydraulics, use detergent

engine oils because of product consolidation and because of the higher zinc content in
some engine oils. They also have relatively small sumps that can be changed frequently.
Hydraulic systems in food plants require oils that meet the former USDA standards H1
and H2. H1 defines oils that are suitable for incidental food contact. An H2 lubricant
may come into the plant, but may have no food contact. These oils often made of white
mineral oils and contain food grade additives.

Contamination Control
There are many causes of hydraulic pump failures, such as improper installation, poor
maintenance practices, and improper fluid selection, but one of the most controllable root
causes is contamination. Although a hydraulic fluid may appear clear and bright, without
any sign of visible mechanical impurities, it may still contain excessive amounts of
microscopic particles.

Like most industrial equipment, there are four major sources of contamination. First,
machining swarf, rust protectants and residual lubricants can remain from when the pump
was manufactured. Second, wear particles are generated during assembly, break-in and
operation. Third, dirt can come in from the outside, and fourth, contamination can be
introduced during maintenance.

To protect against contamination that might be left over from the manufacturing process,
it is a good idea to flush the hydraulic system before adding the full charge of new oil.
One procedure is to flush with light rust and oxidation-inhibited oil, operate the system at

60
maximum flow rate to generate turbulent flow, bypass control valves if necessary to
ensure flow to all parts of the system, check and change filters as necessary, and refill
with the operating charge. New oil typically should be filtered through 5 to 10 micron
filters.

It is important to install filters and strainers in the system to prevent damage from
internally generated contamination, and from dirt from the outside. Some suggested
locations for filters and strainers are:

Pump strainer (coarse filter on end of suction line)

Off-line (side loop) filter
Fine mesh pressure filter
Return line filter

If the pump is being used in a very dusty environment, it might be wise to choose a gear
pump since they seem to be the most tolerant of particle contamination.

Temperature should be controlled in hydraulic systems for several reasons. First, if the
system is too hot or cold, the viscosity of the fluid may be too low or too high,
respectively. When the viscosity is too low, there may be wearing caused by metal-to-
metal contact. If the viscosity is too high, the system may become sluggish. High
temperatures also increase oil oxidation rates and shorten the life of the oil.

Cavitation occurs when bubbles rapidly decompress in an area of low pressure. This can
occur in a pipe bend or in a pump. Evidence of cavitation is a sound that is similar to
marbles rolling around inside the pump, along with vibration and wear.

61
 Section 7
COMPRESSORS
Compressors

Compressors move air and other gases. In more specific terms, compressors convert the
mechanical energy transmitted by a prime mover (electric motor, internal combustion
engine) into potential energy of compressed air. Impact wrenches, jack hammers and
many other applications are driven by compressed air. Gases are also transmitted along
long lines by the use of compressors.

The following are the various compressor types.

62
Reciprocating compressors compress gas by a piston moving back and forth within a
cylinder. It is the most common type of positive displacement compressor found in an
industrial pneumatic system.

Here is the sequence of events that occur in a reciprocating compressor.

Piston moves down, volume increases.

Inlet valves opens.
Air is drawn into cylinder through inlet valve.
Piston reaches bottom of stroke.
Inlet valve closes, discharge valve opens.
Piston returns – volume decreases.
Air is compressed.
Air is expelled out of the discharge valve. Discharge valve closes.
Piston reaches top of stroke.

Single acting compressors are simple. As the piston comes down, the volume in the
cylinder increases and it draws gas in the intake. As the piston goes up, the volume
decreases, and it pushes the gas out the exhaust.

As air is compressed it gets hot. Excessive heat degrades the lubricant and compressor
components. To reduce the amount of heat of compression, many compressors have
several stages where the gas is compressed, allowed to cool, and then compressed again.
By compressing in stages, higher pressures can be reached at lower temperatures.

Double acting compressors work on the principle stated above. They compress gas on
both strokes of the piston. Someone figured out that as the piston is coming down in the
cylinder and expanding the volume above it, the volume is actually decreasing below it.
If there was a way to harness this motion, then as gas was being compressed and
exhausted out the chamber at the top, the rising piston could be drawing air into another
chamber at the bottom. For this to happen there is usually a stuffing box and piston rod
seal to prevent gases from escaping around the rod that drives the piston.

Rotary compressors, like hydraulic systems, fall into two main categories, positive
displacement and dynamic. Positive displacement compressors move air from a high
volume area and squeeze it into a low volume area where it is discharged under pressure.
Dynamic compressors use rotary motion like a blower to impart energy to the gas.

Rotary compressors are preferred in some applications over reciprocating compressors

because they are generally quieter, more compact and cheaper to operate.

Lobe compressors consist of two lobes. They can be different shapes, but the simplest to
explain is a figure eight. If two figure eights were side by side and one started to spin, its
bottom would knock the top of the other one and it would start to spin. As it turned
upside down, the second one’s bottom would knock the top of the first eight, and so on.
If the eights are enclosed, this motion creates areas on the outside of the eights that get

63
larger and smaller in volume as they rotate. Air is sucked in and pushed out. This type
of compressor is often used for blowers and is generally lubricated with ISO 220
synthetic PAO oil.

Screw compressors have two intermeshing screws that push the air down their length as
they rotate. They are quite often lubricated by an ISO 46 PAO oil, or turbine quality
R&O oil in viscosity grades ISO 32 through 68.

Vane compressors work on exactly the same principle as a vane type hydraulic pump.
Blades called vanes fit into slots that are set into a rotor. As the rotor spins, the vanes are
flung out by centrifugal force and are stopped by a ring. The rotor is offset in the ring so
there are compartments of varying volumes between the vanes. Vane compressors
normally use turbine type R&O oils.

Centrifugal compressors can run at very high speeds. They are similar to an enclosed
fan and impart kinetic energy to the air. Since they operate at such high speeds, they
generally use petroleum oil with fairly low viscosity.

Lubricants
There are two main areas of a piston compressor that need to be lubricated. The first is
the area that contacts the gas such as the pistons and rings, cylinders and valves. These
are often lubricated on a “once-through” basis where the oil mixes with the gas and goes
out the discharge. Normally the oil is applied by use of a force feed lubricator.

The second covers the parts that do not contact the gas such as the crankcase bearings and
connecting rods. These parts are generally splash lubricated from the crankcase, or may
be circulated by the oil pump. Crankcase lubricants can remain in service for many
thousands of hours.

Oxidation stability is important in most compressor applications because of the heat that
is generated. Oxidized oil can create deposits that build up on discharge valves allowing
them to stick open. This causes hot air to get sucked back into the compression chamber
where it is recompressed. The air can generate enough heat to ignite the deposits and
cause a fire or explosion. Use of synthetics can minimize this possibility.

Zinc-containing anti-wear oils are generally not recommended for air compressors
because the anti-wear package may compromise the oxidation stability of the oil.

Many reciprocating compressors, particularly portable models, use automotive or

commercial crankcase oils. The oils are readily available and have detergency that helps
keep discharge valves clean. However, detergents have their disadvantages. Detergents
move deposits downstream where they may build up on heat transfer surfaces in coolers.

Detergent oils absorb water. If water is allowed to build up in the oil, it will cause rust
and will accelerate oxidation. Compressors generate water because humidity from the air

64
condenses as the air is compressed. It is generally removed in a coalescer or knockout
drum, but some water gets into the oil. For this reason, detergent oils are only used in
limited applications.

It is more common for stationary reciprocating compressors to use non-detergent rust and
oxidation inhibited oils. The viscosity varies according to the design of the compressor,
but a high percentage use an ISO 100 turbine-type lubricant, which is approximately the
viscosity of SAE 30-engine oil. Cylinder oils are very often the same oil that is
recommended for the crankcase, with some exceptions.

High-pressure gas requires cylinder oils of much higher viscosity and lubricity. If wet
gas is compressed, the oils generally should be compounded with a fatty additive.

Hydrocarbon gases, like methane, ethane and propane, dissolve into petroleum oils and
tend to lower their viscosity over time. The oils can thin down so much that compressor
cylinders and valves wear prematurely and excess oil ends up in the coalescer. There are
two ways to combat this. One is to start out with fairly viscous oil such as steam cylinder
oil. The second is to use oil that is not soluble in hydrocarbon gases, like glycol.

Oxygen is obviously considered a strong oxidizer. Hydrocarbon gases are not

recommended for compressing oxygen. These compressors are generally non-lubricated
with graphite seals. If a lubricant is required, the products of choice can be silicone or
fluorocarbon based.

Refrigerant gases such as ammonia, halocarbons, and the new halocarbon-free

refrigerants, take special lubricants. Ammonia reacts with acidic additives such as some
rust inhibitors to form a mayonnaise-like substance. Freon type lubricants must be tested
according to the Freon floc test to ensure that wax will not form at cold operating
temperatures. And the latest refrigerants that are designed to be ozone-friendly requiring
new synthetics such as specially formulated polyol esters.

The oil in oil flooded rotary compressors lubricates the gears, bearings and also the
contacting surfaces of the rotors. The proper oil is critical for these compressors because,
not only does it lubricate the elements and keeps them cool, it also forms a seal to prevent
gas leakage around the elements.

Maintenance
It is important to keep compressor lubricants as clean, cool and dry as possible. To
accomplish this, it is recommended that air is filtered on intake, intercoolers used to
remove heat, and high quality non-detergent oil be used where water may condense into
the oil.

65
 Section 9
LUBRICATION PROGRAMS,
MONITORING AND REDUCING
LUBRICANT CONSUMPT
Five Rights of Lubrication
“Five rights of Lubrication” – Getting the right amount, right type, right quality of
lubricant to the right place at the right time.

The five rights of lubrication are important, particularly when receiving a new piece of
equipment where you want to get started on the “right” foot. The lubrication engineer
should have a mental or physical checklist that the following are verified.

Right amount – Each lubrication point should be identified, and next to each should be a
comment on the amount of lubricant to be added. It is a good idea to include points that
are sealed for life so that the person who is responsible for lubricating the machine
doesn’t think that the component was inadvertently left off the list.

Right type – The equipment manufacturer should be the primary source of lubricant
recommendations. If there are any questions, the lubricant supplier should work closely
with the OEM.

If the plant has an internal coding system, the type should include the generic type of
lubricant and the grade, as well as any temperature or operating restrictions. If there is no
coding system, the type should include brand name and alternates, if appropriate.

The right type of oil includes choosing the right viscosity grade. Choosing the right
viscosity grade depends upon the temperature. How do you determine the upper
operating temperature of an oil?

1. The viscosity of the oil should be high enough to carry the load.
2. The oil should have a flash point at least 20°F above system temperature.
3. Keep the temperature low to reduce oxidation and extend drain intervals.
4. Stay below the coking temperature of the oil.

66
Right quality – The lubrication engineer should set standards for the quality level of
lubricants in the plant, including the choice of supplier, acceptance testing and oil
monitoring.

Right place – All lubrication points should be labeled. Many plants tag them with
markers, stickers or plastic cards.

Right time – Relubrication intervals should first be set according to OEM

recommendations. If the plant wants to extend lubrication intervals, first evaluate
historical oil analysis and maintenance reports. If the oil still looks good, and there are
no other indications that the equipment is unhealthy, then extend intervals cautiously and
test more frequently. Look for changes in viscosity, total acid number and spectrographic
metals. Also check to see if the oil make-up rate has held steady or increased. Adding
more fresh oil into the system is another good reason to extend oil drain intervals.

When changing lubricant suppliers, it is a good time to evaluate the current lubricants and
their applications to see if there can be any improvements. First, find out the original
equipment manufacturer’s (OEM) recommendation for each machine. Second, see if
there can be any consolidation of inventory. Consult with the oil supplier or the
equipment OEM to see if there is any leeway in the original recommendation based on
operating conditions.

It is always good manufacturing practice to flush systems thoroughly when switching to

another brand of product. If this is not possible, make sure the competitive products are
compatible with each other. It may be necessary to run compatibility tests, depending
upon the size of the application and how critical it is.

When a new system has been installed, it is important to flush the system of all
impurities. Each system is different, but the guidelines set by ASME for turbine systems,
“ASTM-ASME-NEMA Recommended Practices for the Cleaning, Flushing and
Purification of Steam and Gas Turbine Lubrication Systems” can apply to other
equipment. Some of the procedures from this publication include:

The system should be designed to allow successful cleaning, and pipes and other
equipment must be properly cleaned and preserved.

“The knowledge that an oil flush will be performed before startup should not be allowed
to lead to the misconception that contaminants entering the oil system are not harmful
because: “they will all be removed by the flush”.

Insure compatibility of the flushing oil with the entire lubrication oil system.

Temporary strainers and fine screens should be installed and the oil may be heated to 60°
- 82°C (140° - 180°F).

67
Flushing times of at least 12 hours to as much as several days may be necessary to insure
proper system cleanliness.

General practice is to allow the oil temperature to drop for 2 to 3 hours during flushing to
allow for pipe contraction. This procedure aids in removing any scale that may be on the
pipe. During early stages of flushing, piping should be vibrated or hammered to dislodge
any scale or weld splatter.

After inspection of strainers or bags and temporary filters discloses that there is no
evidence of contaminants, other parts of the system should then be flushed by removing
blanks or jumpers.??? The flushing procedure should be continued until it is considered
that the entire system is thoroughly cleaned. At this point, a sample should be taken for
verification.

Follow guidelines for draining flushing oil, using a displacement oil and interim
corrosion protection before adding new oil charge.

Remember to properly bleed the system of air. When the new oil is circulating, check for
leaks and make sure that the reservoir level is maintained.

Once the new product is in the system, take a sample for analysis to establish a base line
for future testing.

When adding makeup oil to a reservoir, clean the area around the fill pipe; verify type,
grade, and cleanliness of new oil; thoroughly flush the pump and hose through which the
new oil will be added, use a dedicated pump and hose, if possible; filter the oil as it is
being added; pump slowly to prevent air entrainment.

Lubricant Surveys
At the very minimum, the following information should appear on a lube survey:

Department (and/or location) – to identify where the equipment is located

Equipment (components and lube points) – including models and operating
conditions
Lubricant – name and grade
Amount – in lbs, gallons, cc’s, squirts
Frequency – i.e. weekly, monthly, yearly, as required, daily, every shift
Method – by hand, brush, swab, add to reservoir, grease gun, drip, and bottle oiler
Comments

Failure Analysis
When investigating failure of equipment, the tendency is to look at symptoms rather than
root cause. Root cause is defined as the primary reason for failure in a chain of events.
Root cause analysis can prevent further failures by correcting the source rather than the

68
symptoms of an event. Failure mode, on the other hand, describes the sequence of events
that lead to failure.

The oiler can perform quick on-site checks to determine the health of the equipment. He
or she can make a quick physical evaluation of vibration, heat noise, oil level, excessive
foam or leakage. Anything unusual in these areas should be recorded and reported if they
seem to be of concern.

The departments listed below have responsibilities for making sure that equipment is
lubricated properly. However, the ultimate responsibility for making the lubrication
recommendation should come from the plant engineer and maintenance engineer, who
should advise the purchasing agent.

The following information is quoted from the Lubrication Engineers Manual and Plant
Engineering Magazine as referenced in the bibliography.

Department responsibilities
Production Must release machines for scheduled service – such as changing
hydraulic oil.
Purchasing Must procure only those lubricants and lube equipment approved by
the lubrication engineer. Must order by specifications – not price.
Inventory Control Must keep an adequate supply of required lubricants on hand.
Maintenance Must arrange for prompt repair of reported failures, such as
hydraulic leaks.
Laboratory Must verify specifications of purchased oils and analyze reservoir
samples submitted by the lubrication engineer for viscosity and
contamination.
Engineering Must follow and enforce specifications established by lubrication
engineer when buying new equipment.

How to avoid the 12 Most Common Lubrication Errors

Error 1 Failure to assign overall responsibility for equipment lubrication to
one man.
Error 2 Failure to adequately survey equipment lubrication requirements.
The physical survey is only part of the job – the appropriate
manufacturer’s instruction books for each machine must be checked
to determine lubrication requirements.
Error 3 Failure to limit the number of lubricants used. Remember, for
every 18 F rise in operating temperature above 140°F, the service
life of the lubricant is normally reduced by about one-half.
Error 4 Failure to schedule lubrication properly.
Error 5 Failure to keep adequate records.
Error 6 Failure to prevent lubricant contamination. Contamination is the
greatest single cause of lubricant malfunction.

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Error 7 Failure to use the right lubricant. Selection of the right lubricant for
each application should always be based on the following factors:

Type of part to be lubricated

Operating temperature extremes
Speed and load
Hours of expected use per day
Age and condition of equipment
Importance of the equipment to the production process
Recommendations of the manufacturer
Current lubrication procedures
Lubricants available in the plant

Error 8 Failure to investigate all mechanical malfunctions

Error 9 Failure to prevent unauthorized personnel from lubricating
equipment
Error 10 Failure to hire competent personnel and train them for the job
Error 11 Failure to respond to feedback from the lubricators
Error 12 Failure to update and refine the lubrication program

To evaluate a particular method for a specific application, certain characteristics should

be considered. The following evaluation criteria can serve as a check list to aid in
selection of lubrication devices.

Delivery of Lubricant:
Regulation
Adaptability
Uniformity
Continuity
Reliability:
Human Element
Automatic Operation
Positive Operation
Contamination Resistance

Cost Considerations:
Initial Cost
Maintenance Costs

Overall Design Considerations:

Accessibility
Safety
Lubricant Leakage
Consistency in Design

70
The basis of the plant program is an outline of the Lubrication Engineer’s activities. The
twelve points enumerated below are fundamental since they include all the essential
factors recognized as being part of every successful plant lubrication program.

1. Conducting lubrication survey

2. Classifying lubricants
3. Compiling lubrication charts
4. Punch card lubrication control
5. Establishing consumption reports
6. Improving application methods
7. Improving lubricant handling and storage
8. Evaluating new lubricants
9. Establishing maintenance methods
10. Assisting in new equipment design
11. Training personnel
12. Investigating special problems

The lubrication engineer should take the following eight steps when establishing a new
lubrication program:

Perform a lubrication survey

Determine fewest correct lubricants
Determine critical pieces of equipment
Establish an Oil Analysis Program
Establish a Portable Filtration Program
Minimize wastes
Conduct lubrication training
Improve storage and handling
Test new oils

Monitoring and Reducing Consumption of Lubricants

The first step in controlling oil losses is to make a commitment. The company should
recognize that lubricant losses are costly over time and should commit to reducing
consumption. Commitment should come from several departments including
maintenance, engineering, operations, environmental, accounting and the laboratory.

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Costs of high oil losses

Cost of replacement lubricant

Storage and handling of extra lubricant
Cost of catching the spilled lubricant
Waste oil disposal cost
Environmental cost/fines
Cost of in-plant transfer and resulting empty drums
Extra drum disposal cost
Temptation to switch to cheaper lubricant
Extra labor involved to maintain oil level
Shorter equipment life due to poor in-service maintenance
Shorter equipment life due to lubricant starvation
Substitution of product due to emergency fills operation
Housekeeping costs
Safety concerns

The second step is to evaluate the current situation. This could include checking
historical records of the amount of lubricant purchased compared with the amount sent
for disposal. Try to account for the difference by looking for leaks, products consumed in
the process, misting and evaporative losses. Try to distinguish unneeded waste due to
contamination, misapplication or carelessness from normal disposal due to aged product.

The third step is to make a plan of action using some of the suggestions below, or by
consulting the references in the bibliography. The fourth step is to implement the plan.
The fifth, and very crucial step, is to reevaluate and start over with step one.

Reducing lubricant usage

Oil conservation can be divided into three categories – Reduce, recover and recycle.

One step in reducing waste is to choose the proper lubricant. High quality lubricants with
appropriate additives have a long and productive service life. Consolidation of lubricants
reduces inventory, and also minimizes waste from lubricants that are misapplied or cross-
contaminated.

Synthetics in high heat applications can reduce oil consumption because they have fewer
volatile components than refined oil. Over time, less oil evaporates or vaporizes into the
process.

Oil Analysis helps extend the life of lubricant and the equipment. At minimum, most
industrial lubricants should be tested for spectrographic metals, total acid number and
viscosity. Total base number takes the place of total acid number for testing the useful
life of engine oils. Both applications can also use infrared spectroscopy as a tool to check
for oxidation products. In the case of turbine systems that run for decades, the Rotary

72
Pressure Vessel Oxidation Test (formerly RBOT) can gauge remaining life of the turbine
oil.

By comparing historical oil analyses and plotting trends in wear metals, viscosity and
oxidation, an engineer can reasonably extend oil drain intervals.

Cooling lubricants can dramatically increase their life. Elsewhere it was stated that the
rate of oxidation doubles for every 10°C (18°F to 20°F) increase in temperature. The
converse is true. For every 10°C the temperature DROPS, the life of the oil DOUBLES
(down to about 160°F).

Filtration, either by using by-pass, continuous full flow, or batch processing can
effectively extend the life of the lubricant. Contamination from fluids and solids is one of
the greatest causes of wasted lubricant.

Hand-in-hand with filtration come other system designs that extend lubricant life.
Reservoirs can be modified to maximize residence time to allow solids and water to drop
to the bottom and air to dissipate. Very large reservoirs should have electronic or sight-
glass oil level gauges that can be monitored for excessive consumption.

Mist lubrication commonly saves lubricant, saves energy, and improves reliability where
such systems can be used.

Recovering lubricant that may be wasted

The following methods are considered “All Loss”, meaning that the oil is not recirculated
or reused as a lubricant.

Open mist, drip, brush, oil cup, bottle oiler

Wherever possible, All Loss methods should be replaced with systems where the
lubricant can be recovered, reused or recycled.

Grease drums and pails can be lined, and follower plates installed on drum pumps. Even
the best follower plates leave some grease behind. It is good procedure to scavenge the
last bits of grease, if not contaminated, and add it to the top of the next container.

Some components, such as electric motor bearings, can be purchased sealed-for-life.

Oils should be purchased in bulk containers to reduce waste. Bulk packaging also has
secondary benefits. It reduces transportation costs, minimizes storage space, and reduces
costs for container recycling and disposal. It opens the door for discounts from the
supplier because they reap the benefit of less handling, delivery and packaging costs as
well as the benefit of economies of scale.

73
Oilers visit each area of the plant regularly. They should be responsible for checking for
leaks and to watch for differences in sump levels or oil feed rates that could indicate a
leak or that oil is being consumed.

Surveying the plant for leaks can reap many benefits. Leaks may be a symptom of an
underlying engineering or maintenance problem. By addressing the leak, other more
insidious problems can be identified and avoided.

There are a number of ways for oil leakage to develop in a system. The packing or seal
around a roller shaft may wear and leak. Under certain severe operations, the shocks
imposed on the equipment may cause cracks to develop in gear casings. Vibration may
cause leaks to develop in pipe joints. The piping may be damaged or broken by being
struck with heavy objects.

To minimize leaks, replace worn packing or seals, repair cracked oil casings, tighten
loose pipe joints or replace damaged piping and periodically clean scale from the side of
gear casings to assure free circulation of the oil. Leaks can also be controlled by using
grease instead of oil, substituting mechanical seals for lip seals, reducing temperature to
control volatility and increase lubricant viscosity, and making sure fittings are sealed and
tightened according to specification.

Reuse or recycle lubricants

Most waste oil is “recycled” by being burned in industrial boilers. This can technically
be called recycling because energy is recovered.

Some waste oil can be cleaned up and reused as lubricant. There is a subtle difference
between reclaiming and reprocessing lubricants. Reclaiming removes solids and water.
Reprocessing removes solids, water and soluble contaminants. A reprocessor will
generally send spent lubricant through a vacuum dehydrator and/or centrifuge. The
lubricant will be filtered. Then, in the step that separates them from reclaimers, they will
filter the oil through a clay or absorption medium that removes dissolved contaminants
and additives; at that point, the reprocessor readditizes the product.

Federal and local laws provide incentives to reduce consumption. The following
legislative acts impact the use or disposal of lubricants:

RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act
SARA Superfund Amendment and Reauthorization Act
CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act
EPCA Energy Policy and Conservation Act
ORA Oil Recovery Act

74
As a result of regulation and voluntary measures, the petroleum industry has improved
conservation of lubricants by optimizing manufacturing processes for lubricants, and
making formulations more effective. The industry has standardized on viscosity grades
and test methods to help reduce inventory and compatibility of products. Packaging and
handling has improved with more use of bulk and intermediate sized containers. There
are now companies who reprocess and reclaim lubricants for reuse.

Section 10
OIL ANALYSIS
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) sets the standards for most
industrial oil tests. In addition, other standards are set by American Petroleum Institute
(API) for engine oils, National Lubricating Grease Institute (NLGI) for greases,
American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA) for gears, and there are also
international standards set by the International Standards Organization (ISO) and
Deutscher Industrie Normen (DIN). Most of the following are based on ASTM
standards.

It is important to take samples from an area that is as representative of the system as

possible. In a circulating system, this should be taken while the system is operating at
normal loads, speeds, temperatures. Whenever possible, it should be drawn from the
most turbulent part of the system. It is wise to test a sample of unused oil to use it as a
reference to see how the oil in the system changes with time.

Make sure that the area around the sample port, valve or drain is clean and that sample
bottles have not been contaminated. It is important to purge some fluid from the sample
port first.

How often should samples be taken? It depends on several factors, including how critical
the equipment is to the operation. Other factors to consider are the severity of the
operation environment, how often oil is drained, the amount of make-up oil and whether
the equipment is in continuous or intermittent use.

Samples should be labeled clearly. It is a good idea to identify the sample on the bottle
itself as well as on accompanying paperwork. Labels should include:

Oil type (manufacturer and product)

Equipment ID code
Equipment type

75
 Date
Person responsible
Company name
Location
Test program or tests required

Bear in mind that there is a certain amount of error expected in oil analysis tests. ASTM
generally puts repeatability and reproducibility limits on each standard. Repeatability
refers to test results generated by the same person at the same lab. Reproducibility give
the range of results expected if different people at different laboratories ran the same test
on the same sample.

Test Descriptions
The following are brief descriptions of common oil and grease analysis tests.

Appearance and Color are easy means to detect changes that have taken place in the oil
including contamination with other products, water (often evidenced by
haziness/cloudiness when in excess of 200 PPM) and oxidation (darkening of the
product). The product should be clear and bright with no visible water or particulate.
Comparison to new unused product is useful for evaluating color.

Bulk Modulus is the measure of the incompressibility of a fluid.

Carbon Residue Test measures the amount of carbon residue remaining in an oil after
the oil has been subjected to extreme heating in the absence of air. Test results are
reported as Conradson Carbon and Ramsbottom Carbon.

Cloud Point of petroleum oil is the temperature at which paraffin wax, or other
solidfiable compounds present in the oil, begins to crystallize or separate from solution
when the oil is chilled under prescribed conditions.

The Coking Test is a procedure for determining the tendency of oils to form solid
decomposition products when in contact with surfaces at elevated temperatures. The
panel coker test measures the residue on hot panels that have been coated with oil.

76
ASTM D 130 Copper Corrosion measures corrosion on a copper strip when it is
immersed in a lubricant under standard conditions. Results are reported on a scale from
1a (slight tarnish) to 4c (jet-black corrosion).

Demulsibility Tests indicate the ability of oil to separate from water under static
conditions. This is an important test for turbine and paper machine oils where complete
separation in less than 30 minutes is desirable. The results are expressed as ml oil/ ml
water /ml emulsion. So a test result of 40/40/0 would mean clear oil and water, with no
emulsion.

The Dynamic Demulsibility Test measures the ability of an oil to separate from water
under actual circulating conditions.

Density is reported as specific gravity or API gravity. Specific Gravity is the ratio of the
weight in air of a given volume of material at a stated temperature to the weight in the air
of an equal volume of distilled water at the same temperature. A hydrometer is an
instrument that measures the specific gravity of a liquid.

API Gravity is an arbitrary scale (chosen by the American Petroleum Institute) in which
the specific gravity of pure water is taken as 10. Liquids lighter than water have values
greater than 10 and liquids heavier than water have values less than 10° API. It is
calculated from the specific gravity of a petroleum oil.

Dielectric Strength is a measure of an oil’s ability to resist conducting electricity. The

test is run by immersing two electrodes in a bath of oil and subjecting them to increasing
voltage until there is an arc. This and other tests suggested by IEEE and ANSI are used
to determine suitability of continued use of transformer oils.

The dropping point of grease is that temperature at which grease passes from a semi-
solid to a liquid state. Dropping point is a measure of the heat resistance of grease, and
can be thought of as its melting point. It measures the temperature at which a drop of
fluid is released from a grease test cup.

Use of emission spectrometry measures the level of 20 metals, but only if they are less
than 10 microns in size. It is used for measuring common water, additive and
contaminant metals.
Spectrometric or “spectro” analysis is now a generic term for either of two distinct
analytical processes: emission spectroscopy and absorption spectroscopy. Emission
technique relates to light given off by an element whereas absorption technique relates
the absorbency upon excitation.

Here are metals that are commonly measured by spectrometry, and their possible sources.

77
Aluminum piston, shell bearing, bushing, thrust washer, block, head, blower,
crankcase paint, grease additive
Barium additive (high-TBN detergent)
Boron coolant additive, oil additive (dispersant)
Calcium additive (high-TBN detergent), sea water
Chromium plating, liner, ring, shaft, gear, coolant additive
Copper bearing, bushing, thrust washer, piston insert, gear, axial hydraulic
piston assembly, seal, additive (anti-oxidant), copper in an engine oil
shortly after initial fill may come from an oil cooler
Iron piston, ring, cylinder, gear, block, head, cam, shaft, roller bearing,
shell bearing back, and seal
Lead bearing, shaft, thrust plating, piston insert, wet clutch, gas additive,
off-the-shelf-supplement (OTSS)
Magnesium additive (high-TBN detergent), sea water, some gas turbine metallurgy
Molybdenum ring plating, additive (anti-wear), off-the-shelf-supplement (OTSS)
Nickel steel alloy, “heavy” fuel contaminant, stellite valve seat
Phosphorus additive (anti-wear), synthetic phosphate ester lube, phosphoric acid
(plant environment)
Potassium coolant additive
Silicon dirt, oil additive (defoamant), coolant additive, seal, synthetic lube,
wet clutch
Silver EMD wrist pin bushing, turbo bearing, bearing plating or alloy, silver
solder
Sodium coolant additive, oil additive, sea water
Tin bearing, bushing, piston, plating, alloy
Titanium gas turbine bearing, hub, blade, ‘white’ lead, paint
Vanadium steel alloy, ‘heavy’ fuel contaminant
Zinc additive, galvanized metals/plumbing, brass component

The Falex Lubricant Tester is a steel journal and bearing loaded by a spring-gage
micrometer and driven by a 1/3-hp 290-rpm motor. The test measures bearing load and
resulting wear produced by extreme pressure forces under constant speed and
temperature.

