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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 1
Completion and Workover Fluid Basics Sea/Bay Waters
Introduction Sea/bay waters are readily available in coastal areas. Sodium chloride
Completion and Work over represent the final phase of well construction (NaCl) and potassium chloride (KCl) may be added to adjust weight and
before production and for maintenance of a well during its productive inhibit clay swelling. All fluids should be checked for:
life.
• Solids contamination
These operations can be grouped into three sections:
• Completion - Referred to as primary or initial completion of • Possible introduction of bacteria
the formation in a well bore. (Can also be referred to in • Dissolved mineral or solids which may precipitate as insoluble
sidetrack operations when completing the same or different substances
zone aside from the original well bore path)
• Re-Completion - Completing a new (usually higher zone) in Formation Water
the original well bore path (Can also refer to sidetrack Formation water is commonly used as a work over fluid because it is
operations) cost efficient and it minimizes clay swelling, dispersion, and migration.
• Work Over - Performing repair or restoration to the existing Formation water is often considered a clean and ready to use fluid;
producing zone
however, this is frequently not the case. Formation water often contains
Note: Re-Completion and work over are terms that are often used a number of impurities and checks must be made for:
interchangeably. • Solids contamination
• Paraffin’s and asphaltenes
Fluids • Treating chemicals
Purpose • Compatibility with the zone of interest
Completion and work over fluids are used to increase the productivity of
wells by reducing damage to the producing zone. Drilling and
Brine fluids
Completion fluids are both used during Completion and Work Over to
Brine salts used in completion and work over can be classified as having
prepare, repair, clean out and complete the well bore. The selection and
sequence of use are based on formation damage potential, operational either monovalent or divalent cations. As a general rule monovalent and
and economic needs. divalent salts are not mixed together. There are a few exceptions, e.g.,
KCl/CaCl2 & NaBr/ZnBr2.
Three Primary Operational Groups
• Drilling Fluids
• Dril-N Fluids Monovalent solutions Divalent solutions
• Completion Fluids Organic & Inorganic
Completion and work over base fluids can be categorized as: Ammonium chloride
Sodium chloride
• Water-Based Systems
Sodium bromide
• Brine-Based Systems Calcium chloride
Sodium formate
• Oil-Based Systems Calcium bromide
Potassium chloride
• Synthetic-Based Systems Zinc bromide
Potassium bromide
Potassium formate
Cesium formate
Water Based Systems
Water based systems are used for Drilling Fluids and certain Dril-N Monovalent and divalent solutions: Monovalent solutions contain
compositions. Drilling fluids are used in Completion/Workover when well sodium and potassium & cesium; divalent solutions contain calcium and
bore clean out and/or well bore extension/side track are necessary. In zinc. (Sea Water and Formation waters are mildly divalent)
Mono & Divalent Fluids
some wells where sand control is not an issue and no specialized zone
Monovalent salts and some two salt solutions (NaCl/KCl, NaCl/NaBr,
work is needed, WBM can be used through the completion process and KBr/KCl & NaBr/KBr) can be blended as single salt solutions to a
is sometimes specially treated and used as a packer fluid. maximum of 13 lb/gal. Cesium formate can be blended to higher
Water base systems can consist of: densities up to 19.7 lb/gal.
• Lignosulfonate Weight adjustment of monovalent salts is accomplished by addition of
sack salts or water. In some instances it may be practical to blend a
• High & Low Lime
solution of a monovalent salt to/or near saturation and use the resultant
• PHPA spike fluid as a weight adjustment medium.
• MMH Divalent salts can be blended as single or multiple salt solutions.
• Silicate Maximum density possible is 20.5 lb/gal. Density is adjusted by the
• Foam/Aerated addition of sack divalent salts or divalent salt solution. Water can be
used to adjust CaCl2, but should never be used with any fluid density
• K-Lig
higher than 11.6 lb/gal.
• Cationic Polymer
Note: Zinc fluids above 19.2 lb/gal are extremely acidic and require
Clear-fluid Systems special handling. Zinc fluids above 19.2 are used in special
Clear fluid systems include: circumstances only.
• Sea/bay waters
Addition of water to divalent salt solutions above 11.6 lb/gal is very cost
• Formation water
ineffective and can actually cost more than the use of a fluid solution.
• Brine fluids Insoluble precipitants can form in the fluid with the addition of water
especially in fluids containing zinc.
Note: Formation, sea and bay waters are mildly divalent solutions.
These fluids should never be used to reduce weight in a divalent salt
solution, nor should divalent salts be added to sea/bay waters. Sea/bay
waters contain an abundance of dissolved minerals that frequently react
and precipitate out as solids.
1
The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 2
Brine Densities Oil-based systems
Comparative densities of solids-free completion fluids
Comparative densities of solids-free completion fluids Oil-based systems can consist of
20.5 (2.46) • Crude oil
19.7 (2.36) • Diesel oil
19.2 (2.30)
• Mineral oil
Crude Oil
Crude can be used, as a completion fluid but is not suitable for a drilling
Density in lb/gal
15.4 (1.85)
15.1 (1.81) or Dril-N fluid.
Potential risks are:
13.3 (1.60) • Crude oil has low viscosity, a limited carrying capacity, and no
12.7 (1.53) gel strength.
11.8 (1.42)
11.5 (1.38)
• Fluid loss to the formation is not harmful to clay hydration and
CaCl 2 /CaBr 2
solids can enter the formation.
NaBr 2 /NaCl
10.0 (1.20)
Na formate
Cs formate
K formate
NaCl/KCl
KBr/KCl
9.7 (1.16)
Crude oil should be checked for:
CaBr 2
ZnBr 2
CaCl 2
NaCl
NCl
Specialty Base
Specialty based systems are suitable for drilling fluid application.
They are composed of organic extracts and or hydrocarbon fractions
such as paraffin.
2
The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 3
Formation Damage Location of clays in sandstones
Formation damage is the reduction of permeability in a reservoir rock • Pore filling
caused by the invasion of fluid(s) and/or solid(s) to the section adjacent • Pore lining
to the well bore (In some condition sets, can extend outward some • Grain attachment
• Streaks or laminates
distance from the well bore).
• Structural
Reduction of permeability is any type of restriction in the flow channels
of the reservoir rock that can reduce or prevent the flow of oil and gas Primary types of clays
towards the well bore. • Illite
The common term and measurement is “Skin Factor”. o Sensitive to dispersive environments
o High pH
o Chemical dispersants
Causes
o Migrates readily
Formation damage can be caused by:
o “Hairy” illite
• Foreign particle invasion o Breaks off and migrates
• Formation clay swelling o Sensitive to fluid movement
• Chemically incompatible fluids o
• Oil wetting of the reservoir rock • Kaolinite
• Emulsion blocking o Subject to dispersion and migration
• Smectite
• Fluid invasion (Water Blocking)
o Swelling clay
o Takes on water and expands
o Found primarily as pore lining
Foreign Particle Invasion
o Fresh water sensitive
Plugging of the flow paths in the formation by invading solids can cause
• Mixed Layer
formation damage. This type of damage occurs near the well bore or o Swells like smectite, but not to the same degree
perforation tunnel. Dirty brines can be the cause. • Chlorite
The size of the invading particle is important. Small solids such as clays o Disperses and migrates readily
and iron oxides can be carried deep into the formation and cause severe o Doesn’t swell, but binds water
o May occur as mixed layer with smectite
damage. Plugging of the pore spaces results when, the pore diameter is
less than three times the particle size. If the pore throat size of the o Degrades with HCl, releases Fe- and amorphous
silica
formation is known, the smallest damaging particle size may be
determined using formulas based on the relationship of particle to pore
size.
Formation clays swell and break apart if they meet most drilling fluid
filtrates. Especially if the filtrates are fresh water and/or have a high pH.
Chemical dispersants in a filtrate can break clays apart and allow them
to migrate. As the clay particles migrate, they block the pore spaces.
The result is a number of smaller particles, which can easily plug some Calcium Smectite
of the pore throats. These particles may also swell thus increasing the
severity of the damage.
To control clay migration, keep
the:
• Formation clays from
swelling by using
inhibitive systems
(i.e., brine fluids)
• pH in the 8.3 to 9.0
range
• Flow rates low when
initiating or resuming production
3
The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 4
Clay and Mineral Dispersion and Migration
Fluids Compatible with Swelling Clays
Much testing has demonstrated that a 2% to 3% KCL prevents clay
swelling. Most data was generated on tests utilizing short cores. In tests
run on 3 ft. of cores, Halliburton has demonstrated that a 3% KCl will Brine Concentration Density, ppg
undergo ion exchange with the formation mineralogy, consider the
following excerpt from reference NH4CL 5% 8.5
1), and table from reference 2); HCl 4% 8.5
KCl 7% 8.7
1. Gdanski, R.D.: “Formation Mineral Content Key to Successful
Sandstone Acidizing”, Oil and Gas J. (Aug. 30, 1999) 90. CaCl2 5% 8.7
2. Gdanski, R.D. and Shuchart, C.: “Advanced Sandstone Acidizing NaCl 6% 8.7
Designs Using Improved Radial Models”, SPE 38597, (October
1997).
Ability to inhibit
Table 1—Minerals and Their Ion-Exchange Capabilities Fluid, lb/gal (SG) Cost
clays
Mineral Ion-Exchange Capability
Methanol
Feldspar, kaolinite 0
Methanol, 6.6 (0.79) High Good
Illite, chlorite 20
Mixed-layer clays 20 to 80
Methanol/water,
Smectite, mica 80 to 100 Medium Fair
6.6 - 8.2 (0.79 - 0.98)
Zeolites 100 to 250
Water
Of the ion-exchanging clays listed, smectite and mixed-layer
(illite and smectite) clays are the most sensitive to water and Fresh water, 8.345(1.0) Low Poor
are therefore the most prone to swelling after ion exchange.
Operators who identify or suspect the presence of these clays Sea water (filtered), 8.50 (1.02) Low Poor
in their formations should use brines that transform into
approximately 6% salt water after ion exchange, such as 5% Brines
NH4Cl, 7% KCl, and 5% calcium chloride (CaCl2). Such fluids
are concentrated enough to maintain formation permeability
by preventing clay swelling. By contrast, 2% KCl will NaCl, 10.0 (1.20) Low Good
transform into only 1.5% salt water after ion exchange. Such KBr 11.5
a brine is too weak to prevent clay swelling.” CaCl2 11.6 (1.39) Medium Good
NaBr 12.7
CaBr2 14.2 (1.70) High Good
ZnBr2 19.2 (2.30) High Good
Oils
4
The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 5
Chemically Incompatible Fluids HCl and Dolomite
A third type of formation damage results from incompatible fluids. The The reaction for dolomite is similar, but the chemical composition is
most common form of damage from incompatible fluids is due to the slightly different.
precipitation of salts or insoluble ions. Analysis of formation water can 4HCl + CaMg(CO3)2 → CaCl2 + MgCl2 + 2H2O + 2CO2 . . . . (Eq. 3)
Hydrochloric Acid (1,000 gal) + Calcium Magnesium Carbonate (9.5 ft3)
identify potential problems and reactions between the formation water
= Calcium Chloride (1,040 lb) + Magnesium Chloride (875 lb) + Water
and brine. (40 gal) + Carbon Dioxide (6,620 ft3)
Examples are: The total volume occupied by 1,000 gal of 15% HCl after spending is
1,020 gal. The reaction is a mixture of 10.5% calcium chloride solution
CaCl2 + 2HCO3 → CaCO3 + 2HCl + CO3-2 and 9.0% magnesium chloride solution with a specific gravity of 1.185,
CaCl2 + HCO3-2 → CaCO3 + 2HCl- weighing 8.70 lb/gal.
Organic Acid
Other acids that are used alone or in conjunction with HCl are acetic
acid and formic acid. These are organic acids and considered much
ZnBr2 + CO3-2 → ZnCO3 + 2Br- weaker acids than hydrochloric acid. This means their hydrogen ions are
CaCl2 + SO4-2 → CaSO4 + 2Cl- released more slowly and they react more slowly with most materials
found in wells.
CaCl2 + SO3-2 → CaSO3 + 2Cl → CaSO4 + 2HCl They can be used alone as retarded or slow-reacting acids. Acetic acid is
slower to react than formic acid. Organic acids are also used where low
corrosion is important. Acetic acid is the only acid available that does
F- + CaCl2 → CaF + 2Cl- not damage chrome plating. They can be used in combination with HCl
to allow deeper penetration and to provide unique etching properties
Fe- + 2OH- → Fe (OH)2 with some formations.
They react with limestone as shown in Eq. 3.
Ca+2 + SO4-2 → CaSO4
ACIDS
Acid Types Acetic Acid
All acids, regardless of composition, have one thing in common: They 2HCH3CO2 + CaCO3 → Ca(CH3CO2)2 + H2O + CO2 . . . . .(Eq. 4)
break down into hydrogen ions and an anion when in solution in water. Acetic Acid + Limestone = Calcium Acetate + Water + Carbon Dioxide
Hydrogen ions react with calcareous rock to form water and carbon A 10% solution of acetic acid dissolves as much limestone as a 6%
dioxide. hydrochloric acid solution.
Hydrogen ions are generally depicted by the following symbol: H+. They Formic Acid
react with carbonates as shown in Eq. 1. 2HCO2H + CaCO3 → Ca(HCO2)2 + H2O + CO2 . . . . (Eq. 5)
2H+ + CaCO3 → Ca++ + H2O + CO2 . . . . . . . (Eq. 1) Formic Acid + Limestone = Calcium Formate + Water + Carbon Dioxide
Hydrogen Ion + Limestone = Calcium Ion + Water + Carbon Dioxide A 10% solution of formic acid dissolves as much limestone as an 8%
Acids have a pH less than 7 and taste sour. The more completely an hydrochloric acid solution.
acid ionizes to hydrogen ions and its anion, the stronger the acid is. HF Acid
Hydrochloric Acid Hydrofluoric acid is mixed with HCl or organic acids to dissolve clay
Hydrochloric acid (Muriatic acid) is composed of hydrogen and chloride minerals, feldspars, and sand. Because of the higher surface area of the
gasses and is commonly referred to as hydrogen chloride in its gaseous clay minerals and feldspars, most of the HF acid will be spent on these
state. The gas is readily soluble in water up to 43% hydrogen chloride, materials rather than quartz or sand.
by weight, at 60°F. However, a solution of this strength is impractical HF acid reacts with calcareous minerals, such as limestone, but
because at temperatures higher than 60°F, hydrogen chloride produces this reaction results in an insoluble precipitate of calcium
pungent fumes. fluoride.
Commercial hydrochloric acid has been standardized at 20°Be, which is 2HF + CaCO3 → CaF2 + H2O + CO2 . . . . . (Eq. 6)
31.45% acid, by weight, with a specific gravity of 1.160 and weighing Hydrofluoric Acid + Limestone = Calcium Fluoride + Water + Carbon
9.67 lb/gal. Higher strength acid is sometimes available at 22°Be, which Dioxide
is 35.2% acid with a specific gravity of 1.179 and weighing 9.83 lb/gal. Hydrofluoric acid reacts with calcium ions from any source to
The chemical formula for hydrochloric acid is HCl. Even though it form insoluble calcium fluoride. Avoid this reaction.
contains mostly water, the water is omitted from the formula. Ca+- + 2F → CaF2 (insoluble). . . . . (Eq. 7)
Hydrochloric acid ionizes completely and is considered a strong acid. HF is the only acid that reacts with sand and other siliceous minerals
HCl and Limestone such as clay. A simplified reaction is shown in Eq. 8.
The basic reaction between hydrochloric acid and limestone is shown in 6HF + SiO2 → H2SiF6 + 2H2O . . . . . . (Eq. 8)
Eq. 2. Hydrofluoric Acid + Silica = Fluosilicic Acid + Water
2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2 . . . . . . . (Eq. 2) The reaction product, fluosilicic acid, is readily soluble in water,
Hydrochloric Acid (1,000 gal 15%) + Calcium Carbonate Limestone but its potassium and sodium salts are practically insoluble. Do
(10.9 ft3, 1,843 lb) = Calcium Chloride (40 gal, 2,050 lb) + Water (6,620 not mix calcium, potassium, and sodium ions (Ca++, K+, Na+)
ft3, 331 lb) + Carbon Dioxide Gas (811 lb) with live or spent hydrofluoric acid.
The total volume occupied by 1,000 gal of 15% hydrochloric acid after Avoid formation water that contains calcium chloride, sodium chloride,
reaction follows. and potassium chloride. The only compatible salt solution with HF
• 912 gal water pumped into formation acid is ammonium chloride.
• 40 gal water produced by chemical reaction A more realistic reaction between a clay, such as bentonite, and HF acid
• 68 gal volume occupied by 2,050 lb calcium chloride is shown in Eq. 9.
• 1,020 gal total, assuming no volume is occupied by the CO2 or 36HF + Al(Si4O10)(OH)2 → 4H2SiF6 + 2H3AlF6 + H2O . . . . . . (Eq. 9)
diluted by formation brine Hydrofluoric Acid + Bentonite = Fluosilicic Acid + Fluoaluminic Acid +
In summary, 15% hydrochloric acid spent on limestone becomes a Water
20.0% solution of calcium chloride with a specific gravity of 1.175, 1,000 gal of 3% hydrofluoric acid dissolves approximately 140 lb of dry
weighing 9.79 lb/gal. bentonite. A typical hydrofluoric acid solution used in the oil field
contains approximately 3% hydrofluoric acid and 12% hydrochloric
acids.
5
The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 6
The section adjacent to the well bore is the most critical and the most
likely to be damaged. The water saturation of the formation close to the
Acid Mineral Negative Reactions well bore will increase significantly as a result of fluid invasion. This
Mineral Problem
filtrate or whole fluid invasion is called water blockage; the extent of the
Feldspars contain sodium and potassium. The major
production reduction of the reservoir will depend on the degree of the
concern
Feldspars water saturation and the radius of the effected area.
is fluosilicate precipitation. K-Spars cause the most
precipitation problems.
Carbonate consumes HCl and can cause precipitation of Water Block Key Points
Carbonate
fluosilicates and aluminum from spent acid. • Filtrate or brine invasion
Illite causes fines migration problems and is ion- • Reduces K relative to oil
exchanging. • Can self - correct
Illite • May increase bound water
It contains potassium, which can cause fluosilicate
precipitation from spent acid. • Drill in fluids - keep filtrate low use fluid loss additives and/or
Kaolinite causes fines migration problems. It disperses in bridging solids
Kaolinite
fresh water and causes plugging.
Completion fluids containing bromide have been shown to form stable
Smectite is an ion-exchanging mineral that swells in fresh
Smectite emulsions with some crude types. Fluid crude analysis should be
water.
Mixed layer clay is ion-exchanging and swells in fresh performed to determine the extent of emulsion risk and the best brine
Mixed-Layer water. formulation and or treatment to control the risk. Baroid offers two very
Clay It often contains potassium, which can cause fluosilicate effective non-emulsifiers No-Blok C and No-Blok Z. This chemicals help
precipitation from spent acid. to prevent emulsions from forming and or promote rapid breakout.
Chlorite Chlorite is ion-exchanging and unstable in HCl. Some zones produce a formation water/oil emulsion naturally. Fluid
invasions can exacerbate this condition. No-Blok C & Z have been shown
Mica is ion exchanging and unstable in HCl. It contains to control and or reduce the breakout time of these produced fluids.
Mica Potassium, which can cause fluosilicate precipitation from
spent acid.
Emulsion Blockage Key Points
Zeolite is ion exchanging and unstable in HCl. It often • Emulsion formed inside formation
Zeolite contains sodium, which can cause fluosilicate precipitation • Primarily water-in-oil emulsions (viscous)
from spent acid. • Goes hand-in-hand with oil-wetting
• Loss of oil mud filtrate containing high amounts of excess
emulsifier
Wettability of the Reservoir Rock • Loss of brine completion fluid to formation drilled with oil base
mud
A fourth cause of formation damage is a change in wettability of the
reservoir rock which indicates whether a given surface has the capacity Brine/Formation Water/Crude/Mineral Compatibility
To select the correct brine type, consider the potential interactions of
to be preferentially coated with a film of oil or water. If certain
the completion or work over fluid with formation solids, water, and
chemicals are injected into a water-wet formation, it is possible to cause gases. The most common incompatibility problems include:
the grains to become oil-wet. If this happens, capillarity forces and •
Scale production from the reaction of divalent brine with
friction tend to hinder the movement of the oil across the grains. The
dissolved carbon dioxide and Hydrogen Sulfide
formation will then produce water more readily than oil. • Baroid can formulate brines that are divalent free and
inhibited against carbonate formation.
• Precipitation of sodium chloride from the formation water
when it is exposed to certain brines
• Precipitation of iron compounds in the formation resulting
from interaction with soluble iron in the completion fluid
• Baroid can formulate brines with varying relative
A,B,C from left to right: concentrations of free water, chloride and bromide content
that maintain density and TCT requirements. Chloride and
A) Completely water wet system, contact angle = 0° water content have shown to have a direct impact on
B) System of neutral wettability, contact angle = 90° precipitation of some ions as well as emulsion potential.
• Reaction of formation clays with the clear brine
C) Completely oil wet system, contact angle = 135° • Crude Emulsion formation
Baroid provides a non-emulsifier, NO-BLOK C & Z, to inhibit brines
Emulsion & Water Blocking against crude emulsion formation. Further, brine formulations can be
adjusted to provide the least risk of emulsion formation.
Fluid invasion can cause formation damage and reduce oil/gas recovery
and increase stack-up time. If large amounts of fluid invade the Primary Compatibility Tests
formation, obtaining maximum production can be difficult because of The following laboratory tests can be used to evaluate the compatibility
of a clear fluid with a formation:
the capillarity and friction restricting the production of the invaded zone.
•
Any invasion of fluid can upset the fine particles located throughout the Return permeability
formation. The particles will tend to migrate closer to the well bore, • Formation water analysis
• Formation mineralogy
blocking a higher percentage of the reservoir rock flow channels.
• Brine/water compatibility
• Brine/Crude emulsion potential
6
The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 7
Other Process Chemical Compatibility
Varieties of chemicals are used during the course of a completion or Recommendation and Treating Guidelines for KCL and light
work over operation. weight CaCl brines
Examples are: Initial pH of Barabuf lbs/bbl Final pH of
Completion Fluid Completion Fluid
• Pipe Dope Removers 3 .10 8.5
• Pickling Agents
• Cements and Associated Spacers 4 .07 8.5
• Chemical Cutters 5 .06 8.5
• Frac and Gravel Pack Suspension Agents
• Lubricity Agents 6 .04 8.5
• Chelating Agents
7 .02 8.5
• Solvents
• Staging Flushes
• Acids • Always add Barabuf (Magnesium Oxide) to the completion
• Emulsion Inhibitors fluid in the return pit and filter the completion fluid to the
• Corrosion Inhibitors active pit. This will eliminate any precipitating of iron down
hole while circulating.
Reactions between these chemicals and the completion/work Note: Order fluids that are known to be susceptible to iron precipitation,
over fluid, formation matrix and formation fluids can cause pre-treated with BARABUF
subsequent production declines and costly completion fluid • Make sure you do not have a problem with compatibility of
treatments. the connate water of the formation or pH sensitive clays,
Compatibility issues for many of these chemicals are well known and can adjusting the pH of the completion fluid to a pH of 8-9 .
be eliminated. However, any treatments that directly affect the • Try to eliminate loose scale, rusty iron, etc…. Paint or coat
producing zone should be tested for potential risk. This process is a exposed mild steel. Using rust free drill pipe, pits and rigs
cooperative procedure between Baroid and other operation engineers. eliminates many sources of iron. This can also be
Baroid and the process engineer determine potential reaction and accomplished by proper rig preparation for the completion
course of action by performing a series of tests and analysis. fluid.
• In persistent precipitation cases, add OXYGON to the fluid @
Contaminants 0.1 to 0.2 ppb. OXYGON will remove soluble oxygen and
Contaminants that can affect completion and work over fluids include: chelate iron in solution.
• Iron • Watch the pH and iron values closely after the introduction of
• Acid acid to the well bore. Usually a lower PH and higher iron will
result because of the acid interface with the completion fluid.
• Solids
• It may be more economical to dispose of the return pit and
• Hardness well bore fluid volume instead of circulating and treating the
• Oil, Grease and Distillate iron contamination. Pre-treat the new completion fluid with
• Polymers .04 lbs/bbl of Barabuf prior to re-displacement.
Iron
Iron can be a contaminant in either soluble or insoluble form. Soluble Acids
iron is a product of corrosion and is common in zinc fluids. When Acid contamination has several sources:
exposed to certain waters, soluble iron can form a precipitate, which can • Tubular pickles
cause formation damage. • Frac & Gravel Pack Treatments
• Stimulation/Remediation Treatments
Note: No brine should be delivered to location with iron content greater
than 75 ppm. Consider displacing brine when its iron content reaches Acidic fluids can be over-displaced and enter the main body of the brine
625 ppm. system, enter the system at the surface by mistakes in routing returns,
At the brine plant, iron should be removed from a fluid by adding enter the brine from formation kicks or mistakes in storage containers.
hydrogen peroxide to the fluid, flocculating the fluid, and then filtering Acidic fluids can result in a broad range of effects. Interactions with
the fluid. other chemicals can create insoluble precipitants in the formation,
On location, treating a fluid for iron is very difficult and is usually amorphous gelatinous masses of several chemicals that reside in the
successful only in low-density, monovalent brines such as KCl and NaCl well bore may stop tool placement or function and significantly increase
and divalent CaCl2. The treatment consists of increasing pH with iron dissolution and precipitation.
BARABUF and removing the precipitated iron by filtering the brine. All brine fluids, with the exception of ZnBr2, are normally used in the 7
Fluids cut back with seawater are far more prone to iron precipitation to 9 pH range. ZnBr2 fluids must be kept below 6.2 pH or the Zinc ion
problems (particularly KCL and CaCl2 brines); fresh water is will begin to precipitate.
recommended as the best practice when cutting density with water. Careful handling of acidic chemicals along with regular monitoring of the
Brines containing KCL are the most likely to display iron precipitation. system pH will help avoid formation damage and costly brine
Elevating the pH of the brine to 8.5 is the recommended practice. Iron treatments.
in solution will precipitate and can be removed by filtration. All brines except ZnBr2 can be pH adjusted with BARABUF pH buffer.
A ph buffering agent is the preferred method of treatment. The next Caustic can be used in monovalent brine if magnesium hardness is an
table displays treatment levels for BARABUF. issue. NaOH or KOH should be prepared as an aqueous solution to add
to brines. Do not add sack chemical directly to brine. Caustic does not
provide an alkalinity buffer as BARABUF does.
7
The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 8
Solids Polymers
Solids can enter the fluid from the following sources. Brines contaminated with polymers usually cannot be filtered easily
• The water-based fluid obtained from rivers, bays or open sea, without chemical and/or special mechanical treatment. At the plant site
which can contain bacteria, sediments, and plant or animal where hydrogen peroxide can be used to oxidize polymers to permit
matter. filtration.
• Impurities in some sacked, dry salt used in making brine. At the well site, Hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) or other polymer pills used
• Particulate matter from surface pits, tanks and tubulars such in displacement or other well operations should be caught and isolated
as wall cake, rust, scale, pipe dope and paint chips. from the active brine system. In some cases, HEC pills that have been
• Iron oxides or other chemicals precipitated from solutions that sheared and filtered can be processed by the filter system and returned
are circulated at elevated downhole temperatures. to the active system. The pill volume is maintained in separate storage
and metered into the returning well fluid stream in small quantities. The
Rock formations make excellent depth filters. A formation exposed at filter unit can then process the diluted polymer and return fluid for re-
the well bore to the pressurized flow of contaminated fluid will filter the use.
suspended particles from the fluid. Particles will penetrate the pore The use of breaker chemicals at the well site must be handled with care.
spaces and collect on the surface until an impermeable cake is formed Commonly used breaker chemicals can release hydrogen, chlorine and
and or penetrate the formation matrix and become lodged and block bromine gases. All of these gases are hazardous and proper ventilation
permeability away from the formation face. along with expert knowledge of the reactions is necessary for safe usage
The following line graph shows that if 300 barrels of a 12-lb/gal- of breakers.
completion fluid with 1,000 ppm (0.1 percent) of contaminant is
pumped down hole, a total of 150 pounds of solids will be delivered to Several damage mechanisms have been recognized in polymer use
the formation. • Cross linking of linear gel structures by metal salts
Weight and volume of solids in dirty completion fluid • Precipitation of base brine salts due to a reaction with other
1000 chemicals
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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 9
Formation Damage Inherent to Polymer Use Precipitation of HEC at elevated temperature
Numerous studies have proven that any foreign substance entering the Studies performed by Conoco indicated the precipitation of HEC particles
formation matrix will impart some degree of permeability impairment. In that were water insoluble in NaCl and KCl fluids at temperatures from
fact even native formation fluids, when removed and then reintroduced 150°F and up. These particles were observed to dissolve readily with the
to the formation, have been shown to cause damage. lowering of pH by and acid.