Analytical ferrography is a microscopic visual and photographic evaluation of wear

particles. It is an in-depth analysis that helps identify how particles originated. The test
can determine particle makeup: steel, copper, bronze, babbitt (used as a bearing
material), cast iron and silicon (from sediment). It also analyzes particle shape to pinpoint
whether particles are generated through machining, corrosion or other types of wear.

Direct reading ferrography uses magnets to strip iron-laden and other susceptible
particles from a lube for study. Optical sensors measure the density of particles
collected. Unlike particle counting, this test can be run on opaque fluids.

78
Results include both the number of particles and the ratio of large to small particles. The
number of particles reflects wear, while the ratio of large to small indicates the severity of
the problem: the higher the ratio, the greater the risk of failure.

The flash point of a lubricant is the lowest temperature at which oil gives off sufficient
vapors so that the vapors will ignite when a small flame is periodically passed over the
surface. This is a measure of the temperature required to produce an ignitable vapor-air
mixture above the liquid when exposed to an open flame. It helps determine if oil is
contaminated with a lower viscosity fluid. For example, low flash point of engine oil
may indicate fuel dilution. Three commonly used flash point tests are ASTM D 92
Cleveland Open Cup, ASTM D 93, Pensky-Martens Closed Cup, ASTM D 56 Tag
Closed Cup. Closed cup tests are normally used for substances with a low flash point
such as solvents and fuels.

The fire point is the lowest temperature at which oil ignites and continues to burn for at
least five seconds. Fire point ranges from 10°F to 70°F higher than the flash point of a
product.

The foam test measures the volume of oil foam generated by blowing air through a
sample of oil in a graduated cylinder at specified temperatures. The air inlet tube is fitted
with a 1-inch diameter spherical glass diffuser stone of fused crystalline alumina grain at
the bottom of the cylinder. The air pressure is maintained at a constant rate for a
specified blowing time (usually 5 minutes). Sequence I is run at 75°F, Sequence II at
200°F, and Sequence III after the sample has cooled to 75°F again.

The level of foam is measured immediately after each sequence, and then after a 10
minute settling time. The two numbers are reported as foam tendency/stability. A test
result of 150/20 would mean that there were 150 mls of foam immediately after blowing,
and 20 mls after it had settled for 10 minutes.

In the 4-ball test, four ½ inch steel balls are arranged with one ball atop three others.
The three lower balls are clamped together, and the fourth sits on top like a pyramid and
is rotated under increasing load. In the 4-Ball wear test, after a measured time and load,
the scars on the balls are measured. In the EP test, load is applied until the balls weld
together. That point is recorded as the weld point.

Load Wear Index is a proportion of the weight and scar diameters when load is applied
just before the weld point. It indicates the level of EP performance in oil. A high level of
EP would be 50 to 75, and moderate EP would be 35 to 45.

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) identifies organic functional groups

by measuring their infrared absorption at various wavelengths. Results are expressed in
absorbance units per centimeter and range from 1 to 100. It is useful in measuring
oxidation, nitration, and glycol contamination. A good new oil reference sample is
needed to get good used oil results. Also, a special unit is used to measure soot. It can
measure water, hydrocarbons, oxidation products, nitration products, and glycol.

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Water - Typical value is <5
Hydrocarbon Typical values are >1000 for hydrocarbon oils, < 800 for synthetics. It
is used to determine the type of oil or whether mixtures have occurred.
Oxidation Typical values is < 20
Nitration Typical value is <20.
Glycol Typical value is <50 but may be much higher due to some additive
materials that read as glycol. Many motor oils test at over 100 when
new. A significant change above that number will be flagged.

Freon floc point (or flocculation) test cools down an oil in the presence of Freon. The
test results are reported as the coldest temperature at which the oil remains clear with no
wax formation. This test is important to determine if the oil is suitable as a refrigeration
lubricant in Freon systems, such as R 22, where the oil is in intimate contact with Freon.

Fuel dilution can be tested by using gas chromatography. This method detects fuel and
other volatile hydrocarbons that can contaminate lubricants. Some of the causes of fuel
dilution in a diesel engine include extended idling or defective fuel injectors, pumps, fuel
lines and timing. If fuel is indicated in gasoline engines, check for problems with fuel
injectors, carburetor, choke, ignition or poor warm up.

Fuel soot is run in a special infrared analysis unit designed specifically for fuel soot. It
shows the amount of carbon produced by combustion. Fuel soot is a contributing factor
in viscosity increase. For diesel engines, elevated fuel soot can indicate faulty injectors
and/or inefficient engine operation.

Neutralization number, acid number (AN) is expressed as the amount of potassium

hydroxide (KOH) required to neutralize the acid in one gram of oil. An oil’s acid number
is a measure of the concentration of strong and weak acids in the sample. New oils have
a total acid number; oils with more additives usually have a higher number. An increase
in TAN, as the oil ages, indicates an increase in weak acids, which are caused by
oxidation. High TAN can reflect over-extended drain intervals, excessively high system
temperatures or oil oxidation.

Base number (BN) is a measure of oil’s reserve alkalinity to neutralize acids occurring
in engine oil. It is obtained by titration with hydrochloric acid, but is expressed in mg of
KOH equivalent. TBN reflects the life left in the lubricant. Very low TBN indicates
over-extended drain intervals or the use of oil with insufficient TBN for the sulfur content
of the fuel.

The oil spot test is a quick field method of evaluating used lubricating oils in internal
combustion engine operation. Also called a blotter test or a patch test, the test shows
whether the oil has been contaminated and whether it has lost its power of detergency or
dispersancy.

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Other Oil Analysis Tests

Rotating pressure vessel oxidation test (formerly Rotary bomb oxidation test (RBOT)
indicates the level of the oxidation inhibitor content remaining in used oil. Its test results
are recorded as the number of minutes it takes for a test sample to reach an oxygen
pressure drop of 25 psig. RBOT is a useful trend analysis tool for monitoring the
remaining life of turbine oils and paper machine oils.

ASTM D 943 Turbine Oil Stability Test (TOST) is a test that more closely
approximates the conditions in a turbine. Test results are expressed in thousands of
hours.

Staeger Oxidation Test, Universal Oxidation Test, CIGRE IP 280.85 are all oxidation
tests under different controlled conditions. ASTM D 942 Oxidation Stability of Greases,
as its name suggests, is the test most often used to determine the expected life of grease.

Particle Count is conducted by running a sample through a small orifice with a light
source on one side and an optical sensor on the other. The pulse generated by the
interruption of the light source is proportional to the size of each particle. Six particle
size ranges are detected. This test requires relatively transparent fluids.

Particles come from two sources: wear and contamination. High particle counts indicate
potential wear and large particles (greater than 10-15 microns) predict fatigue-oriented
catastrophic failure. This test is particularly important in preventing catastrophic failures,
since elemental analysis will not detect particles larger than 10 microns. When large
numbers of sizes of particles are found, analytical ferrography testing should be done.

Particle count can help determine that overall cleanliness of the equipment, whether
filters are effective, whether abnormal wear is occurring. If it does indicate abnormal
wear, it is a screening test for more comprehensive tests such as ferrography. (See Sect.
11B for explanation of the ISO Cleanliness Code, ISO 4406.)

Penetration is the depth (in tenths of a millimeter) that a standard cone penetrates a
sample of the grease under prescribed conditions of weight, time, and temperature. If the
cone penetrates between 445 to 475 tenths of a millimeter, it is NLGI grade 000 and is so
fluid it almost flows. NLGI 6 grade have a penetration between 85 to 115 tenths of a
millimeter and have the consistency of a semi-solid block.

pH values ranges from 0 to 14 where 0 is the most acidic and 14 is the most alkaline, pH
is generally not run on petroleum products because it is measured in an aqueous solution
and oil and water don’t mix. PH is generally run on cutting oil emulsions and 95:5 water
based fire resistant hydraulic oils.

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The pour point of petroleum oil is the lowest temperature at which the oil will pour or
flow under prescribed conditions when it is chilled without disturbance at a fixed rate.
To determine pour point, a sample of oil is cooled in a test jar under specified conditions:
the temperature is observed in increments of –5°F until no movement is apparent on the
surface of the oil when the test jar is held in a horizontal position for 5 seconds. This
temperature is recorded as the solid point. By definition the pour point is 5°F above this
temperature.

A refractometer is (usually) a hand-held device that give a quick measurement of the

amount of oil in an emulsion such as may be found in water based hydraulic fluid or
cutting oil emulsion. It measures the amount of oil by refracting light through the
emulsion.

Roll Stability is a measure of the mechanical stability of grease. It determines the

changes in the consistency of greases when worked in the roll stability tester.

The rust prevention test indicates the ability of lubricating oil to prevent corrosion
during the lubrication of ferrous parts I the presence of water. A steel test rod is placed in
the beaker of oil and water at 140F for 24 hours and the results are reported as pass or
fail. The degree of failure may be light, moderate, or severe.

The saponification number test indicates the amount of fatty substances in an oil. It can
distinguish between a compounded and non-compounded lubricant.

Shear or mechanical stability of grease is its ability to withstand repeated working with
minimum change in its structure or consistency.

Sulfated ash, also known as the sulfated residue test, indicates the concentration of metal
additives in new oil including barium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, tin, zinc and
potassium. An oil sample is heated in a porcelain dish until the oil ignites and burns
readily. The ash is treated with sulfuric acid and additional burning to remove the
carbon.

Timken OK load test is used to measure the load supporting capabilities of gear oils. It
is run by pressing a steel block against a rotating shaft. The load is measured as the
heaviest load that can be applied without scoring the block. A 40-lb. Timken load is an
indication of a good extreme pressure oil or grease.

Viscosity is a fluid’s resistance to flow and is the oil’s most important property.
Kinematic viscosity is the time required for a fixed amount of oil to flow through a
capillary tube under the force of gravity. Kinematic viscosity is expressed in centistokes
(cSt) and is usually measured at 40°C for industrial oil and 100°C for engine oils.
Saybolt Universal Viscosity, also known as SUS, SSU or SUV is measured as the amount
of time required to measure 60 ml through a standard orifice.

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Absolute viscosity is the tangential force on a unit area of either one of two parallel
planes at a unit distance apart when the space is filled with liquid and one of the planes
moves relative to the other with unit velocity in its own plane. It is expressed in
Centipoise (cP).

Apparent viscosity is absolute viscosity measured at a given shear rate relating to non-
Newtonian fluids (e.g., multigrade motor oils).

Other tests for expressing viscosity of petroleum fluids under different conditions include
Redwood Universal, Redwood Admiralty, Engler, Saybolt Furol and Brookfield.

ASMA and SAE set up their own standards for expressing viscosity. As a reference, an
AGMA 5 gear oil is approximately 100 cSt @ 40°C or 500 SSU @ 100°F, and is similar
to an SAE 90 gear oil and an SAE 50 engine oil.

Viscosity Index is an empirical number indicating the rate of change in viscosity of an

oil within a given temperature range. It is calculated from viscosities measured at 40°C
and 100°C.

Water is measured qualitatively through use of the crackle test. More accurate
measurement is obtained with the Karl Fischer test or distillation tests. Water is the most
common contaminant in a steam turbine reservoir.

Water and sediment test is also known as BS&W for Bottom Sediment and Water. It is
the measure of the amount of water and sediment accumulated by the oil while in service.
The modified test using naphtha indicates water and sediment plus oxidized material.

Water washout is a method for determining the water washout characteristic of

lubrication greases from a bearing under prescribed laboratory conditions and measures
the tendency of grease to withstand water washout in bearings. A ball bearing is rotated
600 rpm; 100°F water impinges on the bearing plate. The test measures the per cent of
grease washed out in one hour. The test is repeated with 175°F water.
Wheel bearing test is a service evaluation of ball and roller bearing greases. It simulates
conditions of these lubricants in actual operation. It measures the leakage of a lubricant
from the hub and shows the tendency of the grease to form varnish-like deposits on the
bearing.

83
 Section 11
CONTAMINATION CONTROL
Fluid conditioning covers the methods of maintaining oil in service.

Wear mechanisms
Abrasive particles enter the space between two moving surfaces, bury themselves in one
of the surfaces, and cut material from the opposing surface. The particles that cause the
most damage are those with dimensions equal to and slightly larger than the clearance
space. If the particles are too large, they can’t fit into the space, if they are too small,
they float right through.

Chain reaction of abrasive wear occurs when particles generated as a result of abrasive
wear become work hardened; they become harder than the parent surface and, if not
removed by proper filtration, will re-circulate to cause additional wear. This will
continue and result in premature system component failure unless adequate filtration is
applied to break the chain.

Erosive wear is caused by particles that strike a surface or edge and remove material as
they flow over it. It is similar to the erosive wear of water flowing over rocks. This type
of wear is found in metering valves where there is high velocity flow. The impact of
particles also causes denting and eventual fatigue of the surface.

Adhesive wear occurs when excessive load, low speed and/or reductions in fluid
viscosity can reduce the lubricant film thickness to a point where metal-to-metal contact
occurs. Surface asperities are “cold welded” together and get sheared off.

Fatigue is a result of repeated stressing caused by particles trapped by the two moving
surfaces. In the beginning, the surfaces are dented and cracks start to form. The cracks
spread, and eventually the surface fails, producing a spall.

Water
The effects of water are insidious. Failure due to water contamination may be
catastrophic, but it may not be immediate. Many failures blamed on lubricants are truly
caused by excess water. The following are some of the effects of water on equipment:

• Shorter component life due to rust and corrosion

• Water etching/erosion, hydrogen embrittlement
• Oxidation of bearing babbitt
• Wear caused by loss of oil film or hard water deposits
• Lack of lubrication due to filter blocking or freezing

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The effects of water on lubricating oil can be equally harmful:

• Water accelerates oxidation of the oil

• Depletes oxidation inhibitors and demulsifiers
• May cause some additives to precipitate
• Causes ZDDP anti-wear additive to destabilize over 180°F
• Competes with polar additives for metal surfaces
Water etching can be found on bearing surfaces and raceways. It is primarily caused by
generation of hydrogen sulfide and sulfuric acid from water-induced lubricant
degradation. Erosion occurs when free water flashes onto hot metal surfaces and causes
pitting.

Hydrogen embrittlement occurs when water invades microscopic cracks in metals

surfaces. Under extreme pressure water decomposes into its components and releases
hydrogen. This explosive force forces the cracks to become wider and deeper, leading to
spalling.

A small amount of water may not be too bad under boundary lubrication conditions.
Some dissolved water helps maintain an oxide film, which may enhance the effectiveness
of load-carrying additives. This benefit is offset by increased oil oxidation, and other
detrimental effects discussed above.

Water can be found in three phases. Most ISO 32 to 100 industrial oils will have about
200 ppm dissolved water, and are still bright and clear at room temperature. An
exception to this is a phosphate ester, which may contain 1000 ppm dissolved water
before it starts to get cloudy.

Emulsified water can be more harmful. Since oil and water do not mix, in order to form
an emulsion; there must be an emulsifying agent, such as a detergent, and energy. Since
it has intimate contact with the oil, it can cause rusting, oxidation and wear. High
viscosity fluids form emulsion more readily and permanently than do less viscous fluids.
Logic would say that an oil mixed with water would get thinner, but surprisingly enough,
most rich oil/water emulsions have a higher viscosity than either of their components.

Free water sinks to the bottom of the sump. It should be removed to prevent it from
circulating and causing rust. Free water also promotes growth of bacteria and fungus.

Sources of water

The first plan of attack on controlling water contamination is to reduce the amount of
water entering the system. Here are some suggested actions to take to minimize water
contamination.

• Prevent wash down water from entering vents and reservoir covers

• Properly install and seal covers and hatches

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• Watch for condensation caused by cold water lines located close to a hot reservoir

• Gutter water to divert flow away from reservoir hatches

• Install secondary seals or v-rings on critical systems

• Prevent contamination from condensation by using a bladder type breather on vents

• Install desiccant air breathers or vapor extractors

• Prevent water from entering new oil by storing drums indoors. If they must be stored
outdoors, keep them under a shed or tarp, or store them on their sides with the bungs
horizontal at the 3 and 9 o’clock positions.

• Periodically drain water from low points in system. Environmental condensation will
always occur in the tank because of system breathing
• Tanks should be stainless steel or coated with an oil resistant paint.

Water Separation Techniques

Once sources of water contamination have been controlled to the extent possible, there
are several methods to remove water from oil. Methods that can be used successfully for
different applications include settling, heat, chemical demulsifiers, filter/coalescers,
centrifuges, vacuum dehydrators and electrostatic treatment.

The principle means of water separation is by settling water out of the oil. There are
many reservoir designs that can promote settling, but they all work on the same principle.
The fluid must have enough residence time to allow the water to settle. This requires a
reservoir of sufficient capacity as well as baffling to control fluid flow. Many reservoirs,
such as traditional Bowser systems, are designed with separate precipitation, filtration
and storage compartments.

Heating the oil increases molecular motion. The collision frequency of the water
bubbles promotes coalescence. Heating also reduces the viscosity of the lubricant, and
increases the difference between the density of the oil and water. Both of these allow
bubbles to settle faster. Water inside the bubbles expands as it is heated which causes the
bubble sheath to rupture. The disadvantage of using heat as the primary means of water
separation is that it is expensive and promotes oxidation of the oil.

Demulsifier additives should be added sparingly, if at all. It is better to correct the root
cause of contamination. If it is necessary to use them, consult with your oil or additive
supplier on the proper type. As a general rule of thumb, use a water soluble demulsifier
if the emulsion is primarily water, or if the bubbles are large. If there are a large amount
of solids, choose a demulsifier that wets solids. Use an oil soluble demulsifier if the
product is predominantly oil with a small amount of water contamination.

86
Filter/coalescers work by allowing oil to pass through wetted membranes while keeping
water out. The media is commonly Fiberglass type material that has a very high surface
area and fairly dense pores. Coalescers will remove free water, but cannot touch
dissolved water.

Centrifuges are one of the most traditional methods of separating oil and water. They
use the same principle of density differences that allow water to sink to the bottom of a
reservoir, but they speed up the process by using centrifugal force. Water is thrown to
the outside of a spinning element. Stacked conical plates capture the water and direct it
downward to the outside of the unit. Clean oil flows through holes in the cones and
upward to the top center of the cone stack, where it is collected. Centrifuges are 6,000 to
10,000 times faster than settling.

Vacuum dehydration can remove dissolved water below its solubility point and can
break stabilized emulsions. Oil should be filtered before it enters the dehydrator to
minimize contamination of the elements. Each pass removes 1 to 1 ½% of free,
emulsified and dissolved water, so it is important to monitor the oil out of the dehydrator
to make sure that it is bright and clear. If the oil is still cloudy, it should be recycled
through the unit.

Particulates

Particulate contamination is primarily removed by filtration, although the methods used

for water separation can also remove particles. Particulates can be detected by several
different methods, including white light particle counter, pure block particle counter,
ferrograph or by spectrometry.

As with water, it is important first to determine the source of particle contamination and
treat it, if possible. Particles can be:

1. Internally generated – oxidation products, wear particles, rust

2. Introduced with initial fill
3. Introduced with makeup oil
4. Introduced through breathers, hatches
5. Left inside new equipment, i.e. machining swarf

If the equipment is critical to the operation, it is important to measure particles

accurately. The following is a summary of different particle analysis techniques and their
strengths and weaknesses.

87
 Measuring Contaminant Levels

Method Benefits

Optical Particle Count Provides accurate size and quantity

distribution.

Automatic Particle Count Fast, Repeatable.

Patch Test Raid qualitative assessment of contaminant

level in field. Allows microscopic view of
contaminants.

Ferrography Provides basic information which will

indicate the need for more sophisticated
testing upon abnormal results.

Spectrometry Identifies and quantifies contaminant

material.

Gravimetric Indicates total amount of solid contaminant.

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Filtration
Some materials that may be used to filter oil are paper, wood pulp, waste, felt and special
clays. In most types of filters, the dirty oil is pumped in under pressure and emerges as
cleaned oil, leaving the dirt in the filter. There are several types of filters that are used to
filter out particulates and water. Among these are cartridge filters, cloth, paper and
metal, and coalescers. Some types of adsorbent filters include activated carbon, Zeolite,
Fuller’s Earth and activated alumina.

Parts of a Filter Element

Filter medium filters the fluid.

Medium pack provides upstream and downstream support for the medium;
provides collapse strength for the pleats; provides drainage path for fluid flow.
Side seal form the medium packs into a cylinder.
End caps hold the potting compound that seals the filter medium to the end cap.
Core provides collapse strength.
Pleat support band insures proper spacing of pleats.
“O” Ring Seal seals element to housing.
Label provides element identification.

Use the absolute rating to determine the effectiveness of a filter. All the oil holes are the
rated size and all the oil must pass through the sized opening. In a nominal filter, there is
no guarantee that all the pores are the rated size.

Nominal – an arbitrary micrometer value indicated by the filter manufacturer.

Absolute – the diameter of the largest hard spherical particle that will pass through a
filter under specified conditions. This is an indication of the largest opening in the filter
element.

Filtration Ratio (ßx) – The ratio of the number of particles greater than a given size (X)
in the influent fluid to the number of particles greater than the same size (x) in the
effluent fluid.

Terminal Pressure Drop- The highest pressure drop across the filter before the filter
needs to be changed.

Apparent Dirt Capacity is the amount of dirt that can be added to the filter test system
before the terminal pressure drop is reached.

Retained Dirt Capacity is the amount of dirt that is captured by the filter in a test system
before it reaches the terminal pressure drop.

Service Life is the length of time that a filter will survive in an actual system before the
filter is plugged. About 800 hours is normally expected for filters on hydraulic systems.

89
Beta ratio is the ratio of particles greater than a given size going into a filter to the
number coming out. For example, if 200 is the rating given a filter whose absolute rating
is 3 microns, this means that for every 200 particles of this size entering the filter, only
one will exit.

Absorb – fluid is drawn into the pores.

Adsorb – fluid remains on the surface of the pores.

Mesh – the numbers of squares per inch.

Other than dirt capacity, service life and beta ratio, there are a number of other factors to
consider when choosing a filter. A graded pore filter is one whose pores become smaller
near the fluid exit. It is more effective than a filter whose pores are all the same size. At
the same time, a fixed pore filter is more effective than a non-fixed pore filter because its
fibers are bonded. Non-fixed pore filters are more subject to breakage. The benefit of
thinner fibers in a filter is that there are more pores per square inch, which allows higher
dirt capacity and lower pressure drop. Also, used filters should be examined for
consistent pore sizes, pinholes and good fiber bonding.

Full flow filtration allows all of the oil from the main pump to flow through the filter.
Offline filtration draws off part of the oil from the main stream and circulates it through a
filter. This allows finer filtration without worrying about filter plugging. This is usually
done by using a filter cart or attaching the filter to the reservoir.

The following are rules of thumb for the kind of damage that can be caused by different
sized particles. Remember that the naked eye can only see particles of 40 microns or
higher, so these particles are invisible.

• Particles > 40 micron may cause malfunctions jamming valves or blocking of

orifices/oil channels.

• Solids > 25 micron will typically cause periodic failures because they form lumps that
will cause blockage, but might flush through with pressure and flow peaks.

• Particles < than 25 micron are the real abrasive and harmful contaminants. Especially
silt (2 – 7 micron) small enough to enter the clearances in servo valves or piston
pumps.

Servo and proportional valves are extremely sensitive to particulate contamination.

Contamination can cause slow response and instability, spool jamming/stiction, surface
erosion and solenoid burnout. Systems containing servo valves need filters placed
directly upstream of the valve. Generally, filters of 3 to 5 microns are used to filter out
clearance sized particles. Here are a few typical clearances. Choose filters with micron
sizes designed to filter out the following sized particles.

90
Typical Dynamic Clearances

Component Clearance (µm)

Recommended Beta Ratio

Pump, Gear 0.5 – 5

Pump, Vane 0.5 – 13

Pump, Piston 0.5 – 40

Valves (Radial clearance spool to sleeve)

Servo 1–4
Proportional 1–6
Directional 2–8
Pressure Control 2–8

Roller Element Bearings 0.1 – 1 ß (1 to 6) = 200

Ball Bearings ß (1 to 6) = 200

Journal Bearings 0.5 – 100

Hydrostatic Bearings 1 – 25

Gears 0.1 – 1 ß (3 to 12) = 200

Dynamic Seal 0.05 – 0.5

The ISO cleanliness code, ISO 4406, recently changed from a two number designation to
a three number designation. Formerly it was a code that indicated that the range of
particles greater than 5 microns, and a second number for particles greater than 15
microns. Now the code is three numbers that indicate numbers of particles greater than 4,
6 and 14 microns. It will be reported in numbers like 18/16/12. New, unfiltered oil
would typically range from 20/18/15 to 14/13/11.

Air
Almost all lubricating oil systems contain some air. Air is found in four phases: free air,
dissolved air, entrained air and foam.

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Free Air is trapped in a system, such as an air pocket in a hydraulic line, and may have
minimal contact with the fluid. It can contribute to other air problems when lines are not
bled properly during equipment start-up and free air is drawn into circulating oils.

Dissolved air is not readily drawn out of solution. It becomes a problem when
temperatures rise rapidly or pressures drop. Petroleum oils contain as much as 12%
dissolved air. When a system starts up or when it overheats, this air changes from a
dissolved phase into small bubbles. If the bubbles are less than 1 mm in diameter, they
remain suspended in the liquid phase of the oil, causing air entrainment.

Air entrainment is a small amount of air in the form of extremely small bubbles
dispersed throughout the bulk of the oil. Air entrainment is treated differently than foam,
and is most often a completely separate problem. Some of the potential effects of air
entrainment include:

• Pump cavitation
• Spongy, erratic operation of hydraulics
• Loss of precision control; vibrations
• Oil oxidation
• Component wear due to reduced lubricant viscosity
• Equipment shut down when low oil pressure switches trip
• “Micro-dieseling” due to ignition of the bubble sheath at the high temperatures
generated by compressed air bubbles
• Safety problems in turbines if overspeed devices do not react quickly enough
• Loss of head in centrifugal pumps.

Foam is a collection of closely packed bubbles surrounded by thin film of oil that collect
on the surface of the oil. It is generally cosmetic, but it must be treated if it makes oil
level control impossible, if it spills onto the floor to create a safety or housekeeping
hazard, causes air locks at high points, or is so extreme that equipment is lubricated with
foam. Do not treat small amounts of stable foam unless the system suffers from the
above conditions.

Particulates act as seeds on which bubbles grow. Anti-foam additives may also be
attracted to their surface, reducing their effectiveness in the bulk oil. In particular,
cement dust can cause copious foam.

If the system is new, make sure that lines are bled properly. If that does not eliminate air
pockets, evacuate the system and refill slowly under vacuum. Preheat the oil, or delay
full speed operation until the oil temperature is high enough to release air that comes out
of solution. Make sure the lines are flushed free of machining swarf and scale.

Some oils that contain detergents may dislodge deposits left behind by a non-detergent
product. Foam that is produced while the system is being cleaned of old deposits usually
goes away with time.

92
In an established system, check the oil level at working elements or in the reservoir when
the equipment is at rest. Ensure that make-up oil is added slowly, or place the outlet of
the hose under the surface of the fluid to prevent splashing. Check vents to see that they
are not plugged, and clean them as required.

If air is dispersed throughout the fluid and clears very slowly, and the system is relatively
stagnant, the air entrainment is probably caused by silicone contamination. Check seals,
gaskets and other possible sources of silicone. IF the system is turbulent, watch for an air
leak on the suction side of a high-pressure oil pump or for working elements that may
churn the air into tiny bubbles. If the root cause cannot be corrected, it may make sense
to add an after-market anti-foamant in this case.

93
 Section 13
STORAGE, HANDLING AND
APPLICATION
OF LUBRICANTS

Storage
Drums of lubricants should be stored inside, if possible, but they may be stored
outside if they are under a shed or tarpaulin or placed on their sides and chocked so
both bungs are horizontal at the 3 and 9 o’clock positions and out of the water.
Make sure solvent drums and tanks are grounded and vented to avoid explosions
from static discharge.

In a manufacturing plant, drums should be opened and lubricants dispensed indoors.

Ideally, the lids of grease drums should be removed and special drum covers put in
place to prevent the entrance of dirt. Appropriate transfer pumps fit into the covers.
The bungs of oil drums are removed, proper-dispensing pumps inserted and made
secure, and drip pans placed to catch spillage.

Faucets can be fitted into oil drums and they may rest on their side n a rocker-type
rack, allowing oilcans to be filled from the faucet by gravity.

Hand trucks are used to move drums of lubricant over reasonably flat, smooth
surfaces. Drums may also be moved by an overhead crane or by forklift.

When a grease drum is emptied, it should be inspected and properly cleaned before
it is returned to the storehouse. Any grease remaining should be scraped from the
drum with a clean paddle and added to the top of a new drum if it is
uncontaminated. Replace drum lids and oil bungs.

Proper inventory records should be maintained with quantity of each lubricant in

stock, its location, and minimum order quantities.

Room should be made to handle the following:

1. Unopened containers and bulk tanks

2. Opened containers from which lubricants are being drawn
3. Lubrication accessories including rags, swabs, paddles, cleaning supplies,
sample cans, and spare parts

94
4. Oil filtering equipment and supplies
5. Cleaning and storing of dispensing equipment
6. Record keeping
7. Empty returnable containers
8. Dispensing equipment, drum covers
9. Area for drum handling and movement
10. Expansion (if expected)

To prevent an oil spill from bulk tanks from harming the environment, the EPA
requires the dike volume to be 110% of the largest tank

Handling
Where possible, machinery should be stopped before attempting to oil, clean, or
repair it. Notify the operator to make certain that the machinery can not
accidentally be started up again. If machinery cannot be shut down, be careful not
to reach over moving parts such as shafts and pulleys, and do not wear lose-fitting
clothing that might be caught in machinery.

Lubricants will burn; greasy and oily clothes are especially flammable. Know the
location and proper use of fire extinguishers. Keep lubricants away from oxygen
tanks. Oil or grease may explode if it comes in contact with oxygen under pressure.
There should be no smoking around petroleum products.

Ladders, steps and platforms may be greasy and slippery. Spilled oil or grease or
leaks from machinery should be cleaned up immediately in order to eliminate the
possibility of someone slipping on it.

It is important to handle drums safely. Drums are not made to be dropped or

bounced. Full drums weigh approximately 450 pounds, and empty drums weigh
about 36 to 38 pounds. Even a pail of oil weighs about 40 pounds, so all should be
treated with respect.

Two people are required to stand up a drum. They should grasp the near rim close
to the high point and lift together, leg muscles doing the lifting. Roll drums by
pushing on the sides with the hands, only. To overturn a standing drum, grip the
near side of the top rim and push so as to tilt the drum away before letting it fall to
the pad on the floor. If the drum is near a wall or another drum, position the
overturn tool on the top rim of the near side and pull. Withdraw the tool, allowing
the drum to fall to a pad on the floor, being careful to step quickly out of the way.

For inventory control, use the oldest product first, also called FIFO for First In, First
Out, Avoid drum mix-ups. Segregate drum inventory by type and brand, and make

95
sure identification labels are clear and adequate. Date drums to assure first in, first
out turnover.

Contamination-free products received from the supplier must stay clean until they
are applied to the machinery. Open original containers only when ready to use.
Use dedicated dispensing equipment, if possible, to prevent contamination between
different brands or types of products. Never use wooden paddles to fill grease guns
from open containers.

Never pressurize a drum to remove oil, and do not weld on them to make barbeque
pits

Investigate feasibility of bulk storage for those products such as hydraulic oil,
where usage is high. In addition to price advantages, bulk dispensing avoids most
storage and contamination problems found with individual containers.

Application
The following is a list of lubricating devices and systems. Even this list is not
comprehensive.

1. Oil Squirt cans 12. Collar Oiler

2. Screw-type Grease Cup 13. Waste Feed Oiler
3. Grease Gun 14. Underfeed Pad
Oiler
4. Drop-feed Oiler 15. Saturated-Pad
Oiler
5. Auto Drop-Feed Oiler, Pressure Actuated 16. Mechanical
Positive-Feed Lubricator
6. Vibrating-pin Bottle Oiler 17. Oiled-Air
Lubricators
7. Thermal Oiler 18. Spray Vales
8. Wick-feed Oiler 19. Pressure
Circulating Systems
9. Splash-lubrication System 20. Centralized
Systems
10. Ring Oiler 21. Direct Systems
11. Chain Oiler 22. Indirect Systems

Once-through oiling is so named because the oil passes through the bearing only
once and is lost for further use.
It is also called “All Loss” oiling because the oil is used only once. Methods of this
type include hand oiling; drop feed oiling, wick-feed oiling, and bottle oiling.

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Hand oiling is the direct application of oil to a moving machine part from a hand oil
can. An excess of oil is applied, which soon runs off, leaving the bearing to operate
with insufficient oil until the next oiling. For this reason, bearings lubricated by
hand oiling are not as well protected against wear as those on which more reliable
oiling methods are used.

Grease is also applied by hand onto bearings and gears to protect them from rust
and to ensure lubrication when the machine is started for the first time. Grease can
be applied manually through grease fittings. Grease fittings must be wiped clean
with a lint free cloth to prevent dirt from being forced into the fitting when grease is
applied.

Drop feed oilers usually consist of a glass or plastic reservoir, a needle valve feed
rate adjustment, a snap level shut-off, and a sight glass for observing the feed rate.
They are generally used on lightly loaded, horizontal bearings that require a low
rate of oil supply.

An electrically controlled form of drop feed oiler is fitted with a large capacity
reservoir and a manifold providing individually adjustable drop feeds for several
bearings. Lines of tubing convey the lubricant to various bearings. A solenoid is a
valve that opens and closes when the machine motor is started or stopped and it
controls the flow of oil from the reservoir to the feed control manifold.

The grease cup is grease’s equivalent to a drop feed oiler. The ordinary screw-
down type consists of a small reservoir for holding the grease and a plate that
screws down into the reservoir.

Wick Oilers have a wick of loose textured, long fiber wool that supplies oil to the
bearing through capillary action. Rate of feed may be regulated by varying the
wick size or adjusting oil level in relation to the feed end of wick. Raising the wick
will stop oil flow. The underfeed oiler consists of a metal reservoir with a shank
that threads into a hole in the bearing housing. Oil feeds up the wick to the shaft
through the hole in the underside of the bearing sleeve.

Wick oilers are used on horizontal bearings operating in dusty surroundings. The
wick serves as a filter to prevent contaminants from reaching the bearing. When the
wick becomes choked with dust it must be cleaned or replaced. When the wick end
becomes glazed from the rotating shaft, it should be trimmed off to provide a fresh
surface. These are often used in traction motor bearings in railroad applications.

The bottle oiler consists of an inverted glass bottle mounted above the bearing and
fitted with a sliding pin, which rests on the journal. When the journal rotates, it
vibrates the pin. The vibration encourages a flow of oil from the bottle to the
bearing through the space between the pin and its sleeve.

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In the ring oiling method, a metallic ring, larger in diameter than the journal, rides
on the journal and turns as the journal rotates. The ring, dipping into the oil, carries
it to the top of the journal where it flows along and around the journal, providing
lubrication before returning to the reservoir.

Chain oiling is similar to ring oiling except that a small-linked chain is substituted
for the ring. The chain will carry a larger volume of oil than the ring.

An oil collar may be used to carry oil from the reservoir to journals turning at
speeds so high that rings and chains would slip. The collar, fastened to the journal,
dips into the oil reservoir as the journal rotates, carrying the oil to an overhead
scraper which removes and distributes it along the journal.

Splash lubrication is used by most internal combustion engines and many gears.
The moving elements dip into a bath of oil and splash lubricant onto other
components.

Mechanical lubricators consist of an oil reservoir; one or more pumps (usually

plunger type), operated by rotary or ratchet mechanical drive or by electric motor;
feed rate adjustment for oil delivery; usually a sight feed for checking delivery of
lubricant; and an oil strainer at the intake of each pump.

The constant level oiler consists of an inverted glass or plastic bottle with a neck
extending into the oil in an overflow cup of the bearing reservoir. When oil level in
the bearing reservoir falls below the end of the bottleneck, air is admitted into the
bottle through a vent. Lubricant flows from the bottle to overflow cup and thence
into bearing reservoir. When correct oil level is reestablished, oil covers the
bottleneck and prevents any more air from entering the bottle. A constant level is
thereby maintained in the bearing reservoir. This offers the advantage of an
auxiliary reservoir.

Airline lubrication supplies lubricant by the use of compressed air. Air is injected
near the compressor and is carried through the lines. Airline lubricants often have
an emulsifier to absorb water and prevent it from condensing in the lines and
freezing or causing rust. Most airline systems will have a filter, regulator,
lubricator (FRL).

The difference between air mist and airline oiler systems is that mist systems
generate a mist that is reclassified at application point. Airline oilers transfer a thin
film of oil to the application point, and the oil is not recirculated.

Oil Mist lubrication uses a stream of compressed air to break up the oil into a fine
mist. A fine dry fog of oil is conveyed from the generator through tubing lines to
the bearings. From there, the oil particles are reclassified on impact and are
converted to a wet fog at point of application. Turbulence will cause the droplets to
recombine. Distribution lines are tied to the top of the main line to prevent any

98
contaminants from being transferred to the equipment being lubricated. Very small
quantities of oil are consumed.

The flow of air helps keep dirt out of the bearings and also has a cooling effect. Oil
mist is especially effective at cooling high-speed bearings.

Oil mist has the following advantages over other lubrication systems:

• Constant supply of fresh lubricant

• Slight pressurization helps to reduce contamination
• No moving parts, or cyclic mechanism in the system
• Alarm systems monitor flow rate and oil level
• Low lubricant consumption reduces lubricant cost
• Reduces temperature in bearing housings by up to 30%

However, the advantages may be offset by disadvantages:

• High initial cost

• Difficult to set and maintain flow rates
• Some environmental and/or health concerns if stray mist is not contained
• Very sensitive to temperature changes
• Return lines must capture mist that is not reclassified to liquid
• Potential varnish and sludge if oil overheats excessively

Spray lubrication for oil is used to lubricate plain roll neck bearings on mills. A
spray gun, similar to those used for paint, uses compressed air to spray gear teeth
with a film of grease sufficient for lubrication.

A centralized grease system is the best method for supplying grease to a large
number of bearings on a machine, if it is properly serviced and maintained. Such a
system consists of a centrally located grease reservoir with a pump and permanently
installed piping having grease distribution valves through which grease is conveyed
from the reservoir to the various bearings.

1. It is safer than greasing by hand, since a worker does not have to climb over
the machinery to reach the bearings.

2. It reduces housekeeping.

3. It assures that all bearings will be lubricated and that each will receive its
proper proportion of lubricant.

4. It permits more frequent application of lubricant and, thereby, gives better

lubrication and longer equipment life.

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5. It reduces down-time of operating equipment since the machine may be
lubricated while it is operating.

6. It takes less time than hand-lubrication methods.

Centralized systems can be single line, dual line or progressive. Single line and
dual line systems consist of a reservoir, a pump, valves, and main line piping to
which the measuring valves are connected.

The progressive system, reversible flow (loop system), consists of a reservoir; a

pump; a four-way valve; a supply line; and a series of progressive, non-adjustable
measuring valves inserted in the supply line. The progressive system, non-
reversing, divides the delivery from the pump into several bearing outlets. The
measuring valve is progressive and non-adjustable. System includes a reservoir, a
pump, a supply line, and a measuring valve manifold consisting of three or more
measuring valve sections.

Circulating oil systems provide a continuous supply of oil to bearings. Since oil is
continuously re-used, oil can be strained, filtered, and cooled. Oil pressure is
controlled by a relief valve or orifice sizing. In a direct circulating system, a pump
is used to meter the lubricant. In an indirect system, the pump builds pressure, and
metering valves in supply lines meter the amount of lubricant.

Two reservoirs feed gravity systems: one above the highest bearing to be lubricated
and the other below the lowest bearing. Oil leaves the upper reservoir, lubricates
the bearings by gravity, drains to the lower reservoir, and is returned to upper
reservoir by means of a pump.

Pressure feed systems use a pump to force oil to bearings from where the oil drains
to a reservoir by gravity. Cooling may be used on the return lines. Systems of this
type are useful where large volumes of oil are handled.

Reservoirs should allow oil to dwell long enough to separate air, water and solid
impurities. Fluid residence time can vary from 3 minutes to 60 minutes depending
on the system. The reservoir capacity can be calculated as follows:

Capacity = dwell time (min) x oil requirement for all components (in gpm)

Capacity = minutes x gallons /minute

Low oil depth permits faster escape of entrained air and quicker settling of water
and solids. A long tank places the pump suction farther from the oil inlet to give
the longest possible oil path. These factors lead to the following typical reservoir
proportions:

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 Width = Height
Length = 2 x Width

The reservoir bottom should slope about 1 in. /ft. from the oil entrance toward the
drain at the other end. Effective baffling allows use of shorter dwell periods and
smaller reservoirs. Baffles should be placed between the inlet and suction lines.

Oil usually returns to the reservoir through horizontal lines at or just above the oil
level to minimize splashing and foaming. When gear units are served, oil is
returned slightly below the surface to keep air pressure caused by gear windage
from backing up into the bearing housings. Spill from relief valves and pressure
regulators and return flow from separate oil-purification systems are free of air and
contaminants; they discharge 6 inches or more below the oil level to avoid
splashing.

In large tanks, oil-pump suction openings should be placed about 6 to 12 inches

above the tank bottom to prevent dirt or water pickup, or at least 4 to 6 inches above
bottom in smaller tanks. The suction opening must be kept well below the lowest
oil level to avoid sucking air and losing pumps prime. Where oil level varies
widely, use a floating suction with attached strainer.

In all methods of reservoir lubrication, it is important that the reservoir be checked

periodically to be certain that proper oil level is maintained. A level gauge is
provided in the lower part of the reservoir for this purpose.

Vents allow moisture and vapor to escape. Filters prevent dust from contaminating
the oil. Large oil systems are frequently vented to a vapor extractor pump. In
addition to the vent, a manhold (or handhold in small reservoirs) above the
maximum oil level should be provided for tank inspection and cleaning. Headspace
is needed in the design of oil reservoirs to allow for thermal expansion, turbulence,
foaming and air release, and system fluctuations.

Pipe should be large enough to prevent cavitation in pump-suction lines, to avoid

undue pressure drop in feed lines, and to avoid backup in drain lines. Piping
selection is based on flow velocity, which is measured in FPS. Orifices in oil
piping control oil feed rate to individual components and they prevent starvation of
all bearings if a single component fails.

Schedule 40 piping is commonly used except in cases of extreme vibration, high

stress, or shock. Large systems sometimes use Schedule 80 for its physical
strength. In systems combining both lubrication and hydraulic operation, high
pressures occasionally require use of Schedule 160.

When designing a circulating system, it is important to consider reservoir capacity,

dimensions, location, materials, baffles, oil flow; temperature; hydraulic fluid; size

101
and positioning of vents; pump type and rating; filter types, ratings and location;
actuator type and size; design of fluid conductors; valve types and orientations.

102
 LEVEL ONE MLT EXAM PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. Name the two most common types of mineral base oils. Which would have the
highest VI? Which would have the lowest pour point?
2. Name four possible benefits of using synthetic base oil as a lubricant.
3. Which of the following would have the highest VI?
a. PAO
b. Hydrocracked mineral oil
c. Solvent refined paraffinic
d. Phosphate ester
4. Name common causes of lubricant oxidation.
5. Name the additive that is polar, envelopes soot, and keeps it finely divided.
6. What properties are provided by the aditive ZDDP?
7. Describe three common ways the mass of an additive can be lost from oil during
service.
8. What effect does emulsified water have on oil viscosity?
9. Flash point increases or decreases as oil increases?
10. What might happen when two incompatible greases are mixed?
11. What is the name of the wear mode associated with scratch marking from partical
contamination?
12. Name three examples of total loss lubricant dilivery methods.
13. What common manual lubrication device does a single-point lubricator replace?
14. What inspection needs to be performed when draining oil from a sump or
reservoir?
15. What type of hydraulic component is sensitive to failure by silt lock?
16. T/F Large Particles always cause more wear than small particles.
17. Do centrifugal separators work better for low or high viscosity oils?
18. Typically, what percent of the pump’s flow will go through a bypass filter on a
diesel engine?
19. What are the principal thinkeners used in grease manufacture?
20. Is oil separation or “bleeding” in a grease reason to condemn it as unfit for
service?
21. In what respect is chassis grease different to wheel bearing grease?
22. What lubrication condition could you expect to find in a malfunctioning electric
motor running at high temperatrue?
23. T/F It is often stated that the cost of wear is two-third of the cost of energy.
24. T/F Mineral oils cannot have a viscosity index higher than 100.
25. Oils are often quoted as having a “Pour Point”. What is this?
26. What would be the nomal viscosity range for hydraulic oil at operating
temperature?
27. Why is manual lubrication sometimes not effective?
28. What are the main types of soild contaminant possible in an oil system?
29. What is the best flushing oil to use?
30. Name some of the health hazards associatd with lubricants.
31. Define “Tribology”.
32. Define “ Viscosity”.
33. What Grease types would provide best water resistance?
34. What is a common term for “Fluid Friction”?
35. Name five Common elements that can be identified in spectrometric wear particle
analysis.
36. Where in the refinery process do lubricant raw materials come from?
37. What does ASTM Stand for?
38. What types of solid contaminants might you find in a used diesel crankcase oil?
39. Name a common lubricant that uses a detergent additive.
40. Name the additive that specifically reduces an oils tendency to fail to flow at cold
start-up temperatures.
41. Name two additives commonly found in turbine oil.
42. How can heat permanently reduce oils viscosity?
43. An oil with a viscosity index of 135 is likely a VI improved mineral oil or a
straight grade oil?
44. The dropping point of grease needs to be higher or lower when high operating
temperatures are expected?
45. Which is more commonly used to lubricate motor bearings – grease or oil?
46. T/F Hydrodynamic lubrication produces greater oil film thickness than EHD.
47. Is Purge mist lubrication a wet sump or dry sump configuration?
48. Single-line parallel and single-line progressive are which category type of
lubrication systems?
49. A hydraulic fitting and button head fitting are used to introduce what type of
lubricant and by what application mechanism?
50. What is the name of the instrument used to count and size particles automatically?
51. When water contamination in oil is below its saturation point, the water is in what
state?
52. Name the compositon of two common types of filter media.
53. What is generally defined as “ solid-to-semifluid product of dispersion of a
thickening agent in a liquid lubricant”?
54. What is the difference between oil viscosity and grease apparent viscosity?
55. Name three tests for evaluating load-carrying capability of grease.
56. What lubrication conditions would you expect to find if roller bearings are
running at higher-than-normal temperature?
57. What does “MSDS” stand for?
58. If and automotive engine or gear oil is designed to meet more than one SAE
viscosity limit, what is it commonly called?
59. The term “Viscosity Index Improver” (or VII) is often used in connection with
lubricating oils. What does this mean?
60. In selecting lubrication oil for a particular application, what stages would
normally be followed?
61. There are strong reasons for reducing (rationalizing) the number of lubricants
being used in a plant. Name three.
62. How is oxidation affected by weare metal particles?
63. What factors would you consider when offered a “cheaper” oil?
64. What is a typical flash point for kerosene?
65. Name one failure common to both catergories of equipment failure.
66. What is the difference between extreme pressure and antiscuff additives?
67. What often happens if air is trapped in oil, and what would be the result?
68. What is ISO and abbreviation for?
69. What are the two wear metal detection methods employed in oil analysis?
70. a. What is the equivalent of one micron in inches?
b. How many microns equal onethousandth of an inch (0.001)?
71. What is “Hydroprocessing” in lubricating oil terms?
72. How are engine oils evaluated for satisfactory performance?
73. Is it good practice to leave the hydrauic reservoir lid open to aid cooling?
74. Meshing gears can be difficult to lubricate effectively. Why?
75. How are diesel engine oils performance levels labeled?
76. What are the factors responsible for early machine or system failures?
77. Three-body abrasion in a machine can be reduced by….?
78. Why is sampling from a return line better than sampling from the rservoir?
79. The recommended sampling interval for a steam turbine is …..?
80. Lubricant health can be monitored using FTIR. With FTIR, with parameters can
be seen?
81. What oil analysis techniques are “preictive” alarms?
82. Provide an example of an atomic emission spectrometer.
83. How damaging is fuel dilution in an engine?
84. Can it be assumed that lubriacant deliveries by reputable companies will meet
specification?
85. What are the four steps to lubrication excellence?
86. Boundary lubrication occurs in high-speed, low-load frictional contacts or the
opposite?
87. Single-point lubricators are typically used with grease or oil?
88. When are injector fails in a single-line progressive system, what happens to the
other injectors?
89. Name two methods which protect grease fittings from the accidental ingress of
contamination.
90. An oil that is an ISO 18/16/13 is approximately how much dirtier than an ISO
17/15/12 ?
91. If a plant’s lubricant consumption ratio drops by 25% what amount of reduced
lubricant purchases occurred?
92. What three particle size ranges are used with the ISO code?
93. Which internationally recognized body defines the consistency (hardness) of
grease, based on a standard ASTM cone penetration test?
94. Grease peneration is commonly measured under two different conditions. What
are they?
95. Name two NLGI categories of automotive service greases.
96. What lubrication failure conditions would you expect to find tooth breakage in a
gearbox?
97. In lubrication terms what is the “Right Principle”?
98. Which mineral oil has the higher natural viscosity index, paraffinic or naphthenic?
99. What causes darkening of oil in nonengine applications?
100. What would be the normal viscosity range for an engine oil at operating
tempature?
101. Positive oil supply systems provide a number of benefits in machinery
lubrication. Name three.
102. Name two possible causes of viscosity loss
103. When would you consider flushing an oil system?
104. What is a typical flash point for light hydraulic oil?
105. Define “friction”.
106. Name two disadvantages of using synthetic lubricants.
107. What is “ Saponification”?
108. Can the old saying “if a little is good, a lot is even better” be applied to
lubrication?
109. What is a major advantage of wear particle analysis?
110. How is the name “Petroleum” derived?
111. Additives are often “multifunctional”. Name one such additive.
112. List three potential advantages of synthetic engine oils over mineral oils.
113. If high pressure were applied to lubricant, what would be its effect on
viscosity?
114. Hypoid gears usually require special lubricants meeting API GL 5. Why?
115. Passenger car lubricants are often said to meet “ ILSAC Performance
Specificatons”. What is ILSAC?
116. What are the four maintenance strategies generally seen in industry?
117. What is a “Contaminant”?
118. When would you consider taking an oil sample after a filter or separator?
119. When would you consider adjusting sampling freguency?
120. Ferrous Density Analysis is a useful moniroring tool. What does it tell us?
121. Name the three classes of machinery failure.
122. What instrument would be used to measure levels of iron, tin, lead and
copper in an oil sample?
123. What is the effect of glycol contamination in engine oil?
124. In lubrication terms what is the “Clean” principle?
125. Which of the following would be considered a white oil? Group III
Hydrocracked Mineral Oil or Group IV PAO Synthetic.
126. Name a common polymer used as an antoifoam agent.
127. Describe three common ways additives can physically or chemically
decompose in service.
128. When a SAE 20 is blended with an SAE 40, will the resulted viscosity be
closer to SAE 30 or SAE 60?
129. Name three types of antioxidants.
130. Name three contaminants that can reduce oil viscosity.
131. What are the two functions of a crankcase oil detergent additive?
132. Name three types of polar additives.
133. Name four lubricant types that are typically formulated with rust
inhibitors.
134. In the case of an oil that has operated for an extended period of time with
depleted antioxidant additives, how might the properties of that oil change?
135. Which of these two additives is commonly found in hydraulic fluids: AW
or EP?
136. How can heat permanently increase oils viscosity?
137. The viscosity designated by 80W-140 is associated with crankcase oils or
driveline gear oils?
138. Which grease consistency is more like peanut butter? A. NLGI B. 000 C.
Two D. Five
139. What does bleed mean with respect to grease?
140. Where on a gear tooth might you see pitting?
141. Which systems recirculate the lubricant? -Centralizes lubrication system
-Or total loss systems
142. The oil delivery rate is monitoring in what way with at drip oiler?
143. What problems can occur when a bearing is lubricated with too much oil
or grease?
144. 10% equates to how many parts per million (ppm)?
145. Define how the beta rating is calculated.
146. In diesel engines and other outdoor machines wear metals such as iron,
usually correlate to what common element found in dirt?
147. What internationally recognized body defines classes of automotive
chassis and wheel bearing grease?
148. How is the consistency or penetration of grease defined?
149. Name three coponents of grease that contribute to its properties and in-
service performance.
150. When would you consider using grease instead of oil as lubrication?
151. How are users of lubricants containing potentially hazardous components
notified of any danger?
152. If an automotive engine or gear oil is designed to meet only one SAE
viscosity limit, what is it commonly called?
153. Abbreviations VHVI and UHVI are often used in connection with
lubricating oils. What do they mean?
154. Viscostiy can be measurd in a number of different ways. Name three of
them.
155. What would be a possible cause of “bad smell” in a soluble metal working
oil?
156. Name some of the products of oxidation.
157. Are U-tube vents effective at controlling contamination?
158. What is the “Flash Point” of an oil?
159. Name the two main categories of equipment failure.
160. What would be the actual surface contact of two dry, newly machined
surfces?
161. The term “Demulisiblility” is often used. In terms of lubricants, what does
it mean?
162. Can the pressure generaed by an ordinary grease gun damage a bearing?
163. If lubricant pumps requiring priming were installed, would you alert
operators to this fact?
164. Filters are rated in microns. What is the limit of human visiility in
microns?
165. What are some of the refinery steps employed to produce finished
lubricant base stocks?
166. Oils labeled API GL 4 or GL 5 are often seen. What applications are they
intended for?
167. Hydraulic pump was making a high-pitched whine or rattling noise, what
would you suspect?
168. How is “stick-slip” overcome in machine tools?
169. A. An engien oil labeled “For API Services SL” is intended for what type
of engine? B. An engine oil labeled “ For API Services SJ” is intended for what
type of engine?
170. List the failure classifications of a mechanical system.
171. What are the most common wear modes in machinery?
172. What would be the best sample location on a return line?
173. What should the scheduled sampling interval for off-highway diesel
engines be?
174. FTIR is a rapid means to monitor a number of oil parmeters
simulatneously. What does FTIR stand for?
175. Name two alarm techniques.
176. There are three methods used to determine elemental consittuents in an oil.
What are they?
177. What is the “Crackle Test”?
178. What is the first step in developing an effective oil analysis program?
179. Name an effective on-site test for diesel engine crankcase oils?
180. Of the following motor oils, which oil is best suited for cold start
conditions? - SAE 15W-540 -- SAE 40 – SAE 20 – SAE 0W-30
181. What is the role of a rust inhibitor?
182. What is a common additive found in SAE OW-30 motor oil but not found
in SAE 30 motor oil?
183. What type of additive is known to polish gear teeth?
184. When oil is momentarily heated, how will its viscosity change?
185. What percentage increase in viscostiy does each ISO viscosity grade have
over the one just below?
186. What does NLGI stand for?
187. Name two problems associated with grease contaminated or exposed to
water.
188. Name a common rolling contact wear mode.
189. What is a dry sump?
190. Constant level oilers are used with wet sump or dry sump systems?
191. What is the oil consumption ratio?
192. How many microns are in a milimeter? How many microns are in one
thousands of an inch?
193. Slow speeds, high loads, shock loads, machine stops/starts can all cause
what form of lubrication?
194. Which is more sensitive to slit-size particles? Journal bearings or rolling
element bearings?
195. Which does more harm to the oil, its additives and oil-wetted machine
surfaces: dissolved or emulsified water?
196. Name one property of grease that is improved through “complexing”.
197. What properties are important in grease?
198. Name two types of “nonsoap” grease intended for high-temperature use.
199. If someone handling lubricants on a regular basis developed a skin
condition how would you deal with it?
200. What is the term used to define the measure of a fluid’s internal resistance
to flow?
201. Theoretically, high viscosity index oils are needed only under what
conditions?
202. Water dispersed in oil is called …….?
203. One of the most important properties of a metal working oil is not
lubrication but………?
204. What is the most destructive type of chemical reaction affecting oils in
service?
205. What would a reason for changing oil type?
206. Is it good practice to use antiseize compounds when assembling
components?
207. What would be best practice when purchasing lubricants?
208. Provide examples of the three lubricant film types.
209. Define Viscosity Index.
210. What is a common use of polyurea greases?
211. T/F Central lubrication systems are dirt tolerant.
212. Provide an example of a surface filter
213. How many of the API base stock groups cover mineral oils?
214. Oils are often labeled “ATF”, what does this stand for?
215. Do conventional filters remove water from oil?
216. Name a major factor in determining the correct oil viscosity for a rolling
element bearing.
217. Name two disadvantages of manual oiling and greasing.
218. What are the consequences of failure?
219. Identify three root causes of failure.
220. What factor of sample preparation can enhance the accuracy of analysis?
221. What would be the best way to sample noncirculating systems such as
gearboxes?
222. A Base Number would normally trend downward; a sudden increase
would indicate what event?
223. Name an oil analysis test use for proactive maintenance.
224. Wear debris analysis and vibration analysis relate to what maintenance
activity?
225. Synthetic engine oils are recommended for high-temperature applications.
Does this mean they do not oxidize?
226. Is odor a reliable indicator of oil condition?
227. What is the effect of water contamination on rolling element bearing life?
228. In the SAE crankcase viscosity classification OW-30, what does the W
stand for?
229. What does API stand for?
230. Which has a higher VI, a PAO or a solvent-refined (Group I) mineral oil?
231. What types of synthetics are at risk for water-induced degradation called
hydrolysis?
232. Name four impurities of mineral oils that are removed in the refining
process.
233. Which test can be used to assess the depletion of antioxidant additives?
234. What is the name of the additive that is primarily designed to control rust?
235. Name four solid lubricants found in some gear oils and greases.
236. What propeerty of oil is characterized by the oils internal friction during
flow or shear, as well as its specific gravity?
237. What is the ISO viscosity grade that sepuentially follows ISO VG 320?
238. What are two ways a seal may change when in contact with an
incompatible oil?
239. The amount of thickener in grease is typically more or less than the oil?
240. Name two types of wear commonly associated with sliding contact.
241. Describe the mechanism of lubrication of a ring oiler?
242. Reclassifiers are used with what type of lubricaion system?
243. What oil conditions are monitored when doing a condition-based oil
change?
244. What does this symbol mean: μ m ?
245. Name five functions of a lubricant.
246. Silt-size particles are typically in what size range?
247. Why does an air compressor oil need good oxidation resistance?
248. What do the letters “EP” stand for in lubrication terms?
249. Why is oxidation stability so important in grease?
250. How would the consistency of grease change with change in temperature?
251. Many equipment manufacturers specify relubrication as “x shots of
grease”. How much is a shot of grease?
252. When a full film of lubricant exists between mating surfaces, what is this
condition called?
253. If a mineral oil has a viscosity index of 100, will the base oil come from
paraffinic or naphtenic crude oils?
254. Oil dispersed in water is called……?
255. The two most frequent reasons for using nonmineral oils are…..?
256. What would be the optimum oil level in a worm gearbox with the worm
located above the wheel?
257. Does temperature influence microbial activity in oil?
258. Can large volumes of used oil be “laundered” on-site?
259. How are maintenance costs paid for?
260. Name three lubricant film types separating moving parts.
261. T/F The viscosity of SAE 90 gear oil is similar to that of ISO 220 oil at
the same temp.
262. Are lithium complex and aluminum complex greases considered to be
compativle?
263. Copper lubricant delivery lines are easy to install. Are there any problems
associated with them?
264. There are two basic filter media classifications. What are they?
265. How many API base stock categories (groups) are there?
266. How does “Thermal Stability” of a lubricant compare with oxidation?
267. Where would filters typically be placed in a hydraulic circuit?
268. What is a “rolling element bearing”?
269. High-speed couplings usually require special lubrication grease. Why?
270. List five Don’ts for rolling element bearings.
271. Why is “proactive” maintenance the preferred activity?
272. What international standard defines the procedure for sample container
cleanliness?
273. Why is drop-tube sampling not recommended for engines?
274. Rapid increase in Acid Number might indicate what?
275. What test approximates the amount of metals by element contained in an
oil sample?
276. How can time-dependent failures be controlled?
277. Diesel fuels can contian large quantities of sulphur (>3%). Do engines
operating on such fuels require special attention?
278. There are a number of tests to establish Base Number (BN). Do these tests
provide comparable results?
279. What is the best type of reuseable container for topping-up oils?
280. When an oil oxidizes, how does its viscoisty typically change?
281. What is a common cause of seal swell or seal shrinkage?
282. What concentration of additives might be found in typical diesel engine
crankcase oil?
283. Is the color of fresh lubricant significant to its performance?
284. List three fluid qualities typically required by hydraulic systems.
285. In plain bearings there are several mechanical factors affecting lubrication.
Name three.
286. What factors are considered when selecting enclosed gear lubricants?
287. European engine builders are ACEA specifications when referring to
lubricants. What applications are covered by ACEA?
288. Define “breakdown” maintenance.
289. How do contaminants enter fluid systems?
290. If a return-line sample indentified an abnormal condition, what would you
do next?
291. What information should accompany the sample to the laboratory?
292. When abnormal wear is detected by Ferrous Density Analysis, what is the
next step?
293. what would be a possible cause of early failure?
294. A number of methods are avaiable for automatic particle counting. Name
tow of them.
295. What is cavitation in a diesel engine coolant system?
296. What would be one way to minimize transferring contaminants from the
drum to the machine?
297. What unit of measure is used with flash point and pour point?
298. Name the synthetic base oil that is widley used as crankcase oil and is
mixable with mineral oil.
299. T/F A mineral base oil that has a lot of aromatics and sulfur is less prone
to oxidation.
300. What are common indications of oil oxidation that are observed with the
human senses?
301. Name common causes of loss of dispersancy in motor oil.
302. Which two metals are often seen on oil analysis reports that come from the
additive ZDDP?
303. Larger (heavier) oil molecules are associated with high or low viscosity?
304. How does soot in diesel engine oil affect oil viscosity?
305. The specific gravity and API gravity relate to the density of oils. For
water, what are the specific and API gravity?
306. Name four common soap-based thickners used in greases.
307. What type of wear in gears and bearings is controlled by using EP
(antiscuff) additives?
308. In oil bath lubricated rolling-element bearings, what is the generally
recommended oil level?
309. How much pressure can a grease gun generate?
310. Name four applications for a filter cart.
311. Enviromental particle contaminants are typically harder or softer than
machine surfaces?
312. T/F The best way to control particle contamination is to remove particles
as fast as they come in.
313. In rust is suddenly appearing on oil wet machine surfaces, what tests
should be performed on the oil?
314. What type of contaminants might a centrifugal separator remove?
315. What is the “dropping point” of a grease?
316. Does storage temperature influence oil separation or bleeding in grease?
317. How would you recognize a sympton of incompatibility of different
greases?
318. How long should greases be stored on-stie?
319. Lubrication is about minimizing friction, but is all friction bad?
320. What properties of oil are used to calculate Viscosity Index?
321. Apart from chemical breakdown, oils may deteriorate in service. Why?
322. What would be the normal viscosity range for roller bearing oil at
operating temperature?
323. Total loss lubricating systems are not considered environmentally frindly.
Why?
324. What liquid is a common contaminant in oil systems?
325. Is it safe to enter very large oil reservoirs?
326. Which of the following is not condition-based: Preventive, predictive or
proactive maintenance?
327. There are three types of friction. What are they?
328. What is considered to be the maxium viscosity limit for hydraulic vane
pumps at startup temperature?
329. What common greae thickener does not provide good water resistance?
330. When greasing an anitfriction bearing, is it good practice to completely fill
the bearing housing?
331. Name two Do’s of lubricant storage.
332. Can lubricant base stocks be used as recived from the refinery?
333. An oils carbon-forming tendency is important in what application?
334. What is “beta ratio” when referring to filters?
335. What is the purpose of grooves cut into a plain bearing surface?
336. What internationally recognized body publishes specifications for open
gear lubrication among others?
337. Apart from over lubrication, what are other causes of rolling element
bearings?
338. Define “predicitve” maintenance.
339. Is water in a lubrication system considered to be a contaminant?
340. What sampling methods could be considered for pressurized oil liners?
341. I’ve run out of sample bottles. Can I send a sample in a soft drink bottle?
342. What questions can be answered by Analytical Ferrography?
343. Which maintenance strategy is condition-based and controls failure root
causes?
344. What must an oil analysis program have to be effective?
345. If silicon is found in an oil sample, where has it come from?
346. If drums must be stored outside, what is the best way to do this?
347. Is the specific gravity of a mineral oil typically higher or lower than
synthetic lubricants?
348. Name three fluids that are used as fire-resistant hydraulic fluids.
349. T/F Mineral base oil that have a very high VI are more prone to dissolve
additives.
350. How does oxidized oil affect machine reliability?
351. What are the consequences of a loss of dipersancy?
352. Name a common EP additive that is soulble in oil.
353. Kinematic viscosity is measured using a capillary gravity flow viscometer
or a roatating spindle viscometer?
354. How does glycol contamination affect oil viscosity?
355. An oil with a specific gravity of 0.86 will float or settle when mixed with
water?
356. Which type of grease thickener is more resistant to high temperature?
a. Simple soap
b. 12-hydroxy soap
c. Complex soap
357. What type of wear might be caused by air bubbles or water vapor bubbles
in a hydraulic fluid?
358. In splash lubricated gearing, what is the generally recommended oil level?
359. Injectors are used to regulate grease flow into bearings as a part of what
type of lubricant application system?
360. Large circulating systems are more suitable for condition-based or
scheduled (interval-based) oil changes?
361. Name three types of wear that can be caused by particle contamination.
362. What are the three major sources of particle ingression?
363. If you want oil or a machine to last twice as long, what maintenance
strategy might you deploy?
364. What types of contaminants might a vacuum dehydrator remove?
365. Is the dropping point of a grease a guide to maximum useable
temperature?
366. Name a common effect of storage on grease.
367. Name two symptoms of incompatibility in grease.
368. Is it good preactice to store grease containers out-of-doors?
369. When two surfaces are separated by a lubricant what friction, if any,
remains?
370. Compared to an oil with a VI equal to 100, in an oil has a viscosity index
of 0, how will its viscosity change with temperature?
371. What would be some of the reasons for replacing mineral oils?
372. What factors influence the choice of viscosity?
373. What would be the optimum oil level in a worm gearbox with the worm
located below the wheel?
374. Name the three conditions that must be present in an oil system for
microbiological contamination to occur.
375. Is it acceptable practice to dispose of used oil in landfills?
376. What percentage of preventive maintenance expenditure is probaly
unnecessary?
377. Provide examples of each type of friction.
378. T/F The viscosity of SAE 20 engine oil is similar to that of SAE 90 gear
oil at the same temp.
379. What is considered to be the most commonly used grease?
380. Name three factors affecting the amount of grease to be applied to a
bearing.
381. Name two Don’ts of lubricant storage.
382. Are all crude oil types suitable for producing lubricant base stocks?
383. How does a viscosity index improver work?
384. What would a beta ratio of 75 mean for a 10-micron filter?
385. Name two properties of plain bearing material.
386. Name two possible causes of noisy open gear operation.
387. List five Do’s for rolling element bearings.
388. Define “preventive” maintenance.
389. What external factors can influence the accuracy of oil sample analyis?
390. On a diesel engine, where would the best sample point be?
391. What would be the reasons for performing oil analysis?
392. RPVOT is a useful test for evaluatin what oil condition?
393. What is the primary objective of reliability-centered maintenance (RCM)?
394. What is fundamental to any oil analysis program?
395. Is it good practice to analyze new oil as part of a maintenance program?
396. Is it good practice to use funnels for topping-up machines?
397. A base number will typically increase of decrease as the oil ages?
398. Name a grease thickener that is commonly used for multipurpose greases.
399. Which is more commonly used for high-speed rolling element bearings-
grease or oil?
LIST OF KEY
DEFINITIONS
 Definitions