Damage mechanisms include: Testing done by several brine vendor laboratories confirmed the
• Relative permeability impairment reaction and subsequently recommended the HEC polymer not be used
• Polymer deposition on clay surfaces in contact with formations when the base fluid was NaCl or KCl and the
• Blockage of flow channels from particulate bridging or direct temperature was 150°F or higher.
interception
• Wettability changes
• Destabilization of formation fines and the resultant fines
migration
• Reduction of the grain matrix cementation and the
subsequent reduction in rock integrity and or fines migration
• Hydration of clay structures
• Ion exchange mechanisms which contribute to any of the
before mentioned
• Precipitation of insoluble particles in the matrix
• Gross water flood effects from high fluid loss volumes
• Brine/crude emulsions
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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 10
Drilling Fluid Systems
Drilling Fluid Systems are comprised of water-based (WBM), oil-based
(OBM), and synthetic -based fluids (SBM). Mud systems are used in very Functions and properties of drilling fluids
specific circumstances during the completion of a well. Drilling fluids are used to:
Mud systems contain high concentrations of solids, thinners, 1. Transport drilled cuttings and cavings to the surface
2. Suspend drilled cuttings and caving in the annulus when circulation
dispersants, and other additives that can be very harmful to a producing
is stopped
formation. 3. Control subsurface pressure
Mud systems are used in work over during the initial phases of work 4. Cool and lubricate the bit and drill string
when contact with zones of interest is minimal or unlikely. 5. Support the walls of the well bore
Mud systems are also used during the initial drilling of the well up 6. Help suspend the weight of the drill string and casing
7. Transmit hydraulic energy
through casing operations, or introduction of solids enhanced fluid
8. Provide a medium for running wireline logs
systems. (Dril-N) 9. Minimize formation damage
Mud systems are considered a contaminant to clear fluid systems. Great 10. Protect the drill string and casing from corrosion
care and attention is placed on the removal of the mud system from the Transport cuttings and cavings
well bore and drilling rig prior to the introduction of solids enhanced Because cuttings and cavings are heavier than the drilling fluid, they
have a tendency to fall towards the bottom of the well bore while they
systems (Dril-N) or clear fluid systems.
are being lifted by the drilling fluid during drilling and circulating
operations. The rate at which these particles fall through the flowing
Drilling Fluid Basics fluid depends primarily on the density and viscosity of the fluid, and the
This section covers the following topics: size, shape, and density of the particles. The rate at which the particles
are being lifted is the difference between the circulating velocity of the
Topic See page drilling fluid and the falling rate of the cuttings and cavings. If the hole
is not cleaned properly, the solid material will accumulate in the annulus
causing increased torque, drag, fill, and hydrostatic pressures. Pipe
Products List 10
failure, stuck pipe, reduced penetration rates, and loss of circulation are
possible consequences or improper hole cleaning.
Functions 10-12
Suspend particles
When the fluid is not being circulated, the force of the rising fluid is
Solids Control 12-15 eliminated. The cuttings and cavings fall to the bottom of the hole
unless the drilling fluid has the ability to form a gel-like structure when it
Baroid Family of Drilling Fluids 16- 21 is not flowing. The fluid must regain its fluidity when circulation is
restarted.
Troubleshooting 22 Control of subsurface pressure
Water, gas, and oil found in the ground are under great pressure. This
pressure must be overbalanced to prevent an uncontrollable flow of
The following products are listed in this manual:
these formation fluids into the well bore. Control is accomplished by
AKTAFLO®-S AQUAGEL® AQUAGEL GOLD
maintaining the well bore full of drilling fluid with a density high enough
SEAL®
to provide sufficient hydrostatic pressure to hold back formation fluids.
BARABLOK™/BARA BARACAT® BARACOR® 95
Cool and lubricate
BLOK 400
Heat is generated as the bit scrapes or rotates on the bottom of the hole
BARACTIVE™ BARA-DEFOAM® 1 BARANEX®
and the drill string rotates against the walls of the hole. The drilling fluid
BARAZAN® CARBONOX® CAT®-300 must absorb this heat and conduct it away. The drilling fluid also acts as
a lubricant for the bit, drill string, and casing during drilling. Special
CAT®-GEL CAT®-HI CAT®-LO
materials are sometimes added to the drilling fluid to improve its
CAT®-THIN CAT®-VIS CC-16® lubricating properties, or certain fluids with high degrees of lubricity are
sometimes used.
CELLEX® CELLEX® HV DEXTRID®
Benefits include longer bit life, decreased torque and drag, reduced
DRILTREAT® DURATONE® HT EZ-CORE™ pump pressure, and reduced frictional wear on the drill string and
casing.
FILTER-CHEK™ GELTONE® II GELTONE® IV
Support the walls of the hole
IMPERMEX® INVERMUL® NT INVERMUL® NTF Lateral support of the walls of the hole is removed as the bit drills a
K-LIG® LIGNOX® OMC® subsurface formation. Unless the support is replaced by the drilling fluid
until casing can be set, the formation will fall into the well bore. The
OMC®2 OMC® 42 PAC™-L mechanism that prevents this from occurring depends on the nature of
PAC™-R Q-BROXIN® RM-63™ the formation. If the formation is very firm (granite is an extreme
example), little support by the drilling fluid is required. If the formation
RV-310 SUSPENTONE™ THERMA-THIN® is fairly firm and consolidated (shale, for example), sufficient support
DP may be obtained solely from the density of the mud. If the formation is
THERMA-CHEK® X-TEND® II X-VIS® weak and unconsolidated (sand, for example), the drilling fluid must
have sufficient density plus it must have the ability to form a thin,
impermeable, and deformable deposition of particles on the walls of the
hole.
Help suspend the weight of the drill string & casing
The weight of a drill string or a string of casing can exceed 200 tons.
This extreme weight can place a high stress on the rig's surface
equipment. These tubulars are partly supported by the buoyant force of
the drilling fluid. The buoyant force is dependent on the pressure
exerted by the fluid and the cross-sectional area on which this pressure
acts.
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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 11
Transmit hydraulic energy
During circulation, the drilling fluid is ejected through the bit nozzles at a
very high velocity. This hydraulic force keeps the surface beneath the bit Mud weight (density)
free of drilled cuttings. If the cuttings are not removed, the bit regrinds Formation pressures are contained by the hydrostatic pressure of the
the old cuttings and reduces the rate of penetration. The successful drilling fluid. Hydrostatic pressure is a function of depth and mud density
removal of cuttings from the bit surface depends on the physical (or mud weight). Mud weight is determined with a mud balance which
properties of the drilling fluid and its velocity through the nozzles. In consists of a cup with a lid mounted at the end of a graduated arm. See
special situations the hydraulic force of the drilling fluid is also used to figure 1. A knife edge on the arm rests on a supporting base. A sliding
turn the bit. The bit is attached to a downhole hydraulic motor; the weight on the arm is moved towards or away from the knife edge to
assembly then is attached to the bottom of the drill string. This method balance the mud-filled cup. Mud weight is then read directly on the arm
often is used for directional drilling and is gaining acceptance for of the mud balance in lb/gal, g/cc, lb/sq in/1000 ft, and lb/ cu ft.
straight-hole drilling in certain areas.
Provide a medium for wire line logs
Although the drilling fluid disturbs the original characteristics of the
formations, its presence is necessary for many of the common wireline
logs used for formation evaluation. These logs require that the drilling
fluid be an electrically conductive liquid that exhibits electrical properties
different from the fluids in the formation. Proper evaluation of the
formation is difficult if the liquid phase of the drilling fluid penetrates the
formation deeply, or if the fluid has physically or chemically eroded the
hole.
Minimize formation damage
Almost any drilling fluid will alter the original characteristics of the
formations it comes in contact with, but some formations are more
sensitive than others and some fluids are more damaging than others.
Damage to subsurface formations can appear in two different forms:
• Reduction in the ability of a formation to produce
hydrocarbons
• Reduction of well bore stability
Damage to producing formations can result from physical plugging by
inert solids or from a chemical reaction between the drilling fluid and the
formation. The well bore can become unstable through chemical
reactions (as in water-sensitive shale) or through physical erosion.
Particularly sensitive formations may require special treatment of the
Fann mud balance
fluid or even a special fluid.
Protect the drill string & the casing
The drilling fluid can provide a corrosive environment for steel tubulars
Rheological properties
used below the surface. This effect can be minimized by proper
chemical treatment of the fluid or by adding a protective film (chemical • Funnel viscosity
or physical) to the surface of a steel. Some drilling fluids (those that are
predominantly oil) are noncorrosive, and in some cases, the drilling fluid • Plastic viscosity (PV)
actually protects the tubulars from corrosive materials found in the
subsurface.
• Yield point (YP)
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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 12
Filtrate analysis
Using the filtrate collected from the API filtration test, several chemical
analyses are performed. These include:
• Alkalinity (Pf/Mf)
• Hardness
• Salinity
These tests are used to determine the presence of contaminants, to
assist in the control of fluid properties, and to determine treatments.
Alkalinity - Alkalinity is a measure of the concentration of water-
soluble ions that neutralize acids. The Pf and Mf tests are used to
determine the concentration of alkalinity contributing ions soluble in the
aqueous phase of a drilling fluid. The Pf (phenolphthalein endpoint of
the filtrate) measures the concentration of ions down to a pH of 8.3. It
is usually assumed that this test is a measure of hydroxyl (OH-) ions.
The Mf ( methyl orange endpoint of the filtrate) measures the
concentration of ions down to a pH of 4.3. These ions primarily include
carbonates (CO-3) and bicarbonates (HCO-3). Even though there are
other ions that could contribute to alkalinity, these are the most
common.
Hardness - The hardness test is used to determine the concentration of
polyvalent metallic ions (i.e. Ca+2, Mg+2, Fe+3) in the mud filtrate.
Sources of these ions usually include contaminants such as cement,
anhydrite formations, calcium flows, etc.
Fann 260 Rotary Viscometer Salinity - The salinity test is used to determine the concentration of salt
in a drilling fluid. Monitoring the salt concentration allows the field
The rotary viscometer is also used to determine a drilling fluid's service representative to check for contamination of the drilling fluid by
thixotropic characteristics, its ability to develop a rigid or semi rigid gel saltwater flows or salt containing formations.
structure during periods of quiescence. Gel strength measurements are Solids analysis
taken after allowing the mud to stand for 10 seconds and for 10 Solid analysis is used to determine the amounts of:
minutes.
• Sand
Mud pH and alkalinity
The pH of a drilling fluid indicates its relative acidity or alkalinity. The pH • Total solids
scale ranges from zero to fourteen, a pH of seven is neutral. Muds are • Liquid
nearly always alkaline. The typical pH range for drilling fluids is 8.5 to
12.5. Mud pH affects the dispersibility of clays, solubility of various • Oil
products and chemicals, corrosion of steel materials, and mud
rheological properties.
• Water
The solids content affects most drilling fluid properties, including
The two principal methods for determining pH are the colorimetric and
density, viscosity, gel strength, fluid loss, and temperature stability. The
the electrometric methods. The colorimetric method is based on the
solids content also has an influence on fluid treatment and the
effect of acids or alkalis on the color of certain chemical indicators found
equipment necessary for efficient drilling operations.
on the strips of pH paper. pH strips are placed on the surface of the
Cation exchange capacity (CEC or MBT)
drilling fluid and the resulting color is compared to a standard chart. The
This test provides a method of monitoring the concentration of clays in
electrometric method is based on the voltage developed between two
the drilling fluid. Data from this test is usually expressed as pounds per
special electrodes when they are immersed in the drilling fluid (pH
barrel (lb/bbl) bentonite equivalent or milliequivalent per milliliter of fluid
meter). The latter method is more accurate.
(meq/ml).
Alkalinity of a fluid is a measure of the concentration of water-soluble
ions that neutralize acids. The Pm test is used to measure total alkalinity
contributing compounds, soluble and insoluble, in a drilling fluid.
Solids Control Overview
Filtration (API ambient temperature/low pressure, API high
temperature/high pressure) Solids control is the process of controlling the buildup and adverse
When a drilling fluid is placed opposite or circulated past a permeable effects of undesirable solids in a mud system. The buildup of solids has
formation, it will lose some of its liquid phase into that formation. Mud undesirable effects on drilling fluid performance and the drilling process.
solids will deposit on the walls of the hole and form a filter cake. Fluid Rheological and filtration properties can become difficult to control when
loss is affected by the permeability of the formation, the differential the concentration of low-gravity solids becomes excessive. Penetration
pressure between the mud and the formation, and the filtration rates and bit life decrease and hole problems increase with a high solids
characteristics of the drilling fluid. concentration. Solids-control equipment on a drilling operation should be
Two standard tests are used for measuring the relative fluid loss of a operated like a processing plant.
drilling fluid. The two tests are distinguished by the pressure applied to The purpose of solids-removal equipment is to discard drilled solids. An
the fluid and the temperature at which the test is conducted. The acceptable rate of drilled solids removal is 90 percent. A second goal of
standard API test is conducted at ambient temperature and 100 psi this equipment is to remove from the cuttings as much water, oil, or
pressure. The API high temperature/high pressure (HTHP) test is usually synthetics as possible. When this goal is accomplished, dilution can be
run at 300°F (77°C) and 500 psi. Sometimes the HTHP test is run at a cost effective. In heavy-weight mud, acceptable levels of low-gravity
temperature and pressure that simulates subsurface conditions. solids range from 3 to 6 percent by volume. In light-weight mud, a 5 to
Normally, the HTHP test results in higher fluid loss that the low pressure 7 percent concentration of low-gravity solids is acceptable.
test because some filtration-control agents lose their effectiveness when
subjected to temperature and pressure.
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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 13
Sources and sizes of solids
The two primary sources of solids are chemical additives and formation Screen devices
cuttings. Chemical additives are materials added to maintain a drilling A screen device, also called a shale shaker, contains one or more
fluid's properties. Formation cuttings are incorporated into a mud vibrating screens through which the mud passes as it circulates out of
system as a drill bit cuts new hole; these cuttings are contaminants that the hole. Shale shakers are classified by their type of motion. There are
degrade the performance of the drilling fluid. If the cuttings are not circular/elliptical and linear shale shakers. These shakers are described
removed, they will be ground into smaller and smaller particles that below:
become even more difficult to remove from the drilling fluid. Most
formation solids can be removed by mechanical means at the surface. • Circular/elliptical motion shaker. This shaker uses
Small particles are more difficult to remove and have a greater effect on elliptical rollers to generate a circular rocking motion to
drilling fluid properties than large particles. The particle size of drilled provide better solids removal through the screens
solids incorporated into drilling fluid can range from 1 to 250 microns • Linear motion shaker. This shaker uses a straight forward-
(one micron equals 1/25,400 of an inch or 1/1000 of a millimeter). The and-back rocking motion to keep the fluid circulating through
following table lists the approximate sizes of contaminating solids. the screens
1000 18 0.040
Solids-control methods
The two primary methods of solids control are:
• Mechanical solids-removal equipment
• Dilution of the mud
Mechanical solids - removal equipment
Equipment that removes solids mechanically can be grouped into two
major classifications:
• Screen devices
• Centrifugal separation devices
In addition, there are two types of centrifugal separation devices. These
are decanting centrifuges and hydrocyclones. Table 11-2 identifies the
types of equipment and the particle sizes (in microns) they can remove.
Solids-control Can remove...
equipment...
Screen devices 74 micron solids with 200-mesh
screen
Centrifugal separation Colloidal solids to 5 microns
devices 20-70 micron solids, depending on
core size
Decanting centrifuges
Hydrocyclones
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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 14
Mesh size. The screen opening size (mesh size) determines the particle Centrifugal separation devices
size a shaker can remove. Screen mesh is the number of openings per The two types of centrifugal separation devices are:
linear inch as measured from the center of the wire. For example, a 70
by 30 oblong mesh screen (rectangular opening) has 70 openings along • Decanting centrifuges
one-inch line one way and 30 openings along a one-inch line • Hydrocyclones
perpendicular to the first. Actual separation sizes are determined by Decanting Centrifuges
factors such as particle shape, fluid viscosity, feed rates, and particle A decanting centrifuge consists of a conical, horizontal steel bowl that
cohesiveness. Separation size can also be affected by hydraulic effects rotates at high speed using a double screw-type conveyor. The conveyor
that may occur in fluids. Some fluids can form a high surface-tension rotates in the same direction as the outer bowl but at a slightly slower
film on the wires of the screen and reduce the effective opening size of speed. An important aspect of centrifuge operation is the dilution of the
the screen. The following tables list specifications for different screen slurry being fed into the unit. The slurry dilution reduces the feed
sizes and mesh shapes. viscosity and maintains the separation efficiency of the machine. The
Oblong mesh screens higher the viscosity of the base mud, the more dilution is needed (2 to 4
gallons of water per minute is common). The effluent (liquid output
Mesh Wire Opening width/length Percent from the centrifuge) viscosity should be 35 to 37 seconds per quart for
diameter open area efficient separation. If the viscosity falls far below 35 seconds per quart,
too much water is being added. This will cause turbulence within the
bowl and reduce efficiency.
Inches Inches Microns
Note:
Manufacturers' recommendations concerning mud-feed rates and bowl
20 x 0.014 0.036/0.0193 914/490 41.8 speeds should be followed.
30 A single centrifuge unit set for total solids discard should be used for
20 x 0.013 0.0371/0.012 940/305 35.6 low-density systems. Two centrifuges operating in series are
40 recommended for the following systems:
20
60
x 0.009 0.041/0.0076 1041/193 34.0
• Invert emulsion (i.e., synthetic and oil-based) systems
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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 15
Desanders/Desilters
Hydrocyclones are either desanders or desilters. Desander
hydrocyclones can handle large volumes of mud per single cone, but
they make coarser particle-size cuts. A four-inch diameter cone is
recommended for desilting. For effective operation, maintain the cone
capacity at least equal to the circulating rate, or 20 to 50 percent above
capacity, if possible. In well-designed four-inch cones, the size cut is 15
to 20 microns. Normally, weighted muds are too high in solids content
(by volume percent) to permit efficient (spray discharge)
hydrocycloning.
Desilters are mud cleaners that consist of a battery of desilter cones
(usually eight four-inch clones) above a high fine-mesh, high-energy
screen. The desilting process removes sand-size drilled solids from mud
by hydrocycloning the mud and then dropping the discharge onto the
fine-mesh shaker screen. The mud and solids that fall through the
screen (the cut size is dependent on the screen mesh) are saved and
the solids retained on the screens are discharged. Desilters are rarely
used on weighted muds above 12.5 lbs/gal. Because 97 percent of
barite particles are by API specifications less than 74 microns in
diameter, much of it will be discharged by the hydrocyclones. The barite
will then fall through the screen and be returned to the system. Mud
cleaners normally use 200-mesh screens. The discharge should be
monitored to avoid stripping excess barite from the mud.
Note:
When recovering weight material with a mud cleaner, be aware that any
fine solids that go through the cleaner's screen are also removed. Over
time, this process can lead to a fine-solids buildup.
Dilution
Dilution, or the addition of water to a mud system, serves to:
• Remove solids left by mechanical solids-removal equipment
• Replenish liquids lost when using mechanical solids-control
equipment
Although dilution restores the mud's properties, it can generate
excessive volumes of waste. If large amounts of waste are generated,
the disposal and clean-up costs can be very expensive. Use equipment
that generates the least amount of waste possible.
Efficiency of solids control equipment
Evaluate the efficiency of solids control equipment by the:
• Efficiency of drill-solids removal
• Efficiency of conservation of liquids
Solids-removal efficiency is the percent of the drill solids removed from
the active mud system by methods other than dilution or dumping. The
discharge is assumed to consist of whole mud and drill solids. The
fraction of whole mud in the discharge indicates the degree of liquid
conservation.
The following formula can be used to estimate the volumes produced at
different efficiencies of solids-removal and whole-mud losses.
VTot = (VH [1 - E] ÷ % S) + (VH [E] ÷ % Se) + (Wrig [days] ÷
days) + rain
Where
VTot = Waste volume generated as a result of the drill-solids
removed and the dryness of the solids
VH = Volume of the drilled hole
E = Efficiency, expressed as a fraction of solids removed
% S = Percent drill solids in mud
% Se = Percent solids in equipment discharge
Wrig = Daily rig water requirements
Days = Rig days
Rain = Estimated from pit volume increase in inches
The cost of waste management is calculated by adding the cost per unit
volume of the mud required for dilution to the unit cost per barrel for
waste disposal.
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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 16
Baroid Family of Drilling Fluids Background Clay-based systems
In December 1993, President Bob Menerey commissioned BDFI Clay-based systems include:
representatives from around the world to determine Baroid's technical
course for the next five years; to name the products and systems Baroid • POLYNOX
would market. The technical marketing group adopted the following • Gyp/Q-BROXIN
mission statement to guide their decisions: To develop a systematic
approach to uniform and consistent technical recommendations around • CARBONOX/Q-BROXIN
the world.
Considerations
• CARBONOX/AKTAFLO-S
After weeding through semantic differences, the group realized that • Low pH/ENVIRO-THIN
although similar systems were recommended for similar conditions
around the world, different names were being used to identify these • K-LIG/KOH
systems. To avoid confusion for transferring personnel and to
successfully categorize well histories for Baroid's worldwide database, it
• BAROID Milling Fluid
became evident that a systematic approach was mandatory. The group POLYNOX system
agreed that: Use a POLYNOX system when the following drilling conditions are
• Similar drilling conditions existed around the world expected:
CARBONOX 0 - 10 (0 - 29)
THERMA-
DRIL _ z z z Note:
PAC/DEXTRI
Use BARAZAN as required for suspension.
D z _ z z _ _ _
CAT-I
z z z z
POLYNOX
z z _ _
Saturated salt
_ z
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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 17
Gyp/Q-BROXIN system CARBONOX/AKTAFLO-S system
Use a gyp/Q-BROXIN system when the following drilling conditions are Use a CARBONOX/AKTAFLO-S system when the following drilling
expected: conditions are expected:
• Deepwater wells • High bottomhole temperatures
• Salt beds • High density
• Lost circulation
CARBONOX/AKTAFLO-S Concentration, lb/bbl
• Horizontal wells system (kg/m3)
• Caustic soda 1 - 2 (3 - 6)
Gyp/Q-BROXIN Concentration, lb/bbl (kg/m3)
system
AQUAGEL 5 - 20 (14 - 57) CC-16/CARBONOX 14 - 18 (40 - 51)
Lime as required
Note:
Optional products are potassium acetate as required as a potassium
source.
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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 18
BAROID Milling fluid system
Use a BAROID Milling fluid system when the following drilling conditions • Glycol additions are optional for lubricity or additional
are expected: inhibition.
THERMA-DRIL system
• Milling Use a THERMA-DRIL system when high bottomhole temperatures are
• Horizontal wells
expected to be >300°F (>149°C).
• Sensitive shale
• Salt beds
• Gumbo
• Lost circulation
• Deepwater drilling
• High differential pressure
• Low density
• Corrosion
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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 19
CAT-I system BARASILC
Use a CAT-I system when the following drilling conditions are expected: The following table provides guidelines for formulating BARASILC
systems. This system is formulated in fresh water or monovalent brines.
• Reactive shale
• Gumbo
• Products are listed in order of addition.
Note:
• Optional products include gilsonites/asphalts/glycols.
• System performance and filtration are more controllable in
saline environments.
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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 20
Invert systems ENVIROMUL system
Invert oil systems include: Use an ENVIROMUL system when the following drilling conditions are
expected:
• BAROID 100
• Deep water
• INVERMUL
• Gumbo
• INVERMUL RF
• Salt beds
• ENVIROMUL
• High density
• ENVIROMUL RF
• High BHT
• ENVIROMUL 100
BAROID 100 system ENVIROMUL system (base Concentration, lb/bbl (kg/m3)
Use a BAROID 100 system when the following drilling conditions exist: oil)
• Coring 300°F 400°F (204°C)
• Reactive shale (149°C)
INVERMUL NT 4 - 8 (11 - 23) 8 - 15 (23 - 43)
BAROID 100 Concentration, lb/bbl (kg/m3)
system (diesel)
EZ-MUL NT 1 - 4 (3 - 11) 2 - 12 (6 - 34)
EZ-CORE 6 - 8 (17 - 23)
BARACTIVE 3 - 7 (9 - 20)
Note: Add as bbl CaCl2 as required as required
INVERMUL system
Use an INVERMUL system when the following drilling conditions are
expected:
• Deepwater drilling
• High BHT
• Gumbo
INVERMUL Concentration, lb/bbl (kg/m3)
system
(diesel)
300°F (149°C) 400°F (204°C)
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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 21
Synthetic systems
Synthetic systems include:
Additive Concentrations, lb/bbl (kg/m3) to
• PETROFREE 325°F (163°C)
• PETROFREE 100 Ester/LE BASE As needed
• PETROFREE LE
LE MUL 0-8 (0-23)
LE SUPERMUL 5-12 (14-34)
• PETROFREE LE 100
Lime 2-3 (6-9)
• PETROFREE HT CaCl2 As needed
• XP-007 DURATONE HT 5-12 (14-34)
• XP-007 100 Water As needed
PETROFREE systems GELTONE II/V 4-6 (11-17)
Use a PETROFREE system when the following drilling conditions are
expected: BAROID, As needed
BARODENSE, or
• Environmental concerns BARACARB
• Horizontal wells
• Sensitive shale
PETROFREE LE 100
• Low density For use as a non-damaging drilling fluid, PETROFREE LE 100 all-
• Deep water synthetic systems are used when maintaining the native state of the
geologic formation is a primary concern. These systems are not used
• Salt beds where water contamination is a known problem. The table below
• Formation damage
provides guidelines for formulating PETROFREE LE 100 systems.
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The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 22
Trouble Shooting Overview
Overview Oil-based mud: maintenance and operational
This chapter contains troubleshooting tables for the following fluids: problems
• Foam/aerated drilling fluids Problem Indications Treatments
• Oil-based muds Water in HPHT
filtrate
• Synthetics Emulsion breaking Low electrical
Add EZ MUL NT, INVERMUL
NT, DURATONE HT, and lime.
• Water-based muds
stability
Water-wet solids
The tables include a list of contaminants or operational problems,
as well as indications of and treatments for the contaminants or Excess organophilic Add OMC.
operational problems. High yield point and additives Use optimum solids control.
gel strengths Solids build-up Dilute with oil.
Water-wet solids Add emulsifiers.
Oil-based mud: contaminants
Increase mud density with
Contamina weighting agent.
Indications Treatments Low electrical
Adjust water phase salinity.
nt stability
Hole instability Add DURATONE HT to reduce
Shale slivers on
filtrate.
Increase mud density if shaker
Add INVERMUL NT and lime
possible. to tighten the emulsion.
Acid gas Depletion of alkalinity Add lime.
Increase in torque
Add NO-SULF H2S
and drag
scavenger. Inadequate gel
Inadequate hole strengths
Add GELTONE II,
cleaning/suspension Residue in cup
SUSPENTONE, or RM-63.
Few cuttings on
Add water to dissolve shaker
Salt crystals on the shaker
the salt, then add Fill on
and in the mud
INVERMUL NT, EZ MUL trips/connections
Salt Drop in electrical stability Low electrical
NT, and lime.
Increase in chloride stability
Add new mud Insoluble salt Add water to solubilize salt.
content in water phase Water in HPHT
containing no salt.
filtrate
22
The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 23
PETROFREE: contaminants PETROFREE: maintenance and operational
problems
Problem Indications Treatments
Contaminant Indications Treatments
23
The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 24
Water-based Fluids: maintenance and
Water-based Fluids: contaminants operational problems
Increase in
Use optimum solids control.
surface mud High viscosity
Add water to dilute the mud.
weight
24
The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 25
Water-based Fluids: maintenance and
operational problems
25
The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 26
Drill-N Systems
Overview
DRIL-N Fluids are designed to be essentially non-damaging to the producing
formation, provide superior hole cleaning, allow easy clean-up and be cost effective.
These fluids address the wide range of problems encountered in horizontal drilling,
completion, and work over operations. These systems are designed to provide the
lowest filtration rate possible in order to minimize or prevent formation damage.
Bridging off the production zone is a key to preventing formation damage. Bridging
materials that are utilized in DRIL-N fluids include sized calcium carbonate and salt.
When bridging production zones, the correct sizing of particles becomes important. The pore diameter of the formation must be known to
effectively bridge. An industry rule of thumb for estimating an unknown pore diameter (microns) is to take the square root of the permeability in
millidarcies.
Filtration tests on DRIL-N fluids are conducted using a ceramic disc, which simulates as close as possible the pore size of the formation. These
tests can be utilized in the field to determine proper application of the DRIL-N fluids system.
Baroid has seven unique systems; each designed to do a specific job of addressing a specific set of conditions and objectives. The following table
gives a brief description of each system. A more detailed description is found in each system section.
System Description
26
The Baroid CFS Completion Fluids Manual 27
Competitor System Comparison
Particle
Weighting / Bridging Density
COMPANY Trade Name Type System Size
Material Range (ppg)
(microns)
COREDRIL-NTM All Oil / Synthetic System Calcium Carbonate 5 - 150 7.5 – 12.0
AQUA-DRIL®
a
Calcium Carbonate weighting / bridging materials are normally used in horizontal gravel packs due to the ability of the sand carrier fluid (clear
brine) to dissolve the sized salt particles unless the carrier fluid is saturated with salt. The additional hydrostatic pressure due to the saturated
carrier fluid could potentially frac the formation and thus could cause fluid loss problems.
Typical solids’ loading for a water-based system is 40 lb/bbl. Typical solids loading for an oil based mud is 180-190 lb/bbl.