Absolute viscosity: term used interchangeably with viscosity to distinguish it

from kinematic viscosity and/or commercial viscosity; occasionally, “dynamic
viscosity” (see viscosity).

Absolute pressure: the sum of hydraulic system pressure and gauge pressure
(see pressure).

Absorbent (wash oil): oil that selectively strips heavier hydrocarbons from a
gas, as in coke oven gas; by-product plants subsequently remove the
hydrocarbons.

Acidity: in lubricants, acidity denotes the presence of acid-type constituents.

The concentration of acid is expressed as an acid number or neutralization
number.

Acid number: (see acidity, strong acid/strong base numbers).

Accumulator (hydraulics): a device in which hydraulic fluid is stored under

pressure in a system to be used as a source of fluid power.

Actuator: a mechanical device, like a cylinder or hydraulic motor, used to

convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.

Adaptor bolt (lube systems): a part used to connect an injector to a manifold

block.

Addendum (gears): distance between the pitch circle and the tooth crest.

Additive: a chemical compound or compounds added to a lubricant or

hydraulic fluid to impart new properties or enhance inherent properties.

Adjusting assembly (lube systems): a device used to control the length of the
piston stroke.

Adhesion: the property of a lubricant that causes it to cling or adhere to a solid

surface.

Age hardening: an undesirable process during which a solid (a grease, an

elastomeric seal or rubber hose) hardens with prolonged storage.
AGMA: American Gear Manufacturers Association

Air entrainment: the presence of air bubbles throughout an oil as a result of

agitation and/or the release of dissolved air because of a sudden change in
environment. Air entrainment is visible, as the oil becomes opaque and bubbly
(see foam, dissolved gases).

Air line lubricator: an oil reservoir attached to an air line that provides
automatic air-borne lubrication to air operated power consuming equipment by
means of venturi action.

Air-oil lubrication: a system of lubrication in which small quantities of oil are

injected into an air line that terminates at a bearing or other lubrication point.
The velocity of the air moves the oil, which remains in droplet form, along the
periphery of the fluid conductor to the point of need; the clean, dry air, being
unheated, helps cool the lubrication point. Since the lubricant does not return to
a reservoir, these systems are classified as all-loss systems.

Air oil separator: a mechanical device that defoams oil, using a centrifugal oil
trap (a defoamer), or any oil condensing device in an air line.

AISE: Association of Iron and Steel Engineers

Aliphatic: one of three types of hydrocarbons found in fuels or lubricants.

Typically, aliphatics are visualized as linear molecules with no reactive chemical
sites (see hydrocarbon).

Aluminum-base, aluminum complex grease: a grease prepared from

lubricating oil and an aluminum soap. Such greases are made with more than
one acid, often benzoic and stearic acids, and liquefy at higher temperatures than
simple soaps.

Amine: a specific type of organic compound containing nitrogen, used to absorb

acids or as an antioxidant. Common amines include aromatic amines, MEA
(monoethanol amine) and DEA (diethanol amine).

Angular speed (gears): rotational speed at the pitch line, measured in rad/s.

Aniline point: for a petroleum fluid, the lowest temperature at which the
product is completely miscible with an equal volume of freshly distilled aniline.
It serves as a measure of the solvent or “grease-cutting” power of a hydrocarbon;
generally, the lower the aniline point, the more effective the solvent.
ANSI: American National Standards Institute (a member of the ISO). Among
other things, ANSI standards are used to evaluate load ratings for ball and roller
bearings.

Anti-friction bearings: (see roller bearings).

Antioxidant: an additive to retard oxygen-related deterioration, especially

oxidation of lubricants (see inhibitors).

Anti-seize compounds (pipe dope): grease-like substances with graphite,

molybdenum disulfide and metallic particles dispersed throughout, primarily to
prevent seizure on threaded joints.

API: American Petroleum Institute, the trade association of the oil industry.

API Gravity: measures the density of petroleum fluids. It is derived from

specific gravity and was developed to express density in whole numbers with
one or two decimal places. For example, an API gravity of 25.5 is the same as a
specific gravity of 0.9013. This does not compare to an H2O constant.
This unit is defined in terms of specific gravity at 60°F (SPG 60°F) as follows:

Degrees API 141.5

- 131.5
= SPG 60° F

API separator (lube systems): a tank with baffles, used to separate oil from
water: the water is removed by the underflow and the oil by the baffle overflow.

Apparent viscosity: Terms characterizing the resistance to flow of liquids whose

viscosities vary with the rate of shear. It can be evaluated in a capillary-type
instrument where it is defined as the shear stress at the capillary wall divided by
the mean rate of shear as computed from the Poiseuille equation: it is expressed
in fundamental viscosity units at a given rate of shear.

Arc of approach (gears): short distance of sliding contact between the

dedendum of the driving tooth and the addendum of the driven tooth.

Aromatics: ring-structured hydrocarbons found in petroleum that contain

unsaturated double bonds. Benzene is the simplest aromatic (see benzene,
hydrocarbon).

ASA: American Standards Association

Ash content: percentage of non-combustible residue of a lubricating oil or fuel,
as determined by ASTM-D-482 or D-874. Ash reveals the presence of metals,
including the calcium, magnesium and zinc introduced by additives. The heavy
metals formerly used also appeared in ash.

ASM: American Society for Metals, now ASM International.

ASME: American Society of Mechanical Engineers

Asperities: microscopic projections on metal surfaces, invisible to the naked eye,

that creates peaks and valleys, even after grinding or machining. When two
surfaces are in sliding contact, these imperfections cause interference that results
in friction; without proper lubrication, wear, scoring or welding will follow.

Asphalt/bitumen: a soft black or dark brown tacky residual material containing

asphaltenes, compounds of sulfur, nitrogen and tar. Asphalt, derived from
petroleum, is solid at normal temperatures; as an adjective, “asphalt” is often
used to describe viscous open gear compounds or black, tacky greases.

Asphaltenes: asphaltic materials soluble in aromatic solvents but insoluble in

naphtha.

Asphaltic: similar in color and tackiness to asphalt.

ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials

Auto ignition temperature: the minimum combustion temperature for a vapor-

air mixture without an open flame. It permits evaluation of the fire hazards of
vapors.

Axial load bearing: a bearing that supports an axial thrust (a load exerted in line
with the length or the axis of a shaft).

Babbitt: a soft alloy of tin, copper and antimony used for plain bearings.

Backlash (gears): loose motion or play between the nondriving surfaces of

adjacent gear teeth, arising from necessary clearance, wear or incorrect
adjustment.

Backup roll bearings (Morgan or Mesta design): special sleeve bearings of the
Morgoil design, with very large projected areas to reduce unit pressure. These
large-diameter oil-film bearings support backup rolls in rolling mills by means of
a hydrodynamic film.

Bactericide: additive used with water-soluble cutting fluids to inhibit bacterial

growth and unpleasant odors.

Ball bearing: a roller bearing whose rolling elements are balls (see roller
bearings).

Bang-bang valve: conventional hydraulic or pneumatic valves operated by

solenoids with either two or three distinct positions.

Barium/barium complex grease: a grease thickened with either barium soap or

complex barium soap.

Barrel (drum): a standard container size, depending on context, e.g.: a 400-lb

open top container (gear lubes and greases are sold by the pound), a 55-gal liquid
container (most liquid lubricants) or a 42-gal charge (standard for crude oils).

Base circle (gears): the circle from which the involute tooth profile is derived.

Basic bearing number: for purposes of identification, anti-friction bearings are

assigned numbers, referred to as basic bearing numbers. In most cases, they
have four digits: the first indicates the TYPE of bearing, the second the bearing
SERIES and the third and fourth the BORE SIZE of the bearing. Some
manufacturers replace the first digit with letters of the alphabet to identify their
bearings, others use numbers and letters.

Basic dynamic capacity: the radial load that 90% of identical bearings will bear
for 1,000,000 revolutions before the first evidence of fatigue; also known as basic
load rating.

Basic static capacity: the static load endured by a bearing before the most
heavily loaded ball or roller experiences sufficient stress to cause a permanent
deformation of the element or race equal to 0.0001 in. of the ball or roller
diameter.

Beam strength (gears): capability of a gear tooth to withstand repeated bending

that occurs whenever it is under load.

Bearing: machine element designed to support or position loads and, properly

lubricated, to reduce friction between them. There are two basic designs, rolling
element bearings and plain (sliding) types.
Bearing crush: the height by which half of the bearing exceeds the half diameter
of the bore into which it is assembled.

Bench test: a modified service test in which the service conditions are
approximate in the laboratory.

Bentonite thickener: clay, composed mainly of silicon dioxide and aluminum

oxide, used to thicken greases. Such greases have no dropping points because
the bentonite does not melt.

Benzene: the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon (C6H6) used in petrochemical

processes and as a solvent. It must be used with caution because of its toxicity.
For safety considerations, laboratories have substituted other solvents like
toluene in its place.

Bernoulli’s Theorem: theory developed by Daniel Bernoulli, 18th century Swiss

scientist, one implication of which is that any rise in hydraulic fluid velocity is
accompanied by a drop in static pressure and vice versa.

Bevel gears: gears, conical in form, that operates on intersecting axes, usually at
right angles.

Biodegradable: capable of decaying through the action of living organisms.

Biodegradability – can be defined as the ability of a substance to degrade over

time to carbon dioxide and water in the presence of water, nutrients and
microorganisms

Biotoxic: toxic to the environment.

Black oils: dark-colored lubricants containing asphaltic materials, with medium

flash points and medium to high viscosity, used in heavy-duty applications
requiring adhesiveness under exposed conditions.

Bleeding (grease): the tendency of a liquid component to separate from a liquid-

solid or liquid-semisolid mixture, as oil may separate from a grease.

Blending: the process of combining fluid and/or solid components into a

finished mixture, particularly with liquid lubricants. Though compounding is
similar, the purpose of compounding is to obtain properties not usually
attainable with blending.
Block/brick grease: a grease of moderate dropping point, NLGL grade 5 or 6,
firm to the touch at normal temperatures, that can be handled in block or stick
form. The penetrating powers of such greases are measured at 77°F; grade 6
grease has a penetration range of 85-115.

Blown oils: natural fatty oils, of animal or vegetable origin, are artificially
oxidized and thickened by blowing air through them. They are used primarily
for compounding petroleum oils, to give them a strong affinity for metal
surfaces.

Bomb: in lubrication terminology, a closed container used for conducting tests

under elevated pressures.

Bomb oxidation stability: resistance of oils and greases to oxidation when

subjected to accelerated oxidation in a sealed unit filled with pure oxygen under
pressure and at elevated temperatures. As the lubricant absorbs oxygen, the
pressure drops to indicate oxidation resistance. ASTM test D-2272, the Rotary
Bomb Oxidation Test, rotates the container during the test.

Bonnet (lube systems): upper portion of packing gland assembly that serves as
a viewer for movement of indicator.

Bottoms (residuum): the liquid that collects at the bottom of the distillation
column, consisting of high-boiling residual liquids like heavy fuels and asphaltic
materials.

Boundary Lubrication: lubrication between two rubbing surfaces in the absence

of a full fluid lubricating film. Boundary lubrication is often accomplished with
the use of extreme pressure additives. Example – high pressure gears.

Brake valve: a device that permits a machine component driven by a hydraulic

rotary motor to revolve unimpeded during operation but restrains the motor
return line fluid to slow the machine when it is desired to stop.

Brass: a non-ferrous alloy consisting of varying proportions of tin, zinc and

copper; lead is added to attain higher machining speed. Brasses may or may not
be lined with babbitt metal (see bronze).

Breather: an air filtering device placed on top of a reservoir to allow it to

“breathe” as the oil level rises and falls. All incoming air is thereby filtered to
keep out airborne contaminants.
Bright stock: describes high-viscosity lubricating oils that are refined to make
them clear products of good color. Bright stocks are made from residuals or
bottoms, solvent dewaxed and deasphalted; they may be used for blending.

Brinell hardness: a system to measure the hardness of metals by indentation. A

hardened steel ball is pressed into a smooth surface of the metal under a fixed
load and the resulting indentation is microscopically measured. With a
conversion chart, this number can also be used to determine the approximate
tensile strength of the same metal.

BHN: Brinell hardness number

Bromine number: see iodine number.

Bronze: a non-ferrous alloy of copper and a metal other than zinc or nickel. The
family of bronzes includes: copper-tin, aluminum (for high tensile strength),
phosphor (for corrosion resistance and low friction), leaded phosphor (for
machinability) and silicon. ASTM distinguishes five grades of bronze casting
alloys.

BS&W: an acronym for the material that settles to the bottom of a storage tank,
namely bottoms, sediment and water. Laboratories sometimes quantify and
report this information when examining oil in service.

BTU: British thermal unit: the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of a pound of water one degree Fahrenheit.

Buffer solution: a solution that prevents drastic changes in pH values when

moderate amounts of acid or alkali are added.

Builder: any substance that increases the effectiveness of a cleaner, e.g., water-
softening agents, buffer agents, alkalies.

Bulk appearance (grease): visual appearance when the undisturbed surface is

viewed in an opaque container. Bulk appearance should be characterized in the
following terms: bleeding (free oil shows on surface or in cracks of a cracked
grease), cracked (showing surface cracks of appreciable magnitude), grainy (a
surface with small granules or lumps of constituent thickener particles), rough
(many small irregularities on the surface), smooth (surface relatively free of
irregularities).

Bulk modulus: the resistance to compressibility of a fluid or elastomer; the

reciprocal of its compressibility.
Buna-N/S: Buna-N and Buna-S are types of synthetic rubber. Buna-N is a
copolymer of butadiene and acetonitrile; Buna-S is a copolymer of butadiene and
styrene.

Butyl: copolymer of isobutylene and various amounts of isoprene and

butadiene.

Calcium grease/cup grease: oils thickened with calcium soap.

Calcium complex grease: see complex greases.

Calcium sulfonate grease: a calcium neutralized grease thickened with sulfonic

acid and fatty acids. Sulfonate greases have inherent rust inhibition (see complex
greases).

Capillary action: the tendency of a liquid in contact with a small bore (capillary)
tube to rise above the level of the surrounding liquid.

Carbon residue: the residue remaining after the evaporation and pyrolysis of a
sample of oil under specified conditions. Tests that determine carbon residue are
the Ramsbottom and Conradson methods, ASTM D-524 and D-189, respectively.

Case hardening: the process of hardening steel surfaces by changing the

structure of a thin layer on its surface. Methods include carburizing, cyaniding,
nitriding and induction or flame hardening.

Catalyst: a material or agent that promotes or produces a chemical action but

does not itself participates in the chemical action.

Cavitation (hydraulics): when the absolute pressure in a pump intake line is

reduced below the vapor pressure of the liquid, the fluid may vaporize, or “boil”,
or the dissolved air in the fluid may separate. In either case, as the bubbles go
through the pump, they collapse or implode and damage the metal of the pump.

Centerline (gears): line that intersects the geometrical centers of the pinion and
gear.

Centerline average – average height of peaks and valleys (asperities) on a

surface.
Centipoise: a unit of absolute viscosity; one centipoise equals 0.01 poise. At the
same temperature, centipoises equals centistokes multiplied by specific gravity
(cp = cSt x sp. grav.).

Centistoke: a unit of kinematic viscosity, abbreviated as cSt: one centistoke

equals 0.01 stoke. At the same temperature, centistokes equals centipoises
divided by specific gravity (cSt = cp/sp.grav.).

Centralized lubrication: a system of non-recirculating lubrication that supplies

a metered amount of lubricant from a central location to individual lubrication
points.

Centrifuge: an instrument that employs centrifugal or rotating force to separate

substances of different densities, useful for precipitating solids from a liquid or
separating liquids of different densities.

Centrifugal pump: a pump with a rotating element, shaft and impeller and a
stationary casing. In this pump, fluid is propelled at high velocity as centrifugal
force at the periphery of the impeller blades discharges pressurized fluid into the
system.

Cetane number: a number that expresses the ignition quality of a diesel fuel,
equal to the percent by volume of cetane (C16H34) blended with methyl
naphthalene that has the same ignition performance as the test fuel. A CFR test
engine is used to determine this number.

Cetane index: the theoretical cetane number calculated according to ASTM D-

976, using API gravity and mid-boiling point.

CFR engine: an ASTM test engine developed by the Cooperative Fuel Research
Committee to measure the cetane numbers of diesel fuels and octane numbers of
gasolines.

Chain lubrication: a dip or splash system that uses a chain to distribute

lubricant to bearings, similar, in a way, to an oil ring; or any system designed to
lubricate a conveyor chain.

Channeling (grease): a term describing the usually desirable tendency of grease

to form a channel by working down in a bearing, leaving shoulders of unworked
grease that serve as both reservoirs and seals.

Channeling (liquids): the undesired formation of troughs or channels in flow-

type lubricants due to thickening during cold weather. Since such behavior
occurs near the pour point of the lubricant, lubrication may be marginal until the
lubricant warms up from being worked (see channeling point).

Channeling point (gears): a federal test that measures the tendency of lubricants
at low temperatures to form plastic structures of sufficient strength to resist flow
under gravitational forces only. This test is specified and required for MIL 2105-
type gear oils.

Check valve (hydraulics): in hydraulic and lubrication systems, a valve

permitting flow in only one direction.

Chelation: the reaction of a metal with another substance called a “chelator” to

form a very stable, soluble metal complex that may resist subsequent waste
treatment processes designed to remove the metal ion from the solution.
Chelators in cleaner formulations prevent soap scum formation by combining
with hard-water metals like calcium and magnesium.

Chlorinated paraffin: an additive used for severe or difficult metal cutting or

metal working operations.

Chromatography: a powerful method for analyzing fluids and determining their

components by selective adsorption or size exclusion, using liquid or gas as the
eluent. In the adsorptive procedure, the substance flows slowly through a
column of adsorbent; as different substances pass at different speeds, they
separate from each other and can sometimes be isolated and identified. In other
cases, the chromatogram (a trace of the signal from the detector) is utilized to
fingerprint a lubricant. Liquid chromatography is used for lubricants because of
their low volatility. Paper chromatography, an adsorptive method, is often used
to examine or establish the sludge or dispersive characteristics of a lubricant. Gel
permeation chromatography, a size exclusion method, separates polymeric
(oxidized oil/sludge) material from a lubricant base stock by molecular weight.

Circular pitch (gears): distance measured on the pitch circle between a point on
the face of one tooth and the same point on the adjacent tooth; equal to pi
divided by the diametral pitch.

Circulating oil system: a lubrication system in which the fluid that has passed
through a bearing or a group of bearings is recirculated by a pump. System
components may include settling tanks, filters, pumps, heat exchangers, etc.
Pressure is usually controlled by a pressure control valve.
Clarifier: an apparatus or device that eliminates color or cloudiness from a fluid,
mechanically or chemically separating out foreign material by gravity separation,
centrifugal action, filtration, simple heating or chemical treatment.

Clay treatment: a process in which used oil, from which all water has been
removed is brought into contact with activated clay at elevated temperatures
ranging from 180-210°F; acidic by-products in the used oil are adsorbed on the
surface of the clay. The batch process mixes the clay with the oil, the continuous
process passes the oil through a bed of clay; in either case, and the oil is filtered
before re-use.

Clay thickener: inorganic, non-melting grease thickener, commonly activated

bentonite clay.

Cleanliness rating: a rating based on the number of particles of specified sizes in

a measure of fluid. The ISO standard specifies particle counts at five microns
and 15 microns.

Cleveland open cup: see flash point, fire point.

Closure plug (lube systems): removable plug on the end of a bore.

Cloud Point – the temperature at which a cloud or haze of wax crystals appears
at the bottom of a sample of lubricating oil in a test jar, when cooled under
controlled conditions.

Coalescing separator: a device that combines or unites separate particles of a

substance through chemical affinity, physical trapping, etc. Coalescing filters
often trap and remove water from lubricants. Coalescence involves merging
particles of a dispersed phase.

Coastal pale oil: naphthenic petroleum oil refined from crude traditionally
obtained from the Gulf or the Pacific coast.

Coefficient of friction: the number obtained by dividing the force that resists
motion between two bodies by the normal force that brings the bodies together
(see static friction, dynamic friction, stick-slip ratio).

Coefficient of friction – the force required to move one body over a horizontal
surface at constant speed divided by the weight of the body. For example, if a
force of 4kg is required to move a body weighing 10 kilograms, the coefficient of
friction is 0.4.
Coefficient of friction of solids is independent of load. Coefficient of friction of
liquids is a function of the viscosity of the fluid, speed and pressure of the
application.

Cohesion: the property of a substance that causes it to resist being pulled apart
by mechanical means.

Coking: undesired build-up of hard carbon deposits on equipment associated

with high heat.

Cold test: test that determines the pour point of oil.

Collar thrust bearing: the simplest form of thrust bearing; a thrust collar in roll
neck bearing service bears against the roll body at the fillet between the journal
and roll body.

Colloid: a suspension of extremely small particles (5-5000 angstroms) in a liquid;

the particles do not settle and are not easily separated by filtration. Colloids are
considered ionized particulates immune to agglomeration. Greases are colloidal
systems with thickeners dispersed in lubricating oil.

Colloidal lubricating solids: lubricating solids (especially graphite and

molybdenum disulfide) that are pulverized to colloidal size and mechanically
dispersed in a fluid.

Color standards: among the many different color tests, the most popular for
steel mill lubricants are ASTM D-1500 color (for standard fluids) and visual color
(for dyed fluids or greases). ASTM D-1500 utilizes an optical instrument to
determine the darkness of oils by comparison with standard colored discs.

Complex soap (grease): a thickener in which the soap crystals or fibers are
formed by the co-crystallization of two or more compounds, a selected soap and
a completing agent such as a salt or an additive. The resulting complex soap
usually increases the dropping point of the grease. Aluminum, calcium and
lithium are common complex soaps.

Compounding: see blending.

Compound: in chemistry, a distinct substance formed by the combination of two

or more elements in definite proportions by weight and possessing physical and
chemical properties different from those of the constituent elements. In
petroleum processing, generally connotes fatty oils and similar materials foreign
to petroleum, added to lubricants to impart special properties; such lubricants
are known as ‘compounded oils”.

Compressibility: the change in volume of a unit of fluid when subjected to a

unit change of pressure. Typical hydraulic fluids exhibit compressibility at very
high pressures, and compressibility may strongly affect frequency response in
servo systems.

Compression set (elastomer): the deformation that remains in an elastomer after

it has been subjected to and released from a compressive stress for a period of
time. Compression set measurements are used to evaluate the creep and stress
relaxation properties of rubber.

Concentricity (bearings): the uniformity of journal (or bearing) thickness

measured in a plane normal to the axis of the journal; also used to describe the
inside diameter axial exactness of a bore or the hole of the hose.

Condition monitoring: the use of specialized techniques that monitor the

condition of equipment and detect the onset of failure in sufficient time to plan a
maintenance intervention that prevents failure; these techniques include
lubricant analysis, vibration analysis, thermography, motor current signature
analysis, NDT surface inspections, ultrasonics, acoustic emission and process
data.

Conjugate action (gears): transmission of uniform rotary motion from one shaft
to another by gear teeth, where the normals (perpendiculars) to the tooth profiles
at all possible points of contact pass through a fixed point, known as the pitch
point, in the common centerline between the two shafts.

Consistency (grease): describes the hardness of a grease (its resistance to

deformation), indicating relative softness or hardness with the application of
force. Test method ASTM D-217 measures the extent of penetration of a cone
under a fixed load and for a specific interval: the greater the penetration, the
softer the grease. Using this method, NLGI grades the softest grease (deepest
penetration) as 000, the hardest as 6.

Contact ratio (gears): measure of the extent to which more than one tooth carries
the load; for spur gears, this should be no less than 1:2-1:4, i.e., 20-40% of the
time.

Controlled volume pump/constant volume pump: see positive displacement

pump.
Copper strip test (ASTM D-130 and D-4048): for specific periods of time at
certain temperatures, exposes copper strips to petroleum products to measure
the amounts of copper-corrosive substances they contain; the darkness of the
polished copper strip determines the extent of corrosion.

Counterbalance valve: a hydraulic device for restraining a load that might

otherwise fall faster than desired because of gravity.

Coupling: a frequently-used alternative term for “fitting”: a straight connector

for fluid lines; or a large-diameter device that connects the ends of two shafts,
between a motor shaft and a gear drive unit, for example (these may be either
solid or flexible, to allow for misalignment).

Cracking (oil): the application of heat and pressure that breaks down large
molecules to form smaller molecules.

Crambe oil: a vegetable oil pressed from the seed of Crambe abyssinica, related
to rape and mustard.

Cross porting (lube systems): a means of discharging lubricant from several

injectors through a common outlet.

Crown gear (gears): a bevel gear with a plane pitch surface. Among bevel gears,
the crown gear corresponds to the rack in spur gears.

Cup grease: see calcium grease.

Cutback solvent: see diluent.

Cutting fluid/oil: petroleum or chemical based products (or a combination of

the two) that cools and lubricates tools when cutting metals; used in such
processes as drilling, reaming, broaching, threading, milling, turning, shaving
and tapping.

Cycle indicator pin (lube systems): a pin attached to the piston of a divider
valve section; as the piston cycles, the pin extends from and retracts into the end
of the section. Used to monitor divider valve action and control lube cycle.

Cylinder: a device that converts fluid power into linear force and motion.

Cylinder oil (steam cylinder oils): a medium to high viscosity oil used for once-
through lubrication of cylinders in air compressors and steam engines, and for
valves and other elements in the cylinder area. High viscosities compensate for
the thinning effects of the high temperatures involved. Steam cylinder oils are
compounded with fatty oils to function where conditions are wet or saturated, or
where low-pressure steam is present.

Cylinder stock: a heavy lubricating oil stock made from distillation residue of
paraffin base crude; used primarily for blending.

Dedendum (gears): the distance between the pitch circle and the lower working,
or flank, half of the tooth that still has the involute tooth form.

Degras (pronounced “de-grah”): animal oil extracted from the skin or wool of
sheep, typically used to control corrosion.

Degreasing: the cleaning of grease and oil from metal parts in a machine
designed to expose the metal parts to a liquid, a vaporized solvent or a special
cleaning detergent (see vapor degreasing).

Demulsibility (typically measured using ASTM D-1401 or D-2711): the ability

of a fluid insoluble in water to separate from water after thorough mechanical
mixing.

Demulsifiers: additives that promote separation of oil from water.

Density: mass per unit volume.

Detergent (oils): a metallic salt additive used in engine oils to keep insoluble
particles in colloidal suspension and prevent the formation of deposits and rust.
With dispersants, detergents also remove existing surface deposits.

Detergent (cleansers): detergents in cleansers are surface-active compounds that

lower the surface tension of water or water solutions and impart emulsifying and
dispersing properties to them.

Dewaxing: a refinery process that removes paraffin wax from lubricating oils to
lower their pour points.

Diagonal passages (lube systems): passages connecting the inlet and discharge
bores.

Diametral pitch (gears): sometimes simply called “pitch”; the measure of tooth
size, equal to the number of teeth divided by the pitch diameter. Mating gears
have the same diametral pitch.
Dielectric strength (ASTM D-877): measures the capacity of an insulating
material to withstand electric stress (voltage) without failure. Fluids with high
dielectric strength (usually expressed in kV) are good electrical insulators.

Diester (dibasic acid ester): a synthetic lubricant formed by reacting

dicarboxylic acid with an alcohol, having high viscosity index and low volatility.
With additives, it finds service in compressors, internal combustion engines and
fluid power systems.

Differential (chassis): a set or train of gears that change the direction of the
vehicle propeller shaft to that of the axle shafts; also adjusts the amount of
rotation between the right and left wheels on a particular driven axle to prevent
wheel skidding when turning a corner.

Differential pressure: in an orifice meter, the difference between the pressures

on the upstream and downstream sides of the orifice; also describes the pressure
drop across a filter that increases as the filter clogs.

Diluent (“cutback solvent”): instead of heating, a solvent added to viscous

lubricants or compounds to permit application in cold weather. The solvent
evaporates after application, leaving the lubricant in place (see cutback solvent).

DIN (Deutsche Institute fur Normung): the German equivalent of ASTM.

Dip feed lubrication: a method that lubricates rubbing surfaces by dipping or

partially submerging them in lubricant.

Direction valves (hydraulics): devices that channel the fluid in a hydraulic

system to the proper location and/or prevent it from going to the wrong
location.

Discharge passage (lube systems): passage leading from between the lands of
the inlet piston bore.

Disk filter/perforated disk: a system utilizing metal disks as the filtering

medium; frequently termed “metal disk filter”.

Dispersant: a non-metallic engine oil additive that helps to prevent sludge,

varnish, etc., by keeping particles suspended in a colloidal state. Similar to and
ordinarily used with detergents, dispersants are capable of keeping large
quantities of particles in suspension, and they are ashless when burned.
Distillation (fractionation): the first step in separating crude oil into its various
components uses a distillation tower, or pipe still, through which heated crude
oil vapors rise to progressively cooler levels, so that the various hydrocarbons
condense at different levels all the way to the top of the column. The lower
boiling point and lighter weight fractions rise to the top, the highest boiling point
and heaviest condense near the bottom, all others in between. Gases, light oils
and fuels are drawn off at the top, while heavy products like heavy fuel oil and
asphalt are drawn from the bottom, with other products in between. This step is
conducted at atmospheric pressure. Vacuum distillation, mainly for lube stocks,
is performed with heavy crudes or bottoms at sub- atmospheric pressure,
permitting fractionation at lower temperatures. The still is called a vacuum
tower.

Distillates: the lubricant and oil fractions produced in a distillation column,

except for bottoms and the natural gas liquids at the top of the column-dividing
head.

Divider valve (lube systems): a series-progressive lubricant-metering and

distribution assembly containing an inlet section, at least three valve sections and
an end section.

DN factor: used as a guide to lubricant selection for rolling contact bearings, it is

also called a speed factor, the product of the bore of a rolling contact bearing,
expressed in mm (D), and the speed in rpm. Values up to 300,000 permit use of
normal NLGI 2 grease; higher values indicate fluid oil or specially formulated
greases, and values in the 1,000,000 range require oil-mist or air-oil lubrication or
specially formulated greases.

Double helical gears/herringbone gears (gears): have both right-hand and left-
hand helical teeth, and operate on parallel axis; are used on all mill pinions.

Drawing compound: a compound, usually containing EP additives, used during

metal forming at the surface of the die to improve die life and metal finish; also
used in dies in wire mills.

Drop-feed lubrication/drip oiler: a system of lubrication that supplies lubricant

to the bearing surfaces in the form of drops at regular intervals.

Dropping point (grease) (ASTM D-255 and D-2665): the temperature at which a
portion of grease releases liquid or passes from a semisolid to a liquid state
under specified test conditions. Though this test is a good high-temperature
screening tool, it is not, by itself, an indicator of high-temperature performance;
continuous permissible operating temperatures may be as much as 100°F below
the dropping point.

Drying oils: oils that absorb oxygen (reacting with it) to form relatively hard,
tough, elastic films when exposed in thin layers to the atmosphere; generally
added to paint to promote drying (e.g., linseed oil).

Drying film lubricant: a solid material, such as graphite, molybdenum

disulfide, boron nitride, or a plastic like a poly-tetra-fluorine resin, used with
loads in the boundary region of lubrication. These materials may be applied as
pastes, by spraying, dipping, brushing in an air-drying carrier, burnishing or
resin bonding.

DSC/DTA: differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and differential thermal

analysis (DTA) measure actual caloric heat changes to characterize physical
changes (phase changes in waxes, gels, grease or asphalt) and chemical reactions
(usually oxidation) in lubricants.

Dynamic viscosity: see absolute viscosity.

Dynamic demulsibility: refers to a test procedure that simulates temperatures

and circulating conditions in a rolling mill to determine the water separation
properties of an oil (see demulsibility).

Dynamic load (gears): load computed at the pitch line, including both static
transmitted load and loads superimposed by inertia of the rotating masses, tooth
form inaccuracies, spacing inaccuracies and misalignment. Buckingham’s
empirical equations take these forces into account: AGMA uses service factors for
the same purpose.

Dyne: standard c-g-s unit of force, equal to the force that produces an
acceleration of one centi-meter per second per second on a mass of one gram.

Eccentricity: in cylinders, the condition resulting from the inside and outside
diameters not having a common center; a condition that occurs when a shaft
rotating in a sleeve bearing does not have a common center with the bearing.

Elastohydrodynamic (EHL or EHD) lubrication: a thin-film form of lubrication

in which an elastic deformation occurs between two non-conforming
components in loaded contact: at the same time, the high load in this small
contact area causes a temporary, extreme increase in viscosity that traps the
lubricant momentarily in the contact area, greatly increasing its load- carrying
capacity.
Elastomer: a rubber or rubber-like natural or synthetic material that can be
stretched repeatedly and that returns to its approximate original dimensions
when the stress is released.

Electrorheological fluids: fluids currently under development whose

rheological properties change in the presence of an electric field. Typically, these
fluids increase in viscosity in the presence of the field, then revert back to their
previous viscosity when the field is shut off.

Electrostatic oiler: machine that uses electrostatically charged oil particles to

deposit coating oils on steel sheets.

Emulsifier: a substance that promotes the formation of a stable emulsion. In

industrial maintenance cleaning, emulsifiers are used to modify the surface
tension of liquid droplets (dispersed phase) to keep them from coalsecing
(agglomerating); the resulting emulsion suspends soil in solution.

Emulsibility: the capacity of a fluid insoluble in water to form an emulsion with

water.

Emulsion: colloidal dispersion of one immiscible liquid in another; the second

suspends, but does not dissolve, the first. Emulsions of oil and water are formed
either by agitation or with the aid of an emulsifying agent. In the water-in-oil
type, water droplets are held in suspension as the internal phase; in the oil-in-
water type, oil droplets are held in suspension and water is the continuous
phase. Both types exhibit a milky or cloudy appearance. The water-in-oil type is
known as an invert emulsion, as the oil is the continuous phase.

End-of-line system (lube systems): system in which the two main supply lines
are dead-ended at the last measuring valve; usually installed where lubrication
points are in a line.

Endurance limit stresses (gears): stresses that can be imposed repeatedly,

indefinitely, without causing surface fatigue failure. Following Buckingham,
AGMA uses the endurance limit for reversed bending as the working stress in
bending for gear teeth; these values approximate 250 times the Bhn.

Enveloping worm (gears): worm with one or more threads, increasing in

diameter from its middle portion toward each end, to conform to the curvature
of the gear; has more surface contact than a straight worm.
EP (Extreme Pressure) lubricants: lubricants formulated with additives to
prevent sliding metal surfaces from direct contact and seizing under extreme
loads; under such conditions, the high local temperature at the interface causes
the additives to react, combining chemically with the metal surfaces to form a
protective film that prevents welding or seizure. The principal EP additives are
compounds of sulfur, phosphorus and chlorine; common laboratory tests for EP
properties include ASTM D-2509 and D-2782 and ASTM D-2596 and D-2783.

EPA: Environmental Protection Agency

Essential oils (odor masks): natural oily liquids with marked characteristic
odors obtained from plants, flowers, leaves, etc., often used for masking odors or
imparting odors, especially to metalworking fluids or gear oil. Pine and lemon
oils are most commonly used.

Ester: chemical compound produced by the reaction of an acid and an alcohol,

resulting in an elimination of a molecule of water.

Evaporative loss: the portion of a lubricant that volatilizes in use or in storage;

applies especially to lubricants containing solvents or water, with high vapor
pressures (see ASTM D-972 and D-2595).

False brinelling: a form of fretting corrosion, caused by vibration, that occurs in

rolling element bearings while sitting idle and subject to friction oxidation.

Fat: raw material used in the manufacture of most greases, composed of various
fatty acids and glycerol (glycerine) that form triglyceride esters. Fats are found
in nature but may also be made synthetically.

Fatigue: the phenomenon leading to fracture under repeated or fluctuating

stresses whose maximum value is less than the tensile strength of the material.

Fatty acids: components of all animal and vegetable oils, with the general
chemical formula of CnH(2n+1)CO2H; palmitic, stearic and oleic are the most
prominent.

Fatty oil: an oil of animal, vegetable or marine origin that is liquid at normal
temperature, whose composition resembles that of solid fat, except for differing
types and percentages of fatty acids. Owing to “polarity”, these oils have a
physical affinity for metal; they increase load-carrying ability by enhancing
“oiliness”.
FDA: Food and Drug Administration, an agency of the United States
Department of Health and Human Services; reviews the toxicology of fluids and
additives, among other things.

Feedback: the practice of using a measure of output to modify input; in

hydraulics, the controlled output, such as position, velocity or pressure, would
be measured and compared with the input valve to modify the input.

Ferrography (direct read and analytical): method that examines ferrous wear
particles in used fluid; used in preventive and predictive maintenance programs.

Fibrous grease: describes a specific type of grease that exhibits a distinctive

fibrous structure when portions of the grease are pulled apart. The gelling
agents for many greases have unique fibrous structures, depending on the type
of soap or thickener employed, that are easily distinguished under an electron
microscope. Some greases are smooth and buttery to the feel, even though they
are microscopic fibrous structures. It is customary to use the term “fibrous
grease” for grease that resists being pulled apart.

Fillers: an extensive variety of solid substances, primarily inorganic powders or

flakes such as mica, talc, graphite, molybdenum disulfide and others that are
added to grease to increase bulk or incorporated into non-metallic bearing
materials to improve lubrication under high loads, low speeds and/or high
temperatures.

Fillet curve (gears): the concave portion of the tooth profile where it joins the
bottom of the tooth space at the root circle.

Filter: a porous substance or device that cleans fluids by removing suspended

matter.

Filter element: removable portion of a filter that houses the filtering medium.

Film strength: general term indicating the capacity of an oil to maintain an

unbroken film on a lubricated surface under operating conditions; used without
reference to the type of film. “Load- carrying capacity” is another general term
used in calculations. Film strength additives are usually considered anti-wear
additives, not EP additives.

Fingerprint neutralizer: a polar compound used in rust preventives for steel

surfaces that prevents corrosion attacks from perspiration during handling.
Fire point (Cleveland Open Cup, or COC; ASTM D-92): the temperature to
which a combustible liquid must be heated so that the vapor released will burn
continuously when ignited under specific conditions.

Fire-resistant (FR) fluids: hydraulic fluids that exhibit fire-resistant properties;

they include the water-in-oil emulsions known as invert emulsions, water-glycol
fluids, non-aqueous synthetic fluids like phosphate esters, silicones and
halogenated hydrocarbons and high water-based fluids (95% water) and
microemulsions.

Fitted bearings: partial journal bearings in which the radius of the bearing
surface is the same as the radius of the journal surface.

Fixed oils: obsolete term, generally applied to fatty oils, indicating fluids that
tend to decompose during distillation instead of remaining intact during the
process; such oils are also known as non-volatile oils.

Fixed pad bearing: an axial or radial load type of bearing equipped with fixed
pads (or lands), the surfaces of which are contoured to promote the
establishment of a hydrodynamic film.

Flammable fluids: describes fluids with COC flash points under 100°F, as
determined by the National Fire Protective Association (NFPA) (see combustible
fluids).

Flash point (ASTM D-92, D-93, D-56): the temperature to which a combustible
liquid must be heated to give off sufficient vapor to form a flammable mixture
with air; this mixture should burn momentarily without sustaining combustion
when a small flame is applied under specific conditions. Because it indicates the
temperature at which a flammable vapor is produced, flash point is generally the
most useful single index of fire hazard potential.

Flexible coupling: a device that connects two rotating shafts, designed to accept
limited varying amounts of misalignment between shafts; a common coupling
for mill spindles is a spade and yoke design with mill slippers.

Fluid drive (hydraulics): drive in which hydraulic fluid transmits power from
one part of the system to another, without a mechanical connection between
them.

Fluid friction: friction resulting from fluid molecules sliding past each other
during flow through a duct (pipe, tube, hose). Its value depends on the duct
diameter, flow rate, fluid density and viscosity. Where all other factors remain
constant, the higher the viscosity, the greater the fluid friction.

Fluid power: energy transmitted and controlled by a pressured fluid.

Fluid power system (hydraulics): a system that transmits and controls power by
moving pressurized fluid through fluid conductors to actuators, for
accomplishment of work.

Flushing oil: oil used to flush dirt out of a newly constructed or rebuilt
circulating or hydraulic system, generally after chemical cleaning.

Foam test: (usually ASTM D-892) measures the ability of a lubricant to resist
foaming caused by excessive agitation, contamination or air ingression in suction
lines.

Follower plate: a plate fitted to the surface of lubricating grease in a container,

designed to employ atmospheric pressure to assist gravitational forces in
delivering grease to the inlet of the dispensing system.

Foot valve: a check valve installed at the entrance to the suction line.

Force-feed lubrication: describes a kind of self-contained lubricator, designed to

pump small quantities of oil sequentially from its small reservoir into individual
tubes leading to the various points to be lubricated. Lubricators are usually belt
driven, to ensure delivery of oil during operation. These lubricators find service
in once-through applications, with each feed line independently adjusted,
metered to deliver feeds in drops per min.

Forging compound: a general term signaling a product used at the die: cold
forging requires anti-friction and EP properties to prevent metal pickup and
extend die life; compounds used in hot forging employ solid lubricants with
thermal stability that resist burn-off and the formation of deposits on the die.

Form oil: an oil used to lubricate wooden or metal concrete forms to keep
cement from sticking to them.

Four-way slide valve (lube systems): device that alternates pressure between
the two main supply lines.

Frequency response: how well a servo or proportional valve output follows the
electrical input. The concept is critical in system design because of system
stiffness.
Fretting corrosion (ferrous corrosion): a combination of corrosive and abrasive
wear that results from fretting of ferrous metals where the wear particles oxidize
to a reddish, abrasive iron oxide (Fe2O3).

Friction bearing: obsolete term for plain bearing or sliding bearing (see plain
bearing).

Front cone (gears): the inner ends of the teeth in a bevel gear with elements
perpendicular to those of the pitch cone. Though the surface of the gear blank at
the inner ends of the teeth is customarily formed to such a front cone,
occasionally it takes the form of a plane on a pinion or a cylinder in a nearly flat
gear.

Full flow filtration: a system of filtration in which the total flow of a circulating
fluid system passes through a filter.

Fungicide: a substance that kills, prevents or retards the growth of fungi.

Fungicides and biocides are most often used with fluids like soluble oils that
contain water.

FZG: acronym for German gear test rig, also known as the four-square gear oil
tester. The test uses small gears driven under increasing loads in a heated oil
bath until failure, at which point a 10-mg weight loss has occurred. Results are
expressed as load stage at the time of failure.

Gall/galling: surface condition on one or both mating surfaces where excessive

friction results in localized welding with subsequent spalling and a further
roughening of the surface.

Gas oil: partially refined liquid petroleum distillate having an intermediate

viscosity between that of kerosene and that of lubricating oil.

Gas turbine: burns a liquid or gas fuel, producing a pressurized gas that passes
through a turbine-powered shaft. The turbine also powers the compressor that
supplies the air at the required pressure.

Gate valve: a valve with a sliding gate that opens the entire area of the pipe.

Gears: machine elements that transmit motion by means of successively

engaging teeth.
Gear oils: the variety of specially formulated oils for all types of gears and
operating conditions; AGMA, SAE, the military and industry have their own
requirements, some of which overlap. In general, gear oils are carefully
formulated and highly refined, with additives tailored to the application in
question.

Gear pump: a versatile, positive-displacement pump in which fluid is propelled

from the intake to the discharge by being trapped in the gear casing, in the space
between the teeth of the rotating gear.

Gear shield/gear compound: a highly adhesive lubricant, formulated with

asphaltic compounds or polymers, for once-through use on gearing like open
gears.

Gel (grease): a solid, elastic mixture of a colloid and a liquid possessing a yield
point and a jellylike texture.

Gel permeation chromatography: a size-exclusion chromatography method that

separates fluid components by molecular weight (e.g., size and shape) (see
chromatography).

GL-4,5,6 service: transmission and axle lubricants classified according to SAE

J308.

Gland (follower): adjustable follower that compresses packing in a stuffing box.

Glycerine/glycerol: syrupy liquid obtained by saponification of certain natural

fats and oils; a by-product of the manufacture of fatty acids or their salts (soaps),
correctly termed glycerol.

Glycol: a class of polyol compounds like ethylene glycol, commonly used to

lower the freezing point of water; especially useful in antifreeze. Formulated
with 35-50% water, they function as fire-resistant fluids.

Gouging (gears): describes a condition which may develop when gear teeth lack
hardness. It is usually limited to the bottom or lower part of the tooth surface, or
it may occur when gears are fitted too tightly, or if there is some interference
between the driving and driven gears. It is sometimes the result of no tip relief
(rounding off the sharp edges at the top of the tooth).

Graphite: a form of carbon available as natural or synthetic material: natural

graphite is either flaky or amorphous, synthetic graphite is crystalline; it is
processed to colloidal size and abrasive contaminants are removed from the
natural form. Graphite is used as a solid lubricant, in dry form or mixed with oil
or grease.

Grease: lubricant composed of an oil or oils thickened with a soap, soaps or

other thickener to a semifluid to solid consistency. May also contain other
additives.

Grinding oils: oils formulated for grinding service where grinding wheel life,
metal surface finish, etc., are important.

Gum: sticky, rubbery deposit, black or dark brown in color, resulting from the
oxidation of lubricating oils or from unstable constituents in gasoline that deposit
during storage or use.

Half bearing: bearing that surrounds only one-half of a journal, e.g., the AAR
journal bearing, available as upper or lower arch bearing; also known as 180°
arch bearing. All nonsleeve bearings are designated as partial journal bearings.

Halogenated solvents: solvents formulated with one of the halogens, usually

chlorine or fluorine. Halogenated solvents are associated with the atmospheric
depletion of ozone.

Hardness – resistance of metal to plastic deformation, usually by indentation. It

also includes resistance to scratching, abrasion or cutting. It is the property of a
metal, which gives it the ability to resist being permanently deformed when a
load is applied.

Head (hydraulics): the pressure exerted by a fluid on a unit area because of the
height of the surface of the fluid above the point where pressure is measured;
may be expressed as psi or “feet”.

Heat exchange: a device that transfers heat from one fluid to another (see cooler,
intercooler). Oil coolers are common in mill circulating oil systems that use
water to cool hot oil from the return reservoir before returning it to the mill units.

Heating element: a submersible oil heater, often utilized for heavy oil storage
tanks. Since excessive temperatures of such heating elements can degrade
lubricants, they are sometimes derated in watts/sq in. and placed in sealed wells
to avoid this problem.
Heat transfer oils: oils utilized as heat transfer media; typical applications
include asphalt plants, grease plants, etc. These oils have low volatility and
contain additives to inhibit cracking and sludging.

Heavy-duty engine oils: oils having oxidation stability, bearing corrosion

preventive properties and the detergent dispersant characteristics necessary to
make them generally suitable for use in both high-speed diesel and gasoline
engines under heavy duty service conditions.

Helical gear (gears): cylindrical in form with helical teeth.

Helix angle: angle of inclination to the axial direction, equivalent to the angle
between the normal plane through the “twisted tooth” and the transverse plane
of rotation, symbolized by β.

Herringbone gears (gears): two helical gears on the same shaft, one with a right-
hand helix and the adjacent one with a lift-hand helix, giving the appearance of a
herringbone.

Hertz contact stress: stress (psi) measured along a narrow band of contact
between two gear teeth under load; based on formulas devised by Hertz.
Momentary stresses exceeding 200,000 psi are not uncommon in heavily loaded
gears. Also may occur at contact points in rolling element bearings.

Hexane: a straight chain paraffinic hydrocarbon containing six carbon atoms

(C6H12); useful as a solvent.

High-pressure indicator(s) (lube systems): various divider valve accessories

that provide visual indications of line blockage or locked pistons. Some also
provide relief to atmosphere, permitting the system to continue lubricating
unaffected points; others that are sealed require immediate system shutdown
and repair.

High solvency naphthas: special naphthas characterized by their high solvent

power (low precipitating tendency) for various resins, oils and plastics; their
high aromatic content promotes solvency (see Kauri-butanol/KB value).

High water-content/high water-base fluids: (abbreviated HWBF) fire-resistant,

thickened or unthickened water-based fluids; typically containing 90-99% water.

Horsepower: unit that measures the rate at which work is done and rates power
output; one hp is equal to 746 watts of electrical energy, or the energy required to
lift 33,000 pounds, one ft in one min.
Hot plate/crackle test: qualitative test to determine the presence of entrained
water in a high flash-point oil; when oil is dripped onto a hot surface, an audible
“crackle” indicates the presence of water.

Humidity cabinet test (ASTM D-1748): metal panels are installed in hot, moist
controlled cabinet to test rust preventives; quality is measured by the number of
hours preceding initial corrosion.

Hyatt bearing (flexible bearing): roller bearing with rollers constructed of

flexible coils of strip steel that are hardened, then ground to size; designed to
withstand considerable deflection in the alignment of shaft or housing.

Hydrated grease/soap: scap grease one of whose structural components is water,

e.g., a water-stabilized calcium soap grease that owes its stability to hydrated
calcium soap.

Hydraulic oil: low-viscosity mineral oil for hydraulic and/or fluid power
systems, generally less than 500 SSU at 100°F.

Hydraulic (fluid power) system: see fluid power system.

Hydrocarbon: a compound composed of carbon and hydrogen, the basic

element of countless organic compounds and the principal constituents of
petroleum. Hydrocarbons in petroleum fall into three basic categories: the
straight-chain paraffins (aliphatic); the cyclic (ring) chain (naphthenic) and the
cyclic chain (aromatic).

Hydrodynamic lubrication: often referred to as “full film lubricant”; a film of oil

or other fluid completely separates moving components under load, thus
maintaining low friction and eliminating wear.

Hydrometer: an instrument for determining the specific gravity or the API

gravity of a liquid.

Hydrophilic: having an affinity for water; capable of uniting with or dissolving

in water (see hygroscopic, hydrophobic).

Hydrophobic: lacking affinity for water: incapable of uniting or mixing with

water.

Hydrostatic lubrication: system of lubrication that supplies the lubricant under

high pressure, to promote a fluid film between opposing surfaces.
Hygroscopic: capable of attracting or absorbing moisture.

Hypoid gear lubricant (gears): lubricant with extreme pressure (EP)

characteristics for use with hypoid gears, e.g., in the differential of an
automobile.

Hysteresis (hydraulics): a condition encountered particularly when dealing

with servo or proportional valves, in which a given input signal produces
different amounts of spool movement when increasing and decreasing. It is
caused by unevenly distributed friction.

ICP (inductively coupled plasma): quantitative analytical technique for

measuring metal contents of fluids.

Idler gear (gears): gear placed between two other gears to change a mechanism’s
direction of rotation.

Inboard bearing (bearings): the bearing supporting a shaft nearest the coupling
or drive mechanism.

Indicator (lube systems): device that shows movement of discharge piston.

Inhibitor: additive that prevents or retards undesired chemical changes,

especially to metal surfaces; common inhibitors prevent oxidation, corrosion and
rust.

Injector (lube systems): part that dispenses a measured amount of lubricant to a

point of lubrication.

Injector body (lube systems): steel cylinder that serves as a container for
lubricant passage, valve port, line connections and grease fitting assembly.

Inlet disc (lube systems): channel-lipped disc that directs lubricant through the
valve port.

Inlet section (lube systems): top section of divider valve that contains the inlet
connection, internal porting, tie rod holes and mounting holes.

Insolubles (oil): (ASTM D-893) a term used in the analysis of used oil,
especially when determining the presence of oxidation products. The procedure
dilutes the sample with pentane, causing the precipitation of oxidized material
and other contaminants, collectively known as pentane insolubles. These
insolubles are then treated with toluene to dissolve the oxidation products. The
difference in weight between the pentane and toluene insolubles is called
insoluble resins or oxidation products.

Insolubles (grease): (ASTM D-128) components of a lubricating grease that are

insoluble in the prescribed reagents; generally denotes fillers, additives and
certain types of thickeners as well as impurities.

Insulating oil/transformer oil: clean, dry, high-quality, oxidation-resistant oil of

low viscosity and high dielectric strength, designed for extended service in
circuit breakers, transformers, switches and other electrical apparatus; most
commonly utilized for cooling in transformers.

Intensifier (hydraulics): device that converts low-pressure hydraulic or

pneumatic power to high-pressure hydraulic power.

Interfacial tension (IFT): the energy per unit area existing at the boundary of
two immiscible liquids, like water and oil; obtained by measuring the force
required to rupture the interface. ASTM D-971 measures the force required to
draw a platinum ring through the interface in dynes/cm. A lowered IFT
promotes emulsification and indicates that oxidized products are forming in the
oil.

Intermediate base crude: see mixed base crude.