27
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 28 -
SOLUDRIL- N fluids are sized salt systems designed for drilling, Any fluid dilution should be made with the saturated brine used for the
completion or work over operations in horizontal and vertical wells. base fluid.· BARAPLUG additions should be sized according to the mean
SOLUDRIL-N fluids utilize BARAPLUG (sized salt) and a crosslinked pore diameter of the formation.
polymer to provide superior rheological and filtration control.
Advantages
• Filter cake is easily removable with unsaturated sodium BARADRIL-N™
chloride brine.
• Excellent return permeability has been demonstrated in tests The BARADRIL-N system provides acid soluble drilling, completion, and
that prove SOLUDRIL-N fluid is far superior to conventional workover fluid compositions. The BARADRIL-N system is designed for
water-based systems. non-damaging drilling when fluid loss and formation stability are of
• Solids and fluids are prevented from entering production zone primary concern. Return permeability’s are excellent with the BARADRIL-
because the bridging agent has correct particle size N system and the filtercake is easily removed by treating with
distribution to assure a thin, low permeability filter cake. hydrochloric acid.
• Improved suspension under downhole conditions because Advantages
advanced polymer chemistry provides low viscosities at high • Disperses easily with minimal shear
shear. • Provides hole stability and effective seepage loss control while
• Provides thermally stable fluid up to 290° F with use of drilling permeable formations
specialty products that allow control of rheological properties • Can be weighted-up for pressure control
at elevated temperatures • Acid soluble and non-damaging to producing reservoirs
Density Range • Solids and fluids are prevented from entering production zone
10.4 – 14.5 lb/gal because the bridging agent has correct particle size
Temperature Range distribution to assure a thin, low permeability filter cake.
Up to 290o F Density Range
8.5 – 14.5 lb/gal
Typical Temperature Range
Additive Function concentrations, Up to 300o F
lb/bbl (kg/m3)
Typical
Brine Base fluid Saturate based on Additive Function concentrations,
(saturated) the brine used lb/bbl (kg/m3)
N-DRIL HT Filtration control 5-10 (14-29) N-DRIL HT Filtration control 2-10 (6-29)
Formulation Formulation
· Products are listed in order of addition.
Products are listed in order of addition. BARADRIL-N fluids may be formulated in freshwater, seawater,
SOLUDRIL-N fluids may be formulated in saturated potassium chloride, potassium chloride, sodium chloride, calcium chloride, sodium bromide,
sodium chloride, calcium chloride, sodium bromide, or calcium bromide or calcium bromide brines.
brines. Add all polymers slowly to prevent the formation of “fish eyes”.
Add all polymers slowly to prevent the formation of “fish eyes”. Add BARACARB as needed for density and bridging requirements.
Add BARAPLUG as needed for density and bridging requirements. Add BARABUF for pH control
Add BARABUF to maintain alkalinity in the 8-10 pH range.
BARADRIL-N fluid density,
Base fluid
lb/gal (sg)
SOLUDRIL-N fluid density,
Base fluid
lb/gal (sg) Freshwater 8.8-10.0 (1.05-1.20)
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 29 -
Provide sufficient mixing time and high shearing action for proper yield
Lime addition provides alkalinity to aid in emulsification
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 30 -
SHEARDRIL-N™ Advantages
• Provides high yield point with relatively low funnel viscosity
SHEARDRIL-N fluids are designed as a solids-free modified polymer • Has high, low-end rheological properties
drilling fluid for drilling consolidated horizontal wellbores. SHEARDRIL-N • Provides superior shale stability to a mixed-metal hydroxide
fluids provide maximum penetration rates while minimizing formation • Solids and fluids are prevented from entering production zone
damage. because the bridging agent has correct particle size
Advantages distribution to assure a thin, low permeability filter cake
• Provides stable filtration control • Optimizes hole-cleaning capabilities
• Gives superior return permeability results • Maintains filtration control in the presence of contaminants
• Easy to clean up • Has excellent suspension characteristics
• Has been used in limestone and tight consolidated sand • Requires no special or sophisticated rig equipment for mixing
formations and maintaining the system
• Provides excellent hole cleaning and allows settling of solids at • Has few components and is simple to use
surface
• Minimizes circulating pressure losses
• Tolerates calcium or magnesium
• Drill solids can be effectively removed with flocculants if
needed Typical
Density Range Additive Function concentrations,
8.4 – 15.0 lb/gal lb/bbl (kg/m3)
Temperature Range
Up to 300o F Soda ash Hardness 0.05-0.25 (0.15-0.7)
reducer
Typical
Additive Function concentrations, AQUAGEL Viscosifier 8-15 (23-43)
lb/bbl (kg/m3) GOLD SEAL
N-VIS Viscosifier 0.25-1 (0.7-3) Caustic soda Alkalinity As needed for pH 9.5-
11.5
N-DRIL HI Viscosifier/ 1-3 (3-9)
Filtration control N-DRIL Fluid Control 2-6 (6-17)
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 31 -
Drill-In Fluid Recommendations
Recommended mud properties, which will help ensure minimal damage and proper clean up of filter cake, are listed in the following table.
Drill-In Fluid Mud Property Recommendation
Calcium Carbonated Based System / Salt Based System / Oil
Preferred Drill-in Fluid
Based Mud System
<20 ppb
4 35 – 65 o - fluid velocity in excess of 3 ft/s, with a
Insoluble Solids or Drill Solids —Total
YP/PV ratio greater than 1.
Concentration
Above 65o -- turbulent flow and pipe rotation are
recommended to keep the hole clean.
PV = 12 to 16 cp
OBM Drilling Mud
YP = 14 – 18 lb/100 ft2
Water Based Drilling Mud
After Drilling OH section condition mud to PBM – lower YP to around 12 – 15 lb/100 ft2
Pipe Rotation 10 – 20 rpm
Pipe Reciprocation 10-20 ft strokes, with 1 – 2 strokes/min
1
Methylene Blue Test (MBT) measures the clay content expressed in ppb. Prefer to keep this value to less than 5 ppb.
2
Particle Plugging Test (PPT) using the PPA (Particle Plugging Apparatus) allows for filtration testing at temperature and high pressures.
3
Ceramic Disks—Filtration tests on DRIL-N fluids are conducted using a ceramic disc that simulates as close as possible the pore size of the
formation. These tests can be utilized in the field to determine proper application of the DRIL-N fluids system. Use these instead of filter paper
for filtration testing. These disks are available in several sizes in order to better test fluids on a three dimensional material that is representative
of the formation permeability. This test is usually done at bottom hole temperature and 500 psi for a period of 30 min. Spurt values of 0.5-4 ml
and total volume of 8-20 are acceptable numbers. These change dependent on system design, formation permeability, pressure used, etc.
The rheology of DRIL-N systems is designed to be low, but sufficient to provide the required hole cleaning.
4
Insoluble solids are measured using a retort. From here we utilize special testing to determine how much of these solids are bridging particles
and how much are formation drilled solids. Prefer to keep the drill solids to less than 4-5%.
After drilling open hole section with DRIL-N system change out to clean system with fine bridging particles, clean system with no bridging
particles or to brine.
Particulate Sizing
Bridging off the production zone is a key to preventing formation damage. Bridging materials that are utilized in DRIL-N fluids include sized
calcium carbonate an sized salt. The pore diameter of the formation must be known to effectively bridge. An industry rule of thumb for estimating
an unknown pore diameter (microns) is to take the square root of the permeability in millidarcies. To effectively bridge off the production zone,
20-30% by weight of the bridging material should be one-third of the pore size in microns.
Depending upon the formation pore throat diameter and requirements to produce the filter cake particles back through the gravel pack screen,
the median particle diameter can be altered by varying the grind size and changing out the shaker screen on the drilling circulation system on the
rig.
Estimating / Measuring Pore Throat Size
Pore throat diameter can be determined by a number of mechanisms such as:
• Mercury injection and capillary pressure relationships
• Directly measured by a scanning electron microscope
• Estimated via the Kozeny relationship between permeability and pore throat size or the Blick and Civan relationship between
permeability, porosity and pore throat size
Kozeny Relationship
µ= k
Where:
µ = pore throat diameter (microns)
k = permeability (millidarcies)
Example:
If the formation has a permeability of 300 md then the pore space can be approximated by taking the square root of 300 mD (17.32 ) Therefore
the pore throat is approximately 17.32 microns.
Blick and Civan Relationship
µ = (32 • k / φ )
Where:
µ= pore throat diameter (microns)
k = permeability millidarcies)
∅= Porosity (percent)
Once the pore throat diameter has been estimated then the median diameter (D50) of the bridging material is normally designed to be 1/3 the
pore throat diameter.
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 33 -
Barabrine Completion Fluids Crystallization Temperature
Brine based fluids are used anytime formation damage from solids or Definition: The temperature at which salt crystals will form and
waters are potential and in most sand control circumstances. The ability precipitate out of a solution. There are four (4) measurement points:
of brine to provide clay inhibition, solids free environment and matrix • FCTA: First Crystal To Appear
compatibility is key…
• TCT: True Crystallization Temperature
Barabrine Fluids are classed as: • LCTD: Last Crystal To Dissolve
• Monovalent • PCT: Pressurized Crystallization Point
o Organic Precipitation of salts can cause a number of problems. Each brine
o Inorganic solution is selected and blended to meet the required temperature range
• Divalent
that is anticipated at the well site. API utilizes true crystal temperature
Fluid Properties (TCT) as a standard.
Properties, which can affect the efficiency of completion and workover
fluids, include: PCT became a concern with the advent of deepwater drilling &
• Density completion. Brines exhibit an elevated crystallization point when
• Viscosity subjected to high pressures and low ambient temperatures found in
• Suspension deepwater risers & well heads. The condition is exacerbated by pressure
• pH applied during BOP and well testing.
• Crystallization Temperature
• Hydrate Point
• Clarity Measurement Hydrate Point
pH
Definition: The pH of a fluid is a thermodynamic value equal to the
negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion, H+, activity in aqueous
solutions. pH = -log [H+]
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 34 -
Completion Fluid Selection & Application
When determining if a fluid will perform effectively in the planned
completion or work over operation, consider the following factors:
• Density (Temperature & Pressure Compensated) Table 1
• Crystallization point surface
Temperature correction factors
• Crystallization point mud line
• Hydrate point
• Brine/formation water compatibility Brine type
• Brine/Crude emulsion potential
• Brine/Formation mineral compatibility NaCl or KCl 0.0024
• Other Process Chemical Compatibility
Density
Brine fluid density is a function of temperature and pressure. As brine’s CaCl2 0.0027
temperature increases its density decreases. As the pressure on brine
increases its density increases. NaBr or NaBr/NaCl 0.0033
To determine the actual density of a brine column in a well bore a three-
part calculation is necessary. CaBr2 or CaBr2/CaCl2 0.0033
• Temperature Expansion Factor
• Pressure Compression Factor ZnBr2/CaBr2/CaCl2 ( 17.5 lb/gal) 0.0036
• Compensated Column Density @ TVD
Deep-Water wells require that these calculations be done twice.
• Riser Compensated Column Density (Inverse function of ZnBr2/CaBr2/CaCl2 (> 17.5 lb/gal) 0.0048
temperature gradient)
• Sub-sea Compensated Column Density (Mud line to TVD)
4 Calculate average hydrostatic pressure.
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 35 -
Notes:
6 Calculate average well bore density. • The API Standard Temperature of 70o F is used as the agreed
SD - DL + DG = AD upon reporting temperature for brine fluids. Actual density at
Where temperature is converted to the standard for report and trade
AD = Average well bore density purposes.
SD = Surface density at 70 F • In a dynamic circulating situation the fluid surface, bottom
DL = Density loss hole and average column temperature are in flux.
DG = Density gain
• Initially there is a cooling effect on the average column
temperature and a subsequent increase in average column
EXAMPLE
1 Calculate average well temperature.
density.
• Periods of prolonged circulation, in conventional wells, see an
BHT + ST
= AT increase in average column temperature observable as an
2 increase in flow line temperature. The average column density
is subsequently reduced.
230 + 70 • Density calculations for a particular point in time are always
= AT
2 performed using actual density at surface temperature; the
bottom hole static temp is always used a base. We do not
150 = AT (Average well temperature) dynamic BHT values in the vast majority of cases; we can
2 Calculate the average temperature increase over the API
assume that the dynamic BHT is some degree lower than the
standard measurement temperature.
static BHT. Therefore the calculation for column density has a
AT - 70 = ATI built in safety factor of some few psi.
150 - 70 = ATI • The complex set of variables such as, thermal coefficient of
80 = ATI (Average temperature increase) the brine, temperature gradient of the well bore and surface
3 Calculate density loss due to temperature.
temperatures will control the rate at which a brine column will
ATI x Cft = DL reach thermal stability.
80 x 0.0033 = DL • Deepwater wells have a constant mud line temperature as low
0.264 = DL (Density loss) as 32oF.
4 Calculate average hydrostatic pressure. • Density calculation is done as a two column exercise for these
conditions. The riser portion is calculated inversely (warmer to
(SD - DL) x TVD cooler) and the well bore calculation is done conventionally
*0.05194 = AH
(cooler to warmer). The composite average density is used to
0.264 = DL (Density loss) calculate the pressure exerted on the formation.
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 36 -
Brine Density Adjustment Calcium Chloride / Calcium Bromide Blend Guidelines
The guidelines for increasing brine density are also applicable to • Brine should be handled with the proper care and protective
decreasing brine density. Decreasing brine density should be equipment.
accomplished with a brine of a lesser density from the same class. The • Safety and environmental hazards are low.
use of water should be avoided since it is not an economical approach. • Calcium bromide is available as a 95% solid concentrate or a
The exception is Class I fluids, which can be cut back with water. (Class 53% solution having a density of 14.2 lb/gal and in summer
I fluids NaBr and KBr may be cut back with both water and lighter months at a density of 15.1 lb/gal.
density Class I brines.) • An increase in the calcium bromide concentration will increase
When water is added to brine, it is less saturated and it lowers the the brine density and increase the cost.
crystallization point by diluting the brine. • Adding water is not cost effective in brine weights above 11.6
Lower density brines of the same class with a lower TCT than the lb/gal.
original fluid will normally yield a new density that maintains TCT or • At temperatures less than 350o F, corrosion is easily
slightly lower TCT. A salt balance equation can be used to determine the controlled; however, above this temperature additional
crystallization point of the two brine mix. Contact a Baroid CFS Technical corrosion inhibitors are required
Service Representative to evaluate a proposed blend. Any brine mixture • Corrosion rates are higher as densities and temperatures
should be pilot tested for TCT to verify equation predictions. increase. At the time of manufacture, an inhibitor is blended
Sack salts can be used to maintain density without detrimental effect on to protect tanks and metals.
crystallization points if the original salt balance is maintained. • Formation waters containing high contents of bicarbonate,
sulfate or fluoride may cause precipitation of carbonate,
General Guidelines calcium sulfate or calcium fluoride.
Zinc
determine true density after blending especially when Bromide
blending brines using sack divalent salts.
• On site it is preferable to use a lower density brine fluid to 40
Calcium
reduce weight Bromide
1 20
• Cost =
CT Calcium Chloride
• A decrease in crystallization temperature (CT) increases the 0
cost of the fluid. 9 11 13 15 17 19 20
• Use brine formulation tables to determine the required
ingredients for a solution and the proper amount of each This chart illustrates how much CaCl2/CaBr2/ZnBr2 is in a 17 lb/gal brine
ingredient. solution and the cumulative percent by weight.
• When adding sack salt on site, use the same ratio of materials • Class I (calcium chloride brine for this example only)
as in the original blend in order to maintain crystallization • Class II is calcium chloride/calcium bromide brine
point. • Class III is calcium chloride/calcium bromide/zinc bromide
brine
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 37 -
Brine Blend Equations Brine Density Adjustment
Density increases in brine are achieved through the addition of heavier
Material balance equation brine or the addition of sacked salts. Weight up procedures depend on
V 1W1 +V 2W 2 + ...=V f W f
the classification of the base brine. Base brine classifications are shown
in the table below.
Although weighting up procedures may vary according to circumstances,
V1 + V2 + ... = VF there are some general guidelines, which may be followed. Adjacent
classes can be mixed to alter the density, but a brine from a higher class
V1 = Volume fluid 1, bbl should not be used to increase density unless necessary.
W1 = Density fluid 1, lb/gal Generally, Class III brines are not used to increase the density of Class I
V2 = Volume fluid 2, bbl brines because Class III brines are more expensive and may be
W2 = Density fluid 2, lb/gal incompatible. Instead of using brine from a higher class, density
increases should be achieved using higher density brine or sacked
Vf = Volume fluid final, bbl materials of the same class.
Wf = Density fluid final, lb/gal For example, to increase the density of a Class I fluid, the following
guidelines may be used:
• It is preferable to use a brine to weigh up brine. In this case,
Class II brine should be used.
Use the following equation to raise or lower the weight of known volume • A second choice is to weigh up using sacked salts.
and weight. • Never use a Class III material unless Zinc is required for TCT
or density
V1 W1 +W2 V 2 =(V1 +V 2 )W f The above guidelines are suggestions rather than hard rules to follow in
weighting up. Naturally, there are exceptions to these guidelines.
Brines are less expensive per unit of density than sacked salts. It is
V1 = Volume fluid, bbl seldom economical to weigh up brine from sacked materials. Formulated
W1 = Weight fluid, lb/gal liquid brines should be blended with lesser density brine to obtain the
W2 = Adjusted density, lb/gal desired density.
V2 = Volume of W2, bbl Example:
Wf = Weight, lb/gal Weigh up 11.0-lb/gal calcium chloride brine to 11.3 lb/gal; an
V1 + V2 = Final volume appropriate amount of 11.6-lb/gal calcium chloride should be blended
with the 11.0-lb/gal fluids. The total resulting volume of the resulting
11.6 lb/gal must be considered.
KCl Percent by Weight Purity Correction Class III brine should never be mixed with a Class I brine to achieve a
higher density in the Class I brine because it is not economical and may
If the KCl used is less than 100 percent pure, adjust the starting be incompatible. The same applies to mixing a Class I brine to Class III
brine to reduce the Class III density.
volume. The weight of a barrel of water is 8.345 x 42. For example, assume that 100 barrels of a 14.8-lb/gal calcium chloride
(Water is 8.345 lb/gal and there are 42 gal per bbl blend are needed. In storage are 300 barrels of 14.7-lb/gal calcium
bromide blends. Initially, you might be inclined to mix dry calcium
bromide with the 14.7-lb/gal brine to achieve the extra .1 lb/gal.
lb KCl (100 - % purity of KCl )However, the appropriate choice would be to mix 15.1-lb/gal calcium
Volume of water - x chloride brine with an appropriate volume of 14.7-lb/gal calcium chloride
% purity of KCl 8.345 x 42 brine to achieve the 14.8 density. Under no circumstances should Class
= Corrected starting volume III brine be used to weight up a Class I brine.
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 38 -
lb/gal
Summer Winter
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 39 -
Control of pH and Temperature Buffering Crystallization Points
Fluid pH plays an important role in metal ion precipitation, acidic gas Surface
control, and corrosion control and polymer temperature range Crystallization point
extension. Brine crystallization point is the temperature at which salt crystals will
Completion brine fluids are usually neutral to slightly basic with the begin to fall out of solution given sufficient time and proper nucleating
exception of fluids containing ZnBr2, which are always acidic. conditions.
Note: Nucleation is the process by which insoluble matter provides a
Standard Brine Fluid pH physical platform upon which crystals can form.
Monovalent brines, particularly NaCl & KCl, have a tendency to absorb
and precipitate iron as the fluid transitions the well bore and from
surface metal lines. Maintenance of an 8-9 ph in these brines brings the
majority of soluble iron out of solution as an oxide where it can be
filtered from the fluid. The elevated pH also inhibits the absorption of
additional iron.
CaCl fluids will also display an iron precipitation problem when seawater
is used as a density cut medium or when the fluid has become acidic.
Sodium and Potassium bromide fluids are often used where high levels
of CO2 and H2S will be encountered. High pH in these fluids protects
against acidic reactions from gases and prevents precipitation of
carbonates and sulfates from these gas reactions.
Elevated pH (to a maximum of 9.5-10) also enables polymers and
starches such as Liqui-Vis, Bromi-Vis, Barazan D Plus, N-Vis and N-Drill
HT to remain stable at higher than normal temperatures. This effect is
primarily a function of reduction of acid hydrolysis.
The precipitation of salts can cause a number of problems. For
A buffered pH is preferable to simple pH elevation. Buffered pH resists
example, when the dissolved salt in the fluid crystallizes and settles in a
the change to more acidic conditions. In other words a reserve of
tank, the fluid density usually drops. Crystallization in brines can also
alkalinity is present in a buffered solution whereas a solution that has
cause lines to plug and pumps to seize. To ensure crystallization does
elevated pH responds directly to acidic materials. Barabuf is the
not occur in brine:
preferred buffered pH material in all brines.
• Determine the required crystallization point of the fluid
If a pH buffer is not available, we try to match the primary metal anion
• Check the actual crystallization point of the fluid
with the hydroxide of that metal.
• Adjust the crystallization point of the fluid, as necessary
Caustic NaOH NaCl/NaBr2 0.1-1 lb/bbl Determining the required crystallization point
In choosing the lowest-cost formulation for a given density, consider
the temperatures at which the brine will be transported, stored, and
Caustic potash KOH KCl/KBr2 0.1-1 lb/bbl
used. The crystallization point of a fluid should be a minimum of 10°F
(6°C) less than the lowest projected temperature of exposure. For
Lime CaOH CaCl2/CaBr2 0.1-0.5 lb/bbl deep-water projects, consider the seawater temperature at the ocean
floor.
BARABUF® MgO3 Any fluid 0.1-1.0 lb/bbl
Checking the actual crystallization point
Three temperature values are used to describe a fluid's crystallization
point. These include the:
Brine pH • First crystal to appear (FCTA)
• True crystallization temperature (TCT)
• Last crystal to dissolve (LCTD)
NaCl 7 to 9
NaBr 7 to 12
KCl 7 to 9
KBr 7 to 12
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 40 -
Eutectic point: Crystallization Points
The eutectic point is the lowest freezing point of a solution. This curve is Mud Line
not necessarily a symmetrical function. Water temperatures in deep water applications can be in the mid 30’s,
dependent on depth. The crystallization point for a particular brine is
General Observations affected by the relationship of brine composition, temperature and fluid
The addition of fresh water to single-salt brine whose density is above column pressure. This is a complex relationship and specific testing is
the eutectic point lowers the density and crystallization point. necessary to establish the TCT point for a fluid under set conditions. In
The addition of fresh water to a two-salt system tends to lower both general, the effects of deep-water temperature and pressure increase
density and crystallization point. To accurately determine the the TCT point of a particular brine formulation. Contact Baroid CFS
crystallization point for a blend of brines, run a pilot test on the brine representatives to formulate and test brines for the proposed
using the brine-crystallization test kit. application.
Eutectic Point Effects
• Any brine formulation whose crystal point and density are on
the right side of the Eutectic Curve will display a lowering of
density and crystal point with the addition of water; down too
the eutectic point.
• Any brine formulation whose crystal point and density are on
the left side of the Eutectic Curve will display a lowering of
density and an increase in crystal point with the addition of
water; down too the eutectic point.
• The affects of water addition relative to crystal point are not
uniform. Each salt or multi-salt blend exhibits a unique
eutectic curve.
• The effects of adding a single salt or multi-salt blend to brine
are not uniform relative to crystal point. The crystal point may
increase, remain the same or decrease.
60
Adjusting the crystallization point
40 Although fluid delivered to a well site is formulated to have the correct
Temperature F
20 density and crystallization point for the well and weather conditions, it
may be necessary, at some point, to adjust the fluid's crystallization
0 point.
9.1
9.3
9.5
9.7
9.9
10.1
10.3
10.5
10.7
10.9
11.1
11.3
11.5
-20 This is done by adding dry salts (e.g., CaBr or CaCl), stock brines, (e.g.,
14.2 lb/gal (1.70 sg) CaBr or 19.2 lb/gal (2.30 sg) Ca/ZnBr), or water.
-40
Adjusting a fluid's density using dry salts or stock brines will also affect
-60 the fluid's crystallization point.
For single-salt solutions, with density on the left side of the eutectic
-80
point, the addition of the same type of dry salt lowers the crystallization
Density PPG point of the solution down to the eutectic point, which is the lowest
freezing point of a solution obtainable by increasing the concentration of
a solute. For example, the addition of dry calcium chloride to water and
CaCl2 Eutectic Curve: the effects of water or CaCl2 salt addition
calcium brines lowers the crystallization point of the brine solution until
are uniform across the density range.
it reaches a density of 10.8 lb/gal (1.29 sg). Further, the addition of dry
calcium chloride to a 10.8 lb/gal (1.29 sg) brine solution raises the
CaCl/CaBr Eutectic Curves Blend 1 crystallization point, even though the density continues to increase.
Blend 2 For two-salt brines with a crystallization point of 30°F (-1°C), the
addition of a dry salt in general raises the crystallization point.
80 The addition of fresh water to a two-salt system tends to lower the
60 density and crystallization point.
Temperature F
40 ddi Don.Isaac@Halliburton.com
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 41 -
Solution has too low of a crystallization point Solution has too high of a crystallization point
Easy
Relatively
Raise the Small volume Requires relatively high Does not reduce the
Lower the inexpensive
crystallization increase shear for mixing crystallization point in all
crystallization Does not reduce
point by adding Easy storage of May be more expensive cases
point by adding the density or the
sacked CaCl2 sacked materials than CaCl2 liquid Cannot be used in
CaCl2 liquid value of the brine
monovalent systems
as quickly as
fresh water
Blend with a
buyback fluid May not be available
Quick and easy
with a known May create storage Very expensive
Inexpensive
crystallization problems Slightly more corrosive
point Lower the
Quick, easy to than other materials
crystallization
May require additional handle Limits the use of other
point by adding
May be less storage facilities, blending additives
Displace with CaBr2 liquid
expensive than and transportation must Increases the density of
fluid with a increasing the be coordinated, may be the system
higher crystallization more expensive than
crystallization point of the adjusting the existing
point existing fluid fluid Very expensive
More corrosive than
Quick and easy other materials
Lower the
Reduces the Limits the use of other
crystallization
crystallization additives
point by adding
point without Increases the density of
ZnBr2 liquid
reducing density the system
41 ddi Don.Isaac@Halliburton.com
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 42 -
Hydrate Point Brine Clarity Measurement
The formation of gas hydrates is a distinct concern for deep-water HISTORY
operations. The combination of temperature, pressure, brine Over the years, a number of methods and test parameters have been
composition, free water content, and gas composition provide a very presented to make some quantification of clarity in completion fluids. As
complex set of variables to model. Baroid has developed computer the level of acceptable solids loading has decreased, the ability to
modeling that plots hydrate formation points for brines and provides accurately measure that solids loading in the field has increased in
compositions and treatments to suppress or eliminate hydrate formation difficulty.
during completion and workover. Early on in the clean completion fluid story, a solid loading of 1000 to
Baroid has also developed optical cell test apparatus to physically check 5000 ppm was viewed as adequate. Filtration methods included nominal
prediction against physical conditions for both hydrate formation and cartridge filters, sock filters and bag filters.
elevated crystal points in deep water. Typically the QAQC method was a hand cranked centrifuge and a
graduated 12.5 ml glass vial. This method would provide ppm readings
down to 2000 ppm and reasonable guesses at 1000 – 500 ppm could be
Hydrate Phase Equilibrium for 11.6 NaBr Diluted with 8.7 ppg KCl
made. The centrifugal force available to a hand-cranked unit is relatively
low so that true solid/liquid separation is not really achieved.
12000 This equipment is still in use today. It provides a quick approximate
11.6 10.5 10.0 9.5 9.0 assessment of solids loading going to the filter system and a check
10000 method for monitoring DE bleed thru. High-speed electric lab bench
centrifuges are employed occasionally and are more accurate in terms of
separation quality and lower limit PPM measurement. Using specialized
8000
vials, these units can measure down to +/- 500 PPM with reasonable
Pressure [psi]
42 ddi Don.Isaac@Halliburton.com
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 43 -
Since accurate field measurement of solids loading is problematic, it
became apparent that the primary assurance of fluid quality at the well Example NTU Reading Plot
site is:
• The size cut and efficiency of the cartridge filters Clarity Plot
downstream of the DE system
• Procedures used to clean and maintain the well bore fluids 20
• Control of particle precipitation due to minerals in solution
and chemical reactions 15
• Average NTU range values for a fluid type Filter
NTU
• Comparison of NTU values between the well, clean pit and 10 Clean Pit
filter discharge
Well Return
5
FIELD APPLICATION
What is most surprising is the level of misunderstanding that exists in 0
the completion industry relative to fluid clarity and best practices. The
1 2 3 4 5 6
most common mistake is taking a particular standard or measurement
out of context and trying to compare data from different wells. Sample Number
The relationships between fluids, contaminants, in-situ reactions and
procedures are complex. Taking some parameter from one well and
The graph above depicts the relation ship between the three
comparing, that parameter to the same in another well will yield apples
measurement points at the well site. In the first three readings the
and oranges results if taken out of relationship context.
relationships are in flux and do not indicate optimum clarity. The last
three readings indicate stable levels with appropriate NTU delta between
Key Points to Brine Clarity Measurement
the sample points and the readings are stable through time.