Invert emulsion: water-in-oil emulsion, typically containing 40% water, utilized

as a fire- resistant fluid; oil is the outer or continuous phase of an invert
emulsion, in contrast to the normal (oil-in-water) emulsion, where water is the
outer phase.

Involute tooth form: profile of a tooth face generated by unwinding a line from
a base circle where the end of the line scribes the involute shape.

Iodine number: the amount of iodine absorbed by an oil under prescribed

conditions; like the bromine number, it measures the percentage of unsaturates
in an oil.

ISO: International Standards Organization

ISO viscosity classification system: internationally accepted system, in which

each viscosity grade (VG) corresponds to the midpoint of the viscosity range
expressed in centistokes at 40°C; originated with a Saybolt (SUS) system
developed jointly by ASTM and STLE, later changed to centistokes to gain
international acceptance. The original Saybolt system rated viscosity at 100°F;
the ISO system rates viscosity at 104° (40°C).

Journal: the part of a shaft or axle that rotates or angularly oscillates in or

against a bearing, or about which a bearing rotates or angularly oscillates.

Journal bearing: a sliding bearing of either rotating or oscillatory motion inside

which a journal operates.

K factor: denotes Buckingham’s surface durability analysis, based on gear

geometry, harness and surface endurance limits; the higher the K factor, the
greater the surface durability.

Kauri-butanol/KB value: measure of the aromatic properties of a solvent, based

on its power to dissolve kauri gum; aromatics have high KB values, paraffinic
solvents low KB values.

Kinetic/dynamic/sliding friction: the resistance to a force maintaining a relative

motion between two surfaces, sliding instead of rolling; varies with surface
conditions, surface materials, presence and type of lubricant (see friction).

Kinetic viscosity: value obtained by dividing the absolute viscosity of a fluid by

its mass density.

Labyrinth seal: a series of grooves or “labyrinths” cut into the metal or housing
surrounding a shaft to act as a seal or packing and frequently used for steam
turbine shafts; controlled clearance seals without any rubbing contact that allow
some tolerable leakage. They function by causing the fluid to accelerate and
decelerate in succession through the labyrinth, dissipating its pressure energy
and thus reducing the flow of leakage.

Lacquer: a deposit resulting from the oxidation and polymerization of fuels or

lubricants exposed to high temperatures, similar to but not harder than varnish.

Laminar flow – occurs when particles move in a straight, parallel flow path.

Lantern ring: a metal spacer, placed at the midpoint of a series of packing rings,
with holes around its circumference to permit the introduction of lubricant into a
packed stuffing box.

Lard oil: animal oil prepared from the fat of swine, principally composed of
olein, the glycerol ester of oleic acid (glyceryl trioleate).
Lead angle (gears): the angle between any helix and a plane of rotation, the
complement of the helix angle; used for convenience in worms and hobs, and
understood to be at the pitch diameter unless otherwise specified. Formerly, in
screw thread practice, “helix angle” was used instead of “lead angle”.

Lime-based grease: term formerly applied to calcium soap greases. Such

greases are water-resistant but limited to low temperatures and cannot be used
as multi-purpose greases.

Line of action (gears): line tangent to the base circles of the mating gears,
normal to the mating profiles and passing through the pitch point. All points of
tooth contact fall on this line.

Liner: a separator, generally in the shape of the container; in grease drums or

kegs, a disposable plastic liner reduces the amount of unusable grease left in the
container and facilitates lawful disposal.

Lip seal: better known as an “oil seal”; a circumferential dynamic seal composed
of a flexible sealing element made from an elastomer that is “bonded” to a metal
casing, or “cased” by a metal locking ring in a metal casing. Through the
interference fit created by a metallic spring or the lip elastomer, between the
single or multiple lip and the shaft, the lip exerts a force on the shaft sufficient to
seal the fluid.

Lithium-based greases: normally greases formed with a lithium soap known as

12-hydroxy stearate soap, the thickener for many multi-purpose greases; they are
reasonably water-resistant, highly shear stable and capable of operating at
temperatures of up to 350°F before melting.

Lithium complex greases: see complex soap (grease).

Load limit for wear (gears): value computed from equations developed by
Buckingham; uses the endurance limit stress for the materials used in the gear
set.

Load wear index: a measure of the ability of a lubricant to minimize wear at

applied loads; one of the numbers reported when a lubricant is tested according
to ASTM D-2738. Higher numbers naturally indicate greater wear-minimizing
characteristics.

Long and short addenda: process of lengthening the addendum of the driving
gear teeth and shortening that of the driven gear teeth, effectively increasing the
thickness of the driving teeth and decreasing that of the driven teeth, which are
loaded less frequently than the driving gear.

Loop system (lube systems): system in which the two main supply lines form a
loop, usually installed when lubrication points are within a relatively confined
area.

Lubricity: see oiliness

Lubricant: substance interposed between two surfaces in relative motion for the
purpose of reducing the friction and/or wear between them.

Lubrication: reduction of friction or wear between two load-bearing surfaces by

the application of a lubricant; includes boundary lubrication (thin or interrupted
fluid film, especially bearings where wear occurs); mixed film, where some
liquid pools support the load; elastohydrodynamic (high-pressure loads increase
the lubricant’s viscosity and load-carrying capacity, especially in gears);
hydrodynamic (a thick fluid film lubrication, especially in journal bearings) and
hydrostatic (external pump pressure used to form a thick fluid film, as in start-up
of journal bearings).

Lubrication zone (lube systems): part of a larger lubrication system that can be
isolated from other portions of the system for control purposes; generally
contains some type of inlet valve, a master divider, secondary dividers and
distribution tubing network to lubrication points.

LVDT: abbreviation used for “linear variable differential transformer”, a

position sensor used to control the armature stroke of a solenoid on a servo or
proportional hydraulic valve.

Manifold: a conductor with multiple connection ports, generally made from a

solid block of metal with internally drilled passageways to minimize the amount
of piping required.

Manifold (lube systems): two or more injectors in the same mounting assembly.

Master divider valve (lube systems): in a series-progressive system, the first

divider downstream from the pump; or the first divider value in a lubrication
zone. Output is directed to secondary divider valves and/or lubricant points.

Measuring valve (lube systems): component that dispenses a measured amount

of lubricant to a point of lubrication.
Mechanical seal: a dynamic interfacial spring-loaded mechanical device
consisting of a stationary face component in a housing and a rotating face
component on the shaft. Sealing takes place between the two flat sealing faces
perpendicular to the shaft axis.

Mechanical stability: see shear stability.

Median life: approximately five times the L10 (rating) life of a bearing.

Micron: 10−6 m; one millionth of a meter.

Mineral oil: originally, the name given to petroleum because it occurs as a

mineral, to distinguish it from oil obtained from animal and vegetable sources;
more commonly, a lubricant made from petroleum.

Mineral seal oil: a cut between kerosene distillate and gas oil, widely used as a
solvent or penetrating oil.

Mineral spirits: highly effective solvents derived from petroleum or coal (see
petroleum spirits).

Mixed base crude/intermediate base crude: crude oil, neither predominantly

paraffinic or napththenic in character, found in the Mid-Continent and other
districts.

Mixed base grease: usually refers to a mixture of greases formulated with

sodium and calcium soaps, though other combinations are available; though
such compounding offers modest benefits, it is not sufficient to make them multi-
purpose greases.

Mixed film/imperfect film lubrication: lubrication in which the lubricant film is

not continuous over the bearing area.

Mixed film lubrication – lubrication accomplished by a combination of a viscous

fluid compounded with boundary and/or extreme pressure additives. Example
– worm gears.

Mobility: analogous to fluidity, the property of a lubricating grease that permits

flow under pressure, as in centralized grease dispensing systems. Mobility is
evaluated by low-temperature testing that simulates winter field conditions.

Mold oil: oil that ensures easy separation of a ceramic, glass, metal or other
object from the mold in which it is cast (see form oil).
Molybdenum (“moly”) disulfide: often wrongly termed “molysulfide”; a dark
powder used as a dry film lubricant in oxidizing atmospheres, at temperatures of
up to 800°F, to reduce friction under boundary conditions. A natural material,
moly disulfide is processed to remove abrasives, produced in micronic particle
sizes and made available as a paste, an additive for greases, a dispersant in oil or
a bonded dry-film coating.

Motor: technically, an electric motor; in hydraulics, a device that converts fluid

power into rotary mechanical force (torque) and motion.

Motor oil/multi-grade oil: an engine oil that meets the requirements of more
than one SAE viscosity grade classification, formulated with viscosity index (VI)
improvers; “W” indicates winter grade.

MSDS: acronym for “Material Safety Data Sheet”, available for all raw materials
and products; includes handling, storage and waste treatment practices
recommended for safety.

Multi-purpose greases: greases with good mechanical shear stability, capable of

operating throughout a wide temperature range and functioning in the presence
of water, readily pumpable over long distances; such greases can be used in any
type of bearing served by a centralized system (see lithium base grease and
complex greases).

Multi-stage pump: centrifugal pumps with two or more impellers mounted on

the same shaft; the discharge from one impeller is conducted to the suction eye of
the next impeller, etc.

Multi-state compressor: compressor that directs air through a series of two or

more cylinders during compression; “inter-cooling” denotes cooling as the air
passes between cylinders.

Naphtha: generic term describing a variety of light petroleum distillates such as

mineral spirits and many petroleum solvents.

Naphthenes/naphthenic base or oil: also known as cyclo-paraffins: a class of

saturated hydrocarbons with a ring structure, distinct from both aromatics and
paraffinic hydrocarbons; because of their low wax content, naphthenic base
petroleum oils have low pour points and good solvent properties (see
hydrocarbon).
Naphthenic acids: complex organic acids obtained from the gas oil cut of
crudes, used in the manufacture of soaps, paint dryers and
emulsifying/demulsifiying agents.

Neatsfoot oil: pale yellow animal oil made from the feet and shin bones of cattle,
principally used as a leather dressing.

Needle bearings: rolling bearings with rod-shaped cylindrical rollers that are
long and thin in relation to their diameter.

Neoprene: chloroprene polymer synthetic rubber with high resistance to

weather, chemicals, petroleum oil and heat.

Neutralization (“neut”) number: serves as an indication of the acidity or

alkalinity of an oil. For acidity, the number is the quantity of base expressed in
milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) required to neutralize one gram of oil
to a specified end point. For alkalinity, the number is the amount of acid
expressed in milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize one gram
of oil. See strong acid, strong base, total acid number (TAN) and strong base
number (TBN).

Neutral oils: unfiltered lubricating oils of low or medium viscosity obtained in

petroleum distillation and prepared without chemical treatment; they are so
named because they have not been treated with an acid or an alkali.

Newtonian fluid: fluid classification by response to shear rate and shear stress.
The ratio of shear stress to shear rate is a measure of a fluid’s viscosity; when that
ratio remains constant at any shear stress or rate of shear, the fluid is termed
“Newtonian”.

N-heptane/normal heptane: hydrocarbon compound (C7H16) with an octane

rating defined as zero; used as a reference fuel ingredient in motor fuel octane
number tests.

NLGI: National Lubricating Grease Institute; an organization of grease

manufacturers that works with ASTM to develop technical standards.

NLGI number/NLGI grade: arbitrary numbers assigned by the NLGI that

classify greases by their hardness, as determined by the cone penetration
procedure (ASTM D-217); numbers range from 000 for the softest grease to No. 6,
the very hardest (see consistency, penetration).
NLGI automotive grease classifications: specialty or mult-purpose greases
meeting the requirements of ASTM D-4950 for chassis (category LA or LB) or
wheelbearing (category GA, GB or GC) can be registered with NLGI and
subsequently marked with a trademarked NLGI symbol that shows which
performance categories the grease meets.

Normal plane (gears): in helical gears, the plane perpendicular to the teeth.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance/Magnetic Imaging: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

(NMR) provides non-destructive, magnetic radio-wave analysis of new and used
lubricants, especially to pinpoint chemical changes in carbon, hydrogen an
phosphorus in lubricants; may also be useful as a tool for condition monitoring
of gear oil and motor oils.

Non-Newtonian fluid: fluid requiring an initial stress to start flow, as the ratio
of shear stress to shear rate does not remain constant. In this category, greases
are among the substances that do not exhibit viscosity as Newton defined it;
“apparent viscosity”, depending on the rate of shear, can be computed for such
materials, but the viscosity derived will apply only to the shear rate used in
making the computation.

Nonsoap grease: grease thickened with something other than a metallic soap,
e.g., clay, carbon black, silica gel or one of many synthetic organic compounds.

Norma-Hoffman bomb test: (ASTM D-942) a static accelerated grease oxidation

test that measures the rate at which a grease absorbs oxygen.

Normal/standard pressure: unless otherwise specified, this term refers to 14.7

psi or 760 mm of mercury, i.e., normal atmospheric pressure at sea level.

Normal/standard temperature: in most laboratory work, 25°C, equivalent to

77°F.

Oakum: shredded rope or hemp fiber impregnated with some form of light tar
and used as a caulking or packing for joints.

Octane number: number indicating the knock rating or resistance to detonation

of motor gasoline, defined as the percent by volume of isooctane (C8H18) in a
mixture with n-heptane; this mixture has the same knock rating under standard
engine test conditions as the test fuels.
Oil: common term applied to slippery liquids consisting of various
hydrocarbons; found in nature as petroleum, animal, vegetable or marine
products, or synthesized in industry.

Oil-air lubrication: see air-oil lubrication.

Oil groove(s): frequently termed “oil ducts”; one or more grooves cut into the
surface of bearing metal, the location and design of which are important for
proper distribution of the lubricant. They prevent excessive oil loss from the
bearing, serve as reservoirs to replenish lubricant supply and distribute the oil.

Oiliness: property of a lubricant that yields low friction under conditions of

boundary lubrication, because of its affinity for metal surfaces. Polar compounds
in the lubricant enhances this property, causing a physical adherence
(absorbance) to the surfaces; the lower the friction, the greater the oiliness.

Oil mist or flog lubrication: oil atomized by compressed air, then conveyed by
the air in a low- pressure distribution system to multiple points of lubricant
application. At these points, as the mist flows through a nozzle of the proper
type and size, it may condense as small quantities of liquid oil that lubricate the
machine elements. The nozzles, or reclassifiers, include fog, spray mist and
liquid fittings.

Oil pad: oil-saturated felt pad, generally used on plain bearings, that lubricates
the rubbing surfaces; oil is supplied to the pad by wick, capillary, syphon, etc.

Oil ring: a loose ring, generally of greater in diameter than the shaft, the inner
surface of which rides the shaft or journal, causing the ring to rotate; the ring
dips into a reservoir from which it carries lubricant to the top of the shaft for
distribution to a bearing.

Oil seal: one of many contact sealing devices used to reduce or eliminate oil
leakage or to exclude foreign matter from a lubrication system (see lip seal). Oil
seals are generally used on moving parts while gaskets seal non-moving parts
such as housing (see gaskets).

Oil strainer: strainer that uses a metal screen or disc as the filtering medium;
usually rated according to mesh size, not micrometer size.

Open gear lube: extremely heavy gear lubricants with viscosities in the asphaltic
fluid range.
Organic acid: an organic compound with acid properties, obtained from such
organic substances as animal, vegetable and mineral oils; for example, a fatty
acid. Chemically, organic acids most often contain a carboxyl group (COOH).

O-ring: an “O” –shaped automatic or squeeze-type packing manufactured from

metallic or elastomeric materials, used for static and dynamic applications. The
seal is compressed against the shaft or collar and energized by the pressure of the
fluid being sealed to prevent leakage.

OSHA: Occupational Safety and Health Administration

Outboard bearing: one of two bearings supporting a shaft farthest from the
drive unit. Some extend outside the machine, e.g., a shaft extended from a
machine upon which is mounted a direct connected generator, pump, etc.

Oxidation: chemical process in which oxygen combines with another substance;

enhanced by elevated temperature and the presence of a catalyst, such as copper,
water or foreign matter. Oxidation of lubricants eventually produces acids and
polymers, resulting in metal corrosion and sludge formation. Oxidation
inhibitors function by interrupting the oxidation process at the first step, the
formation of peroxides that serve as catalysts for the entire process (see
inhibitors).

Oxidation stability: resistance of lubricants to chemical reaction with oxygen;

several test methods are used.

Packing: deformable substance used for sealing between locations at which

fluids are present under different conditions, usually where relative motion
occurs at the boundary between the fluids.

Packing box: the portion of the casing or cover through which the shaft extends
and into which a seal or packing is placed to limit leakage; also known as a
stuffing box.

Packing gland: an adjustable follower that compresses packing in a stuffing box.

Packing gland assembly (lube systems): assembly that is screwed into the
measuring valve body.

Pad lubrication: see oil pad.

Panel coker: a testing device that involves dripping cold fluid onto a hot panel
to determine the detergency and deposit-forming tendencies of the test fluid.
PAO: see polyalphaolefins.

Paraffin wax: a high-VI crystalline substance removed from paraffinic crudes

after distillation, composed of unbranched straight chain hydrocarbons that are
solid at room temperature. Waxes are primarily used for water proofing and
candles; in small quantities, they degrade the low-temperature properties of
lubricants.

Paraffinic base: characterizes certain petroleum products prepared from

paraffinic crudes (crudes that contain high percentages of straight chain aliphatic
or paraffin hydrocarbon molecules).

Partial bearing: see journal bearing.

Particle count: the object of various test procedures employed in condition

monitoring. The ISO Solid Contaminant Code rates the number of particles (per
volume) larger than five microns (silting condition) and the number of particles
(per volume) larger than 15 microns (presence of wear material); the two rating
numbers are separated by a slash. The ISO standard supersedes most other
methods, but some utilize ISO codes to report particles larger than two microns.

Pascal’s Law: axiom stating that the pressure on a confined fluid is transmitted
undiminished and with equal force to all equal areas of the container.

Penetration (grease): (ASTM D-217) the depth, in tenths of a millimeter, that a

standard cone penetrates a semisolid sample under specified conditions. Test
methods include undisturbed (sample tested in its container); unworked (sample
transferred to worker cup); worked 60 X (transferred to worker cup and worked
with 60 strokes); prolonged worked (worked more than 60 X) and block (sample
of block grease cut into a cube) (see consistency).

Penetrating oil: usually a solvent based oil; loosens rusty nuts or bolts by
penetrating the rust barrier, thereby facilitating disassembly without destruction.

Penetrometer: instrument for measuring the penetration of semisolid substances

like greases.

Pensky-Marten Closed Cup test: closed cup test for determining the flash point
of fuel oil or open gear lubricant; sometimes used for lubricants suspected of
being contaminated with fuel or solvent.

Pentane insolubles: see insolubles.

Petrolatum: product made from the residuals of paraffinic crudes, consisting
primarily of high molecular weight amorphous waxes, with some grades
containing microcrystalline waxes. It is pale to yellow in color, with oily or
grease-like characteristics, used in some lubricants and rust preventives or a lay-
up lubricant for some kinds of wire rope.

Petrolene: a petroleum naphtha containing asphalt, used in protective coatings.

Petroleum: oily liquids or semisolids found in the earth, composed of

hydrocarbons and primarily such nonmetallic elements as sulfur, oxygen,
nitrogen, etc. Though the composition of these dark, highly complex mixtures
varies, they are often lighter than water and highly flammable. Only a small
percentage of crude petroleum can be processed for lubricants.

Petroleum spirits: solvents obtained from petroleum with boiling ranges from
300-400°F and flash points exceeding 100°F (see mineral spirits).

Phenols: a class of aromatic chemicals used chiefly as antioxidants in lubricating

oils like hydraulic fluids and circulating oils. Because of its biotoxicity, the EPA
prohibits discharge of the parent chemical (“free phenol” or C6H5OH) into
waterways; therefore, most phenols utilized in lubricants are sterically hindered.
However, some refining extraction processes still use free phenol to remove
aromatic, naphthenic and unsaturated hydrocarbons from lube base stocks.

Phospate esters: a class of synthetic esters with superior fire resistance; used
primarily as FR fluids, they are formulated with these general properties: specific
gravity greater than one, good lubricating capability, fair high-temperature
stability, poor hydrolytic stability, and poor viscosity-temperature linkage.
Though they are harmful to paints and some seal materials, one such ester,
tricresyl phosphate, has long been used as an anti-wear additive in lubricating
oils.

Pillow block: denotes bearing support on a site other than the machine itself.

Pilot-operated: in hydraulics, the technique of using a small valve to control a

much larger one.

Pinion: the smaller of two mating or meshing gears, usually the driving gear. In
the steel industry, the term “mill pinions” describes a mating pair of gears in a
one-to-one ratio, each of which is coupled to a mill roll, one above the other in
the mill stand; employed in both unidirectional and reversing mills, they are
driven by a mill motor and mill drive coupled to the pinion stand.
Piston (lube systems): sliding part contained in the cylinder of the injector,
consisting of a rod, extension and packing.

Piston stop plug (lube systems): the lower portion of the adjusting assembly.

Piston rings: used in engines to maintain a gas-tight seal between piston and
cylinder, to assist in cooling the piston and to control cylinder wall lubrication;
the three rings include a fire ring, a compression ring and an oil ring.

Pitch (gears): used in gear geometry to characterize features governing tooth

size, shape, spacing, etc.; common terminology includes pitch circle, pitch
diameter, pitch point, normal circular pitch and normal diametrical pitch (see
Section 7).

Pitch circle (gears): curve where the imaginary pitch cylinder and plane normal
to the axis of rotation intersect.

Pitch diameter (gears): diameter of the pitch circle of mating gears in imaginary
line contact along the centerline between the two shafts.

Pitch line: corresponds in the cross-section of a rack to the pitch circle in the
cross-section of a gear.

Pitch line velocity (gears): linear speed at the pitch line, measured in fpm or
m/s.

Pitch point (gears): point of tangency of the two pitch circles of the mating
gears, lying on the common centerline between them.

Pivot bearing: axial-load, radial-load bearing that supports the end of a shaft or
pivot (as on the balance wheel of a watch).

Pivoted pad bearing: an axial or radial-load bearing with a surface consisting of

one or more pads or shoes pivoted to tip, thereby promoting the establishment of
a hydrocarbon film.

Plain bearing: any simple sliding bearing, as distinguished from fixed pad,
pivoted pad or rolling bearings. Depending on the direction of the load on the
bearing surface, plain bearings are classified as guide bearings, journal bearings
or thrust bearings.
Planetary gear: a train of internal gears consisting of a sun gear, to which input
power is applied, and planet gears that give the output power.

Plunger (lube systems): slide valve that controls the valve port.

Plunger spring (lube systems): spiral spring in the injector body cylinder.

Poise: the standard unit of absolute viscosity in the cgs system; expressed in
dyne-s/cm2.

Polar compounds: chemical compounds whose molecules exhibit positive

electrical charges at one end and negative charges at the other. This
characteristic, known as “polarity”, endows such compounds with an affinity for
metal surfaces. As lubricant additives, they serve as “oiliness agents”; they have
good metal-wetting properties and some polar compounds promote
emulsification between water and oil.

Polyalphaolefins (PAOs): a class of synthetic lubricant bases formed by

polymerization of an olefin monomer, such as ethylene or propylene, whose
properties after polymerization include good oxidation stability at high
temperatures, good hydrolytic stability, compatibility with mineral oils and low
volatility. They have found service in turbines, gears, compressors and
automotive engines.

Polybutene: synthetic lubricating oil, a polymer of butene (C4H8); principal uses

include insulating oils, gas compressor oils and process oils in the aluminum
industry.

Polyglycol: a polymer of ethylene glycol (C2H602) used as a synthetic base stock;

water-soluble polyglycols serve as thickeners or anti-freezes in FR fluids;
insoluble forms are used as heat transfer and hydraulic fluids or high-
temperature bearing oils.

Polyesters: synthetic resins, usually obtained from polymerization of a dibasic

acid with a dihydric alcohol, not usually used as lubricant stocks. (see diesters).

Polymers: organic compounds created by polymerization that become

progressively heavier and acquire diverse properties as the multiple linkages
increase. The original monomer may be a gas or a liquid; according to the extent
of polymerization, the final product will be a high molecular weight liquid or
solid that retains the same proportion of elements as the original monomer.
Polymerization: the chemical combination and recombination of the same
unsaturated hydrocarbon with itself to form an extensive chain; the chemical
process of combining similar molecules to form larger molecules.

Polyolesters: a class of synthetic esters formed by reacting fatty acids with a

polyol such as glycol; physical properties vary according to the polyols and acids
used. Polyolesters formulated as lubricants have low volatility and good
oxidation stability at high temperatures: they are used as base oils for turbines,
compressors, jet engines and automotive engines and as base fluids for certain
greases.

Polyureas: polymeric thickeners for grease, made from isocyanates and amines.
Greases thickened with polyureas have high oxidation resistance and high
dropping points; they work well in ball bearings for electric motors.

Porous bearing: bearing made from porous material such as compressed metal
powders; the pores serve as reservoirs or passages for lubricant.

Positive displacement oil pumps: vane, gear or piston pumps that build up
high pressure on the discharge side because the capacity output of the pump is
positive. If the discharge is not utilized, the oil pressure regulator or by-pass
prevents damage (see controlled volume pump, gear pump).

Pour point: (ASTM D-97) the lowest temperature at which a lubricant will pour
or flow under specified conditions.

Pour point depressant: an additive in lubricating oil that lowers the pour point,
by preventing any wax present from crystallizing to form a solid mass.

ppm: parts per million.

Precipitation number: (ASTM D-91) the number of milliliters of solid matter

precipitated from a mixture of oil and petroleum solvent under specified
conditions; chiefly used to determine the presence of asphalts in semi-refined or
black oils, or to examine sludge in used oils.

Precision: see tolerance.

Preloading: procedures employed during assembly and mounting to remove all

looseness or play in a bearing, usually performed on shafts or spindles in
machine tools and precision machines that must rotate without clearance in
either the axial or radial direction. Preloaded bearings are not used where
deflection is excessive.
Pre-lubed bearings: bearings lubricate by the manufacturer to preserve their
integrity during storage.

Pressure angle (gears): angle between the line of action and a line tangent to
both pitch circles. This angle remains constant with involute form teeth at any
point in the contact path. Common pressure angles are 14.5° and 20°; when
stronger teeth are needed, larger angles are used. Pressure angles increase with
center distance.

Pressure, atmospheric: see normal pressure.

Pressure control valves: devices that control the pressure in a hydraulic system,
including relief, unloading, counter balance, sequence and pressure-reducing
valves and, occasionally, brake valves.

Pressure drop: loss of pressure caused by restriction in a hydraulic system,

where restriction includes valves, orifices and pipes; synonymous with “pressure
differential” or “upstream minus downstream pressure” across any device in a
hydraulic system.

Pressure, gauge, (psig): pressure differential above or below atmospheric

pressure.

Pressure-reducing valve (hydraulics): device that keeps pressure in a branch of

a hydraulic circuit below the pressure in the remainder of the circuit.

Pressure viscometer/viscometer (grease): a capillary instrument used to

determine apparent viscosity.

Preventive and predictive maintenance (PM and PDM): two basic programs
that use selected features of condition monitoring procedures in managing
maintenance practices and costs to increase plant productivity; PM programs
schedule maintenance at regular intervals, while PDM programs schedule
maintenance on the basis of information obtained from sophisticated condition-
monitoring tests.

Priming: in pump operation, filling the liquid end of a pump with liquid to
remove vapors and eliminate the possibility of becoming vapor bound.

Principal reference planes (gears): pitch plane, axial plane and transverse plane,
all intersecting at a point and mutually perpendicular.
Process oil/process lubricants: in the steel industry, materials used in direct
contact with the product being produced, e.g., rolling oils in hot and cold rolling
mills, wire drawing compounds, forging compounds, slushing oils for rust
protection, stamping and drawing compounds, quenching oils, wire rope laying-
up lubricant, etc.

Profilometer: a device that profiles or measures surfaces to determine

smoothness.

Proportional valve (hydraulics): a hydraulic valve that produces an output

proportional to its input signal, that can be adjusted electronically, remotely; uses
proportional solenoids with constant force for a given signal.

Proximity switches (lube systems): magnetic (dry contact) switches that detect
divider valve piston movement without a cycle indicator pin attached to the
piston.

Pumpability: see mobility.

Pycnometer: a device for measuring densities of liquids.

Pyrolysis: chemical decomposition by the action of heat.

Pyrometer: a device for recording high temperatures that uses a thermocouple

or an infrared pyrometer to measure invisible light emitted by the hot object.

Quench oils: paraffin oils with high flash points, usually exhibiting excellent
oxidation and thermal stability, suitable for either tempering or martempering.
Testing methods include ASTM D-3520, an older quench speed test, and a newer
computer-recorded Diacpot test that gives quantitatively more information about
the quenching process.

R&O oil: oils with rust and oxidation inhibitors, usually applied to highly
refined circulating oils used for long term service, as in compressors, hydraulic
systems and turbines.

Rack (gears): a gear with teeth spaced along a straight line and suitable for
straight line motion.

Rack and pinion gear (gears): a power-transmitting unit that changes linear or
reciprocal movement to rotary motion when the rack gear is the driving member
and vice versa when the pinion gear is the driving member.
Radial load bearing: bearing in which the load acts in a radial direction with
respect to the axis of rotation.

Rag layer: the layer that forms at the interface when oil and water are separated
by gravity. A mixture of solids oil and water, it looks like sludge.

Rancidity: biodegradation of fats or fluids causing an unpleasant odor.

Rapeseed oil: see vegetable oil.

RBOT: see bomb oxidation stability.

RCRA: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act.

Reciprocating pump: device designed to pump with a reciprocating motion,

similar to an engine piston.

Refractive index: (ASTM D-1218) number indicating the angle through which a
ray of light is deflected as it passes through a solid or fluid medium; the number
that expresses the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the
angle of refraction. Typically used for monitoring water-based fluids or
solutions.

Relief valve: a hydraulic mechanism designed to limit or control pressure by

opening an auxiliary fluid passage at a predetermined or set pressure.

Re-refined oils: spent mineral oils that have been collected, sent to a refinery
and reprocessed by distillation, often with hydrofinishing.

Residual oil: oil from the bottom of the distillation column (see bottoms).

Resin: a solid or liquid compounding material, generally a solid or semi-solid,

composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; includes polyesters, polystyrenes
and acrylics used in the manufacture of varnishes, plastics and elastomers. Some
lubricating resins are residual oils.

Reyn: standard unit of absolute viscosity in the English system, expressed in lb-
s/in2. (see viscosity).

Rheology: the study of the deformation and/or flow of matter in terms of stress,
strain, temperature and time. Apparent viscosity and penetration of grease are
examples of rheological properties.
Rheopectic: term applied to greases that thicken and harden when subjected to
shear; the opposite of thixotropic.

Ring lubrication: see oil ring lubrication.

RMA: Rubber Manufacturers Association, Inc.

Rolling element/rolling contact/anti-friction bearing: generic terms for all

types of rolling bearings (ball, cylindrical roller, tapered roller, spherical convex
roller, spherical concave roller and needle roller), all of which roll between rings
or races except for needle bearings.

Roller bearing: describes all rolling bearings except for ball bearings (see rolling
element et al).

Rolling oil: hot and cold rolling mills, especially cold mills, use formulated
coolants.

Rotary bomb oxidation test (RBOT): see bomb oxidation stability.

Rotor: part that rotates in the pumping chamber, sometimes given specific
designation such as gear, screw, impeller, etc.

Rubbing oil: low-viscosity mineral oil used with or without an abrasive as a

polishing medium.

Rust preventive: a compound containing a rust inhibitor, used to coat metal

surfaces to prevent rust and corrosion; base material maybe a petroleum oil, a
wax, an asphalt and/or solvent, depending on the environment and the duration
of the protection sought.

Rust test (grease/oils): (ASTM D-665 and D-1748) test that measures the
effectiveness of a lubricant at preventing the rusting of ferrous parts in the
presence of water.

SAE: Society of Automotive Engineers

SAE numbers/SAE oil viscosity classification: number assigned by the SAE to

crankcase, transmission and rear axle lubricants to indicate their viscosity ranges;
may be converted to ISO and/or ASTM/STLE classifications.

Salt spray test: (ASTM B-117) determines the effectiveness of a slushing oil in
preventing rust and corrosion.
Saponification (grease): process in which a fat or some other compound of an
acid and an alcohol reacts with an alkali to form a soap and glycerin or other
alcohol.

Saponification (analysis): the process used to measure the ester content of a

material (see saponification number).

Saponification number: (ASTM D-94) the number of milligrams of potassium

hydroxide required to saponify the fats and/or esters in a one-g sample of a
given material.

Saturates: synonym for alkane hydrocarbons, or saturated hydrocarbons.

Saybolt SUS/SFS: (ASTM D-88) the number of seconds required for 60 ml of a

fluid to flow through the orifice of the standard Saybolt Universal viscometer
(SUS) or a Saybolt Furol viscometer (SFS) at a given temperature under specified
conditions. Since the orifice of a Saybolt Furol viscometer is larger than that of a
Universal viscometer, it is used for more viscous fluids.

Seal swell: an increase in elastomer volume or linear dimension of a specimen

immersed in liquid or exposed to a vapor; harness and durability of the
elastomer may also be affected. Swell characteristics vary with the elastomer, but
high aniline point oils cause less swell than low aniline point oils.

Secondary divider valve (lube systems): divider valve that receives flow from
the master divider valve.

Seed oils: see vegetable oils

Self-aligning bearing: bearing held by four points or in some other arrangement

that permits an automatic change in the position of the bearing to conform to an
out-of-line shaft or journal.

Self-lubricated bearing: bearing supplied with lubrication in the bearing

material, i.e., graphite in a powdered metal bearing or oil in a wood or
microporous bearing; not generally suited for heavy loads or high operating
temperatures.

SEM (scanning electron microscope): tool used to examine failed bearings, wear
particles and debris.

Semisynthetic (metalworking): a metalworking lubricant containing water.

Semisynthetic: a lubricant formulated with 20% or more of polymeric fluid as a
base stock component.

Sequence valve (hydraulics): device assuring that actuators move in a certain

sequence in a hydraulic system.

Sequestering agent: a compound that reacts with metallic (positively charged)

ions in a solution to keep them in solution, thereby preventing the metallic ions
from forming a sludge or depositing on the workpiece.

Series-progressive (lube systems): positive, single-line lubrication system

utilizing piston divider valves for metering and distribution; each divider valve
must cycle completely in sequence before downstream valves and pistons are
activated.

Servo valve: a high-performance directional and flow control valve usually

operated by a torque motor; similar to a proportional valve but superior in terms
of frequency response and hysteresis.

Shear stability/mechanical shear stability: measure of the change in consistency

of a grease after it has been subjected to prolonged shearing by means of a
mechanical device like a grease worker (10,000 strokes) or a roll test; the
percentage change in penetration values is an indicator of shear stability.

Silicones: generic term for a class of synthetic lubricants that replace carbon
atoms with a chain of alternating oxygen and silicon; also known as siloxanes.
These fluids are water-resistant polymers with very high viscosity indexes,
excellent fluidity at low temperatures and good oxidation and thermal stability
at higher temperatures. They do not have high load-carrying capacity.

Sintered metal: a bronze or iron bearing material frequently used where self-
lubrication, low coefficient of friction, accurate dimensions and simplicity of
installation without machining are desirable.

Sleeve bearing: a 360° cylindrical plain bearing, sometimes called a bushing,

that supports a journal or roll neck, aptly called a sleeve.

Sliding velocity (gears): computed differential sliding speed in either the arc of
approach or arc of recess.
Slinger (seals): prevents oil leakage from high-speed journal bearings; uses
centrifugal force to throw oil that leaks through the bearing into a groove that
returns the oil to the reservoir.

Slumpability: characterizes the capacity of a grease to flow towards a suction

inlet without a follower plate.

Slushing oil: oil or grease-like material applied to metal as a temporary

protective coating against rust, corrosion, etc.

Soap: a compound formed by the reaction of a fatty acid with an alkali; soaps
used as grease thickeners are most stearates.

Soda/sodium base grease: grease prepared from lube oil and a sodium soap.

Soil load (cleansers): the percentage of soil contained by a cleaning solution,

usually expressed in volume/volume units. Soil load content in an alkaline
cleaner bath is ordinarily determined by an acid split procedure.

Solenoid: a coil, that when energized, attracts a sliding iron core; used to control
position of a spool in a valve body.

Solid bonded lubricants: powdered lubricants like graphite, molybdenum

disulfide, etc., are adhesively bound to clean, solid surfaces through proprietary
processes to form thin tightly-bonded films; used for lightly loaded bearings in
specialty applications.

Soluble cutting oil/soluble oil: oil with an emulsifier that forms an emulsion,
used as a metalworking fluid or hydraulic fluid.

Solvent: a compound capable of dissolving a given substance to form a solution.

Water is a polar solvent, hydrocarbons are non-polar.

Solvent extraction: a refinery process that utilizes oil and a polar solvent like
phenol, N-methyl pyrolidone, furfural, etc., to selectively separate unsaturates
from lubricant distillates, in order to improve properties such as oxidation
stability, viscosity index and additive response.

Sour crude/sweet crude: sour crudes contain appreciable quantities of hydrogen

sulfide, disulfides or other sulfur compounds; sweet crudes do not.

Specific gravity: the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water,
often at a specified temperature.
Spherical roller bearings: rolling bearings designed with barrel-shaped rollers,
suitable for most heavy-duty service (see rolling element bearings).

Spider (gears): a design consisting of a ring or solid center with projections,

used to space and align gears, e.g., the part that controls the sun gears in
automotive differential gears.

Spindle oil: light-bodied, high-quality R&O oils fortified with anti-wear agents,
used principally for lubricating high-speed metalworking machine spindles like
grinders. (NOTE: these machinery spindles are not to be confused with the mill
spindles that couple mill pinions to mill rolls; that application requires
completely different kinds of lubricants for the spindle carriers and the coupling
ends).

Spiral bevel gear (gears): quieter and stronger than the spur gear; assumes some
of the sliding action of a worm gear, but more than one tooth carries the load.

Splash lubrication: system in which parts of a mechanism dip into a lubricant

sump and splash the lubricant onto themselves and/or other parts of the
machine by mechanical or other means.

Split bearings: bearings divided into two parts that completely encircle the
journal when fitted together, often with shims on each side for adjustment or
fitting; can be adjusted to compensate for wear to the bearing or the journal, or
both, by removing shims or by filing to fit the two parts together to any desired
clearance.

Spun bearing: bearing of which the bearing material is centrifugally spun

instead of poured; this method of applying the material yields a finer grain and
better bonding of the bearing material to the shell or back.

Spun gear (gears): gear with a straight tooth parallel to the shaft axis, also
known as an involute gear.

Squeeze film: phenomenon occurring when two surfaces suddenly come

together, trapping the lubricant momentarily, as with gear teeth or rolling
element bearings; high fluid pressure develops in the film, raising its viscosity
and helping to keep the moving surfaces apart. This phenomenon also occurs
during elastrohydrodynamic lubrication.

SRV: a reciprocating test device for evaluating friction and wear.

Static friction: force just sufficient to initiate relative motion between two bodies
under load.

Static grounding: use of a grounded conductive material to prevent the

accumulation of static electric charges.

Static electricity: accumulated stationary electrical charges generated by friction.

Static transmitted load (gears): tangential pitch line force transmitted from one
gear to another without regard to dynamic efforts.

Stator: may refer to the stationary member in a steam turbine, a hydraulic

torque converter or the framework surrounding the armature of a direct current
motor or generator.

Steam refined: term applied to unfiltered residual cylinder oils from which
lighter fractions have been distilled by the direct application of steam.

Step bearing: plane-surface bearing that supports the lower end of a vertical
shaft.

Stick-slip (slip-stick): a condition occurring in slow moving or oscillating

sliding bearings under near boundary conditions, where there are fluctuations of
velocity and friction coefficients, including periods of static friction. It is a critical
factor in precision machine tool operations, where such conditions can result in
erratic motion and improper machining of parts.

STLE: Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (formerly, the American

Society of Lubrication Engineers, or ASLE).

Stoke: the standard unit of kinematic viscosity in the cgs system, expressed in
cm2/s.

Strainer filter: see oil strainer.

Stray mist suppressant: (ASTM D-3705) a polymer added to mist oils to reduce
the stray mist.

Strong acid/strong base numbers: (ASTM D-974) the quantity of acid or base,
expressed in equivalent numbers of milligrams of KOH, required to neutralize
strong acid (pH 4/g) or base (pH 11/g) constituents.
Stress concentration factor (gears): factor affecting beam strength, related to the
radius of the fillet at the tooth base; the larger the radius, the lower the stress
concentration.

Stub teeth (gears): gear teeth in which the working depth is less than 2.0
divided by normal diametral pitch.

Stuffing box: see packing box.

Subplate sections (lube systems): baseplates that support the working valve
sections of stackable subplate divider valves, containing internal porting, outlet
ports and tie bolt holes.

Sun gear: the center gear that remains in mesh with the planet gears (see
planetary transmission).

Surface finish: the surface roughness of a component as measured by a surface

profilometer.

Surface tension: the attractive force exerted by molecules below the surface
upon molecules at the surface/air interface. The strength of the surface tension
varies with the polarity of the liquid; high-polar substances like water have
higher surface tension than low-polar substances like organic solvents and oils.

Surfactant: any surface modifying material that imparts anti-wear, extreme

pressure or rust inhibition properties, spreadability, etc.

Surfactant (cleansers): a compound that reduces surface tension when dissolved

in water or aqueous solution, or that reduces interfacial tension between two
liquids or a liquid and a solid. The three types of surfactants are wetting agents,
detergents and emulsifiers.

Synthetic lubricants/fluids: man-made products created by chemically

combining specific compounds, producing substances with specialized
lubricating qualities to meet specific objectives. This group includes the
following subgroups: synthesized hydrocarbons, principally polyalphaolefin;
organic esters, e.g., the diesters and polyol esters; polyglycols, some of which are
used in water-glycol FR fluids; phosphate esters, FR fluids with good lubricating
characteristics; and others, e.g., silicones, silicate esters, polyphenyl esters and
fluorocarbons.

Tall oil: a natural mixture of rosin acids obtained by acidifying the black liquor
skimmings of the alkaline paper pulp industry. “Tall” is an abbreviation of the
Swedish word “tallolja”; meaning pine; the material was first investigated in
Sweden. Tall oil is used in the manufacture of cutting oils.

Tallow: animal fat prepared from beef and mutton, sometimes a combination of
solid and fluid fats; acidless tallow is used in the formulation of compounded
cylinder oils to increase wettability properties in the presence of steam. Ordinary
tallow contains 25% fatty acids; acidless tallow contains less than 0.5%.

Total acid number: (TAN): see neutralization number, strong acid/strong base
numbers.

Tapered pad/land bearing: a fixed pad (land) bearing in which the surfaces of
the pads are tapered to promote the establishment of a hydrodynamic film.

Tapping and plugging: refers to the use of a non-tapered tap, known as a

bottoming or plug tap, after starting threads with two previous tapered taps.

TBN: see neutralization number, strong acid/strong base numbers.

Tricresyl phosphate/TCP: a colorless liquid used as a lubricant additive and

plasticizer.

Teflon: polymer of tetrafluoroethene, also known as PRFE; material

trademarked by DuPont.

Temper oil/martempering oil: heavy mineral oil kept at relatively high

temperatures for long periods of time, suitable for tempering operations. Hot
metal is placed in a bath of oil, at a temperature of 400-600°F, after which the
metal and oil are permitted to cool slowly; in the alternative, the hot bath may be
used to heat the metal slowly and uniformly without oxidizing the surface.

Texture (grease): the property of a grease that is observed when a small portion
is compressed, then slowly drawn apart, described in the following terms: brittle,
tends to rupture or crumble when compressed; buttery, separates in short peaks
with no visible fibers; long fibers, tends to stretch or string out into a single
bundle of fibers; resilient, capable of withstanding moderate compression
without permanent deformation or rupture; short fiber, shows short break-off
with evidence of fibers; stringy, tends to stretch or string out into long threads
with no visible evidence of fibrous structure (see bulk appearance).

Thermal Gravimetric Analysis/TGA: a measure of weight loss under specific

conditions; normally, temperature is maintained (isothermal) or increased in an
atmosphere of nitrogen or oxygen; used to study oil volatility and oil residues,
for example, contaminated roll oils.

Thermal conductivity – a measure of a material’s ability to conduct heat

Thermal cracking: a process utilizing heat to break high molecular weight

substances into smaller units; facilitated in a controlled manner during refining
by the presence of a catalyst.

Thief (sample) Bomb: device for obtaining samples of liquid from different
depths in a tank.

Thin film/mixed film lubrication: a condition of lubrication in which the

lubricant film is so thin that the friction between the surfaces is determined by
the properties of the surfaces as well as the viscosity of the lubricant (see
boundary lubrication); also known as mixed film lubrication.

Thixotropy: the property of a material like lubricating grease that is manifested

by a softening in consistency as the result of shearing, followed by a hardening in
consistency that begins immediately after the shearing stops. With thixotropic
cleansers, shearing may occur with shaking, mixing, vibrating, pumping or
stirring.

Thread cutting oil: Petroleum based product formulated to cool and lubricate
the threading tools that produce external threads on metal rods or pipes. Single-
point tools can be used, but the majority of threading is performed by feeding
special threading dies into the workpiece until the desired length of thread is
reached.

Thrust bearing: an axial-load bearing.

Thrust collar: see collar thrust bearing.

Timken OK load: measure of the EP properties of a lubricant. The Timken

testing machine uses a lever arm that can be loaded to bring a stationary block to
bear against the rotating outer race of a bearing until scoring occurs. The
maximum load prior to scoring is called the OK load.

Tolerance: term describing deviation from the prescribed dimensional

specifications for bore, O.D. and ring widths of standard bearings; the slighter
the deviation, the smaller the tolerance and the closer the bearing comes to
precision. The Annular Bearing Engineering Committee has standardized the
tolerances for ball bearings, and the Roller Bearing Engineering Committee has
developed similar tolerances for roller bearings; higher numbers mean greater
precision.

Tooth depth (gears): sum of the addendum, dedendum and a small clearance
space.

Total acid/total base numbers: total acid number (TAN) and acid number are
synonymous, indicating the strong acid number values. Total base number
(TBN) reflects all basic constituents, including the strong base component (see
strong acid/base numbers).

TQIT: bearing manufacturers’ nomenclature describing tapered roll-neck,

interference-fit bearings used in high-speed, heavy-duty rolling mills where close
gauge and shape tolerances are required.

TQO: nomenclature used by tapered roller bearing manufacturers to denote the

straight-neck, loose-fit roller bearings used on heavy-duty, low-to-medium speed
rolling mills.

Traction fluids: fluids displaying high traction coefficients; under high stresses
they develop a glass-like structure, simultaneously transmitting shear forces and
protecting the contacting surfaces from wear. Cycloaliphatics are superior
traction fluids.
Tramp oil: describes undesired oil scum in a system, e.g., lubricants or hydraulic
fluids that mix with rolling oil systems in cold mill areas.

Transducer: an electrical device that converts a signal from one form of energy
to another.

Transformer oil: oil suitable for use in a transformer, to dissipate heat, keep the
insulation on the wire pliable and retard the oxidizing effect of the air. Since it
circulates between coils of wires that carry high-voltage currents, it must resist
the flow of current through it from one coil to another; otherwise, the
transformer short-circuits. Such resistance is termed dielectric strength; oil that
is extremely dry, clean and acid-free has high dielectric strength.

Transverse plane (gears): in helical gears, a cross-section (perpendicular) to the

line of action.

Tribology: the science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative motion

and associated subjects and practices. This term, first used in 1966, effectively
coordinates many technical disciplines such as chemistry, metallurgy, machine
design, lubrication engineering, etc., for solving friction and wear problems.
Trunnion: either of two opposite pivots or cylindrical projections from the sides
of an assembly, supported by bearings, that offer a means of swiveling or turning
an assembly or part of an assembly. Trunnion bearings are used with basic
oxygen furnaces.

Tung oil/chinawood oil: a drying oil from the seeds of tung trees that dries to a
soft, opaque white film.

Turbulent flow: characterizes flow in eddies and currents through a pipe, in

contrast to streamline, or laminar, flow; turbulent flow causes fluid friction loss.
Flow quality depends on a combination of factors; pipe diameter, fluid density,
viscosity and velocity.

Ultrasonic cleaning: sends high-pitched sound waves through a liquid solvent

to remove dirt, grease and small metal particles quickly and effectively from
small corners and crevices.

Unloading valve (hydraulics): a device that directs hydraulic fluid back to the
reservoir at low pressure when there is no demand on the system.

Unworked pen/penetration: (ASTM D-217) the penetration at 77°F of a sample

of grease that has experienced minimum handling in transfer to the test
apparatus and that has not been subjected to the action of a grease worker.

Vapor degreasing: cleaning procedure to remove oil, grease and lightly attached
solids from metals. An appropriate solvent, e.g., hexane or cleaners solvent, is
boiled; as the vapors condense on the metal surfaces, contaminants fall into the
reservoir.

Vapor phase corrosion inhibitors: fine, volatile powders made from stable
nitrites of organic amines that prevent rusting; after vaporizing, they are
adsorbed by metal surfaces. They are also marketed as treated papers; see VCI
paper.

Vapor pressure: measure of the volatility of a liquid at specified temperatures

and pressures (or vacuum).

Variable displacement pumps: pumps that can be adjusted to deliver a variable

volume while the speed remains constant.

Varnish: in lubrication, a deposit resulting from oxidation and polymerization

of fuels and lubricants; like lacquer, but softer.
Volatile corrosion-inhibiting (VCI) paper: corrosion-inhibiting papers and
films impregnated with vapor phase corrosion inhibitors to prevent corrosion of
ferrous and non-ferrous metals; may be used to wrap new parts to prevent
corrosion during storage or shipping (see vapor phase corrosion inhibitors).

Vegetable oils: oily fluids with varying percentages of fatty acids, obtained from
vegetable sources; examples are coconut oil, rapeseed oil, sunflower oil, crambe
oil, etc.

Vent valve (lube systems): device for relieving supply line pressure.

Venturi: tube, constricted at the middle and flared at both ends, in the pathway
of a fluid, to reduce fluid pressure in the constricted area.

Venturi meter: a form of flow measuring device containing no moving parts

that operates on the principle of velocity to pressure conversion with values
taken on each side of the venturi tube.

VI: see viscosity index.

Vibrational analysis: analytical method used to monitor bearing conditions

during operations.

Virgin oil: a fresh oil product not recycled or reclaimed.

Viscometer/viscosimeter: an apparatus for determining the viscosity of a fluid.

Viscosity: the property of a fluid, semi-fluid or semi-solid substance that causes

it to resist flow. Its numerical value is based on the ratio of shear stress to the
rate of shear during flow. The standard unit of absolute viscosity in the English
system is the reyn, expressed as lb-s/in.2. The standard unit of viscosity in the
cgs and ISO system is the poise, expressed as dyne-s/cm2. Conversion from one
system to the other is as follows:

reyn = poise X 1.45 X 10-5

poise = reyn X 6.895 X 104
centipoise = poise X 10-2
microreyn = reyn X 10-6
For Saybolt seconds, convert to centistokes, then to centipoise before converting
to reyns. Specific calculations are:
 cp = cSt X specific gravity
SUS – 180
cSt = 0.22 X
SUS
(see absolute viscosity, kinematic viscosity).

Viscosity Index/VI: common measure of changes in viscosity with temperature;

the higher the viscosity index, the smaller the relative change in viscosity with
temperature.

Volatile organic/VOC: as potential hazard or pollutant, applies to any carbon

compound that can be evaporated using standard test methods, except for
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, carbonic acid, metallic carbides or carbonates
and ammonium carbonate. Because of the complexities involved in measuring
VOC, no universal definition has been formulated. VOC control is often
enforced by local government agencies.

Volatility – the tendency of a fluid to evaporate. High evaporation rate means

high volatility.

Vapor phase inhibitor/VPI: corrosion inhibitor in the form of vapor, also

referred to as a vapor corrosion inhibitor (see VCI).

Waste yarn lubrication: lubrication system that delivers the lubricant to the
bearing and journal surface by the capillary action of an oil-soaked fibrous
material like yarn or textile waste, in contact with a relatively slow moving
journal. Like pad lubrication, this form of lubrication has been used in over-the-
road railway cars.

Waste, oily: term applied to all fuels, lubricants and petroleum products that
may cause environmental pollution because of leakage and spills or as part of
plant waste.

Water glycol: FT hydraulic fluid composed of water and one of the glycols.

Water resistance (grease): the ability of a lubricating grease to withstand the

addition of water to the lubricant system without adverse effects, generally rated
by the following criteria: washout resistance (ASTM D-1264); water absorption;
water corrosion resistance (ASTM D-1743) and water sprayoff resistance (ASTM
D-4049).

Wax: the aliphatic paraffin series of hydrocarbons with high boiling points and
high molecular weight; classes include paraffin (crystalline), microcrystalline and
petrolatum (amorphous and microcrystalline). Petrolatum is obtained from the
heavy residual stock; heavier grades are used for rust prevention and wire rope
lubrication (see petrolatum).

Wax appearance point – the temperature at which wax begins to precipitate out
of a distillate fuel.

Wear of metals – the loss of surface material due to motion between two surfaces
in contact.

Wetting agent (lubricants): an oiliness additive; an additive that adsorbs to

metal to enhance the spreading of a lubricant.

Wetting agent (cleansers): a surfactant that, added to water, causes the water to
spread more easily over the surface of another material. Wetting agents do not
usually impart any detergent or emulsifying properties to water.

White oils: light-colored, usually highly-refined mineral oils frequently

employed in pharmaceutical and medicinal preparation and used as bases for
creams, salves and ointments. White oil lubricants are used where color and/or
environmental concerns are important.

White petroleum jelly: the whitest grade of petrolatum.

Wick lubrication: lubrication system that uses a wick to deliver the lubricant to
the bearing surface.

Wiping: the smearing or removal of material from one point, often followed by
the redeposition of the material at another point, on the surfaces of two bodies in
sliding contact; a form of wear.

Worked penetration: (ASTM D-217) penetration of a sample of lubricating

grease immediately after it has been brought to 77°F and subjected to 60 strokes
in a standard grease worker.

Worm gear: a screw-thread-like gear consisting of worm and worm wheel; the
worm, made of steel, is the driving gear, and the worm wheel, made of non-
ferrous metal, is the driven gear. Worm drives have relatively low gear ratios.

Yarn: a fibrous material like wool, twisted into a loose thread and added to
greases for special applications.
Zahn viscometer: a crude funnel viscosity device for factory and laboratory use,
consisting of a wire bail that holds a cone-shaped cup with an orifice at the
bottom. After the cup is filled with the sample, the test consists of recording the
temperature and the time required for the test sample to flow from the filled cup.
Cups with orifices of various sizes are available.

Zinc dialkyl dithiophosphate/zinc diaryl dithiophosphate/ZDDP: a popular

anti-wear additive used in motor oils and hydraulic fluids; though it also has
oxidation inhibiting properties, it cannot be used in engines employing silver
bearings.

Zerk fitting: a common grease fitting, one of many types of fittings used in
lubrication and hydraulics).

ZN/P curve: a graphite representation of the effects of speed (N), load (P) and
viscosity on the coefficient of friction μ as a shaft rotates in a plain bearing. The
dimensionless equation states that the coefficient of friction μ is a function (f) of
the ratio (viscosity X speed)/load or μ = (f)ZN/P.
 Role of Lubrication in Reliability

1. The primary reason that machinery is replaced is due to?

A. Erosion
B. Accidents
C. Obsolesce
D. Surface Degradation

2. Benefits that arise from excellence and precision in lubrication practices would include?

A. Less downtime
B. Less cost of repairs
C. Improved product quality
D. All of the above

3. Which is not a Maintenance Strategy?

A. Proactive
B. Predictive
C. Preventative
D. Percussive

4. Reliability Centered Maintenance asks?

A. Is the asset centered and aligned?

B. Is the asset mission critical?
C. What tools are needed?
D. How many men are required to do the job?

5. Condition Based Maintenance

A. Is based on early detection of faults and failures

B. Is based on regular time based overhauls
C. Is based on run to failure
D. None of the above

6. Condition Based Maintenance

A. Does not relate to the condition of the equipment or oil

B. Is related to the condition of the test equipment
C. Includes both Proactive and Predictive Maintenance
D. Is a complete waste of time
7. Which is not a Predictive technology?

A. Wear Debris Analysis

B. Vibration
C. Thermography
D. Alignment

8. It is preferred to keep the oil

A. Clean, Dry and Hot

B. Clean, Dry and Cool
C. Clean, Aligned and Balanced
D. Dirty, Wet and Hot

9. The Pareto Principle states

A. The largest beneficial effect is obtained from the critical few

B. The largest beneficial effect is from the random many
C. All machines die sometime
D. All bearings live forever

10. Failure Modes Effects Analysis look at

A. Equipment Criticality
B. Lube-related Failure Modes
C. Possible Causes
D. All of the above

Lubrication Fundamentals
11. Which of the following is not a function of the lubrication film?

A. Cool Surfaces
B. Separate Surfaces
C. Prevent Corrosion
D. Repair Surfaces

12. A lubricant could be composed of?

A. Base Oil
B. Additive
C. Thickener
D. All of the above
13. Which is not a type of base oil?

A. Mineral
B. Synthetic
C. Antioxidant
D. Vegetable

14. Lubricating oil is?

A. One of the heavier components derived from crude oil

B. Not derived from crude oil
C. Removed in a ready to use form from the ground
D. The same as gas oil.

15. Which is not a refining technique?

A. Solvent Extraction
B. Hydrolysis
C. Hydrocracking
D. Hydrofinishing

16. Which is not a type of synthetic base oil?

A. Naphthenic
B. Polyester
C. Diester
D. POA

17. Benefits generally associated with the use of synthetics include?

A. Better Oxidation resistance

B. Compatibility with polymers
C. Less Toxicity
D. Higher cost

18. What is the key distinction between synthetic and mineral oil base stocks that enables the
synthetic to provide superior performance results?

A. Molecular Uniformity
B. Price
C. Age
D. Color
19. POA Oils

A. Offer the best high temperature stability

B. Are good for fire resistance
C. Are similar in structure to mineral oils
D. Are incompatible with mineral oils

20. Polyol Ester Oils

A. Offer high temperature stability

B. Are best for fire resistance
C. Are similar in structure to mineral oils
D. Are incompatible with mineral oils

21. Polyglycol Oils

A. Offer the best high temperature stability

B. Are good for fire resistance
C. Are similar in structure to mineral oils
D. Are incompatible with mineral oils

Additives and Their Functions

22. Additives characteristics could be broken down into which of the following categories?

A. Enhance existing base oil properties

B. Suppress undesirable base oil properties
C. Adds requirements that the oil cannot provide
D. All of the above

23. Which property is an example of a characteristic that is not a function of base oil, but is strictly
a function of an additive?

A. Flash Point
B. Extreme Pressure Protection
C. Pour Point
D. Oxidation Resistance

24. The amount of additive in a finished oil can range from?

A. 0.1 - 30%
B. 0 to only 10%
C. 10 – 50%
D. 1 to only 10%
25. Some additives have a polar (electrical) nature which

A. Suggests they are used for a low temperature improvement

B. Indicates that they are totally paraffinic
C. Helps the additive anchor to the metal surface and cling to particles and water droplets
D. Suggests they are dangerous to handle

26. The primary role of Oxidation inhibitors is to?

A. Prevent the formation of acids

B. Prevent viscosity increase
C. Minimize the effect of highly reactive molecules such as aromatics
D. Prevent corrosion

27. Which additive compounds (elements) are generally associated with EP and antiwear
additives?

A. Sulphur and Phosphorous

B. Calcium and Boron
C. Sodium and Potassium
D. Iron and Copper

28. Viscosity Index Improver additives

A. Lower the viscosity of the oil

B. Can break down and become ineffective
C. Help prevent oxidation which leads to viscosity changes
D. Are not really additives at all

29. EP and Anitwear additives

A. React within the bulk oil

B. Are used in the same oil formulations
C. Both react on the metal surface during boundary lubrication
D. Need some water present to function

30. Solid Additives

A. Can be suspended in the oil

B. Are used in greases
C. Can be coated to metal surfaces
D. All of the above
31. Additives can become depleted by

A. Sunlight
B. Decomposition, Separation and Adsorption
C. They are not depleted
D. High pressure

Lubricant Properties and Tests

32. Viscosity is the Most Important Property of a Lubricant

A. True
B. False
C. Only in Hydraulics
D. Only in Bearings

33. Viscosity is influenced by?

A. Temperature, Water, Contaminants, Chemical Changes

B. Temperature and Atmospheric Pressure
C. The volume of oil in the sump
D. The shape of the container

34. Viscosity is measured in?

A. Centistokes
B. Centipoise
C. SUS
D. All of the above

35. Which statement about viscosity grades is false?

A. An AGMA 4 is similar to an SAE 40

B. An ISO 100 is similar to an SAE 30
C. An ISO 68 is thicker than an SAE 40
D. An SAE 50 crankcase oil is similar to an SAE 90 gear oil

36. Viscosity Index is?

A. And instrument to measure viscosity

B. And index or unit of viscosity
C. An oil’s change in viscosity with pressure
D. An oil’s change in viscosity with temperature
37. Acid numbers and Base Numbers

A. Are reported in the same units

B. Can be run by color change method or an electronic (potentiometric) method
C. Each have several test methods so the method used must be stated
D. All of the above

38. Demulsibility of an oil is what?

A. Is the ability of the oil to release air

B. Is the ability of the oil to separate from water
C. Is the lowest temperature at which an oil will pour
D. Is the dispersany of particles within an oil

39. Which of the following is not an oxidation or thermal stability?

A. TOST test
B. RPVOT
C. 4 Ball test
D. Panel Coker Test

40. Which of the following is not an EP test?

A. 4 Ball
B. Timken
C. Falex Pin and V-Block
D. RPVOT

41. Which grease (grade) is harder/stiffer?

A. 0
B. 30
C. 3
D. 220

Lubricating Greases
42. Greases have the advantage of functioning well in?