• Nephelometric measurement of solids content is an
approximation or relative value.
• NTU values do not describe or indicate particle sizes in
the fluid.
• NTU values and PPM/MgL values do not directly correlate
for a specific fluid situation.
• Values may be established statistically in a range
parameter
• Changing the parameters of any component part of a
sample (particle type, size, shape, brine type, blend,
ratio of constituent parts to each other, etc.) will change
the NTU reading derived without necessarily changing
the volumetric solids content
• No two NTU meters will give the same reading of the
same sample
• Particles tend to degrade to smaller sizes during the
course of a completion and the overall impact to NTU
readings are affected by gross particle count as well as
ppm. A fluid can have a substantial increase the number
of particles in suspension and not increase the ppm
value.
• Empirical data provides a range of NTU readings that can
be considered clean for each range of fluid type, blend
and density
• Well returns should be compared to the NTU readings
directly after the filter system and clean pit. Well returns
should be within a few percentage points of the average
of the filter and clean pit readings.
• Well returns are mitigated by chemical reactions which
take place during the circuit of the well bore. If the fluid
has been chemically stabilized to the degree possible,
then the relationship between the filter/pit average and
well returns is unlikely to change, even when return NTU
readings are significantly higher than the base average.
• Typically, the range of NTU delta between filter system
discharge and the clean pit value should be 4-10 NTU.
Values higher than this delta indicate a contaminant
problem in the clean pit.
• The NTU delta range between the clean pit NTU and well
return NTU should be 5-10 NTU. A delta value greater
than this indicates that well return clarity is less than an
optimum level.
• Periodic samples of the three system measurement
points should be taken and submitted to a laboratory
analysis of PSD and TSS to establish actual solids loading
for the fluid.
43 ddi Don.Isaac@Halliburton.com
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 44 -
BEST PRACTICES FOR COMPLETION FLUID HANDLING Fluid sampling
Transportation & Storage Standard protocol for shipment of any brine solution is to collect and
A completion or work over fluid should be protected from contamination label two sets of samples for each batch and/or shipping container.
while the fluid is prepared, transported, and used at the rig; any • One set of samples is for Baroid reference.
contamination can have costly results. Some brines are quite corrosive • One set of samples is for customer reference.
to the skin and eyes. All rig personnel who might come in contact with The purpose of samples is to verify the condition of a fluid at the point
these fluids should be trained in both handling fluid and personal safety.of shipment. Should some problem occur that affects the
condition/value of brine during shipment, samples help to limit the area
Transportation of investigation of cause.
To help maintain the quality of brines during transport: Sample containers are generally 0.5-1.5 liters in size.
• Ensure the boat or truck is clean and dry before loading the Labeling consists of:
brine. • Customer name
• Tie the fluid-transfer hose securely and continually monitor • Sample date/time
the hose for leaks or breaks. • Well identification
• Ensure all brine is transferred to the boat or truck, including • Sample point
the brine in trip tanks, sand traps, cement-unit tanks, filter- • Sample fluid type, density and temperature oF
unit tanks, slugging pits, etc. Shipping to the well site:
• Strap the boat or truck tanks and check the density of the • Sample of fluid from each tank or truck loaded.
brine being shipped to help explain any losses in density Return fluid for credit:
and/or gains or losses in volume once the material is received. • Sample of each fluid type and weight as it is being back
• Ensure all hatches and valves on the boat or trucks are loaded to transportation.
securely closed before leaving the rig. • Fluid displaced from the well bore to return transport should
• Instruct the person in charge of transport not to transfer any be sampled at least three times:
fluid on board during transport. o Beginning
Note: Major losses of credit often occur because some rig pits and boat o Middle
tanks do not allow for the transfer of all fluid. When this is the case, o End
consider renting a small, portable pump or modifying the rig pits
44 ddi Don.Isaac@Halliburton.com
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 45 -
BRINE QUALITY ASSURANCE CHECK LISTS During Completion/Work Over operations:
Because of the high initial cost of clear, high density brines and the Periodically monitor fluid levels in pits and dump valves for
potential loss of production due to formation damage, Baroid Completion losses.
Fluid Services recommends that the following steps be taken to insure a
Monitor pits for accidental water additions from wash down
successful Completion/Workover operation.
hoses, drains, or other sources.
Maintain good communications with boat or truck for Maintain good communications with the boat or truck as to
estimated volumes pumped. volumes pumped and remaining tank capacity.
Allow plenty of time to shut down delivery when pits are full. Insure that any fluid pumped to the boat or truck is being
received in the correct tank.
After receiving fluid:
Insure that all of the brine is transferred to the boat or truck,
including any volumes in trip tanks, sand traps, cement unit
Mark fluid levels in pits and monitor for losses.
tanks, filter unit tanks, slugging pits, and etc.
Visually inspect pits and dump valves for leakage.
Strap boat or truck tanks and check the density of the fluid
Double check all water, diesel, and drain lines for leakage being returned to help explain any losses in density and/or
into pits. gains or losses in volume once the boat or truck returns to
Baroid.
Flush sea or fresh water from all lines, pumps, solids control
equipment, and degassers with completion fluid. Insure that all hatches and valves on the boat or truck are
securely closed before leaving the rig.
Insure that any sack, can, or drum products are well stacked
on pallets and securely tied or shrink wrapped before
returning for credit.
45 ddi Don.Isaac@Halliburton.com
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 46 -
BRINE SAFETY ZINC BROMIDE
Special awareness should be emphasized during the completion Brines containing, greater than 10% by weight zinc bromide are now
operation when handling completion fluids. All personnel should be classified as hazardous materials and also as a marine pollutant by the
informed of health hazards associated with completion fluids (eye and Department of Transportation. Those brines that would fall into the
skin contact, inhalation, and product ingestion). greater than 10% category are as follows:
Response to eye contact is particularly critical.
1) Conduct a safety meeting with all personnel prior to receiving the • 20.5 ppg calcium-free zinc bromide
fluid. Safety videotape is available through the Wellsite engineer. • 19.2 ppg calcium/zinc bromide
2) Eye wash stations with a 15-minute capacity should be installedo in 60o crystallization point (cp) fluids with a density greater than 15.5 ppg.
all areas where contact with the fluid is a possibility. Especially, • 50o cp fluids with a density greater than 15.2 ppg
but not limited to, the following areas: • 40o cp fluids with a density greater than 15.1 ppg
• Rig floor (2 or more locations) • 30o cp fluids with a density greater than 15.0 ppg
• Mud pit (as needed for easy access) o Any other brine that we know contains greater than 10% by weight zinc
• Mixing hopper area bromide would also be classified as hazardous.
• Cement skid unit
• Production deck (Locations under fluid handling areas) Being classified as a hazardous material requires that we deal with these
3) Provide and require the use of safety equipment for all personnel in fluids in a very specific manner as defined by law. Baroid is meeting
contact with the brine including; these requirements and training in HM-126 is required for all our
• Face shield and/or chemical splash goggles (ANSI Z87.I-1989) completion fluid engineers.
• Chemical/Nitrile grade slicker
• Non-modified safety toed neoprene rubber boots ZINC BROMIDE (>10%) SPECIAL HANDLING
• Chemical/Nitrile grade rubber gloves (21CFR.I70-199) I. Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) - Version for brines
• Elastic arm sleeves containing greater than 10% zinc bromide must accompany
• Solvent resistant chemical barrier skin cream shipment and also be maintained at rigsite (see attached).
MSDS is also required for returning fluid to Baroid
4) A 15-minute supply of water should also be available to shower shorebase.
and wash down any personnel contaminated by completion fluids.
For more detailed safety and first aid measures, see the appropriate II. Bill of Lading – Baroid CFS computer system will print
BAROID Material Safety Data Sheet. correct hazardous classification on Bill of Lading.
"A Bill of Lading for returning the fluid from the rigsite should
also be prepared. Our rigsite representative should fill out the
date and estimated quantities when fluid is being returned."
Steel Toe Rubber Boots Not contained within pack but available
separately – neoprene steel toe rubber boots with non-skid soles
available upon request
46 ddi Don.Isaac@Halliburton.com
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 47 -
Zinc Bromide Reportable Quantities (RQ)
47 ddi Don.Isaac@Halliburton.com
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 48 -
48 ddi Don.Isaac@Halliburton.com
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 49 -
Brine Economics
Introduction Liquid Blend vs. Sack
To operate economically with clear brines you need to have an
understanding of the costs involved. Potassium Chloride
Inefficient use of heavy brines can lead to considerably higher costs. The Liquid blends are slightly more expensive than ordering sack material and
graph below illustrates the most commonly used brines and their density building volume on location. However, logistics and rig time may override
ranges. They are grouped as single and multi-salt brines because the two any cost savings by using sack. A 3% KCl only requires 10.7 lbs/bbl of
differ in characteristics and they will be discussed separately. sack potassium chloride. The actual density of 3% KCl is slightly lower
Formate brines are not discussed because they have not been in wide use than 8.5 ppg. No advantages are gained by the extra .1 ppg and you
yet. should avoid specifying 8.6 ppg for formations requiring 3% KCl.
Often you have a choice between single salt brines; potassium chloride,
sodium chloride, and calcium chloride. These brines are solutions of a Note: Halliburton has also demonstrated that with 3% KCL, some KCl may
single salt and their effective density ranges overlap. be spent as fluid flows through the rock matrix leaving <3% - therefore
The multi-salt brines are sodium bromide, calcium bromide, and zinc 6% KCL is preferred.
bromide. While sodium bromide densities overlap with the calcium chloride
and calcium bromide brines, sodium bromide is quite a bit more expensive. Sodium Chloride - Costs are virtually equal whether you order blended
It is generally used only when incompatibilities exist between the formation brine or use sack to build volume on location.
and calcium-base brine.
Calcium bromide is generally used in the range of 11.7 ppg to 15.1 ppg and Calcium Chloride - Blended calcium chloride is much cheaper than an
is actually a blend of calcium bromide/calcium chloride. It is not used equivalent amount of sack material. It is roughly three times as expensive
below 11.7 ppg because the cost is much greater than calcium chloride. to build calcium chloride from sack material than to order a liquid calcium
Similarly, zinc bromide brines are actually a blend of zinc bromide/calcium chloride. The chart below shows the relative cost difference between 11.6
bromide/calcium chloride and are used in the range of 14.7 ppg to 19.2 ppg CaCl2 and 11.6 ppg mixed from sack calcium chloride using
ppg. Zinc bromide is not generally used below 14.7 ppg because the cost representative costs.
is much greater than calcium bromide and brines with zinc below 14.7
require reconditioning to or above 14.7 with 19.2 ZnBr to be useable in
other operations.
1 Barrel of 11.6 ppg CaCl2 - Liquid vs. Mixed From Sack
While 15.1 ppg calcium bromide is referred to as the cutoff point for Product Amount Cost/Unit Total Cost
switching to zinc bromide, 15.1-ppg calcium bromide has a crystal point of
almost 65oF and cannot be used in winter. For winter blends and
intermediate blends, the cutoff point is lower. For instance, 40oF blends in Sack CaCl2 2.4 sacks $13.31 $31.94
the density range from 14.5 ppg to 15.0 ppg actually require zinc bromide,
so the cutoff point for 40oF blends is 14.4 ppg. 11.6 ppg CaCl2 1 bbl. $9.55 $9.55
Note: Formations worked over with seawater may incur the same
problem.
For densities below 9.1 ppg either KCl or a combination such as CaCl2 with
3% KCl should be used. Above 9.1 ppg, CaCl2 is the cheaper fluid.
49 ddi Don.Isaac@Halliburton.com
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 50 -
Diluting
Potassium Chloride, Sodium Chloride, and Calcium Chloride Large Density Increase
You can order heavier single salt brine and dilute back to any density on
location with equivalent costs.
Cost To Weight Up 1,000 Bbl of 10.0 ppg CaCl2 to 11.0 ppg
Note: It is preferable to use fresh water over seawater when diluting any
Class I brine (CaCl2 in Class II) because of bacteria and other mineral Cost Per
contaminants present in seawater. Total Finished
Product Amount Cost/Unit Yield
Cost Bbl
Weighting Up
Sack 896 1,064
$13.31 $11,926 $11.21
Potassium Chloride CaCl2 sacks bbl
Sack potassium chloride 11.6 ppg 1,667 2,667
$9.55 $15,920 $5.97
CaCl2 bbl bbl
Sodium Chloride
Sack sodium chloride
In large density increases, 11.6 ppg CaCl2 is the cheaper alternative. Here
sack material is not that attractive an alternative when the cost in rig time
Calcium Chloride
of cutting almost 900 sacks.
The best weight material alternative varies but 11.6 ppg CaCl2 as a spike
Weight up the entire 1,000 bbl of 10.0 ppg CaCl2 with 11.6 ppg CaCl2
fluid is the cheapest alternative, it is limited to densities less than 11.0 ppg
would build too much volume.
and can be logistically difficult.
Sack CaCl2 is more expensive but is often more practical for small density
The best solutions are to weight up part of the 10.0 ppg and build the
increases of 1 to 2 tenths lb/gal. Above 11.0 ppg the only practical method
balance needed from 11.6 ppg CaCl or to simply re-displace with fluid of
of weight up to 11.6 ppg is sack salt.
the appropriate density.
The following chart shows the relative costs of these options:
Small Density Increase
11.6 ppg 1,231 This chart shows that in the upper density range sack CaCl2 is obviously
231 bbl $9.55 $2,206 $1.79
CaCl2 bbl the better option.
Cost To Weight Up 1,000 Bbl of 11.2 ppg CaCl2
The example table above shows that 11.6 ppg CaCl2 is the cheaper
Weight
alternative but the sack CaCl2 is not prohibitively expensive. If the intent
Density Material 11.2 Final Unit Total
is to have some weight material on hand for emergencies then sack
Increase Sacks - Used Volume Cost Cost
material is probably the best alternative unless a reserve tank is available
CaCl2
for 11.6 ppg CaCl2 storage. MPT tanks for storage would probably offset
Bbl -
any gain in using 11.6 ppg CaCl2. Logistics would be the prevailing
11.6
decision.
ppg
99 sacks 1,000 1,008 $13.31 $1,318
To 11.3 bbl
ppg 252 bbl 756 1,008 $9.55 $3,283
bbl
194 1,000 1,015 $13.31 $2,582
To 11.4 sacks bbl
ppg 507 bbl 507 1,015 $9.55 $6,606
bbl
296 1,000 1,024 $13.31 $3,940
To 11.5 sacks bbl
ppg 768 bbl 256 1,024 $9.55 $10,007
bbl
50 ddi Don.Isaac@Halliburton.com
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 51 -
DISCUSSION OF CaBr2 AND ZnBr2 BRINES
The rig orders 961 bbl of 13.4 ppg 40oF TCT CaBr2 and dilutes to 13.2 ppg
To understand the basic formulations we are using it is necessary to on location.
understand the economics of the heavy brines.
Material Volume Cost/Bbl Total Cost
In mixing at the plant, we use three basic fluids from our suppliers; 19.2
ppg zinc bromide, 14.2 ppg calcium bromide, and 11.6 ppg calcium 13.4 ppg CaBr 2 961 $96.12 $92,371
chloride. The 19.2 ppg zinc bromide and 14.2 ppg calcium bromide brines Fresh Water 40 n/c n/c
are so expensive that it becomes much more economical to use 11.6 ppg Cost of 1,000 bbl of 13.2 ppg by diluting 13.4 ppg CaBr2 $92,371
calcium chloride and sack calcium chloride in blending a brine rather than Cost of 1,000 bbl of 13.2 ppg 40oF TCT CaBr2 blended $87,800
just the pure fluids. In other words, the more calcium chloride used the
cheaper the brine because of the savings in calcium bromide and zinc The cost of water is $114.28 per barrel.
bromide.
Ordering heavier density brine than necessary is sound procedure
For example we will look at blending a 13.7 ppg calcium bromide two logistically if appropriate density modification is available. Higher density
different ways, using some representative costs to figure a per bbl cost. should be ordered when:
• Insurance against density loss in transit is desired
14.2 ppg CaBr2 Pure and water to mix 1 bbl of 13.7 ppg • Formation pressure prediction is uncertain and starting with the
highest anticipate density fluid gives the greatest flexibility to
control pressures
Product Amount Unit Unit Cost Total Cost
14.2 ppg CaBr2 .9148 bbl $158.27 $144.79 The examples given so far have demonstrated that the use of water to
Fresh Water .0852 bbl $0.00 $0.00 cut back high-density brine is not cost effective.
Total cost for 1 bbl 13.7 ppg $144.79 For example, a lower zone is completed with 14.0 ppg CaBr2 and an upper
zone will require 13.2 ppg. Economic dilution of the 14.0 ppg with 11.6
14.2 ppg CaBr2 Pure and 11.6 ppg CaCl2 to mix 1 bbl of 13.7 ppg ppg CaCl2 can be achieved if logistics allow.
Total
Product Amount Unit Unit Cost Total Cost Material Volume Cost/Bbl
Cost
14.2 ppg CaBr2 .8077 bbl $158.27 $127.83
11.6 ppg CaCl2 .1923 bbl $9.55 $1.84 14.0 ppg CaBr2 .6667 $125.25 $83.50
Total cost for 1 bbl 13.7 ppg $129.67 11.6 ppg CaCl2 .3333 $9.55 $3.18
51 ddi Don.Isaac@Halliburton.com
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 52 -
Diluting the Entire Volume
DILUTING CaBr2 AND ZnBr2 BRINES BELOW DENSITY RANGE
Cost Comparison - Diluting with Water vs. 11.6 ppg CaCl2 Calcium Bromide
Starting Volume - 1,000 bbls of 14.0 ppg CaBr2 It is usually cheaper to re-displace than to dilute a fluid below it's density
Volume range.
Dilution Dilution Final Cost of
of 14.0
Method Volume Volume Dilution
ppg • Example: diluting a 12.7 ppg CaBr2 back to 11.4 ppg (11.7 ppg is
Dilute with the bottom of the CaBr2 density range).
1,000 164 1,164 n/c
water @ n/c
Dilute with Cost Comparison - Diluting with 12.7 ppg CaBr2 to 11.4 CaBr2
11.6 ppg vs. Re-displacing
1,000 500 1,500 $4,775 Starting Volume - 1,000 bbl of 12.7 ppg CaBr2
CaCl2 @
$9.55/bbl Ending Volume - 1,423 bbl of 11.4 ppg CaBr2
11.6 ppg CaCl2 builds 336 bbl more volume at a total
$4,775 Source Density, Volume, Unit Total Cost
cost of
ppg bbl Cost
Cost to purchase 336 bbl more volume @ $87.80/bbl $29,501
Total Savings By Using 11.6 ppg CaCl2 To Dilute $24,726 Fluid on 12.7 1,000 n/c n/c
rig
The cost of water in this example is $150.77 per barrel and generates 336
Water to 8.33 423 n/c n/c
barrels less volume.
dilute
• Example: 1,000 bbl of 16.5 ppg ZnBr2 to 15.8 ppg. The Cost to dilute with water n/c
following table will examine using water, 11.6 ppg CaCl2, and
15.1 ppg CaBr2. Cost of 1,423 bbl of 11.4 ppg CaCl2 $8.96 $12,750
• Note: 11.6 ppg CaCl2 looks like the better option, but caution is Credit for 1,000 bbl of 12.7 ppg CaBr2 ($41.72) ($41,720)
needed, this may not always be the case. ZnBr2 fluids are
diluted with lighter density brine as well as 11.6 lb/gal CaCl2. Net credit from re-displacing ($28,970)
The best selection should be based on available fluids and
Note: Cost of dilution below normal density range is $28.97 per barrel.
careful economic study.
WEIGHTING UP CaBr2 AND ZnBr2 BRINES
Cost Comparison - Diluting with Water vs. 11.6 ppg CaCl2 vs. There are three options for weighting up CaBr2 and ZnBr2 brines:
15.0 ppg CaBr2 • Sack calcium chloride
Starting Volume - 1,000 bbl of 16.5 ppg ZnBr2 • Sack calcium bromide
Ending Volume - 1,094 bbl of 15.8 ppg ZnBr2 • Spike fluid
The best option varies depending on the fluid type and density. Sack
Density, Volume, Unit calcium chloride is the cheapest alternative but very limited. Spike fluid is
Source Total Cost
ppg bbl Cost the best alternative for most situations, and sack calcium bromide is the
most expensive alternative.
Fluid on rig 16.5 1,000 n/c n/c
Water to These options are discussed below as well as the three fluid groups they
8.33 94 n/c n/c
dilute apply to, 11.7 - 14.0 ppg CaBr2, 14.0 - 15.0 ppg CaBr2, and all ZnBr2
Cost to dilute with water n/c brines.
Fluid on rig 16.5 938 n/c n/c
Calcium Chloride
Purchased 11.6 156 $9.55 $1,490
In the discussion of basic fluid formulations, it was shown that the heavy
Excess 16.5 brines, are virtually saturated with calcium chloride. Addition of much
ppg sent in for 16.5 62 ($207.28) ($12,851) more sack calcium chloride can cause:
credit • Over saturating a summer blend
Net credit to dilute with 11.6 ppg CaCl2 ($11,361) • Raise the crystal point of a winter blend too high for prevailing
Fluid on rig 16.5 547 n/c n/c weather conditions.
Referring to the crystallization chart for calcium chloride, as the salt
Purchased 15.1 547 $165.38 $90,463 solution approaches saturation the crystallization point rises. If you start
Excess 16.5 with a 40oF blend and further saturate it with calcium chloride you will be
ppg sent in for 16.5 453 ($207.28) ($93,898) raising the crystal point and risking problems with fluid crystallization on
credit the surface. While this option is the cheapest, care must be taken and
Net credit to dilute with 15.1 ppg CaBr2 ($3,435) the crystal point must be monitored. At best, very limited use
calcium chloride salt is possible.
Note: The cost of water in this example is $120.86 per barrel. The cost of
CaBr2 to dilute (over and above base brine cost) is $14.49 per barrel.
Spike fluid
• 15.1 ppg CaBr2 in calcium bromide summer blends
• An intermediate blend (14.4 ppg - 14.6 ppg) for calcium
bromide winter blends
• 19.2 ppg ZnBr2 for zinc bromides
Generally, these are the best alternative for most CaBr2 and ZnBr2 brines.
Calcium Bromide
Most expensive alternative and should be avoided unless necessary.
Use when:
• The density range of the Brine is to near maximum density to
allow economic use of spike
52 ddi Don.Isaac@Halliburton.com
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 53 -
Guideline Review
CALCIUM CHLORIDE
• Avoid mixing volume from sack material.
• Avoid large density increases using sack material. Use liquid or it
may actually be cheaper to re-displace.
• Using sack material for small weight increases is okay.
• Use sack material in the upper density range for weight material.
CALCIUM BROMIDE
• Avoid mixing volume from sack material.
• Avoid ordering excessive extra density. Limit this to a couple of
points.
• Avoid diluting below the calcium bromide density range (11.7
ppg). It may be cheaper to re-displace.
• Avoid large dilutions with water unless logistically necessary. It
would be cheaper to use 11.6 ppg CaCl2.
• Avoid heavy usage of calcium chloride sack material alone. To do
so will risk over-saturation or raising crystal point too high for
prevailing weather.
• Avoid using sack calcium bromide. This is the most expensive
alternative for weight material.
• Using spike fluid for weight material is the best alternative.
• Use sack material for weight material only in the upper density
range (14.0 ppg - 15.0 ppg) unless logistically necessary.
ZINC BROMIDE
• Avoid heavy usage of sack salts for weight material. To do so will
risk over-saturation or raising crystal point too high for
prevailing weather.
• Avoid ordering excessive extra density. Limit this to a couple of
points.
• Avoid large dilutions with water. Some other weighted fluid will
be better as determined on a case-by-case basis.
• Avoid diluting very far below the lower density range (15.1). To
dilute in the upper calcium bromide may be okay but the
resulting fluid may be less valuable containing zinc bromide.
Again this should be evaluated on a case by case basis.
• Use 19.2-ppg-spike fluid for weight material.
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 54 -
DISPLACEMENT A large body of research and publication has been devoted to hole
cleaning in drilling and displacement scenarios.
Pivital to Baroid’s technology have been the following:
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 55 -
HOW FLUIDS AND PARTICLES MOVE IN THE WELL BORE
Influence of variables on hole cleaning
The 1986 study produced this model of hole cleaning. Particles & Debris
The focus in completion and work over are:
• Relatively large diameter solids such as elastomers, cement
and metal cuttings
• Barite beds or sag
• Drill solids that have bedded or adhered to the casing
Hole Angle
Particle & debris removal generally becomes more difficult as the
angle increases.
Angles between 50-60° present most problems because the cuttings
have a tendency to slide down the annulus and cause pack off.
In wells deviated beyond 60° particles & debris form stable beds.
These beds are supported by sliding friction against the well bore.
The angle range for cuttings bed slide depends largely on fluid
rheology and problems cleaning the hole may be experienced from
30-60°.
Rheology
Fluid viscosity affects particle slip velocity, which greatly influences
transport efficiency in vertical and near vertical wells. However,
changes in conventional fluid rheology have little benefit once cuttings
beds form (>300.) Low viscosity fluids are most effective at angles
above 300 since they induce turbulence and encourage cuttings
removal by saltation.
Figure 5-14 Hole cleaning mechanisms
Plastic viscosity should be minimized to reduce pressure losses and
Figure 5-14 illustrates the transport mechanism for a range of well
obtain a “flatter” viscosity profile.
inclinations. Particles & debris are effectively suspended by the fluid
High plastic viscosity creates higher annular velocity in the outer
shear and beds do not form (Zones 1 and 3) for holes inclined less
portion of the hole for the same pump rate in large diameter well
than 30°, at 30o to 60o the particles & debris form beds on the low
bores
side of the hole which can slide back down the well. These particles &
(> 12.25”).
debris can be transported out of the well by a combination of two
High viscosity is most effective for particle & debris transport at low
different mechanisms. Particle & debris beds, which form on the low
velocity and or large well ID.
side of the hole can:
• Slide as a block (Zone 4)
• Be transported at the bed/fluid interface as ripples or dunes (Zone 2)
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 56 -
Hole angles above 30° From these studies, Baroid developed rheology, hydraulic, transport and
Turbulent/transitional flow is most effective in cleaning and spacer software models (DFG+ & CFG) that predict and visualize flow
evacuating/minimizing cuttings bed formation. regime, flow dynamic, pressure and particle / debris transport.
The model clearly visualizes the regions of flow in a well bore and
attenuation of leading/trailing edges in fluid flow.
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 57 -
Cuttings type Horizontal 216 mm (8½ inch) section
Particle & debris shape and size is also important in vertical transport. Flow Rate for Cleaning 216 mm (8½ inch) Horizontal Hole
The larger, more rounded particles are the hardest to remove. Shape
and size have little influence in highly deviated wells because the
cuttings move in blocks rather than discrete particles.
Short trips
Short trips are used to remove cuttings beds or residual adhered This figure shows hole cleaning model predictions for the minimum
solids by mechanical agitation. flow rate required to clean the hole.
Disturbed beds and adhered solids are more readily moved out of the Hole cleaning becomes easier as the fluid weight increases.
hole by a saltation process.
Flow regimes
Cuttings bed suppression Hole cleaning in horizontal holes will be enhanced by turbulent flow,
Cuttings bed formation in deviated holes can be suppressed by using which promotes efficient cuttings removal. Flow in the annulus is
generally laminar for hole diameters 311 mm (12¼ inch) and above in
fluids with exceptionally good suspension characteristics. However, high
drilling and > 8.5” in completion / work over cased hole.
flow rates are still necessary since the beds can never be completely
eliminated and this can result in high ECD. For water-based fluid, the Pb Gpm
best conventional additive for this purpose is Barazan D Plus or Biozan
(Xanthan or Wellan gum) polymer.
1714
A simple force balance approach can be used to determine the
minimum fluid rheology necessary to maintain drilled cuttings in
For 216 mm (8½ inch) sections and below, flow can become turbulent
suspension:
depending upon fluid rheology and flow rate.
The fluid yield point has a strong influence over the critical flow rate.
(2 x Æ3) - Æ6 = 110 x (Cuttings SG-Fluid SG) x Dp
The data in Figure 5-19 are for a 1.6 SG (13.3 lb/gal) fluid. Lower fluid
weights will require higher flow rates to reach turbulence. The figure
Where
also shows that turbulence will be difficult to achieve at yield points
Æ6 = Fann 6 rpm reading
above 10 lb/100 ft2, for the normal range of circulating range.
Æ3 = Fann 3 rpm reading
However, the fluid rheology (and gels) must remain sufficient to
Dp = Cuttings diameter (inches)
provide adequate suspension of barites. This is particularly important
for lengthy periods when the fluid remains stationary in the hole (e.g.,
For example: A 1.4 SG (11.7 lb/gal) fluid, with Fann 6/3 readings of
logging or running casing.)
21/20 lb/100 ft2, will support a 6mm (¼) cuttings with an SG of 2.1.
Although turbulence is an advantage for cleaning lateral sections, it
Monitoring Hole Cleaning
is not an essential (or even achievable) condition. The most
important factor is to control rate of penetration within the range
Cuttings transport efficiency must be maximized by optimizing the
given by the hole cleaning curves.
fluid system carrying capacity, annular fluid velocities, drill cuttings
size, maximum allowable rate of penetration (ROP,) etc. A reliable
hole cleaning monitoring system should also be followed to flag
cuttings transport inefficiencies before they become a problem. These
include:
• Closely monitor the SPM/pounds per square inch, drag-up/drag-
down/rotating string weight. Higher than normal values may
be the first indicators of potential wellbore stability or hole
cleaning problems.
• Do not assume that all the drilled cuttings are being evacuated
from the hole. If necessary, check this using sweeps
(appropriate to the hole deviation/geometry) and make
check/wiper trips to disturb and clean out possible cuttings
beds at regular intervals.
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 58 -
Shear rate for non-Newtonian fluids with various yield point/plastic Spacer Composition and Sequence
viscosity ratios The listed studies focused on spacer composition, contact time and
The figure above illustrates the viscosity shear rate relationships for sequence:
several non-Newtonian fluids. The tendency of shear thinning has a
significant influence on hydraulic performance for bit hydraulics and • Kerr-McGee Competitive Displacement Chemical Study in WBM
borehole cleaning with respect to fluid velocity profiles in the annulus. 1996
Polymers used in completion and work over are shear thinning. • Baroid CFS Competitive Displacement Chemicals for WBM-
Hydroxyethylcellulose does not build gel strength or yield point. XC OBM-SBM; Product Efficiency Index 1996
builds gel strength in relation to stresses, but maintains a higher level • Chevron Studies of SBM Wall Cake and Film Removal 1997/98
of suspension in all conditions. • BP & Stim-Lab PFLE Displacement Chemicals and Sequence
Any evidence of poor hole cleaning should be addressed by increasing 1998
flow rate rather than changing rheology of flow regime. • Baroid CFS SBM Displacement Testing for Chemical Type,
The range of viscosities as a function of shear rate in a typical Sequence & Quantity 1998
fluid circulating system • Mobil GOM / Mobile Bay Empirical Study of Hole Cleaning
Sweeps for WBM & OBM Fluids 1997/98
• Global Equipment Empirical Analysis of the Effects of
Mechanical Device Cleaners 1997/2000
• CFS Displacement Performance Database
• Stim Lab Consortium SBM Displacement Trials 2001
Spacer Types
Spacers fall into five main categories:
Flush
• Consists of water, base oil/synthetic or low-density brine;
Water volumes can be from a few barrels to several well
volumes. Base oil/synthetic flushes are sized in the 10 to 100
bbl range. Low-density brines are sized in the 10 to one well
volume range.
Barrier
• Consists of weighted or un-weighted viscous water, brine or
oil/synthetic; Barazan D Plus, N-Vis, Liqui-Vis NT/EP*, Bromi-
Vis*and the Geltone family are used in the appropriate fluid
base. Barriers are employed at the lead and tail of a
displacement spacer sequence. *Provide viscosity only, does
not provide suspension.
Primary Cleaner (Chemical)
• Consists of the chemical specific to fluid to be removed from
the well bore; water based fluids utilize Caustic & ConDet
Blend, oil/synthetic based fluids utilize Barascrub. Some WBM
types require an additional oxidizing chemical treatment with
Caustic & ConDet to ensure film removal.
Secondary Cleaner (Chemical)
• Consists of a blended surfactant with water wetting properties
that causes various particle types to release from metal
surfaces; Baraklean FL is the blend of choice and is used as a
secondary in all displacement types.
Flocculent (brine specific)
• Consists of a blend of agents formulated to flock solids in
high salinity fluids; Can be used as a discrete spacer but is
most effective as a fluid treatment in the first fluid volume
after the spacer sequence. Flo-Clean MD is used in all brines
except zinc and Flo-Clean Z is formulated for brines
containing zinc
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 59 -
Key Points from Studies • Indirect displacements may contribute to poor zonal isolation.
The studies identified several critical facts about spacer flow behavior, The cement sheath outside the casing experiences significant
composition, sequence, volume and concentration. positive and negative flex as high and low density fluid
• Flow attenuation is normal in laminar and transitional flow.
columns transition the well. This density induced flex is
Multiple flow starts and stops will extend the attenuation to
the point of failure for displacement spacers. thought to impact the formation of micro-annular fractures in
• Eccentric pipe flow dynamics contribute significantly to flow the cement.
attenuation on the high side of the well bore. Spacer and • Water immiscible chemicals must remain in constant
displacement fluid bypass or channeling is significantly more turbulent flow to effectively remove fluid films from the
pronounced in this scenario. casing and pipe. Immiscible chemicals will channel and
• Shear thinning fluids (polymers in brine or water) tend to continue to rise in the well bore if flow is stopped. Once
move into and reside on the near side of an eccentric pipe flow stops and the chemical channels, no further cleaning
well bore. This tendency exacerbates flow attenuation of benefit is experienced in the well bore above the spacer
displacement spacers. Dissimilar fluid reactions such as flow stop point.
dehydration of WBM and emulsion sludge formation in • Cleaning chemicals must be formulated for the specific fluid
OBM/SBM fluids can be severe if the displacement design to b cleaned from the well bore. No “One Chemical Fits All”
does not account for this flow dynamic. exists.
• Tapered casing strings and tapered pipe produce regions of • Cleaning chemicals have a specific volume per unit area
sudden change in the flow dynamic. Large annular spaces surface (V/UA) factor based on a residual wall film of less
at a given flow rate will produce sudden drops in annular than 0.1875”. The total surface area of the casing and pipe
velocity and Reynolds Number energy. Vortices can develop must be calculated to determine the necessary volume of
at these points that cause undesirable mixing of dissimilar cleaning agent necessary. If wall films greater than 0.1875”
fluids. are anticipated, the V/UA must be increased by the multiple
• Relatively thinner displacement spacers and completion of the film factor.
fluids can attenuate or channel in these velocity transition • Cleaning chemicals have a preferred contact time to achieve
zones and may propagate hundreds to thousands of feet maximum benefit. More contact time does not necessarily
beyond the transition point. This is most likely when; the increase cleaning efficiency. The default minimum chemical
fluid to be displaced has not been conditioned to a desirable volume for a particular well is equal to the volume in the
level or has experienced a static interval greater than 8 – 10 largest annular cross-section that meets the required
hours. Particularly prominent are well conditions above contact time.
225oF where WBM can experience temperature gellation • Cleaning chemical efficiency is affected by flow dynamic
effects. energy (shear rate or Reynolds Number) The quantity of
• Drilling fluids that have not been conditioned for rheology, cleaner necessary is inversely proportional to the increase or
chemical contaminants, solids and solids bedding and decrease in dynamic energy.
temperature will experience a high percentage of • Cleaning chemicals must be in high-energy turbulent flow to
displacement failure. achieve the most effective cleaning action. Current study
• Drilling fluids should be conditioned to a rheologically thin indicates a minimum Reynolds Number of 8000 – 10,000 or
condition. Low-end suspension characteristics should be a shear rate > 45.
based on the 6-RPM reading instead of yield point (YP). The • OBM and SBM displacements require that the first water
6-RPM reading should be greater than five. (Generally 6-10) based spacer to enter the well bore be treated with and
• Uniform flow around the pipe is necessary to achieve emulsion inhibitor or de-emulsifier. Chemicals included
effective displacement of fluids and solids. Rotation of the EGMBE, Mu-Sol A and Barascrub at 5 to 15% v/v. Water
drill string at 30 RPM or higher causes the pipe to lift from contact with invert emulsion fluid systems before the
the eccentric position and maintain a more centralized residual oil or synthetic film has been removed will cause
position in the well bore. emulsion sludge’s to occur. This sludge can have water wet
• Drill string rotation and reciprocation imparts mechanical solids bound within and can be very difficult or expensive to
energy to the fluid dynamic and increases the energy remove from the well bore.
(Reynolds Number) of the flow dynamic. • Displacement spacers and completion fluids with a Ca++ or
• Rotation and reciprocation disturbs particle and debris beds, Zn++ content that attenuate over or channel through WBM,
dunes and ripples. The disturbed solids or more readily will cause severe dehydration of the clay solids in the WBM.
transported out of the well bore by the saltation process. The water exchange reaction can penetrate through wall
• Density differentials above 0.5 – 1.0 lb/gal between displaced films and cause clay solids to form a strong bond with metal
and inserted fluids require a weighted barrier. The barrier surfaces.
spacer should be at least 1.0 lb/gal higher in density than the • Large diameter casing and marine riser annular spaces (>
11.75”) will have laminar flow under most circumstances.
fluid being moved out of the well bore. This density delta
Riser boosting will aid the displacement cleaning process.
directly contributes to the spacers ability to uniformly move Large annular cross section responds well to increased
fluids, particles and debris. viscosity in the displacement spacers. Solids and displaced
fluids are more readily transported in large diameter cross
section with increased spacer viscosity.
• Casing cleaning tools such as scrapers and brushes, will
compress the blades or brushes on the low or eccentric side
of the pipe. The high side of the casing will not be
contacted. This is found in any well with angles of 10o or
higher or where the well path undulates along its course.
• Casing scraper and brush tools require centralization to
insure uniform contact with the casing wall. Centralized
tools also experience less wear as opposed to non-
centralized tools.
Flow attenuation in eccentric pipe well • Casing scraper and brush tool bodies and inserts should
have rounded shoulders at all points of contact
perpendicular to the casing wall. Rounded profiles reduce
the incidence of casing wear or gouging.
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 60 -
Key Points from Studies Displacement Methods
• The optimum spacing for casing cleaning tools is 4000 linear The three procedures used are:
feet or less. This interval represents the optimum cost • Indirect
effective balance between tool cost and short trip time • Modified Indirect
consumption. The maximum spacing for deep-water wells is • Direct
equal to the riser height. All methods utilize additives that are formulated to provide well bore
• Each casing section in a tapered hole must have at least cleaning and separation of fluid types.
one centralized scraper & brush tool per interval. Each
interval should be completely covered by linear motion of Pump rate and direction
the casing tools in the short trip cycle. Pump rate and direction are dictated by several factors:
• Direct displacements require a short trip in the brine • Differential density between existing fluid and fluid to be pumped
followed by at least one well volume of circulation and • Maximum allowable pressure on casing
filtration to assure well bore cleanliness. • Maximum negative differential pressure on drill pipe or casing
• Indirect displacements may perform the short trip after the • Maximum pump rate possible at a given pressure
flush to ensure particle and debris removal. Completion fluid • Maximum feed rate of fluids to pump equipment
should be circulated and filtered at least one well volume to Pump direction is referred to as either conventional (down tubing/up
assure well bore cleanliness. casing) or reverse (down casing/up tubing.)
• Significant cost reduction of the displacement process is
accomplished by embedding surface preparation activities
Conventional
outside the critical hour path. Savings of 6-18 hours of rig
Conventional pump direction is used when:
time have been observed. The use of additional rig
• Density differential between fluids is less than 1.0 lb/gal.
personnel or dedicated cleaning crews is virtually always
(Higher deltas can be accommodated by specialized spacer
cost effective.
designs)
• In an efficient operation, rig and well preparation for
• Differential pressures exceed casing limits or down hole
displacement begins well before the actual displacement
conditions such as liner tops or squeeze perforations.
event.
• Pipe reciprocation and rotation is possible (Reciprocation and
• The surface system should be reduced to the minimum
rotation is not possible in normal reverse circulation mode.)
configuration possible with a view to safety and well
• Higher flow rates desired than reverse circulation permits.
operations. In cased hole operations, this is normally just
after the final casing string or liner is set and cemented. The
Reverse
preferred configuration is a single pit system with solids
Reverse circulation is used when:
control processing pits by-passed. All system parts not in
• Density differential between fluids is greater than 1.0 lb/gal
direct need for well operations should be cleaned to at least
and well angles are </= 10o
a basic level, free from sediment beds and liquid fluid
• Low pump rates are required
content.
• Long contact times for cleaning chemicals (slow pump
• Displacement spacers must exit the well bore before
rates)
cessation of flow.
• High turbulent flow up drill pipe for removal of contaminants
• Pre-mixing displacement spacers in MPT vessels significantly
is desirable
reduce rig time consumption for preparation and pumping.
• Brine to brine displacements, any angle
• Spacers that are spotted in the pipe must not enter the
annular area at the well’s circulation point unless the density
Indirect displacement
of the spacers is equal to or higher than the fluid in the
The indirect displacement utilizes water as the major component to
annular column.
flush and clean the well bore. Coastal areas utilize sea and bay waters
• Spacer column height in the largest casing cross section is
and land sites utilize lease and fresh water. The type of water used is
usually 500 to 1000 linear feet. Actual spacer size is dictated
a function of availability and disposal constraints. In some cases, it
by the V/UA, contact time and density differential factors.
may be desirable to use relatively inexpensive brine as a well flush.
• The aggregate column height of displacement spacer
NaCl or CaCl2 based brines would be used in that case.
systems displays the highest degree of success when the
Indirect displacement is used when:
aggregate total (all spacers) linear feet are 2500’ or more.
• Casing and tubulars can withstand maximum pump and
• Marine riser spacer column height is always significantly less
differential pressures anticipated.
than casing profiles. The aggregate column height total in
• Formations are effectively isolated from the well bore
the riser is typically 400 – 600 linear feet.
• A source of water is readily available.
• Surface systems that have contained calcium or zinc based
brines must be cleaned with a high pH water with a calcium
Modified Indirect
specific reagent to prevent contamination of drilling fluids in
The modified indirect displacement uses a limited amount of either
subsequent use.
water or low-density brine as a flush between the existing fluid and
• Displacement of brine fluid back to WBM requires a barrier
the new working fluid.
between the brine and WBM. The barrier should be treated
Modified Indirect Displacement is used when:
for high calcium or zinc content residual wall films. The lead
• A reduction in flush volumes is desired
volume of WBM should be buffered against calcium
• Less time consumption vs. indirect is desired
contamination.
• Reduced waste volume is desired
• A key performance indicator (KPI) for displacement
• A spacer column height greater than a direct displacement
performance is attaining the desired clarity level in 1.5 well
can economically provide
volumes after the completion fluid has reached the surface.
• Optimum well clarity is based on the relationships between
the NTU readings of well return, clean pit and filter
discharge sample points.
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 61 -
Direct displacement General outline of procedures incorporating most commonly
The direct displacement utilizes chemical agents and weighted fluids to used steps
clean the well bore and separate the existing fluid from the completion/ Indirect procedure
work over fluid. • Begin preparation of the surface system and fluid
equipment.
Direct displacement is used when:
• Run bit and scraper.
• Lower rig time requirements are desired • Condition existing well bore fluid to the minimum plastic
• Casing and tubulars cannot withstand pressures that the viscosity (lower plastic viscosity increases turbulence) and
indirect method would impose yield point (yield point indicates the relative ability of the
• Formations are exposed to the well bore fluid to suspend solids but use the 6 RPM reading as the
• A source of water is not readily available basis for rheology modification.)
• Disposal and discharge restraints are present • Prepare and pump initial fluid/seawater spacer, usually a
high viscosity polymer, BARAZAN® PLUS or a LIQUI-
Key points for displacement VIS®NT/EP, in a sea or fresh water base.
The key points for displacement are: • Prepare and pump a caustic sweep of 3-5 lb/bbl. The
• Correct conditioning of the drilling fluid is critical, use 6 RPM caustic sweep should be large enough to provide at least
readings to adjust rheological properties five minutes contact time to each section of the annulus.
• Displacement additives and mixtures must be compatible with The high pH of the sweep helps break up and disperse
adjacent fluids in the pumping regime residual wall cake. Caustic sweeps should be prepared in
• Pump rates that provide high turbulent flow are preferable fresh water only.
• When high pump rates are not possible, increased contact • Follow with clean seawater at a pump rate high enough to
time for cleaning agents and increased plastic viscosity and provide turbulent flow in the annulus, or highest possible
yield point of viscous materials may be necessary pump rate (calculate hydraulics and flow characteristics of
• An effective displacement is paramount to the overall fluid cost different fluids utilizing DFG+ software). Continue pumping
to the customer until clean seawater returns are achieved.
Ineffective displacement = higher cost. • Rotate and reciprocate pipe while circulating. This ensures
contact of all surfaces with sweeps and seawater and helps
Quality Assurance in Displacement Design and Execution break up residual wall cake.
Cased Hole; Nine Steps to Success • Prepare a well bore cleaning solution. The sweep should be
large enough to assure that at least five minutes contact
• Mechanical Conditioning of the Well Bore (casing time throughout the annulus. Use BARAKLEAN FL in either
scrapers/brushes) fresh water or brine.
• Proper Sizing of Tubulars for Optimum AV’s (minimum of 100 • Prepare a hi-vis spacer with Barazan D Plus, N-Vis, LIQUI-
ft/min AV) VIS® NT/EP or BROMI-VIS® (Depending on base fluid).
• Circulate and Condition Mud The spacer should be large enough to cover 700-1,000 feet
• Embed Surface System Preparation Time of the largest annular section. The spacer may use a base
• Circulate Spacer System Without Stopping Pumps fluid of either water or brine (water or CaCl is usually most
• Rotate / Reciprocate the Work String economical.)
• Route, Collect and Dispose of Mud System and Displacement • Pump clean filtered completion fluid. In most cases, the first
Spacers 50-150 barrels of fluid should be treated with Flo-Clean MD
• Circulate & Filter until Clarity Measurements Reach / Z to aid rapid cleanup of initial well returns. Flo-Clean is
Specification 100% compatible with clear fluids.
• Short Trip to Mechanically Condition the Well Bore and Verify • Route returns of the original well bore fluid, cleaning
Removal of Wall Film and Eccentric Beds agents, water and viscosity fluids to storage or disposal as
conditions dictate.
Open Hole; Eleven Steps to Success • Route the initial returns of completion/workover fluids to
storage or disposal until the fluid reaches a degree of
• Mechanical conditioning of the Well Bore (casing cleanliness and correct density to justify usage.
scrapers/brushes) the lowest tool position should be as close
to the casing shoe as practical. Note: Indirect displacement of OBM / SBM systems require
• Proper Sizing of Tubulars for Optimum AV’s (minimum of 100 that an emulsion inhibitor or OBM / SBM specific cleaner
ft/min AV in cased portions) enter the well bore prior to water or water based spacers.
• Circulate and Condition the drilling fluid in the open and cased Caustic sweeps should never be used until the OBM / SBM
hole wall films have been removed.
• Flush the open hole with the appropriate solids free “Clean
Pill”* The volume of the pill should be at least 1.5 times the
open hole gross capacity and annular velocity should be at
least 200 fpm. The” Clean Pill” should extend at least 250’ into
the cased portion of the well.
• Pull up above the casing shoe to displace to the completion
fluid. The circulation point should be as close to the casing
shoe as is practical.
• Embed Surface System Preparation Time
• Circulate Spacer System Without Stopping Pumps
• Rotate / Reciprocate the Work String (reciprocation in open
hole conditions s dependent on surge and swap effects on the
open hole segment)
• Route, Collect and Dispose of Mud System and Displacement
Spacers
• Circulate & Filter until Clarity Measurements Reach
Specification
• Short Trip to Mechanically Condition the Well Bore and Verify
Removal of Wall Film and Eccentric Beds
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 62 -
Direct procedure Deep Water Wells
• Begin preparation of the surface system and fluid
equipment. Deep-water wells present a two-segment profile for displacement
• Run bit and scraper. treatment; well bore and marine riser.
• Condition existing well bore fluid to the minimum plastic The flow dynamics in the well bore and riser are considerably different
viscosity (lower plastic viscosity increases turbulence) and due to:
yield point (yield point indicates the relative ability of the • Annular cross sectional area
fluid to suspend solids but use the 6 RPM reading as the • Temperature
basis for rheology modification.) • Maximum possible pump & booster rates
• OBM/SBM displacements require a base oil spacer of 20-50
bbls in front of the barrier. In some cases, the base oil may The segmentation of the well allows the different displacement types to
be treated with Barascrub to aid the removal of invert be used in conjunction with each other.
emulsion wall films. The variations are:
• Prepare and pump a barrier pill utilizing fresh water and • Indirect over Indirect
BARAZAN® D plus or N-Vis (spacer may be weighted or o Each segment is displaced separately with water
non-weighted as conditions dictate). Funnel viscosity should • Indirect over Direct
be ± 150-quart seconds. The spacer volume range is 25 to o The riser is displaced indirectly and the well bore is
100 bbl. displaced directly
• Prepare and pump a cleaning agent solution. This pill is • Direct over Indirect
usually 15 - 50 barrels in volume and has a base fluid of o The riser is directly displaced and the well bore is
fresh water or is pumped as a neat chemical. Agents include displaced indirectly
“Caustic & ConDet” at 5 minutes contact or BARASCRUB at • Direct over Direct
2-3 minutes contact. o Both the well bore and riser are directly displaced
• Prepare and pump the secondary cleaning agent solution of • Single stage
BARAKLEAN FL in a water or brine base fluid. This mix is o Direct displacement of the riser and well bore in one
usually 25-50 barrels in volume. continuous operation
• In some cases, a flocculent spacer comprised of Flo-Clean • Two Stage
MD/Z in seawater or brine is used after the secondary o Any combination of displacement variations except
cleaner. The spacer volume is normally 25-50 bbl. single stage direct. A direct over direct displacement
• Prepare and pump high viscosity brine spacer composed of can be handled in a two-stage manner by displacing
Barazan D Plus, N-Vis, LIQUI-VIS® NT/EP or BROMI-VIS® each segment separately.
and the completion/work over fluid to be used. The spacer
should have a viscosity of 200-300 quart seconds and be
large enough to cover 1,000 feet of the largest annular Selection of the methods used
space. is dependent on:
• Pump clean filtered completion/work over fluid. In many • Rig storage and
cases, the first 100-150 barrels of fluid may be treated with transfer limitations
Flo-Clean MD / Z. This agent is 100% compatible with • Exposed formation
brines and will aid rapid cleanup of the initial returns and face
complement the filter system by flocculating solids into large • Operator preference
complexes. • Riser pump and
• Critical point: Once completion/work over fluid enters the boost rates
well, pumping should not stop until all original fluid,
spacers, cleaning agents and viscous brine have returned to Single stage direct/direct
surface and are routed to disposal or storage. Reciprocate displacements are the
and rotate the work string if possible throughout the most cost effective in
procedure. terms of time and
• Route the initial returns of completion/work over to chemical usage, but hold
storage/disposal until they reach a usable level of the greatest risk of poor
cleanliness and density displacement
performance.
Note: Direct displacement of OBM / SBM systems require an
emulsion inhibitor or OBM / SBM specific cleaner enter the Two stage indirect/indirect
well bore prior to water or water based spacers. Caustic displacements are the
sweeps should never be used until the OBM / SBM wall films most costly in time
have been removed. consumption and chemical
consumption is not
necessarily significantly
less, but holds the least
risk of poor displacement
performance.
62 ddi Don.Isaac@Halliburton.com
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 63 -
Surface Preparation OBM / SBM
WBM
• During well bore clean out to PBTD; minimize the surface
• During well bore clean out to PBTD; minimize the surface tanks, lines and equipment that are in contact with the
tanks, lines and equipment that are in contact with the WBM OBM/SBM system. By-pass the traps and process pits. Use the
system. By-pass the traps and process pits. Use the shakers shakers as the primary solids control equipment. The pit
as the primary solids control equipment. The pit system system should be configured as a single pit with a minimum
should be configured as a single pit with a minimum working working volume.
volume. • POOH with the clean out BHA and PU the displacement
• POOH with the clean out BHA and PU the displacement configured BHA. During these trips, begin the final cleaning of
configured BHA. During these trips, begin the final cleaning of the fluid system, tanks, pumps and lines. If well control safety
the fluid system, tanks, pumps and lines. If well control safety issues preclude removal of the OBM/SBM system at this time,
issues preclude removal of the WBM system at this time, go to go to surface cleanup steps after reaching bottom with the
surface cleanup steps after reaching bottom with the work work string. Circulate and condition the drilling fluid after all
string. Circulate and condition the drilling fluid after all well well bore clean out activities are complete.
bore clean out activities are complete. • In some cases the clean out and displacement BHA are run
• In some cases the clean out and displacement BHA are run together. Having the bulk of the surface system drained and
together. Having the bulk of the surface system drained and cleaned is important to reducing critical path rig time usage.
cleaned is important to reducing critical path rig time usage. • The pit system should be configured as a single pit with a minimum
• Transfer the excess surface drilling fluid system volume to working volume.
boat storage or disposal. • Use a mud vacuum and/or a diaphragm pump to collect all liquid
• Start at the highest point of the fluid handling system OBM fluid. Route the residual OBM liquids to the same storage as
(Typically the flow line area) and wash down. This involves the excess OBM system.
starting at the shaker and ending at the mud pits. • All mud-contaminated surfaces should be sprayed with BARASCRUB
• Wash fluid handling system equipment and adjacent areas prior to steam cleaning or pressure washing. We recommend using
utilizing a combination of cleaning agents and low volume / a specialized tank cleaning service to expedite the cleaning
high-pressure water wash to remove caked and dried mud process.
solids. • Wash fluid handling system equipment and adjacent areas utilizing
• All troughs flow lines, trip tanks, pits and pump lines should a combination of BARASCRUB applied with sprayers and/or deck
be opened and thoroughly cleaned. brushes followed by high-pressure low volume pressure washer
• All areas around and associated with the fluid system pits and spray. A cleaning solution of 5% v/v BARAKLEAN can be used in
pumps should be thoroughly cleaned. These include structural the pressure washer feed water to enhance clean up. Follow these
steel beams, ladders, equalization lines & valves, grating and primary-cleaning steps with the use of high-pressure steam
walkways above pits and flow lines and pay special attention cleaning to loosen and remove crusted or tenacious OBM solids.
to areas that are not readily visible. • The objective is the removal of OBM liquids, solids & sludge’s with
• Flush all suction and discharge lines (high and low pressure) the minimum of waste volume produced.
with water followed by a solution of water with 2 ppb caustic, • Use mud vacuums and/or diaphragm pumps to collect and route
2 ppb soda ash and 5 cans Condet per 50 bbls of water. The liquid, sludge and solid wastes to appropriate waste disposal
cleaning solution and water flush should be pulse flowed containers. Stay up with the volume generated. Do not wait until
through all PDP and centrifugal pumps and their associated pools of waste develop.
discharge lines. Pulse flow provides a hydraulic shock within
the structures that helps to dislodge and remove sediment
accumulations. Follow the cleaning wash with clean water. If
the final water rinse does not clean up rapidly, repeat the
pulsed cleaning solution flush.
• Cycle all valves in the low-pressure fluid system against
centrifugal pump pressure. Check for leaks and repair /
replace valves as necessary.
• Drain all lines (blow down lines, pumps and fluid equipment
with compressed air if possible). Drain all pits, traps and
tanks, flush and squeegee dry. If possible, open horizontal
suction lines and visually inspect for residual sediments, clean
as necessary.
• Close and seal all dump valves. A silicon-based caulk is
preferable. Allow the caulk to dry for 15 to 30 minutes before
introducing fluids.
• Bring completion fluids on board and prepare displacement
spacer system.
63 ddi Don.Isaac@Halliburton.com
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 64 -
64 ddi Don.Isaac@Halliburton.com
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 65 -
Hi-Viscosity
Brine High viscosity BARAZAN PLUS or High viscosity Barazan D Plus, N-Vis, LIQUI-VIS NT*,
oil-based mud BARAZAN D PLUS PETROFREE/PETROFREE LE/ LIQUI-VIS EP,
(Weighted or un- XP-07 or BROMI-VIS**
weighted) Mud’s BARAKLEAN FL
Buffer with Soda Ash FLO-CLEAN MD
@ 2-4 ppb FLO-CLEAN Z
BARAKLEAN FL 1 drum/32 bbl (5.09 m3) of water based fluid. Required contact time is 5 minutes.
1 drum/150 bbl of seawater or brine (requires a minimum Cl- content of ± 5000 mg/L )(not to be
FLO-CLEAN MD
used with zinc bromide brines)
- 65 -
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 66 -
- 66 -
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 67 -
BRINE ADDITIVES & FLUID LOSS CONTROL (FLC) Modified Cellulose
A number of chemicals and compounds are used to impart or control (N-Vis HB) is a specialized suspension agent for brine fluids up to 16.5
properties in completion work over fluids. This section focuses on those lb/gal. It is not a true polymer but a matrix of cellulosic glucose strands
items used in brine-based fluids. The chemicals and compounds are as that act to suspend particles and impart low-end rheological properties.
follows: This material is used exclusively in brine based Dril-N fluids.
• Viscosity
• Suspension
• Polymer Breakers
• Filtrate Control
• FLC Cake Formation
• Fluid Loss Control Pills
• Control of pH
• Temperature Buffers
• Brine in Oil Emulsifiers
• Foam Suppression
• Emulsion Suppression
• Hydrate Suppression
• Invert Emulsion Cake Cleaners
• Corrosion Inhibitors
• CO2 & H2S Inhibitors
Biopolymers
• Oxygen Scavengers
Biopolymers are produced as a fermentation by-product from various
• Biocide
• Filtration Aids species of bacteria and fungi. Biopolymers are primarily used as
suspending polymers rather than viscosifiers, although they do impart
some viscosity to brines. They create intermolecular support networks
called gel structure, which retards or stops the settling of solids in brine.