A. Very high speed bearings

B. Frequent start-stop applications
C. The presence of other types of greases
D. Applications that require heat transfer and cooling
43. NLGI Stands for?

A. National Liver and Gizzards Institute

B. National Lubricating Grease Institute
C. Non-Leaded Gear Lubricant
D. None of the above

44. Grease is not composed of?

A. Additives
B. Base Oils
C. Thickeners
D. Sponges

45. Which is a non-soap type of grease thickener?

A. Lithium
B. Calcium
C. Organo-Clay (Bentone)
D. Aluminum

46. Which is the most common type of thickener?

A. Lithium
B. Calcium
C. Organo-Clay (Bentone)
D. Aluminum

47. What is the prime advantage to newer complex soap thickeners vs. older simple soap
thickeners?

A. Higher Cost
B. More appealing color
C. Harder grease
D. Higher dropping point and thus operating temperature

48. Compatibility of different greases

A. Is only a minor issue and often can be ignored

B. Is a major issue in grease selection
C. Is independent of the thickeners used
D. Can be linked to the age of the grease involved
49. Important factors when selecting a grease are the

A. The thickener viscosity and base oil type

B. The thickener type and color
C. Thickener type, the base oil type and viscosity
D. The base oil type and color

50. Automotive greases are classified by their?

A. Chassis and Wheel bearing performance

B. Differential and CVJ performance
C. Pin and Latch performance
D. Color

51. Which grease grade is used in centralized systems?

A. 6
B. 3
C. 2
D. 000-00

52. Which grease grade is used in some enclosed gearboxes?

A. 6
B. 3
C. 2
D. 000 –

53. Which grease grade represents the thickest grease by the NLGI standard

A. #8
B. #000
C. 90 weight
D. Brick grease

Friction, Wear and Lubrication Fundamentals

54. “The science of friction reduction by the application of a material to improve the smoothness of
movement of one surface over another”, is the definition of?

A. Lubrication
B. Tribology
C. Friction
D. Wear
55. Which should have the highest coefficient of friction?

A. Fluid Friction
B. Rolling friction
C. Sliding dry friction
D. They are all the same

56. Cold welding and scuffing are characteristics of?

A. Adhesion
B. Abrasion
C. Fatigue
D. Cavitation

57. Scratching and scoring are characteristics of?

A. Adhesion
B. Abrasion
C. Fatigue
D. Cavitation

58. Bubble collapse is characteristics of?

A. Adhesion
B. Abrasion
C. Fatigue
D. Cavitation

59. Plowing, cutting, gouging and broaching are synonyms of what kind of wear?

A. Corrosion
B. Erosion
C. Adhesion
D. Abrasion

60. Galling, scuffing, seizing and severe sliding are synonyms of what kind of wear?

A. Corrosion
B. Erosion
C. Adhesion
D. Abrasion
61. Which is not considered an “oil” (fluid) film?

A. Solid Suspension Film

B. Hydrodynamic
C. Elasto-hydrodynamic
D. All of the above

62. In a hydrodynamic oil film, the lubricant

A. Forms an oil wedge that separates surfaces

B. Only exists when the components are in contact
C. Exists primarily in Rolling contacts
D. None of the above

63. In an elasto-hyrodynamic oil film (EHL), the lubricant

A. Forms an oil wedge that separates surfaces

B. Exists primarily in Rolling contacts
C. Deposits a solid layer of wear resistant material during operation
D. None of the above

64. EHL is considered to occur primarily in?

A. Piston rings and liners

B. Journal bearings
C. Rolling bearings, gears and cams
D. Slow moving pins and bushings.

65. The oil film thickness in dynamic clearances in operating machines

A. Are the same as the machining clearance units (thousandths)

B. Are larger than the machining clearance
C. Are smaller than the machining clearance units
D. Are not measurable

66. Which factor is important in establishing a hydrodynamic film between two surfaces?

A. Speed
B. Load (pressure)
C. Viscosity
D. All of the above
Lubrication Delivery Methods

67. Airline Oilers and mist lubricators

A. Both operate at high pressures

B. Both atomize oil into the air stream and create an oil fog
C. Are maintenance free
D. All of the above

68. Constant Level Oilers

A. Work through capillary action

B. Can not be set to the wrong oil level
C. Prevent water contamination of the oil
D. Should be set with the oil level half way up the lower rollers on bearings

69. Continuous Circulation Systems

A. Typically will have a pump and filtration system

B. Are fail safe and will always supply oil to the application
C. Are pressurized so water and dirt can not enter the system
D. Can be used with grease in some circumstances

70. A wet sump application is one where the lubricant is contained

A. In an automatic delivery system

B. In a separate tank adjacent to the equipment
C. In the same reservoir where the components are contained
D. None of the above

71. Single-Line Progressive systems

A. Cannot be used to distribute grease products

B. Re-circulate the grease for further use
C. Can only be used on automotive applications
D. Have injectors (metering valves) that fire progressively in sequence

72. A common problem with grease gun lubrication is?

A. Overgreasing
B. Keeping the gun and fittings clean
C. Blowing out seals
D. All of the above
73. Oil draining best practices should include which of the following:

A. Drain the equipment when the sump has cooled to room temperature
B. Replace the breather filter after draining the reservoir
C. Filter the oil as it is pumped in to a waste container
D. Inspect the reservoir for bottom sediment and sludge

74. Oil flushing best practices should include which of the following:

A. Use a mild solvent to flush the system if sludge and oxidation byproducts are found on
non-contact surfaces
B. Flush the system if more than 50% of the old lubricant remains behind
C. Install new filters at the beginning of the flush process
D. All of the above

75. Lubricant refilling best practices should include which of the following:

A. Use a filter cart to charge the system if possible

B. Circulate the oil 6-7 times through an off-line filter following the sump fill
C. Check the oil level in the sump after the equipment begins operation
D. All of the above

76. A condition based oil change is based on?

A. Age of the lubricant

B. Operating hours on the lubricant
C. Condition of the lubricant
D. Condition of the filters

77. Factors considered in determining a condition based changed interval could include?

A. Condition of the base oil

B. Oxidation Stability
C. Additive integrity
D All of the above

78. Which of the following would be considered a gravity feed lubrication method?

A. Bottle Oiler
B. Grease gun
C. Paint Brush
D. Oil Mist
79. Which of the following is considered a total loss lubrication method?

A. Hand Applied – gun or brush

B. Bottle Oiler
C. Mist/Spray system
D. All of the above

80. Grease guns can generate up to what pressure?

A. 200 psi
B. 2,000 psi
C. 15,000 psi
D. 200,000 psi

81. The proper time to drain a gearbox is when?

A. At the end of the shift

B. At the end of the day
C. At the first opportunity after it is shut down
D. While it is still hot from operation

82. It is appropriate to open and clean a reservoir when?

A. Sludge and deposits are detected at the oil drain

B. Cleaning has not been performed in the last two oil changes
C. In very large systems where it is impractical to flush
D. All of the above

83. At least, how many times should the volume of the oil in the sump be circulated through a filter
cart?

A. 2 times
B. 4 times
C. 6 times
D. 8 times

Lubrication Contamination Control

84. Common contaminants within lubrication systems could include

A. Heat
B. Air
C. Moisture
D. All of the above
85. Contaminant degradation effects include

A. Viscosity change
B. Additive depletion
C. Oxidation
D. All of the above

86. Silt size particles influence reliability by

A. Altering the design load characteristics

B. Silt does not effect machine reliability
C. Silt is not a particle
D. None of the above

87. The ISO solid contaminant code

A. Was developed as a means to characterize the chemical composition of debris found in

the lubricant
B. Is useful as a means to characterized the concentration of particle solid debris
per gallon of lubricant
C. Is useful as a means to characterized the concentration of particle solid debris per
milliliter lubricant
D. Is the most useful condition based measure to gauge oil life

88. The ISO solid contaminant code

A. Can be used to set contamination control limits for lubricant sumps

B. Can be used to communicate effectively regarding changes in solid material
contamination
C. Can be used to gauge the effectiveness of filters if done properly
D. All of the above

89. Moisture Contamination

A. Can never be controlled within the lubricant

B. Is only relevant for lubricants used in air lines
C. Can exist in one of 3 states
D. None of the above

90. Moisture Contamination

A. Is only identifiable when the vapor forms a cloud

B. Is most harmful in the free state
C. Can inflict damage on components well before the condition is visually observable
D. Is most severe with new, R&O circulating (Turbine) oils
91. Moisture in a lubricant can lead to machine damage due to

A. Increase in corrosive activity

B. Increase in cavitation
C. Loss of film strength
D. All of the above

92. Moisture does not exist in the lubricant in which of the following ways?

A. Free
B. Dissolved
C. Emulsified
D. Petrified

93. What % of rolling bearing life can be lost before the lubricant develops a cloudy appearance?

A. 0.25
B. 0.5
C. 0.75
D. Cannot be determined without more information

94. The best place to install a filter to achieve low cost dirt removal is

A. At the system pump suction

B. After the system pump
C. In front of the mechanical components
D. In an off-line (kidney-loop) system

95. Vacuum dehydration is a good option for dehydrating oil

A. This method also vacuums up small particles

B. This method maintains a vacuum that prevents buildup of moisture in the future
C. This method boils the water off at relatively low temperatures
D. All of the above

Handling, Storage and Management

96. A typical ISO cleanliness code for new oils would be?

A. 7/5
B. 12/10
C. 18/15
D. 30/27
97. It is a good idea to filter new oil before putting it into service when

A. The container has been opened without protection from caps or breathers
B. High oil cleanliness is required for the machine
C. Product has been stored for a long time
D. All of the above

98. Lubricant shelf life limits

A. Are rigorously controlled by manufacturers

B. Get longer over time
C. Are about 10 years
D. Vary according to the type of lubricant and the type of storage

99. The best practice for storing drums of lubricants would be?

A. Indoors (Climate Controlled) and covered

B. Outdoors and covered
C. Outdoors and uncovered
D. There is no best practice

100. When storing lubricants outside, it is best to

A. Store vertically (drum lid facing up) in the open sunlight

B. Sore tilted at an able to avoid water accumulation at the opening
C. Stored horizontally (drum on its side) and covered
D. None of the above

101. Features that should be considered for a lubricant supplies locker could include

A. A deadbolt lock
B. Good ventilation
C. Clearly marked lubricant dispensers
D. All of the above

102. Best practices for top-up containers could include

A. Always use closeable galvanized containers

B. Dedicated containers, by class of service
C. Containers should always be stored out in the open, in well ventilated and easily
accessible areas
D. Lubricants should be stored at the machine location
103. Best practices for grease storage states that

A. Use the oldest container first

B. Wipe off the edges of a container before opening it to avoid intrusion of dirt
C. Clean grease handling tools before using them to remove grease
D. All of the above

104. It is best to fill large reservoirs

A. With the use of an oil pump through quick disconnect couplings

B. By pouring the lubricant directly into the top of the reservoir
C. By pouring the lubricant through a funnel
D. By using a chain hoist

105. How much does a full drum of oil weigh (approx.)

A. 200 lb
B. 300 lb
C. 400 lb
D. 500 lb

106. Which of the following items should be found in a reservoir tagging program

A. Equipment Name or ID
B. Lubricant Name or ID
C. Volume of application
D. All of the above

107. Lube tags are not recommended for which of the following applications?

A. Used oil storage

B. On portable handling containers
C. On machine reservoirs
D. On primary and secondary storage containers

108. Which of the following would not be considered a grease storage best practice?

A. Use the newest container first

B. Wipe of the edges of the container before opening it
C. Keep containers tightly closed while not in use
D. Store the grease in a cool, dry indoor place where contaminants are at a minimum.
Leakage Stability
109. Leakage can be caused by?

A. Low system pressure

B. Design/Selection (seals, moving elements) Manufacturing, Operation, maintenance
C. Too fast of a bearing speed
D. Poor planning
110. Leakage can be detected by

A. Low system pressure

B. Visual Inspection
C. Low Flow
D. All of the Above

111. The largest cause of seal failure and thus leakage is?

A. Dithering
B. Seal Aging
C. Oil Contamination
D. Temperature

112. Leakage control is a matter of

A. Recognition, control and maintaining the amount within limits

B. Carelessness
C. Controlling the Machine
D. Perseverance

How to Grease a Bearing

113. What basic information do we need prior to lubricating a rolling bearing?

1) Weight of the Bearing 2) Size of the Bearing 3) Speed of Bearing
4) Type of Bearing

A. 1, 2, 3 & 4
B. 1,2 & 3
C. 2, 3 & 4
D. 2&3

114. Journal Bearings

A. Are made of chromium to make them hard and resistant to wear

B. Are made of both hard and soft materials
C. Are shaped to fit the rolling ball
D. Operate in elastohydrodynamic lubrication phase
115. Rolling bearings consist of?

A. Tilting pads to accommodate the load

B. Flat pads to support the load
C. Wedge shaped elements
D. Balls, tapered rollers or spherical (barrel shaped) elements

116. Plain bearings can have the following lubrication problems

A. Oil viscosity too high

B. Oil viscosity too low
C. Excessive load for the lubricant in use
D. All of the above

117. The nDm value of a bearing is useful to help the user determine whether or not the bearing
should be

A. Lubricated with oil or grease

B. Sealed (not re-lubricated while in service)
C. Lubricated with dry lubricants
D. Not lubricated

118. The nDm value of a bearing is related to the bearing

A. Temperature
B. Weight
C. Grease Volume
D. Speed

119. The nDm Value applies to which type of bearing?

A. Rolling
B. Journal
C. Tilt Pad
D. Only Cylindrical Bearings

120. Roller element bearings experience what type of lubrication film?

A. Hydrodynamic
B. Elasto-hydrodynamic
C. Plastic Flow
D. Electro Kinetic
121. A high speed rolling bearing should be repacked with grease only to

A. 10% of its volume

B. 15 - 30% of its volume
C. 50 -7 5% of its volume
D. 100% of its volume

Lubrication of Gearing
122. Which of these numbers reflects the AGMA viscosity grading approach?

A. 220 cSt
B. 1050 SUS
C. 90
D. 5

123. The pinion is?

A. The bull gear

B. The driven gear
C. The driving gear
D. Not a gear at all

124. Gear oils need to provide

A. The correct water content

B. The correct film strength and load capacity
C. The correct Aniline concentration
D. The right amount of foam for cooling

125. Contacting gears (spur gears)

A. Roll at the root and tip

B. Roll at the Pitchline
C. Slide at the Pitchline
D. Slide at the Root only

126. Gearbox breathers should be fitted with?

A. Filters and desiccant materials

B. Wire mesh screens
C. Caps to prevent dirt from entering
D. All of the above
127. Operating / moving open gears should be inspected using?

A. Just the naked eye

B. A strobe lamp
C. A solvent to remove the black gear compound
D. A magnifying device

128. Polyglycol based synthetic oils are particularly recommended for?

A. Spur gears
B. Herringbone gears
C. Worm gears
D. Hypoid gears

129. The additive system typically used for industrial EP gear oils is?

A. ZDTP
B. Sulphurized Fat
C. Moly
D. Sulphur-Phosphorous

130. The ISO viscosity grades most commonly used for indoor, industrial, medium speed gear
systems are?

A. 32 – 68
B. 150 – 220
C. 40 – 50
D. 460 – 680

131. GL-5 is

A. A mobile hydraulic & gear spec

B. An R&O oil
C. An automotive manual gear oil designation
D. A worm gear designation

132. Generally, gears should never be lubricated with

A. A 15 cSt hydraulic oil

B. A grease
C. An R&O Oil
D. A polyglycol oil
Hydraulic Fluids and Systems
133. The oil reservoir in a hydraulic system

A. Allows water to settle out

B. Provides cooling
C. Allows debris to settle out
D. All of the above

134. Which is not a type of valve used in hydraulic systems?

A. Directional
B. Flow
C. Axial
D. Pressure Relief

135. Which is not a fire resistant hydraulic fluid type?

A. Oil in Water
B. Water in Oil
C. Invert Emulsion
D. Polyglycol

136. Which ISO viscosity grades are commonly used in hydraulic systems?

A. 3.2 – 6.8
B. 32 – 68
C. 320 – 680
D. None of the above

137. Which commonly used hydraulic pump is capable of the highest pressures?

A. Gear
B. Vane
C. Piston
D. Diaphragm

138. Which commonly used hydraulic pump is most tolerant of dirt contamination and therefore
used in many mobile applications?

A. Gear
B. Vane
C. Piston
D. Diaphragm
139. Synthetic hydraulic fluids are used because they?

A. Provide good low temperature performance

B. Can be biodegradable
C. Can be fire resistant
D. All of the above

140. Hydraulics best practices state that?

A. 3 micron filters must be used

B. Tank air breathers filter pore size should match oil filter port size
C. Strainers must be 50 mesh
D. All of the above

141. Hydraulics best practices state that?

A. One oil sampling port is adequate

B. The reservoir will catch all of the important debris after a repair
C. Flushing should be performed on new systems and after major repairs
D. All of the above

Internal Combustion Engines

142. API stands for?

A. American Petrochemical Institute

B. American Petroleum Institute
C. Automotive Parts Inventory
D. Automotive Physics Institute

143. SAE stands for?

A. Society of American Engineers

B. Society of Automotive Engineers
C. Society of American Electrical Standards
D. Standard of Automotive Employees

144. An oil designated as “SL” has been tested and is suitable for which type of engine?

A. Gasoline
B. Diesel
C. Natural Gas
D. Two Stroke
145. An oil designated as “CI-4” has been tested and is suitable for which type of engine?

A. Gasoline
B. Diesel
C. Natural Gas
D. Two Stroke

146. Exhaust Gas Recirculation is used on diesel engines to?

A. Reduce soot from going into the engine oil

B. Extend oil drain intervals
C. Reduce NOx emissions
D. Increase Horsepower

147. Which is not a major harmful contamination in engine oils?

A. Water
B. Dirt
C. Glycol
D. Silicon sealant

148. Best practices for engine lubrication calls for?

A. Oil Sampling Ports

B. 5 Micron filters
C. Maintain coolant
D. Monitor oil temperature

149. Best practices for air intake systems suggest that most inexpensive air filters that we buy
are?

A. Rated around 30 microns

B. Rated around 10 microns
C. Are very good
D. Can be thrown away because they are so poor

Lubrication of Compressors

150. During the compression of gas

A. The gas is heated

B. The gas is cooled
C. The gas does not undergo any change
D. The gas is expanded
151. Which is not a type of positive displacement compressor?

A. Reciprocating
B. Screw
C. Vane
D. Axial

152. Which type of compressor creates the compression by imparting velocity to the gas?

A. Reciprocating
B. Screw
C. Vane
D. Axial

153. If temperature is a concern in compressor lubrication, this can effect (result in) what?

A. Oil oxidation
B. Carbon deposits
C. Water condensation
D. All of the above

154. Which type of oil is not used in compressors?

A. ATF, Automatic Transmission Fluid

B. Engine Oils
C. EP Oils
D. Synthetic Oils

155. In refrigeration systems

A. The oil and refrigerant will never come into contact with each other
B. The oil and refrigerant will come into contact with each other
C. The refrigerant and oil do not need to be compatible
D. The compressors are dry screws which do not need oil

156. Best practices for compressor lubrication states what?

A. Temperatures should be checked regularly

B. Oil changes should be made on condition at recommended intervals
C. Intake air filters must be clean and changed based on restriction
D. All of the above
Lubrication of Turbines
157. Turbines can be powered by what?

A. Water, steam & combustion gases

B. Water and steam only
C. Steam only
D. Natural gas only

158. Turbines are often used to drive what?

A. Pump, generators and diesel engines

B. Pumps, generators and compressors
C. Small chemical injection pumps
D. Natural gas engines

159. Steam turbine oils are required to do what?

A. Emulsify with the water generated

B. Have very high viscosity to overcome the heat of the steam
C. Demulsify from the water generated
D. With stand temperatures up to 1000 0F

160. Steam turbine oils are what?

A. Always non-EP
B. Always EP type oils
C. May be either non-EP or EP
D. Antiwear type oils

161. One of the main tests to determine the performance of a steam turbine oil is?

A. Timken Test
B. TOST Test
C. 4 Ball Test
D. Denison hydraulic pump test

162. Aviation-type gas turbines typically use which type of oil?

A. Mineral
B. PAO
C. Polyglycols
D. Polyolesters
163. A hydraulic turbine is driven by what?

A. A hydraulic pump
B. Water
C. Water condensed from steam
D. A hydraulic ram

Oil Analysis for Machine Condition Monitoring

164. Monitoring Acid Number/Base Number, soot, glycol and RPVOT is related to which
maintenance strategy?

A. Proactive
B. Predictive
C. Preventative
D. Run-to-Failure

165. Monitoring wear debris by elemental analysis is related to which maintenance strategy?

A. Proactive
B. Predictive
C. Preventative
D. Run-to-Failure

166. Particle counting tells us primarily about?

A. Fluid properties
B. Contamination
C. Wear Debris
D. All of the above

167. Sampling a wet sump gearbox with an oil circulation system should be done where?

A. Upstream of the Filter (before the filter), downstream of the pump

B. Upstream of the Pump (before the pump)
C. Downstream of the filter (after…)
D. From the sump

168. Sampling for wear metals in a large multicomponent circulating system, with a reservoir,
should be done where?

A. Upstream of the Filter (before the filter), downstream of the pump

B. Upstream of the Pump (before the pump)
C. Downstream of the filter (after…)
D. Downstream of the working parts (after…)
169. The benefit that is achieved with the use of a hard piped sampling valve (mini-mess) is?

A. Dead volume is minimized

B. Flushing is easy to do
C. Sampling is clean due to the threaded dust cap
D. All of the above

170. Which of the following contributes to poor quality and unreliable oil analysis data?

A. Sampling from drain ports

B. Sampling from cold systems
C. Sampling after an oil change
D. All of the above

171. After some possible initial change, as oil ages, the Acid Number of an oil generally trends in
which direction?

A. Down
B. Up
C. Stays very flat
D. None of the above

172. After some possible initial change, as oil ages, the Base Number of an oil generally trends in
which direction?

A. Down
B. Up
C. Says very flat
D. None of the above

173. After some possible initial change, as oil ages, the Viscosity of an oil generally trends in
which direction?

A. Down
B. Up
C. Says very flat
D. None of the above

174. Upper and Lower Limits are needed on which oil analysis test results?

A. Acid Number
B. Base Number
C. Viscosity
D. Flash Point
175. Which of the following methods is used strictly for analyzing wear debris (as opposed to
detecting wear debris)?

A. Particle Count
B. Spectrographic Elemental Analysis
C. Ferrous Density
D. Analytical Ferrography

176. Which of the following methods does not provide any information about the size or shape of
wear debris?

A. Particle Count
B. Spectrographic Elemental Analysis
C. Ferrous Density
D. Analytical Ferrography

177. Which test is not practical to run on-site, as a field oil analysis test?

A. Viscosity
B. Particle Contamination (Patch Test)
C. Acid Number
D. Wear Metals (Spectrographic Analysis)

178. Visual inspection of machinery can indicate what?

A. Excessive water and foaming

B. Excessive heat
C. Neither A or B
D. Both A & B

179. Inspection of used filter elements

A. Is useless
B. Should only be done by highly trained lab technicians
C. Can provide useful information about wear debris
D. Costs too much money

180. Magnetic plug inspections can indicate?

A. Iron wear rates

B. Water concentrations
C. Copper wear rates
D. None of the above
181. Visually checking the color of a used oil sample can indicate what?

A. Oxidation
B. Soot
C. Water contamination
D. All of the above

182. The smell of used oil sample can indicate what?

A. High temperature exposure

B. Water contamination
C. High wear debris
D. A recent oil top-up

183. Listening to a piece of machinery can indicate what?

A. A failing bearing
B. Hydraulic cavitation
C. Neither A or B
D. Both A & B

Oil Sampling
184. Sampling crankcase oil from an engine should be done from where?

A. Through the dipstick hole

B. From the filter housing
C. Off an elbow, after the pump, before the filter
D. From the drain plug

185. The concentration of wear debris

A. Always increases throughout the oil circulating system

B. Varies throughout the oil circulation system
C. Always decreases throughout the oil circulating system
D. Is constant throughout the system

186. Live zone sampling means what?

A. Always use a live piece of equipment to take the sample

B. Take a sample from along a straight piece of pipe in laminar flow
C. Take a sample from an elbow in turbulent flow
D. Take a sample hot
187. Which hardware is the poorest to use for sampling pressurized lines?

A. A long deadleg of piping with a plug at the end.

B. Portable female quick connect with a ball valve
C. Ball valve off an elbow
D. Minimess (Stauff) off of an elbow

188. Vacuum samplers are needed where?

A. On return lines, with sample traps

B. From unpressurized sumps
C. From pressure lines
D. Both A & B

189. Off-line (kidney-loop) sampling should be taken where?

A. Upstream of the Filter (before the filter), downstream of the pump

B. Upstream of the Pump (before the pump)
C. Downstream of the filter (after…)
D. From the sump

190. Sampling non-circulating, splash/bath machine sumps is best done by?

A. Drain plug removal

B. Using a flexible, drop-tube, vacuum sample
C. Obtaining a mid oil level sample from a fixed rigid tube within the sump
D. Off-line sampling

191. Drop-tube vacuum sampling of reservoirs and tanks is best done how?

A. Off the bottom of the tank

B. Right at the oil return line, back into the tank
C. Right at the oil suction line, exiting the tank
D. From the top layer of the oil in the tank where water and dirt have settled out

192. Oil sampling frequencies are affected by what?

A. Machinery Age
B. Cost
C. Fluid (oil) age
D. All of the above
Field Test, On-Site Oil Analysis
193. Which statement is incorrect regarding patch filter tests for solid contaminants?

A. Patch tests use very fine micron filters

B. Patch tests are substitutes for particle counting
C. Patch tests can be done directly on-line or in a lab
D. Patch discoloration defines overall particle concentration

194. A crackle test can only detect water above?

A. 10ppm
B. 100ppm
C. 1000ppm
D. 10,000ppm

195. Water separation from oil (Demulsibility)

A. Can be determined with a kitchen blender

B. Can not be determined in the field
C. Can be determined using a patch test
D. Is not important enough to worry about with a field test

196. Glycol antifreeze field test kits can determine what?

A. Determine glycol by density

B. Determine glycol by a chemical change
C. Determine glycol by FTIR
D. Determine glycol by viscosity

197. The blotter test is primarily used to detect what?

A. Silicon sealant
B. Viscosity increase
C. Particulates/soot
D. Air entertainment
 Answer Key

Role of Lubrication in Reliability

1. D
2. D
3. D
4. B
5. A
6. C
7. D
8. B
9. A
10. D

Lubrication Fundamentals

11. D
12. D
13. C
14. A
15. B
16. A
17. A
18. A
19. C
20. A
21. D

Additives and Their Functions

22. D
23. B
24. A
25. C
26. C
27. A
28. B
29. C
30. D
31. B
Lubricant Properties and Tests

32. A
33. A
34. D
35. C
36. D
37. D
38. B
39. C
40. D
41. C

Lubricating Greases

42. B
43. B
44. D
45. C
46. A
47. D
48. B
49. C
50. A
51. D
52. D
53. B
Friction Wear and Lubrication
Fundamentals

54. A
55. C
56. A
57. B
58. D
59. D
60. C
61. A
62. A
63. B
64. C
65. C
66. D

Lubrication Delivery Methods

67. B
68. D
69. A
70. C
71. D
72. D
73. A
74. D
75. D
76. C
77. D
78. A
79. D
80. C
81. D
82. D
83. C

Lubrication Contamination Control

84. D
85. D
86. D
87. C
88. D
89. C
90. C
91. D
92. D
93. C
94. D
95. C

Handling, Storage and Management

96. C
97. D
98. D
99. A
100. B
101. D
102. B
103. D
104. A
105. C
106. D
107. A
108. A

Leakage Stability

109. B
110. D
111. C
112. A

How to Grease a Bearing

113. C
114. B
115. D
116. D
117. A
118. D
119. A
120. B
121. B
Lubrication of Gearing

122. D
123. C
124. B
125. B
126. A
127. B
128. C
129. D
130. B
131. C
132. A

Hydraulic Fluids and Systems

133. D
134. C
135. D
136. B
137. C
138. A
139. D
140. B
141. C

Internal Combustion Engines

142. B
143. B
144. A
145. B
146. C
147. D
148. B
149. A

Lubrication of Compressors

150. A
151. D
152. D
153. D
154. C
155. B
156. D

Lubrication of Turbines

157. A
158. B
159. C
160. C
161. B
162. D
163. B

Oil Analysis for Machine Condition

Monitoring
Lubrication of Compressors

164. A
165. B
166. B
167. A
168. D
169. D
170. D
171. B
172. A
173. B
174. C
175. D
176. B
177. D
178. D
179. C
180. A
181. D
182. A
183. D

Oil Sampling

184. C
185. B
186. C
187. A
188. D
189. A
190. C
191. B
192. D

Field Tests, On Site Oil Analysis

193. B
194. C
195. A
196. B
197. C