Starch
Polymers & Starch
Starch is used in brines to impart filtration control in FLC formulations
Viscosity – Suspension – Filtrate Control
and in some cases to aid hole-cleaning sweeps. Starch products used in
Water-soluble polymers are found in three categories: brine or brine based Dril-N fluids is a modified high purity material and is
• Synthetic, which are obtained by the polymerization of either corn or potato based. Common drilling fluid starch product are
monomers synthesized from petroleum or natural gas not recommended for completion / work over applications.
precursors; an example is Polyacrylamide (Synthetic polymers
have limited use in completion / work over and are not Natural Gums
discussed here.) Gums are a class of natural polymers derived from plants. The most
• Semi-synthetic, which are manufactured by chemical common gum is guar gum and its various derivatives
derivatization of natural organic materials such as (Hydroxypropylguar), which are used in monovalent brines as frac and
Hydroxyethylcellulose, generally based on a polysaccharide, or gravel pack fluids. Guars are not generally used in other completion
by fermentation production of microbial material such as operations due to their potential to cause formation damage without
Xanthan and Scleroglucan specialized handling and formulation.
• Natural, including plant and animal-based materials such as,
Hydroxypropylguar
Chemical Structure of a Biopolymer
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are naturally-occurring (organic) water-soluble polymers
composed of carbohydrate compounds chained together molecularly by
acetyl linkages. Most brine polymers are non-ionic (neutrally-charged) or
slightly anionic (negatively electrical charged.) Many polysaccharides are
modified to impart particular properties to the polymer. Generally,
polysaccharides can be grouped into four classifications:
• Hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC)
• Modified Celluloses (N-Vis HB)
• Biopolymers (Xanthan, Wellan, Gellan, Scleroglucan &
Succinoglycans)
• Starch (potato, corn)
• Natural Gums (Hydroxypropylguar)
HEC
HEC is a neutrally charged, modified cellulosic polysaccharide, soluble in
most brine due primarily to its neutral charge. Other cellulosic polymers,
such as carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), will not viscosify brine due to
the negative electrical charge. HEC is the most frequently used brine
polymer because it will viscosify virtually all brines, is highly acid-soluble,
and has low damaging potential to the formation. Modified HEC
compounds are used as a base for cross-linked hi-viscose formulations.
67
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 68 -
USE AND COMPATIBILITY TABLE
Material Product Name Fluid Temperature Acid Primary Usage Range
Compatibility Compatibility Solubility Applications
Friction Reduction 0.25 – 6 lb/bbl
Baravis
Formate, Mono & divalent Viscose Sweep Max vis requirements
HEC Liqui-Vis NT/EP 60-300oF (1) Excellent
brine (5) Plastic Viscosity decrease as brine
Bromi-Vis
FLC density increases
K-Max Formate, Mono & divalent K-Max & Max Seal
Desired Rheology
HEC (Modified) Z-Max brine 60 – 300oF Excellent FLC
dependent
Max Seal Zinc brines require Z-Max Z-Max 60 – 225oF
Moderate
Formate, Mono & divalent Will Degrade in
Modified Cellulosic N-Vis HB 60 – 275oF Suspension 0.25 – 1 lb/bbl
brine ZnBr densities >
16.5 lb/gal
Good
Acid Resistant Suspension
Formate, Mono & divalent
XCD Barazan D Plus 60 – 280oF (2) Oxidizers & Friction Reduction 0.5 – 2 lb/bbl
brine
Enzymes degrade Viscose Sweep
more rapidly
Good
Suspension
Acid Resistant
N-Vis Formate, Mono & divalent Friction Reduction
XC 60 – 280oF (2) Oxidizers & 0.5 – 3 lb/bbl
N-Vis L brine (6) FLC
Enzymes degrade
Frac/GP Fluid
more rapidly
Salinity of <50,000 mg/L Good
Suspension
Cl2 Acid Resistant
Viscose Sweep
Wellan Biozan Calcium tolerant to 5000- 60 – 300oF Oxidizers & 0.5 – 3 lb/bbl
Friction Reduction
10,000 ppm under certain Enzymes degrade
Frac/GP Fluid
pH conditions more rapidly
High
Formate & Monovalent Oxidizers & Suspension
Gellan Kelcogel 60 – 140oF 0.5 – 1 lb/bl
brine Enzymes degrade Frac/GP Fluid
more rapidly
Good Suspension
Acid Resistant Friction Reduction
Formate & Monovalent o
Scleroglucan Biovis 60 – 160 F (3) Oxidizers & Viscose Sweep 0.5 – 2 lb/bbl
brine
Enzymes degrade FLC
more rapidly Frac/GP Fluid
Poor
Very Acid Suspension
Formate & Monovalent
Succinoglycan FloPac 60 – 140oF (3) Resistant Viscose Sweep 0.5 – 2 lb/bbl
brine
Requires Alkalinity Frac/GP Fluid
to Degrade
Good
Some Acid
Formate, Mono & divalent Resistance Filtrate Reduction
Starch N-Drill HT Plus 60 – 300oF (4) 0.5 – 6 lb/bbl
brine Oxidizers & Carry Capacity Aid
Enzymes degrade
more rapidly
Poor
Friction Reduction
Formate, Mono & divalent Requires Oxidizers
HPG (Guar) Frac & GP Suspension
brine or Enzymes to
Frac/GP Fluid
Degrade
68
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 69 -
Fluid Rheology Graphics Acid Solubility
Viscosity and Suspension of HEC VS XC After the polymer has performed as required in the well bore, it is often
desirable to break or degrade the viscosity of the brine fluid with a
mineral acid. The process of breaking a completion fluid with a mineral
acid, called acid hydrolysis or acidizing, produces both soluble and
insoluble residues. The insoluble residue can cause formation damage.
All of the polysaccharide polymers are acid-soluble to some degree with
the exception of Succinoglycan.
Note: Generally, HEC polymers are very acid-soluble and produce very
low insoluble residue. However, some liquid HEC products on the market
contain organophilic clay, which is added to suspend the HEC in
solution. The clay is not acid-soluble and can result in damage to the
formation. Baroid LIQUI-VIS® NT /EP and BROMI-VIS® liquid HEC
polymers do not contain any organophilic clay.
Acid hydrolysis of BARAVIS®, BROMI-VIS®, and LIQUI-VIS® NT/EP
polymers results in the lowest insoluble residue content of any
viscosifying polymer (less than 0.09% by weight.) Baroid's BARAZAN®
and N-VIS biopolymers demonstrate excellent acid solubility and low
insoluble residue.
FANN 50 Readings at 250 psi Viscosity
Measurements of 11.6 lb/gal Calcium pH Tolerance
HEC polymers are stable over a pH range of 2 - 12. Below pH 3, they
Chloride & 3 lb/bbl HEC
can show some loss in viscosity over time due to hydrolysis. BARAVIS®,
BROMI-VIS®, and LIQUI-VIS® NT/EP are not affected by the pH
Temperature, F 150 200 250
ranges associated with brine formulations.
600 rpm 283 205 116 The biopolymer BARAZAN D Plus®, N-Vis and N-Vis L are stable over a
pH range of 2 - 12, and has almost no viscosity loss at the extremes of
300 rpm 216 148 74 this range.
Yield failure or dehydration of HEC in ZnBr2
200 rpm 186 122 39 HEC is normally the polymer of choice with ZnBr fluids. It is well
established that a range of 0.1 to 6 percent ZnBr will prevent the
polymer from proper yield. Any ZnBr2 fluid containing a trace of zinc
100 rpm 143 88 23 bromide to 22% by weight ZnBr2 must be specially blended to increase
the zinc concentration above the 22% threshold. HEC forms hard
60 rpm 117 67 16 polymer particles and stringy viscose chains below the threshold
condition. These by products can be very hard if not impossible to treat.
30 rpm 88 45 9 A second effect that is often over looked; polymer blends at the
necessary Zn percentage mixing with fluids that have less than the
6 rpm 39 15 3 necessary ZnBr concentration. This brings the overall concentration of
ZnBr down into the critical range.
Light ZnBr fluids and ZnBr fluids with summer TCT blends to +/- 16.0
3 rpm 26 8 2 ppg are often used during completion and work over operations.
Volumes of HEC polymer mixing with low Zinc brines have been
Plastic viscosity, 67 56 43 observed to form rubbery glutinous masses that were sufficient to
cP impair mechanical operations in the well bore and were very resistant to
chemical removal. To avoid this reaction HEC polymer pills must be
blended with a maximum ZnBr concentration and a high ZnBr
Yield point, lb/100 149 91 32
concentration spacer of 5 to 10 barrels must be pumped ahead and
ft2 behind the pill to insure sufficient ZnBr in the vicinity the pill to inhibit
the low Zinc reactions.
Apparent 142 102 58 Dilution effects can be addressed as follows:
viscosity, cP • Prepare HEC polymers in 19.2 lb/gal ZnBr2 that has be cut to
the desired density with CaCl2
• Prepare lead and chase spacers that have sufficient ZnBr2
content to correct in dilution in the well bore area where the
polymer will be used
69
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 70 -
“Best Practice” for Polymer Sweep & FLC Pill Mixing is as Preparation of Barazan D Plus, N-Vis, N-Vis L in Different Brine
follows: Bases
• Use a filtered base brine that meets 2 micron absolute quality In high concentrations of divalent salts, such as calcium chloride,
standards calcium bromide and zinc bromide, special mixing procedures will have
• Mixing tanks and lines should be cleaned of all potential to be followed to obtain complete viscosity in a reasonable period of
contaminants such as drilling fluid residue, rust and scale and time.
other foreign materials. As the salt concentration increases above the critical level, the hydration
• Mixing hopper systems should be high shear and tanks should time will become longer. The high-density brines from 11.6 -19.2
contain an agitation method other than fluid flow from the lb/gallon (1.4 -2.3 S.G.) are normally blends of calcium chloride, calcium
hopper. (Air bubble agitation is not an adequate method) bromide and zinc bromide. The performance of Xanthan gum is
• If a reliably clean and high shear mixing system cannot be dependent upon the total divalent ion concentration. Improved
accomplished, a dedicated third party mix system should be performance can be obtained by formulating the brines for a minimum
used. ionic concentration. Increasing the solution temperature and/or
• Polymer FLC pills should be hydraulically sheared then filtered increasing the mixing shear can reduce the hydration time in some
to 10 micron absolute. divalent salts.
• Polymer sweeps that will not contact the productive formation
do not require shear & filter. SODIUM BROMIDE & POTASSIUM BROMIDE
• External breakers for HEC based FLC are acids and or • In solutions containing less than 1000 mg/L total hardness
oxidizers; for biopolymers, oxidizers work in a much shorter (calcium & magnesium) and at normal temperatures (50°-
time frame as compared to acids. 90°F, 10°-30°C), Xanthan gum can be mixed directly into the
• Internal breakers are selected based on a complex set of solution at all salt concentrations.
design variables. Internal breaker application is discussed in a • In solutions containing over 1000-mg/L total hardness,
subsequent part of this section. hydration time will increase as the salt concentration and
hardness increases. High shear mixing for longer periods 30-
90 minutes or increasing the temperature to 120°-150°F (50°-
65°C) will normally allow complete hydration in saturated
monovalent salt solutions up to very high hardness levels.
CALCIUM CHLORIDE
• Xanthan gum will viscosity calcium chloride solutions with high
shear mixing at normal temperatures (50°-90°F, 10°-30°C) up
to 15% salt concentration (10.5 lb/gallon, 1.26 S.G.).
• Solutions over 15% calcium chloride can be viscosified using
one of the following procedures:
o Increase the solution temperature to 120°F (50°C)
while mixing xanthan gum at high shear and
maintain temperature until complete hydration is
obtained.
o Mix Xanthan gum in a 15% or lower solution using
high shear, allow time for complete hydration then
increase the salt concentration to the desired level
by adding dry salt.
CALCIUM BROMIDE
• Xanthan gum will viscosity calcium bromide solutions with
high shear mixing at normal temperatures (50°-90°F, 10°-
30°C) up to 13% salt concentration (10.5 lb/gallon, 1.26
S.G.).
• Solutions over 13% calcium bromide can be viscosified using
one of the following procedures:
o Increase the solution temperature to 120°F (50°C)
while mixing xanthan gum at high shear and
maintain temperature until complete hydration is
obtained.
o Mix Xanthan gum in a 13% or lower solution using
high shear, allow time for complete hydration then
increase the salt concentration to the desired level
by adding dry salt.
o Dilute a saturated calcium bromide solution
approximately 30% with fresh water, mix 4-5 lb/bbl
(1.1% to 1.4% by wt.) Xanthan gum using high
shear, allow time for complete hydration then add
saturated calcium bromide solution to obtain the
desired polymer concentration and density.
70
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 71 -
ZINC BROMIDE
• Xanthan gum will viscosity zinc bromide solutions with high
shear mixing at normal temperatures up to 10% salt
concentration (13.5 lb/gallon, 1.6 S.G.).
• Solutions up to 15% zinc bromide (16 lb/gallon, 1.92 S.G.)
can be viscosified by raising the solution temperature to 120°F
(50°C), while mixing Xanthan gum at high shear and
maintaining temperature until complete hydration is obtained.
• To obtain solutions over 15%, dilute the highest density zinc
bromide solution with approximately 30% fresh water. Mix 4-5
lb/bbl (1.1% to 1.4% by wt) Xanthan gum using high shear
and allow time for complete hydration. Add dry calcium
bromide salt and saturated zinc bromide solution to obtain the
desired polymer concentration and density.
Note: As brine density increases above 12.0 lb/gal the suspension
properties of Xanthan polymers begin to loose their effectiveness.
Pilot test mixtures to verify suspension performance for the particular
application.
71
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 72 -
Fluid Loss Control (FLC) Applications and Characteristics:
• Single Use
Definition: A material or blend of materials used to control fluid loss to • Perforating
the formation. • Tubing plug
Solids free polymer solutions prepared with LIQUI-VIS® NT/EP and • Squeeze Gravel Packs
• Simple
BROMI-VIS® at high viscosities are used to control light to moderate
• Nothing to retrieve
fluid loss. K-Max and Z-Max (Cross linked modified HEC) are used to
control moderate to severe loss. Limitations and Precautions:
Specially sized particle suspensions of salt, calcium carbonate or oil • No access below before expending
soluble resins are used for moderate to heavy fluid loss rates. In some • Glass fragments will remain
• Torque through the assembly and impact may break the
blends HEC and XC polymers are used for viscosity and suspension
flapper
along with colloidal starches to aid bridging and control seepage loss.
Baroid products used in these blends are BARACARB® (CaCO3), Cost:
BARAPLUG® (NaCl),BARARESIN®, N-Vis, N-Drill HT Plus and Barabuf. Inexpensive
Frangible Flappers
Filtrate Control – FLC Cake Formation – FLC Pills – Breakers – This category includes a whole range of products that are available on
Formation Damage Potential the market made from a variety of
Fluid loss to the formation can be expensive in lost production and lost materials and with varying designs. All
brine value. Lost production potential is often difficult to remedy and are intended to close and shut off flow
invariably expensive. Costly brine loss is a major component of AFE from the well bore. Most all of these
over-run. designs are “reverse flappers” meaning
Fluid loss to the formation is controlled in variety of methods. they hold pressure from above (as
In hierarchical order they are: opposed to pressure from below). They
• Density Reduction are most often run as part of a gravel
• Mechanical Loss Prevention Systems and Devices packing or horizontal well completion
• Linear and Cross-Linked Polymers assembly and can be shifted into service
• Cake Forming Particulates as the wash pipe is removed from the
well. When the well is ready to produce,
Density Reduction the flapper is broken. Using pressure to
Density reduction is the least expensive method and the least likely to break a flapper is not generally
cause formation damage. Reducing the delta pressure across the recommended since the pressure may
formation face is an effective method of reducing the bph loss rate. cause it to crack and leak rather than
Density reduction has the following limitations: shatter. Caution should be exercised
• A over-balance pressure of at least 100 psi must be when using one of these devices in a
maintained to control formation pressures configuration where it is designed to
• The lower limit of over-balance may be much higher than 100 hold pressure from below. Without
psi. Well bore geometries such as angle and tubular/tool sufficient pressure to hold the flapper
dimensions, formation characteristics such as laminated closed, it will be difficult to expend the flapper. The flapper may open
layers, and fluid swap phenomena as well as the gas and close with each impact, eventually breaking off at the hinge or
entrainment potential of the brine; control the lower limit of allowing slick line tools to pass through trapping tools below the flapper.
over-balance reduction. The flapper assembly design should be able to fully retract and be
• Loss rates of > 1-2 bph after density reduction may require protected inside it’s housing during installation and service operations.
additional FLC measures. These devices can be run in tandem to allow two flappers to be run, one
above the other. This provides a secondary flapper to close after the
Mechanical Fluid Loss Control first is expended. An example of one such application might be to gravel
Mechanical fluid loss systems include a variety of devices that either pack followed by a logging trip. Close the first flapper, run logging tools
temporarily or permanently block fluid flow into the formation. They can to log the pack, break the first flapper, pull the logging tools and close
be expendable or may use a communication device such as a sliding the second flapper with a shifting tool attached to the logging string.
sleeve to gain future access. The different devices have operating This leaves the well with fluid-loss control while tubing is run in the well.
characteristics that are more suitable in some well completions. With all
of these devices, the elastomeric and metallic components need to be Applications and Characteristics:
compatible with the produced fluids and any chemicals that may be • Single-use device
injected. These devices are sound selections and are encouraged • Simple operation
whenever conditions permit. Although they add expense to tool • Ceramics are not affected by most well fluids
construction, they pay for themselves in damage prevention and • Multiple closure options
expensive brine loss. The limitations to mechanical devices are: • Removable prop sleeve
• Not available at all stages of a completion / work over • Internal prop sleeve and shifting tool
• Length between zones may prevent inclusion in the down-hole • Drag on w ash pipe (not recommended)
tool design • Removal Options – Impact loads
• May be difficult to activate or remove due to debris fill • Tubing stinger
• Wire line tools
Glass Disk • Coil Tubing
Glass disk assemblies are used to provide flow diversion, seal off the • Perforating device
end of the tubing string and provide isolation and protection to tools
below the disk assembly. The disk is broken by pressure or impact when
removal is desired. If access below the disk is required, a flapper type
device is preferred. The glass disks can also be used in combination with
a latching device that can be expended after being latched in place.
Glass flappers may creep and fail at a lower pressure if exposed to
pressure for extended periods.
72
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 73 -
Limitations and Precautions: Limitations and Precautions:
• Fragment disposal/flow back problems • Check burst and collapse pressure limits in Frac Packs
• Insure that the flapper material is dense enough not to float • Aluminum balls will dissolve (may cause problems if exposed
in heavy brines (select grades of ceramics are recommended) to acid prior to sealing off)
• Some materials may require a separate metal or plastic hinge • Limited deviation
• May shatter when perforating above if not protected • Exercise care when running wire line tools through the
• Avoid slam closure expended collet
• Avoid impact and rough handling • Holds pressure in one direction
• NOT A SAFETY DEVICE
• OD/ID ratios and collapse pressure should be checked on Frac Cost:
Packs Moderately Expensive
• Holds pressure in one direction.
Tubing Latched Plug
Cost: This device is also carried on the end of the wash pipe of a gravel-
Moderately Expensive packing assembly. The plug is latched into a specially designed nipple
and is later expended or pulled when the well is put on production.
Plugging Devices Either the device is expended completely or a plug within the device is
Several of the fluid-loss devices work by dropping or latching a plug into expended to open the well to flow. The internally expendable devices
a receptacle that is in the flow path. The plug is generally carried on the can be any one of a number of plugging devices such as a glass disk,
end of the wash pipe in a gravel packing assembly. When the gravel expendable plug or expendable ball seat. This device and can be
packing assembly is removed from the well, the plug is released from configured to provide pressure holding capabilities in both directions.
the wash pipe, plugging off the well from fluid losses. These devices As with the ball dropper, the use of this in highly deviated wells is not
range from balls being dropped to plugs that have glass disks that can recommended. With these devices, the caution is even stronger; since
later be broken to put the well on production. the device may not fall to bottom as easily as a ball and can become
lodged in the completion assembly. This procedure must thoroughly be
Ball Dropper Fluid Loss Device reviewed before attempted. If it is an internally expendable device, the
This relatively new device uses collet catcher sub technology to provide remaining carrier may cause a restriction to flow or other access.
post gravel-pack fluid-loss control. A ball is initially attached to and later Latching the device may also be a concern in sand-laden fluids.
dropped from a running tool onto the collet catcher assembly, located in
the blank pipe above the screen thus sealing off the packed interval. Applications and Characteristics:
• Run on the wash pipe
• Simple Technology
Cost:
Moderately Expensive
73
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 74 -
Packer Plugs. Fluid Loss Limiting Completion Systems –
Retrievable sealing plugs are designed to latch into and seal off the well A number of completion systems have been designed to provide a
at the packer. Designs exist for the various packer types. Most plugs are systematic approach to fluid loss control by addressing the problem
designed to provide a seal against pressure from above or below the from the onset of the perforation process (where fluid losses start) until
the well is completed and production tubing is in place. These systems
packer. These plugs are designed to be retrieved by the work string with
may address some or all of these steps depending upon their design and
rotation, with a straight pull of the tubing, or in some cases, either the extent of control that is desired.
method. An optional design is to provide a plug against pressure from
above the packer only. It can be retrieved with a straight pull of the Single Trip Perforate and Gravel Pack Systems. These gravel-pack
tubing. Retrievable plugs can be set in place by the work string, the systems are designed to perforate and gravel-pack in one trip. The
system includes running a tubing-conveyed perforating assembly below
bottom of a perforating assembly, or on electric wire line.
a packer, which allows the well to be perforated under balanced and
flow tested. After testing, the well is killed. A lower packer is then
Applications and Characteristics: released and set again below the perforated interval or a set of seals
• Perforating Operations seal off in a specially designed big bore sump packer that is run prior to
• Temporary Abandonment perforating. The bottom packer now becomes the sump packer. With
• Bi-directional pressure capabilities the screen properly aligned across the perforations, the gravel-pack
packer is now set. Standard procedures are followed to complete the
gravel-pack operation. After the well is reversed clean, the wash pipe is
Limitations and Precautions: pulled, allowing a flapper or similar device to close. This isolates the
• Requires an additional trip to run and remove formation from any pressure or fluid loss while pulling the work string,
• Equalization capabilities are recommended running the production tubing or while tripping pipe in and out of the
• Debris may need to be removed before retrieval hole. Once the production string has been run and the tree tested, the
ceramic flapper is broken with the use of wireline or coiled tubing.
Cost:
Moderately expensive
Tubing Plugs
Tubing plugs include a number of familiar locking devices that come
with equally as many types of plugs attached to the bottom of the plug.
These are covered in numerous sales catalogs and will not be discussed
in detail here. A primary precaution that needs to be considered when
using tubing plugs with sand control applications is the plugs’ sand
tolerance. Retrieval methods may be difficult or necessitate coiled tubing
intervention to wash these devices before they are pulled.
Cost:
Moderate
74
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 75 -
Wash pipe Isolation Systems Inner String Latch-Up
The wash pipe isolation system provides a means to isolate the screen To latch up the inner string the service tool is slacked downward. The
adjacent to the producing interval immediately following completion ratch release sub will engage the "No-Go" shoulder in the Shear Joint,
operations. This system utilizes the wash pipe below the gravel-pack un-propping the C-ring, activating the shear release pins. Continued
service tool as the isolation string; to latch, release and seal off the slack off will allow the ratch locator and seals to latch in and seal off in
screened interval prior to pulling out of the hole with the work string. the ratch nipple. Seals on the lower end of the wash pipe also enter and
This system has been particularly effective in stacked zone completions. seal in the seal bore located in the sump packer seal assembly. Picking
Where fluid loss and down hole flow between zones presents a problem up the service tool assembly will shear the shear release pins,
for fluid-loss flappers or chemical fluid loss methods, the wash pipe disconnecting the service tool assembly from the wash pipe assembly.
isolation system is a proven and reliable solution. Pressure differentials Raising the service tool will close the closing sleeve assembly leaving the
(as much as 2,000 psi) between producing gravel-packed intervals have formation totally isolated prior to removing the last gravel-pack service
been effectively isolated packed and selectively produced with this type tool seal. With the gravel-pack service tool above the packer, the
isolation string can be tested by pressuring down the work string with
the annulus closed.
75
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 76 -
Snubbing and Plugging Systems Limitations and Precautions:
This is a relatively novel approach where the well is completed and • Must use sufficient acid to dissolve
perforated. The tubing is plugged at a location close to the top of the • Must contact all plugs with the acid
production packer, and the completion assembly is then snubbed into
the well without a pressure differential pressure. Once the plug is Cost:
encountered, it is engaged by a pulling tool located on the bottom of the Moderately Expensive
completion assembly and released. The whole assembly can then be
lowered even further, using the snubbing jack in a positive load Screen Coatings
condition. This type of completion is applicable to various through- This method of fluid loss involves the use of an acid soluble cement that
tubing well control applications and is especially well suited for wells is coated over the entire length of a screen or screen sections. The
with extreme well control problems. coating stops flow through the screen until the acid meets the coating to
Disappearing Plugs dissolve the coating. Oil soluble coating has also been used to provide
These families of relatively new devices are made from materials that similar restriction to flow.
dissolve in water or acid solutions. The “disappearing” portion of the
plug is sometimes covered with a non-reactive material that protects the Applications and Characteristics:
plug until an internal sleeve is actuated that pierces the cover and • Flow restriction through screens
exposes the dissolvable materials. As with the other expendable devices, • Screen protection in dirty or rough well bores
this material must be handled with care to prevent premature exposure
of fluids to the base material. They fall within the same limitations of Limitations and Precautions:
through-tubing access that glass disks experience with the advantage • Review reaction byproducts (may plug some screens)
that the material does not leave fragments in the well bore and may be • Must contact all of the material with the acid
designed to expend at relatively low pressures.
Cost:
Applications and Characteristics: Inexpensive
• Single use device
• Multiple pressure cycles to expend Select Flow Screen
• Can be complex Screen that either has an un-perforated base pipe or has a sliding sleeve
device incorporated into the length of the screen. These can be used to
Limitations and Precautions: provide long term isolation of a specific zone or several zones. It can be
• Review debris tolerance
later opened to flow through perforating or shifting the sleeve into the
• Device may fail if the seal is broken
open position. Primary applications are in multiple zone gravel packing
Cost: completions where one or more zones will be preferentially produced
Expensive while others are isolated for future production. Care should be taken to
use a controlled perforation device to insure that the screen is not
Expendable Plugs
perforated when the base pipe is perforated.
These simple tubing plugs, plug the end of the tubing to control flow in
one or both directions. They are relatively inexpensive and provide
Applications and Characteristics:
many of the features of the glass disk assemblies. Some can be • Multiple Zone Selective production Gravel Packs
designed with a ball plugging option to allow bypass until a ball is
dropped to stop flow through the device. Limitations and Precautions:
• Pre-plan perforating procedures to gain zone access
Applications and Characteristics:
• Simplest of designs Cost:
• Apply pressure to expend Inexpensive
• Must be run in place or latched in place
Cost
Inexpensive
76
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 77 -
Linear or Cross-Linked Polymers Formation Damage Due To Preparation & Placement
Linear Polymer All organic polymers contain contaminants. These contaminants are
Organic polymers used in fluid loss reduction have show themselves to various foreign materials as a fractional percentage of the gross product
be effective and provide acceptable levels of clean up for sand control weight and micro gels.
application and subsequent production. Micro gels are defined as aggregations of polymer material that has a
thin semi-hydrated shell surrounding the aggregation. Micro gels range
However, polymers that are improperly prepared and or cannot be
in size from <10 microns to 100 microns. As the size range indicates,
contacted by breaker chemicals exhibit significant permeability reduction
most of these structures are invisible to the naked eye or at least very
for extended periods.
difficult to discern. The lower limit of human eyesight is 34 to 40
The most commonly used polymers are: Hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC),
microns. An example of a small structure is a single grain of common
Xanthan Gum (XC), Hydroxypropylguar (HPG), Scleroglucan (SCG),
table salt. These ionic crystals range in size from +/- 80 to 100 microns.
Succinoglycans (SUG), Whelan Gum and Derivative HEC Cross Links (Z
The most visible type of contaminant is “Fisheyes”. These structures are
& K Max).
like the micro gel but are on a larger scale, 100 microns to several
inches in diameter.
Fisheyes are exclusive to the onsite mixing process or, in some cases,
due to partial hydration from water through damaged containers.
Micro gels are formed in the manufacturing process but can also be
formed during the mixing procedure. These structures are formed as the
result of inadequate dispersion of the polymer in the medium before the
onset of hydration. Methods include, low shear rates in the mixing
device and mixing tank, high polymer addition rates exceeding the
volume of fluid passing through the mixing device and fluid conditions,
such as free water content and pH, that are at odds with polymer
dispersal and hydration.
One answer to these problems was the introduction of pre-hydrated
concentrated polymer slurries. These liquid polymer slurries are less
likely to form fisheyes and micro gels. Liquid slurries do not eliminate
Polymer FLC works by penetrating the near well bore matrix with a micro gels and fisheyes from the preparation process but do reduce the
viscous fluid medium. As the viscous fluid saturates the matrix, the volume of structures. Poor mixing conditions and adverse base brine
shear rate seen by the fluid reduces due to the structure of pore size conditions still promote the formation of micro gels and fisheyes.
and interconnectivity. Viscose fluid resists shear in an increasing rate as Return Permeability Data
the velocity of the fluid lowers in the matrix. This shear resistance then 50 lb HEC + 50 lb XCD / 1000 gal 9.2 lb/gal NaCl No Breaker Added
Test Temp 175ºF
gives the effect of blocking or slowing flow through the formation. The Berea Sandstone Core
efficacy of the viscous pill is a function of, pill viscosity at temperature; 300
low shear rate viscosity, linear structure of the polymer, pore size and
permeability of the formation and delta pressure from the well bore to 250
Ki = 230 mD Inject 1 pore volume of
50 lb HEC + 50 lb XCD
the formation. As a general rule of thumb, the lower the permeability per 1000 gal 9.2 lb/gal
NaCl brine. Hold for
and average pore size of the formation the greater delta pressure the 200
30 minutes.
Several papers have stated that biopolymers are superior to HEC for FLC
Kf = 136 mD
150
77
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 78 -
Hydraulic shearing consists of pumping the polymer-fluid solution Addition of an internal breaker further reduced formation damage to
through a small orifice (s) with a sufficient delta pressure across the <5% consistently.
orifice, to cause microgels to disintegrate and then hydrate into the base External breakers, while effective to a point, have inconsistent results.
fluid. The process of shearing also tends to induce a linear structure to The basis of this effect is one of contact with the polymer. In the
the polymer chains. Filtration to 10 micron absolute removes the formation matrix, fluids will follow the path of least resistance. Once a
majority of residual microgel structures and other particulate flow path, that can process the available flow rate of the breaker, is
contaminants. Sheared polymers exhibit higher leak-off rates than do established, the breaker chemical does not affect other portions of the
non-sheared polymers. In other words, these treated polymers flow matrix. Polymer induced damage in the untouched regions then
through a permeable matrix more readily. remains.
An example of this effect was seen in filter cake removal studies. A
wormhole effect was seen in cake structures. Small regions of the cake
were dissolved and allowed flow of cleaning chemicals out to the
formation. Large portions of the cake and any damage in the near well
bore region behind the untouched cake were not removed. In strictly
viscous fluid examples, a fingering of the thinner breaker chemicals is
observed through the polymer-saturated region. As with the wormhole
effect, cleanup chemicals that finger through the polymer region do not
break down untouched polymer.
78
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 79 -
“Best Practice” for Linear Polymer FLC Pills is as follows: FLC Clean-Up & Breakers
• Use a filtered base brine that meets 2 micron absolute quality Acids
standards HEC and biopolymers are acid (HCl) soluble. However, the rate at which
• Mixing tanks and lines should be cleaned of all potential a particular polymer will hydrolyze varies dramatically. HEC polymer
contaminants such as drilling fluid residue, rust and scale and chains begin to breakdown in acid hydrolysis quite rapidly whereas
other foreign materials. biopolymers are resistant to acid hydrolysis and require considerably
• Mixing hopper systems should be high shear and tanks should longer times to break. In both cases, the hydrolysis rate is affected by
contain an agitation method other than fluid flow from the temperature, quantity of polymer in solution, base brine composition
hopper. (Air bubble agitation is not an adequate method) and buffer effects of chemicals or brines. Fluids containing zinc do not
• If a reliably clean and high shear mixing system cannot be respond to most polymer breakers other than strong HCl acid.
accomplished, a dedicated third party mix system should be The percentage of acid solubility of polymers also varies from 99.8
used. percent to as low as 92 percent. This percentage differential is referred
• Polymer FLC pills should be hydraulically sheared then filtered to as residue.
to 10 micron absolute. Typically, HEC polymers have a lower residue percentage, on the order
• External breakers for HEC based FLC are acids and or of 0.2 to 1.5 percent. Biopolymers have residue percentage of 2 to 8
oxidizers; for biopolymers, oxidizers work in a much shorter percent. Xanthan Gum (XC) typically has residue of 2 to 5 percent.
time frame as compared to acids. Residue can be an acid insoluble material and or polymer chain
• Internal breakers are selected based on a complex set of fragments. As the chemical reaction breaks down the polymer, the
design variables. Internal breaker application is discussed in a polymer chain is broken into chain fragments and then continues to
subsequent section of this paper. solvate the polymer material. Chain fragments are left behind due to
• FLC pills should be spotted as a balanced fluid column insufficient reaction chemical; polymer bonding to matrix surfaces and
immediately above the exposed formation. The FLC will inhibiting reaction or an insoluble fraction is left that the chemical
migrate to loss areas sequentially as a function of path of cannot reduce further. Polymer chain fragments act as blocking or
least resistance principle. Spotting the pill in or below and bridging agents in matrix pore structure. Surface bonded polymer acts
through the exposed loss zone subjects the zone to higher to reduce the available pore diameter and thereby reduce flow potential.
fluid column delta pressures due to the ECD effect. Increased Reduction of pore diameter leads to smaller particles being able to
loss rate due to higher circulating densities causes polymer bridge the pore throat and block flow. This same size range now bridges
FLC pills to enter the formation at rates that will increase the pore throats that would normally pass 2-5 micron particles.
time and loss volume to reach stability. Also deeper (Succinoglycans are very acid tolerant)
penetration of the matrix will occur.
• FLC pills should be slightly denser (0.3 to 0.5 ppg) than the Oxidation by Free Radicals and Oxidizers
surrounding fluid. This promotes pipe evacuation and The classes of these agents are peroxydisufate, perchlorate, peroxide
minimizes “string out” from pipe tripping. It also eliminates and hypochlorite.
the ejection of polymer FLC higher in the well bore from Of these agents, peroxides are able to work in all brine types with some
subsequent slugging events. Even though the denser pill will degree of efficacy.
blend with lighter fluid below the spot point, the thinning of Using peroxides in formation matrix can be very destructive if an
the pill is minimized by the fact that the maximum volume uncontrolled reaction with a hydrocarbon fuel source is induced. Without
available for thinning before entry to the formation is equal to careful engineering, very high temperatures can occur that will affect
the volume of the formation exposed interval. Once that the metals in the well bore as well as the formation structure. Generally,
volume has blended, further formation loss will be full peroxides are used as a surface agent to reclaim contaminated brines.
viscosity FLC. Once loss rates have stabilized, further thinning The perchlorates, sulfates and hypochlorites work in specific brine types.
of the FLC will be minimal due to the volume of fluid below They each have their best usage parameters. All types have been seen
the exposed zone; this volume is most often quite small. (On to be ineffective or non-effective in brines containing zinc.
the order of 1 to 3 barrels) The primary formation damaging mechanism is the precipitation of
• FLC volumes should be +/- two times the formation-exposed sulfate or carbonate by-products. The volume of precipitant is related to
interval. This is usually a volume equal to 20 barrels or less. the base brine type, pH, and temperature and secondary chemicals in
Very large polymer FLC volumes (>20 bbl) often have large matrix. A secondary by product from these reactions is the release of
unused FLC remaining in the well bore that must be dealt with chlorine and bromine (in brines containing Br) gases. Both gasses are
subsequently. The expense of preparing the large volume is very toxic and must be planned for in surface operations or in out-
also wasted. Losses that are not controlled by the initial gassing when soluble gas returns in the fluid stream from the well bore.
application of FLC are a good indicator of the need to reduce In most cases the volumes of gas are relatively small and proper
the fluid column delta pressure across the formation face. ventilation is the required safety measure.
Controlling fluid loss via fluid column density is the least Similar to acid reduction, polymer chain fragments are left in matrix and
damaging method of loss control. Matrix invasion, by large provide a source of permeability impairment.
volumes of FLC materials, is at higher risk of permanent
permeability damage. Well safety should be the deciding Enzyme Reduction
factor between reducing fluid column density and application The two classes of enzyme most often used are Cellulase and
of more or large volume FLC pills. Hemicellulase. Enzymes are very attractive breaking agents due to their
non-toxic nature, low concentration strengths, fast action and ability to
produce the lowest volume of residue and polymer fragments.
Enzymes are inhibited by divalent ions such as Ca and Zn. For all
practical purposes enzymes can only be used in monovalent brines.
Enzymes are also temperature and pH sensitive. The effective working
range for this material is 40 to 140oF and 3 to 6 pH.
Research has developed more tolerant strains of enzymes that work in
slightly higher temperatures and into the low base pH range. Enzymes
are most frequently seen as a breaking agent for frac fluids. Damage
mechanisms are the same as with other breakers mainly fragment
residue impairment.
79
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 80 -
Internal & External Breakers
The family of materials used to break polymers includes acids, free
radicals, oxidizers, enzymes and linking agents. Of this group linking Fluid & Breaker Compatibility
agents are used exclusively in surface brine reconditioning and hydrogen Peroxid
Peroxy
Perchlorat
Hypo
Enzyme
peroxide is most often used only as a surface treatment for brine Fluid HCL disufat chlorite
e e s
reclamation. Neither of these agents is recommended as matrix insitu e s
treatments. NH4Cl Xf Xe Xc Xc Xc Xd
Internal and external breakers are usually the same material that is NaCl
applied in a different manner. Internal breakers are added as liquid Xf Xe Xc Xc Xc Xd
KCL
solutions to the FLC mix. The breaker begins to work at once. The
degree of break and the time frame in which the FLC is deemed to be NaBr
Xf Xe Xc Xc Xc Xd
broken is based on a complex set off variables that include the quantity KBr
of breaker per unit volume of FLC, quantity of polymer per unit volume Formate Xf Xe Xc Xc Xc Xd
FLC, base brine type and mix, temperature, and the presence of other
inhibiting chemicals and conditions. CaCl Xf Xe Xb Xb Xb Na
At some point in future, the FLC will reach a reduced viscosity level CaBr Xf Xe Xb Xb Xb Na
considered broken. This is not necessarily the reduction of all polymers ZnBr Xa Xe Na Na Na Na
in the FLC.
Another form of internal breaker is a delayed reaction breaker. These
a. Requires heat, 150oF
materials are usually granular forms of common breakers that either
b. Precipitants form
have a protective coating or depend on the time needed for the breaker
c. Precipitants may form
to enter solution as the delay agent. Coated breakers have water-
d. Temperature & pH limited
soluble coatings that inhibit the breaker entering water solution or have
e. Not suitable for rig site use
a coating that requires a specific chemical to strip the coating and
f. May expend in the formation before effective reaction occurs
expose the breaker to fluids that allow solution. There are also water
insoluble breakers that require an activating chemical (such as acid) to
The bulk of breaker technology study has been focused on short-term (2
start the breaking reaction. All of these materials are essentially
– 12 hours) activity. Brine reclamation, frac and gravel pack polymer
formation face or filter cake agents. The particulate structures prevent
degradation are the drivers for this focus.
entry of the breaker into the formation matrix.
Extended or controlled break times for FLC has been largely ignored
External breakers are concentrated solutions of the break chemical that
with the exception of “drill in” filter cake cleaning. Hypochlorites and
are pumped to the formation face or into the matrix. These solutions
acids have been added to linear polymers in varying concentrations to
may be blended with the base brine or other liquid medium. The intent
provide some degree on degradation at intervals =/> 24 hours. The
of external breakers is usually rapid treatment of polymer flow
results are not clear and treatments are based on empirical data and
restriction, on the order of minutes to an hour or two.
observation only.
External breaker efficiency is subject to the degree in which the breaker
A controlled break time and potential negative reactions study should be
can contact the polymer structures. Fingering of the breaker chemical
modeled in the lab before use to provide a sound basis for breaker
through the FLC body produces regions of polymer reduction and leaves
treatment.
large sections of formation matrix untouched. This may produce a
Other Damage Mechanisms
production rate consistent with predictions for the zone but does not
Three other damage mechanisms have been seen in polymer use.
leave the formation in optimum condition.
Cross Link & Precipitation
Cross linking of linear gel structures by metal salts and precipitation of
base brine salts due to a reaction with other chemicals.
Biopolymers are sensitive to iron in several valence states. Iron causes
The combination of internal and external breakers has been shown to be
the polymer to cross-link into (most often) very viscose masses that
the most effective at removing the volume of FLC resident in the
completely plug the formation matrix. Subsequent treatments with
formation matrix.
breaking chemicals are often ineffective. Iron contamination comes from
In virtually all situations, it is unlikely that all polymer FLC material has
the base brine and or from the reactions of acids in tubulars and
been reduced and removed. Production efficiency (or impairment) is
formation. Iron chelating agents such as erythorbates should be used to
measured as a skin factor. A value of “0” skin is said to mean no
prevent Fe2 and Fe3 ions from interacting with these polymers.
damage. A positive skin factor is said to be an indication of permeability
HEC is tolerant of iron contamination but reacts with other polyvalent
impairment, the higher the number the greater the impairment.
Negative skin factors are also observed. This is usually seen after acid cations and other organic compounds.
stimulations and or frac procedures. A source of cross-linking ions can be the formation itself. Many types of
Low skin factors of <1 to 0 are viewed as acceptable values and any clay contain aluminum in their structure. Ion exchange due the chemical
impairment induced by FLC materials is thought to be sufficiently reactions with acids or other chemicals can release AL ions and they
removed to pose no reduction to produced rates.
may become a source of contamination.
Formation matrix dynamics in a virgin state often have the capacity to
flow in excess of what is considered “0” skin. This excess factor is most A list of some of the substances that cause cross-linking in polymers
likely impaired by FLC materials as well as other mechanisms. The (HEC & Biopolymers) is as follows:
treatment of FLC and other impairment agents to a low or negative skin • CrCl3
is an acceptable standard but should never be considered to indicate • Cr (NO3) 3
zero matrix damage. • Borate Salts
A number of studies have shown that when formation fluids are • AlCl3
channeled through relatively small flow paths and at angles • Zn (NO3) 3
perpendicular to the matrix, fines production and migration are • ZnCl2
increased. Formation cementation and structure integrity are also likely • ZrOCL2
affected negatively. Fingering of formation water through hydrocarbon • Etanedial
flow is also more likely. Many producing wells with very low skins have • Ethylene Carbonate Cyclic Ester
failed at uneconomic points and may have flow channeling as a primary • Propylene Carbonate
driver. • Tetrastearyl Titanate
80
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 81 -
Metal Ion Precipitation Cross Linked Polymers Designed for FLC Applications
Precipitation of divalent or monovalent ions is seen in some
circumstances during well procedures. Borate cross-linkers are known to Cross-linked gels are generally HEC derivative11 or CMHEC-based
cause Zinc to precipitate from brines containing ZnBr. A buffer with systems. For the purposes of this section we will only discuss the HEC
acetic acid is necessary to reduce or stop this reaction. What negative derivative based systems. They function by forming a filter cake at the
impacts other link agents may have on brines is not clear at this time. formation face or enter the permeability of the formation and stop loses
HEC is normally the polymer of choice with ZnBr fluids. It is well by plugging the pore throats with the cross-linked gelled structure.
established that a range of 0.1 to 6 percent ZnBr will prevent polymer Whether the cross-linked fluids enter the formation or not is generally
from proper yield. HEC forms hard polymer particles and stringy viscose dependent on their polymer type and concentration, the pore throat
chains under these conditions. These by products can be very hard if size, the overbalance pressure and the bottom hole temperature. The
not impossible to treat. systems are removed in a manner similar to linear systems. The same
A second effect that is often over looked; polymer blends at the considerations must be used when deciding on a break time. With cross-
necessary Zn percentage mixing with fluids that have less than the linked systems however, break times of up to 48 hours may be possible.
necessary ZnBr concentration. Break times longer than these risk that slight chemistry variations may
Light ZnBr fluid and ZnBr fluid with summer TCT blends to +/- 16.0 ppg, not allow a total break
are often used during completion and work over operations. Volumes of
HEC polymer mixing with low Zinc brines have been observed to react in
a manner such as trying to make an initial blend in a light ZnBr and
have also been observed to form rubbery glutinous masses that were
sufficient to impair mechanical operations in the well bore and were very
resistant to chemical removal. To avoid this reaction HEC polymer pills
must be blended with a maximum ZnBr concentration and a high ZnBr
concentration spacer of 5 to 10 barrels must be pumped ahead and
behind the pill to insure sufficient ZnBr in the vicinity the pill to inhibit
the low Zinc reactions.
HEC Precipitation
HEC precipitation at higher temperatures has been demonstrated in the
Cross Linked Polymer System (on-site mixing)
past several years. Brines composed of NaCl, KCl, NaBr and CaCl were
This type of system uses a specially formulated HEC polymer that has
tested at various polymer loads and temperatures from 135oF to 240oF.
been treated with cross-link sites. The base polymer is added to
In NaCl and KCL brines, HEC was seen to precipitate beginning at +/-
completion brine on-site. Once the pill is ready to pump, a cross linker is
150oF. The precipitant was found to be a water insoluble mass of HEC.
added. The pill is given time to cross link before it reaches the zone
The precipitated masses were found to be soluble in HCl concentrations
as low as 1%.
Applications and Characteristics:
The obvious danger would be precipitation in the formation matrix
• Stops losses completely
outside the ability of HCl to reach the mass. The blocked region would
• Easily removed with external or internal breakers
then be said to be permanently impaired.
• Can withstand high overbalance pressures
CaCl and NaBr fluids were tested with a range of polymers loads but no
• Can run tools through the fluid loss material
precipitation was observed. At this time continued study with formats,
Limitations and Precautions:
CaBr and ZnBr has not been initiated.
• Internal breakers used for 48 hour breaks or less
• Must be mixed on location
Cost: Moderate (depends on volume)
This system uses the same crosslinkable HEC as the previous system,
but it is manufactured and delivered “ready to pump.”
Applications and Characteristics:
• Stops losses completely
• No on-site chemical mixing required
• Can withstand high overbalance pressures
• Can run tools through the fluid loss material
Limitations and Precautions:
• No internal breakers can be added.
• Bulky to ship
Cost:
Moderate to High (depends on volume)
81
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 82 -
Zinc Bromide Cross Linked Gel System Particulate FLC Preparation & Formulation
This system uses the same cross linked HEC as the previous systems, Particulate FLC formulas are essentially blends of sized particles,
but is mixed in zinc bromide. Special mixing procedures and additives polymer and starch in base brine that will bridge and seal the aperture
allow hydration and cross linking in zinc bromide of a wide range of or pore throat where fluid loss is occurring. The particle size blend is a
densities.
function of the “Basketballs & Marbles” principle, i.e. a particle 33% of
Applications and Characteristics: aperture will bridge. The mixture has particles that range a variety of
• Stops losses completely sizes that will then bridge on the initial particle matrix. The polymer and
• Only pumpable zinc bromide system available modified starch act is filtrate reducers for the tight bridging particle mix.
Limitations and Precautions: FLC formulations that have been properly designed, form a very thin (<
• Must be mixed on-site
0.09375”) cake that exhibits very low HTHP spurt and total ml volumes
• Externally broken only
Cost: High (depends on volume) e.g. 2 ml or less spurt and <
10 ml total filtrate.
FLC formulations should be
tested and verified with
aloxite disk HTHP or
Best Practices K-Max & Z-Max FLC Systems
Gravel/Screen PPD testing.
Brines
K-MAX Plus gel pills can be prepared in the following brines: Note: HTHP testing for
• Potassium chloride (KCl) particulate FLC formulations is
• Sodium chloride (NaCl)
done against aloxite disks
• Sodium bromide (NaBr)
• Calcium chloride (CaCl2) sized to replicate the
• Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) formation face mean pore diameter.
• Seawater
• CaCl2/calcium bromide (CaBr2) brines FLC mixtures are used when:
• Little or no penetration of the formation matrix by fluids or
Gel pills can be used in brine densities of 8.3 to 14-lb/gal. To ensure the FLC materials is desired
condition of the brine, Halliburton should supply the customer with base • Little or no penetration of the sand control screen or gravel
brines for K-MAX Plus service. These brines should be prepared, tested, pack are desired
and shipped to locations like other fluids. Brine tanks should be cleaned • Moderate loss rates exist
of contaminants that might interfere with the reactions of WG-33 gelling • Heavy loss rates exist
agent.
Particulate FLC pills are specially designed formulations of Dril-N fluids.
The particulates types are:
• Salt (Baraplug)
• Calcium Carbonate (Baracarb)
• Oil-Soluble Resin (Bararesin)
Note: Oil-Soluble Resins are used infrequently. OSR
particulates tend to become plastic at temperatures well below
their melt point and are known to extrude into and plug pore
throats. OSR mixtures are used in some international fields
with low SBHT conditions.
Particle size grades for FLC formulas are either two or three grades
dependent on circumstances.
Typically, sized particle ratios are;
• 40-60% of the primary bridge size
• The balance of the solids in the smaller grade (s)
• Most Baraplug formulations are two size blends
• Most Baracarb formulations are three size blends.
pH buffer loading is
• 1 to 4 lb/bbl for mono and divalent fluids
• 0.5 to 1 lb/bbl for divalent fluids containing ZnBr2
82
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 83 -
The total solids load of an FLC pill is between 25 and 40 lb/bbl. Salt Based FLC Guidelines for Use
Pilot testing under the specific conditions to be met is strongly Pre-Pack FLC
recommended. FLC formulations that will use salt as the particulate must insure that the
carrying fluid and the fluid adjacent to the FLC pill in the well bore is
saturated relative to NaCl.
The base fluid can be any brine type, but must be treated with NaCl to
the saturation point of sodium in that brine.
Example Baraplug FLC Pre-Pack The solubility of NaCl creases with temperature. Since the salt volume
necessary for saturation at down hole conditions will not dissolve at
MATERIAL UNIT QUANTITY ambient surface conditions, we must add the necessary salt volume to
the pill so that saturation is reached down hole. The finer grade of
KCl 8.6 ppg Bbl 0.87 Baraplug 20 will become soluble as temperature increases more readily
than courser grained salt particles. We therefore increase the Baraplug
Barabrine 0.2 gal/5 20 loading in a pill formula for this reason.
Can
Defoam bbl Fluids that reside above and below the salt FLC will also affect the salt
Evaporated load of the pill. The soluble salt level for these fluids will draw from the
Bag 120 ppb
Salt salt pill and can degrade or destroy the ability of the salt pill to perform
N-Vis Bag 2 ppb as an FLC.
A spacer of NaCl saturated fluid (5-10 bbl) should be pumped before
N-Drill HT Bag 4 ppb and after the salt FLC. These spacers will buffer against salt dissolution
in the pill.
Temperature and salt solubility again must be considered.
Baraplug 20 Bag 15 lb/bbl
Two methods can be used to ensure sufficient salt is in the spacers:
Baraplug 40 Bag 20 lb/bbl • Treat the salt saturated spacer with a small amount of
polymer (XC or HEC) sufficient to suspend the excess salt
load; usually 0.5 to 1 lb/bbl. Add the calculated amount of
Barabuf Bag 4 lb/bbl
excess salt to the spacer
• Prepare the spacer as a salt saturated mix. Add Baraplug 20
to the FLC volume sufficient to saturate the spacer at BHT.
Example Baracarb FLC Pre-Pack
Guidelines for Baraplug Pre-Pack FLC
MATERIAL UNIT QUANTITY The two most common mistakes made with particulate FLC pills is
spotting too much pill volume and attempting to squeeze the pill into
12.7 PPG CaBr Bbl 0.96 place.
The thin film cake parameter means that large volumes are not needed
Barabrine Defoam Can 0.2 gal/bbl to achieve a seal. Excessive volumes led to perforation tunnel packing
and fill in the well bore. Packed perforations are very difficult to clean
Bromi-Vis Can 1 can / 8 bbls and contribute to poor sand control operations and reduced production.
A small volume FLC is more efficient and less likely to form masses in
Baracarb 5 Bag 5 lb/bbl the perfs or well bore. It is much better to add an additional FLC to a
loss zone that did not respond sufficiently to the first treatment than it is
Baracarb 25 Bag 10 lb/bbl to deal with the clean up of excessive volume pills.
Particulate LC pills have little or no resistance to delta pressure until a
relatively stable cake has formed. Once formed, the cake has
Baracarb 50 Bag 16 lb/bbl
remarkable resistance to pressure delta. High velocity or excessive shear
as the cake is initially forming, causes particles to shear apart and
Barabuf Bag 1 lb/bbl
disrupts the normal deposition process and allows volumes of small
particles, polymer fluid and starch to penetrate the formation or screen
Formation Permeability Particle Damage Index face. The disruption can be sufficient to cause FLC failure and or cause
formation and pack damage. The dynamics of cake formation are
Permeability Mean Particle Size Most Damaging different from drilling conditions versus FLC in completion. FLC cakes
Milidarcies Pore Size To Bridge Particle Size Range perform best when the loss velocity is < 20 bph. At higher rates, we
4000 63 21 9 6 observe the tendency of particulate FLC pills to form bridges inside pipe
3000 55 18 8 5
or screen and to form large plugs of materials in perforations.
2000 45 15 6 4
Particulate FLC pills should be allowed to migrate into place without
1000 32 11 5 3
additional squeeze pressure. If loss velocities are high, consider the use
750 27 9 4 2.7
500 22 7 3 2
of a polymer FLC in front of the particulate FLC to aid uniform cake
250 16 5 2 1.6 deposition.
100 10 3 1.4 1
50 7 2 1 0.7
83
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 84 -
Best Practices for Baraplug FLC Pre-Pack Pills: starch enrobed salt will resist dissolution. A breaker solution of
• Saturate the FLC relative to NaCl solubility in a particular fluid either oxidizer or acid in under saturated fluid is often
at the actual BHT parameter necessary to achieve acceptable clean up of a salt-based FLC.
• Use a filtered base brine that meets 2 micron absolute quality • Glycol treatments are used with particulate FLC pills to
standards enhance cake lift off and cleanup.
• Mixing tanks and lines should be cleaned of all potential • Salt-based FLC pills should control the loss rate to < 1 bph
contaminants such as drilling fluid residue, rust and scale and (preferably near 0 bph). Loss rates greater than this indicate a
other foreign materials. problem with formulation mix and volume or relative NaCl
• Mixing hopper systems should be high shear and tanks should saturation around the pill.
contain an agitation method other than fluid flow from the • Salt based FLC pills that have loss rates > 0.5 bph are prone
hopper. (Air bubble agitation is not an adequate method) to dissolution and loss control failure.
• If a reliably clean and high shear mixing system cannot be
accomplished, a dedicated third party mix system should be Guidelines Post-Pack FLC
used. The two most common mistakes made with particulate FLC pills post-
• External breakers for HEC based FLC are acids and or pack is spotting too much pill volume and failing to size properly for
oxidizers; for biopolymers, oxidizers work in a much shorter screen aperture bridging.
time frame as compared to acids. The thin film cake parameter means that large volumes are not needed
• Internal breakers are selected based on a complex set of to achieve a seal.
design variables. Internal breaker application is discussed in a Excessive volumes lead to packing and fill in the production screen
subsequent section of this paper. Contact your Baroid CFS assembly and lower zone hardware. Pack and fill tend to become a
Technical Professional for internal breaker application. rubbery mass that requires excessive slick line bailing or coil tubing
• Excessive polymer and starch loading will significantly impair intervention to clear. The fill is difficult to clean and contributes to
clean up by reverse flow or breakers and may cause clean up delayed production and considerable well maintenance expense.
to fail. Improperly sized salt-based FLC pills penetrate the gravel pack and
• FLC pills should be spotted as a balanced fluid column potentially the formation face. Polymer enrobed particulates are not
immediately above the exposed formation. The FLC will easily cleared from the pack and formation matrix.
migrate to loss areas sequentially as a function of path of A small volume FLC is more efficient and less likely to form masses in
least resistance principle. Spotting the pill in, below or through the production profile. It is much better to add an additional FLC to a
the exposed loss zone, subjects the zone to higher fluid loss zone that did not respond sufficiently to the first treatment than it is
column delta pressures due to the ECD effect. Increased loss to deal with the clean up of excessive volume pills.
rate due to higher circulating densities causes FLC pills to Pill volume formulae and NaCl solubility charts for pre-pack and post-
enter the formation at rates that will increase the time and pack FLC are located in the “Engineering Calculations & Data”
loss volume to reach stability; also deeper penetration of the section of the book. Post-pack Baraplug FLC pills have a single
matrix will occur. formulation for screen sizes of 6 to 12.
• Salt FLC pills require a lead (10 bbl) & tail spacer (5-10 bbl) of
NaCl saturated fluid to protect against early salt dissolution.
Wire Wrapped GP Screen Index
• Prepare and pump the spacer/pill/spacer sequence in to the
Size To Size To
pipe and circulate to the bit or circulation point. Bullhead the
GP Screen Bridge Bridge
first five (5) bbl of saturated spacer below the circulation point Gauge Micron Inches Microns Inches
then spot the balance of the spacer and pill as a balanced
0.018 488 0.019 162 0.006
column between the pipe and annulus. Leave the tail spacer 0.016 422 0.016 140 0.0055
in the pipe. 0.014 356 0.014 118 0.0046
• FLC pills should be slightly denser (0.3 to 0.5 ppg) than the 0.012 305 0.012 102 0.004
surrounding fluid. This promotes pipe evacuation and 0.008 203 0.008 68 0.003
minimizes “string out” from pipe tripping. It also eliminates 0.006 152 0.006 51 0.002
the ejection of polymer FLC higher in the well bore from 0.004 102 0.004 34 0.001
subsequent slugging events. Even though the denser pill will
blend with lighter fluid below the spot point, the thinning of
the pill is minimized by the fact that the maximum volume
available for thinning before entry to the formation is equal to BRIDGING REQUIREMENTS ON SAND FACE OR
the volume of the formation exposed interval. Once that RESIN COATED SAND SCREENS
volume has blended, further formation loss will be full
viscosity FLC. Once loss rates have stabilized, further thinning SAND PARTICLE
of the FLC will be minimal due to the volume of fluid below SIZE PERMEABILITY PORE SIZE SIZE
the exposed zone; this volume is most often quite small. (On (U.S. (DARCY) (MICRONS) TO BRIDGE
the order of 1 to 3 barrels) MESH) (MICRONS)
• Excessively large FLC volumes often leave a large unused FLC 12/20 120 346 115
volume remaining in the well bore that must be dealt with 20/40 70 265 88
subsequently. The expense of preparing the large volume is
40/60 40 200 67
also wasted. Losses that are not controlled by the initial
application of FLC are a good indicator of the need to reduce
the fluid column delta pressure across the formation face.
Controlling fluid loss via fluid column density is the least
damaging method of loss control. Matrix invasion, by large
volumes of FLC materials, is at higher risk of permanent
permeability damage. Well safety should be the deciding
factor between reducing fluid column density and application
of more or large volume FLC pills.
• Over sized or excessive application of salt FLC pills will lead to
perforation plugging and fill material in the well bore. Both
circumstances contribute significantly to increased skin
factors, cleaning expense and rig time expense.
• Salt-based FLC pills will not necessarily degrade with water
flow from the formation or across the pill face. Polymer &
84
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 85 -
Best Practices for Baraplug FLC Post-Pack Pills: • Salt-based FLC pills should control the loss rate to < 1 bph
• Saturate the FLC relative to NaCl solubility in a particular fluid (preferably near 0 bph). Loss rates greater than this indicate a
at the actual BHT parameter problem with formulation mix and volume or relative NaCl
• Use a filtered base brine that meets 2 micron absolute quality saturation around the pill.
standards • Salt based FLC pills that have loss rates > 0.5 bph are prone
• Mixing tanks and lines should be cleaned of all potential to dissolution and loss control failure.
contaminants such as drilling fluid residue, rust and scale and
other foreign materials.
• Mixing hopper systems should be high shear and tanks should
contain an agitation method other than fluid flow from the
hopper. (Air bubble agitation is not an adequate method)
• If a reliably clean and high shear mixing system cannot be
accomplished, a dedicated third party mix system should be
used.
• External breakers for HEC based FLC are acids and or
oxidizers; for biopolymers, oxidizers work in a much shorter
time frame as compared to acids.
• Internal breakers are selected based on a complex set of
design variables. Internal breaker application is discussed in a
subsequent section of this paper. Contact your Baroid CFS
Technical Professional for internal breaker application.
• Excessive polymer and starch loading will significantly impair
clean up by reverse flow or breakers and may cause clean up
to fail.
• Calculate the require FLC volume using the formulae
• FLC pills should be spotted as a balanced fluid column
immediately above the gravel pack cross over tool. The FLC
will migrate to loss areas sequentially as a function of path of
least resistance principle. Bull heading the FLC into the blank
and screening densities causes FLC pills to enter the screen at
rates & pressures that tend to shear particles and polymer
before an effective cake matrix can develop. Increased time
and volume is needed to reach stability (if it doesn’t fail
altogether); also, deeper penetration of the matrix will occur.
• High loss rates (> 15-20 bph) can also contribute to pill shear
and or bridging plugs rather than uniform cake formation.
High loss rates may require the use of a high-vis polymer FLC
in front of the salt-based FLC to slow the pill application rate
in the production profile. The lead saturated spacer can be
used or increased in size to perform this task.
• Salt FLC pills require a lead (10 bbl) & tail spacer (5-10 bbl) of
NaCl saturated fluid to protect against early salt dissolution.
• Prepare and pump the spacer/pill/spacer sequence in to the
pipe and circulate to the circulation point. Bullhead the first
five (5) bbl of saturated spacer below the circulation point
then spot the balance of the spacer and pill as a balanced
column between the pipe and annulus. Leave the tail spacer
in the pipe.
• FLC pills should be slightly denser (0.3 to 0.5 ppg) than the
surrounding fluid. This promotes pipe evacuation and
minimizes “string out” from pipe tripping. It also eliminates
the ejection of polymer FLC higher in the well bore from
subsequent slugging events. Even though the denser pill will
blend with lighter fluid below the spot point, the thinning of
the pill is minimized by the fact that the maximum volume
available for thinning before entry to the formation is equal to
the volume of the formation exposed interval. Once that
volume has blended, further formation loss will be full
viscosity FLC. Once loss rates have stabilized, further thinning
of the FLC will be minimal due to the volume of fluid below
the exposed zone; this volume is most often quite small. (On
the order of 1 to 3 barrels)
• Over sized or excessive application of salt FLC pills will lead to
production profile plugging and fill. Both circumstances
contribute significantly to increased skin factors, cleaning
expense and rig time expense.
• Salt-based FLC pills will not necessarily degrade with water
flow from the formation or across the pill face. Polymer &
starch enrobed salt will resist dissolution. A breaker solution of
either oxidizer or acid in under saturated fluid is often
necessary to achieve acceptable clean up of a salt-based FLC.
• Glycol treatments are used with particulate FLC pills to
enhance cake lift off and cleanup. Contact your CFS Technical
Professional for formulation.
85
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 86 -
Carbonate Based FLC Guidelines for Use • FLC pills should be slightly denser (0.3 to 0.5 ppg) than the
Baracarb Pre-Pack FLC surrounding fluid. This promotes pipe evacuation and
FLC formulations that will use Baracarb as the particulate are widely minimizes “string out” from pipe tripping. It also eliminates
used in the industry. They respond excellently to Acetic and Hydrochloric the ejection of FLC higher in the well bore from subsequent
acid clean up. slugging events. Even though the denser pill will blend with
The base fluid can be any brine type, oil or synthetic fluid. Oil and lighter fluid below the spot point, the thinning of the pill is
synthetic fluid require specialized carry and filtrate agents. minimized by the fact that the maximum volume available for
Guidelines for Baraplug Pre-Pack FLC thinning before entry to the formation is equal to the volume
The two most common mistakes made with particulate FLC pills is of the formation exposed interval. Once that volume has
spotting too much pill volume and attempting to squeeze the pill into blended, further formation loss will be full viscosity FLC. Once
place. loss rates have stabilized, further thinning of the FLC will be
The thin film cake parameter means that large volumes are not needed minimal due to the volume of fluid below the exposed zone;
to achieve a seal. Excessive volumes led to perforation tunnel packing this volume is most often quite small. (On the order of 1 to 3
and fill in the well bore. Packed perforations are very difficult to clean barrels)
and contribute to poor sand control operations and reduced production. • Excessively large FLC volumes often leave a large unused FLC
A small volume FLC is more efficient and less likely to form masses in volume remaining in the well bore that must be dealt with
the perfs or well bore. It is much better to add an additional FLC to a subsequently. The expense of preparing the large volume is
loss zone that did not respond sufficiently to the first treatment than it is also wasted. Losses that are not controlled by the initial
to deal with the clean up of excessive volume pills. application of FLC are a good indicator of the need to reduce
Particulate LC pills have little or no resistance to delta pressure until a the fluid column delta pressure across the formation face.
relatively stable cake has formed. Once formed, the cake has Controlling fluid loss via fluid column density is the least
remarkable resistance to pressure delta. High velocity or excessive shear damaging method of loss control. Matrix invasion, by large
as the cake is initially forming, causes particles to shear apart and volumes of FLC materials, is at higher risk of permanent
disrupts the normal deposition process and allows volumes of small permeability damage. Well safety should be the deciding
particles, polymer fluid and starch to penetrate the formation or screen factor between reducing fluid column density and application
face. The disruption can be sufficient to cause FLC failure and or cause of more or large volume FLC pills.
formation and pack damage. The dynamics of cake formation in an FLC • Over sized or excessive application of carbonate loading in
application differ from drilling conditions. FLC cakes perform best when FLC pills will lead to perforation plugging and fill material in
the loss velocity is < 20 bph. At higher rates, we observe the tendency the well bore. Both circumstances contribute significantly to
of particulate FLC pills to form bridges inside pipe or screen and to form increased skin factors, cleaning expense and rig time expense.
large plugs of materials in perforations. Particulate FLC pills should be • Carbonate-based FLC pills will often lift off when flow from the
allowed to migrate into place without additional squeeze pressure. If reservoir initiates; however, a cleanup solution is usually
loss velocities are high, consider the use of a polymer FLC in front of the applied to insure removal of particles, polymer and starch. A
particulate FLC to aid uniform cake deposition. breaker solution of either oxidizer or acid will attack the
polymers and either Acetic or Hydrochloric acid will dissolve
Best Practices for Baracarb FLC Pre-Pack Pills: the carbonate component.
• Use a filtered base brine that meets 2 micron absolute quality • Glycol treatments are used with particulate FLC pills to
standards enhance cake lift off and cleanup.
• Mixing tanks and lines should be cleaned of all potential
contaminants such as drilling fluid residue, rust and scale and
other foreign materials. • Carbonate-based FLC pills should control the loss rate to < 1
• Mixing hopper systems should be high shear and tanks should bph (preferably near 0 bph). Loss rates greater than this
contain an agitation method other than fluid flow from the indicate a problem with formulation mix or application
hopper. (Air bubble agitation is not an adequate method) technique.
• If a reliably clean and high shear mixing system cannot be
accomplished, a dedicated third party mix system should be
used.
• External breakers for HEC based FLC are acids and or
oxidizers; for biopolymers, oxidizers work in a much shorter
time frame as compared to acids.
• Internal breakers are selected based on a complex set of
design variables. Internal breaker application is discussed in a
subsequent section of this paper. Contact your Baroid CFS
Technical Professional for internal breaker application.
• Excessive polymer and starch loading will significantly impair
clean up by reverse flow or breakers and may cause clean up
to fail.
• FLC pills should be spotted as a balanced fluid column
immediately above the exposed formation. The FLC will
migrate to loss areas sequentially as a function of path of
least resistance principle. Spotting the pill in, below or through
the exposed loss zone, subjects the zone to higher fluid
column delta pressures due to the ECD effect. Increased loss
rate due to higher circulating densities causes FLC pills to
enter the formation at rates that will increase the time and
loss volume to reach stability; also deeper penetration of the
matrix will occur.
86
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 87 -
Post-Pack FLC • Excessively large FLC volumes often leave a large unused FLC
Guidelines for Baracarb Post-Pack FLC volume remaining in the well bore that must be dealt with
The two most common mistakes made with particulate FLC pills post- subsequently. The expense of preparing the large volume is
pack is spotting too much pill volume and failing to size properly for also wasted. Losses that are not controlled by the initial
screen aperture bridging. application of FLC are a good indicator of the need to reduce
The thin film cake parameter means that large volumes are not needed the fluid column delta pressure across the formation face.
to achieve a seal. Controlling fluid loss via fluid column density is the least
Excessive volumes lead to packing and fill in the production screen damaging method of loss control. Matrix invasion, by large
assembly and lower zone hardware. Pack and fill tend to become a volumes of FLC materials, is at higher risk of permanent
rubbery mass that requires excessive slick line bailing or coil tubing permeability damage. Well safety should be the deciding
intervention to clear. The fill is difficult to clean and contributes to factor between reducing fluid column density and application
delayed production and considerable well maintenance expense. of more or large volume FLC pills.
Improperly sized salt-based FLC pills penetrate the gravel pack and • Over sized or excessive application of carbonate loading in
potentially the formation face. Polymer enrobed particulates are not FLC pills will lead to perforation plugging and fill material in
easily cleared from the pack and formation matrix. the well bore. Both circumstances contribute significantly to
A small volume FLC is more efficient and less likely to form masses in increased skin factors, cleaning expense and rig time expense.
the production profile. It is much better to add an additional FLC to a • Carbonate-based FLC pills will often lift off when flow from the
loss zone that did not respond sufficiently to the first treatment than it is reservoir initiates; however, a cleanup solution is usually
to deal with the clean up of excessive volume pills. applied to insure removal of particles, polymer and starch. A
Pill volume formulae and NaCl solubility charts for pre-pack and post- breaker solution of either oxidizer or acid will attack the
pack FLC are located in the “Engineering Calculations & Data” polymers and either Acetic or Hydrochloric acid will dissolve
section of the book. Post-pack Baracarb FLC pills have a single the carbonate component.
formulation for screen sizes of 6 to 12. • Glycol treatments are used with particulate FLC pills to
enhance cake lift off and cleanup.
Best Practices for Baracarb FLC Post-Pack Pills: • Carbonate-based FLC pills should control the loss rate to < 1
• Use a filtered base brine that meets 2 micron absolute quality bph (preferably near 0 bph). Loss rates greater than this
standards indicate a problem with formulation mix or application
• Mixing tanks and lines should be cleaned of all potential technique.
contaminants such as drilling fluid residue, rust and scale and
other foreign materials. Example Baraplug FLC Post-Pack
• Mixing hopper systems should be high shear and tanks should
contain an agitation method other than fluid flow from the MATERIAL UNIT QUANTITY
hopper. (Air bubble agitation is not an adequate method) KCl 8.6 ppg Bbl 0.87
• If a reliably clean and high shear mixing system cannot be Barabrine
accomplished, a dedicated third party mix system should be Can 0.2 gal/5 bbl
Defoam
used.
Evaporated Salt Bag 120 ppb
• External breakers for HEC based FLC are acids and or
oxidizers; for biopolymers, oxidizers work in a much shorter N-Vis Bag 2 ppb
time frame as compared to acids. N-Drill HT Bag 4 ppb
• Internal breakers are selected based on a complex set of Baraplug 50 Bag 14 lb/bbl
design variables. Internal breaker application is discussed in a
subsequent section of this paper. Contact your Baroid CFS Baraplug 6/300 Bag 21 lb/bbl
Technical Professional for internal breaker application. Barabuf Bag 4 lb/bbl
• Excessive polymer and starch loading will significantly impair
clean up by reverse flow or breakers and may cause clean up
Example Baracarb FLC Post-Pack
to fail.
• Calculate the require FLC volume using the formulae in the MATERIAL UNIT QUANTITY
“Engineering Calculations & Data” section of the book. 12.7 PPG CaBr Bbl 0.96
• FLC pills should be spotted as a balanced fluid column Barabrine Defoam Can 0.2 gal/bbl
immediately above the exposed formation. The FLC will Bromi-Vis Can 1 can / 8 bbls
migrate to loss areas sequentially as a function of path of Baracarb 50 Bag 10 lb/bbl
least resistance principle. Spotting the pill in, below or through Baracarb 150 Bag 21 lb/bbl
the exposed loss zone, subjects the zone to higher fluid Barabuf Bag 1 lb/bbl
column delta pressures due to the ECD effect. Increased loss
rate due to higher circulating densities causes FLC pills to
enter the formation at rates that will increase the time and
loss volume to reach stability; also deeper penetration of the
matrix will occur
• FLC pills should be slightly denser (0.3 to 0.5 ppg) than the
surrounding fluid. This promotes pipe evacuation and
minimizes “string out” from pipe tripping. It also eliminates
the ejection of FLC higher in the well bore from subsequent
slugging events. Even though the denser pill will blend with
lighter fluid below the spot point, the thinning of the pill is
minimized by the fact that the maximum volume available for
thinning before entry to the formation is equal to the volume
of the formation exposed interval. Once that volume has
blended, further formation loss will be full viscosity FLC. Once
loss rates have stabilized, further thinning of the FLC will be
minimal due to the volume of fluid below the exposed zone;
this volume is most often quite small. (On the order of 1 to 3
barrels)
87
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 88 -
Filtration Based on the square root of the permeability equals mean pore
diameter in microns principle, the table below illustrates damaging
The single most important aspect of brine fluid maintenance is filtration. particle sizes and the necessary filter level.
The purpose of a clear brine fluid is to provide a solids free environment
that protects the producing formation from particle invasion damage. Mean
Pore
Diameter
in 33% 10% Filter
Permeability md Microns Level Level Micron
3000 54.8 18.1 5.5 5
2000 44.7 14.8 4.5 2
1500 38.7 12.8 3.9 2
1000 31.6 10.4 3.2 2
900 30.0 9.9 3.0 2
800 28.3 9.3 2.8 2
700 26.5 8.7 2.6 2
600 24.5 8.1 2.4 2
500 22.4 7.4 2.2 2
250 15.8 5.2 1.6 0.5
100 10.0 3.3 1.0 0.5
During the past 25 years, many studies have been done to assess the Note: The lower limit of human eyesight is 34-44 microns.
effects of particle invasion damage and the size cut and quality level of
filtration necessary to prevent formation damage. The table illustrates that the particle sizes that damage formations are
significantly smaller than unaided human eyesight can resolve. Even 3
The basis of size cut determination is a percentage of the formation Darcy formations, often thought not to need filtration, are subject to
pore throat diameter, often referred to as the “Basketballs and Marbles particle damage from material to small to see.
Principle”. In the majority of conditions, 2-micron filtration is necessary to prevent
particulate damage.
Any particle that is 33% of the pore diameter will instantly bridge and
block the pore; any particle that is 10-30% of the pore throat diameter Illustrated below, is the particle size range that is damaging to formation
will penetrate deeper into the formation and plug or bridge matrix matrices. Particles in this range can have a very large particle count and
permeability. not occupy large part per million levels.
Filtration levels are base on removing particles to the 10% throat
diameter level to prevent particulate damage.
> 1/3 the diameter of Bridge instantly on the throat and do on penetrate
the pore throat the formation
Solution: Filter fluids to remove particles +/> 1/3 the pore
diameter.
Hydraulic fracture the well and blow the particles from the
perforated tunnels, by perforated washing tools or by acid.
1/3 and 1/10 pore Invade the formation and bridge on the pore throat deeper
throat diameter in the formation.
With the pore throats plugged and no permeability, acid
cannot be injected into the formation to clean the pore
throats.
Solution: Filter fluids to a level less than 10% of the pore
diameter
< 1/10 the diameter Considered normally not damaging to the formation
88
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 89 -
Filter Level Quality Particle Removal Efficiency Testing
How effective a filter system is at removing particles became a concern
in the early 1980’s. Procedure: OSU F-2 (Modified single –pass water)
Nominal cartridge filters were the equipment of choice for many years. Test Particles: AC Test Dust
They were relatively inexpensive and did not require much space. The Fluid: Water maintained at 1 cp kinematic viscosity.
standard used to measure the efficiency of the filter was solids removal Flow Rate: 1 gpm per 10-inch cartridge or as specified by user.
by weight percent. The most common method of testing the size cut of Sample Sequence:
a filter was the “Bubble Point” method. A minimum of five sample sets is taken upstream and downstream of
Laboratory testing with particle counters and particle size distribution the
graphs revealed that as much as 70% of the total particle count in a cartridge. The first sample set is taken at the start of the test, after the
fluid was passing through the filter and that particles much larger than system has stabilized. The remaining sample sets are taken at 10%,
the size rating of the filter were passing the media. The graph on the 20%, 40%, and 80% increase in the net pressure drop.
previous page illustrated how fine particles take up small weight Terminal pressure drop is 35 psi.
percentage ppm.
Nominal filters were found to have relatively poor construction integrity. The two methods used to verify fluid quality are Particle Size Distribution
The media was subject to deformation and shifting at the upper range (PSD) and Total Suspended Solids (TSS). These tests require a laser
of delta pressure. particle counter and a very sensitive lab scale. Both pieces of equipment
A more reliable media structure and a more accurate efficiency standard are not accurate under field conditions and the time required to perform
were sought. the testing precludes a rapid test result. Samples of filtered fluid are
The method of rating a filters efficiency that was adopted was the Beta usually collected and submitted for testing on a 48-hour time scale.
Ratio (βR). The beta ration method compares the particle size Baroid CFS provides the following Beta 5000 rated Cartridge filters.
distribution and particle counts before and after a filter medium and Filter Cartridges:
expresses the efficiency as a β coefficient. 0.5 um part number -PFP005-40AN-TM-03
All polypropylene construction, 40" length with 222 o-ring/cap ends
Formula & Table connections.
2um part number -PFP05-40AN-TM-03 & 5um part number -
inlet concentration - outlet concentrat ion PFC2-40AN-TM
Removal efficiency ( β R
)=
inlet concentrat ion
x 100
All polypropylene construction, 40" length with 222 o-ring/cap ends
connections.
10um part number –PFC10-40AN-TM
Beta (β) Removal All polypropylene construction, 40" length with 222 o-ring/cap ends
efficiency (%) connections.
High pleated surface area for long service life. Low clean pressure drop
and high flow capacity.
1 0
Absolute removal of solid contamination to prevent formation damages
and optimizes zone permeability during downhole operations.
2 50
Cartridge Filter Economics
4 75 A Beta 5000 (99.98%) was Absolute Beta rated filter cartridges are several times more expensive
established as the than nominally rated cartridges. Beta 5000 cartridges are cost effective
5 80 preferred level of filter when used as a downstream guard or polishing filter after a DE filter
efficiency. Cartridge filters unit.
10 90 of this type are referred to
as “Absolute” filters. They Cartridge filtration alone is cost effective for low volume or low
are usually composed of a contaminant level fluids. Filtering make-up water for chemicals and or
20 95 filtering relatively clean seawater are examples. The demands of
shallow or multi-layered
filter media. The media has circulation and maintenance of a completion fluid system are better
50 98 strong bonding addressed by a staged filter system comprised of a DE unit followed by
mechanisms that prevent ABS cartridge filters.
75 98.67 the media from shifting or A common use for cartridge filters is polymer solution filtration. A beta
deforming, thus assuring 5000 10-micron filters is used to remove contaminants from polymer
high integrity throughout pills. Combined with hydraulic shear devices and due to the low volumes
100 99
the delta range of the and relatively low percentage of contaminants, these cartridges provide
cartridge. a cost effective means of formation protection with polymer pills.
1000 99.9
Most ABS filters are
configured as pleated Pleated ABS Cartridge
5000 99.98
cylinders to provide
maximum surface area and
10,000 99.99 therefore maximum flow
rate per unit.
The Beta ratio of a filter at
the desired level of size cut
100 is the basis for quality
δ
The beta method used to test and verify a cartridge filters removal
efficiency is the modified OSU F-2 standard.
89
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 90 -
Cartridge Filter Housing
Dirty Fluid
Inlet
90
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 91 -
Filtration continues until the press reaches it’s maximum cake capacity The equipment foot print is smaller than a press system and cycle
or maximum delta pressure level. Ideally max cake and max pressure cleaning is usually faster than a press unit.
happen simultaneously. The disadvantages of the VLF are that it cannot deal with rapid changes
The slurry skid is configured for re-circulation and pumping stops. The in solids concentration or higher malleable particle loads. The VLF units
fluid in the press is evacuated by air pressure and the press is opened. also have a lower range of practical solids loading, on the order of less
The spent cake is removed from the plate recesses and the press is than a half percent by volume. Situations that have blinding particle
closed and sealed again ready for the next filter cycle. loads and inconsistent solids loads are not practical use points for a VLF
The length of a press cycle is governed by the concentration of filter.
contaminants and their type. Ridged particles are easily incorporated VLF Interior Diagram
into the DE cake and do not create excessive delta pressure across the
cake. Malleable solids such as clays and polymers deform readily and
block a much higher portion of the DE cake permeability and cause
more rapid delta pressure build across the cake. Sudden influxes of
malleable particles can cause the press to “Blind”. In other words, the
press will reach its max delta pressure before reaching max capacity.
DE presses can usually deal with solids concentrations of up to one or
one and a half percent and maintain a practical cycle length. Solids
concentrations above this threshold can be impractical to process with a
filter press. Some other method of solids concentration reduction must
be used first.
91
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 92 -
Baroid CFS MMS approved Filter System Pump Package
FILTRATION SYSTEMS
SPECIFICATIONS
Air Compressor
Length (in) 96
Width (in) 62
Height (in) 63
Weight (lb) 4,000
Output (cfm) 185
Working Pressure 100
(psi)
92
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 93 -
System Flow Rate
Flow rates expressed in this table represent a median range for a variety
of conditions. The rate of fluid feed and the size of the feed line
significantly affect the equipments maximum process rate.
The CFS filter system is capable of pulling it’s own suction when no
powered feed source is available. However, many rig setups do not
allow the pumping system to be within vertical lift and horizontal pull
limitations. Under these conditions the filter system must be fed by a rig
centrifugal pump system. Feed lines should be 4” or 6” to achieve
maximum flow rates from the filter system. Using a 6”feed line, a CFS
1200 system was able to process 25 BPM in a CaCl fluid.
SYSTEM
BEST USAGE
TYPE
93
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 94 -
94
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 95 -
Corrosion • Actions of mixing and solids control equipment
Corrosion Inhibitors – CO2 & H2S Scavengers – Oxygen o Mixing and solids-control equipment can cause aeration
Scavengers – Biocides of the drilling fluid during drilling operations. For
example, aeration occurs as mud falls through the shaker
Corrosion is the destruction of metal through electrochemical action screen or when hopper or mud guns are discharged
between metal and its environment. About 75 to 85 percent of drillpipe above the surface of the mud in the pits. To reduce the
loss can be attributed to corrosion. Other areas affected by corrosion amount of oxygen injected into drilling fluid by mixing
include pump parts, bits, and casings. Factors affecting corrosion and solids-control equipment, follow these guidelines.
include: o Use a premix tank to mix mud when possible.
• Temperature: Corrosion rates can double with every 55 o Maintain the minimum mud volume.
increase in temperature. o Operate mud-mixing pumps, especially the hopper, only
• Velocity: The higher the mud velocity, the higher the rate of when mixing mud.
corrosion due to film erosion (oxide, oil, amine, etc.) o Keep the packing tight on centrifugal pumps.
• Solids: Abrasive solids remove protective films and cause o Keep the mud in the suction pit deep enough to keep the
increased corrosive attack. mud pump from pulling in air.
• Metallurgical factors: Mill scale and heat treatment of pipe can o Keep discharge below the mud surface when moving
cause localized corrosion. mud from the reserve pit.
• Corrosive agents: Corrosive agents such as oxygen carbon o Ensure guns discharge below the mud surface.
dioxide and hydrogen sulfide can increase stress cracking o Ensure the degasser and desander discharges are below
corrosion and lead to pipe failure. the mud surface.
• The atmosphere
The corrosion that occurs because of these various factors falls into four o The atmosphere is another source of oxygen. The main
categories: by-product of atmospheric corrosion is iron oxide rust. To
• Uniform corrosion results in an even corrosion pattern over prevent atmospheric corrosion, wash the pipes free of all
surfaces.
salts and mud products and then spray or dip the pipe in
• Localized corrosion results in a mesa-like corrosion pattern
over surfaces. an atmospheric corrosion inhibitor.
• Pitting is a highly localized corrosion that results in the deep
penetration of surfaces. The oxygen content of brines with densities greater than 10.0 lb/gal is
• Mechanical damage dislocates or completely removes low. The solubility of gasses in a fluid is directly related to the total
surfaces.
dissolved solid content of the fluid. The concentration of metal salts in
brines of 10 lb/gal or higher significantly inhibits the amount of gases
Category Explanation
that can dissolve into the brine.
Uniform corrosion Even corrosion pattern over surfaces However, circulation and the affects of surface aeration tend to
replenish the dissolved gas content of a fluid as it is spent in chemical
Localized corrosion Mesa-like corrosion pattern over surfaces reactions. During completion operations, a cumulative affect is seen in
the system. Indications are lowering pH values and increased iron
Highly localized corrosion that results in the dissolved and precipitant content.
Pitting
deep penetration of surfaces
• Water additions
o Water added to drilling mud during normal drilling Performance of OXYGON O2 Scavenger in Brine Fluids
operations can contain dissolved oxygen. Very small Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)
concentrations of oxygen Brine Density Blank With scavenger
o (<1 ppm) can cause severe corrosion by setting up SG 0.1 lb/bbl
differential aeration cells that can show preferential (lb/gal) (0.29kg/m3)
attack with pitting under barriers or deposits. The Seawater 1.03 (8.6) 0.9 0.2
primary corrosion by-product of low oxygen
concentrations is magnetite. Sodium 1.20 0.6 0.05
chloride (10.0)
Calcium 1.20 0.6 0.2
chloride (10.0)
Calcium 1.39 0.2 0.05
chloride (11.6)
Calcium 1.44 0.2 0.1
bromide (12.0)
Calcium 1.56 0.1 0.05
bromide (13.0)
Calcium 1.70 0.05 0.05
bromide (14.2)
95
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 96 -
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) Bacteria
Hydrogen sulfide can enter the mud system from: Microorganisms can cause fermentation of organic mud additives,
o Formation fluids containing hydrogen sulfide changing viscosity and lowering pH. A sour odor and gas are other
o Bacterial action on sulfur compounds in drilling mud indicators that bacteria are present. Degradation of mud additives can
o Thermal degradation of sulfur-containing drilling-fluid result in increased maintenance costs.
additives The by-products of bacteria are carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide.
o Chemical reactions with tool-joint thread lubricants containing The presence of bacteria is determined by the phenol-red test. Micro
sulfur biocides are used to control bacteria.
Bacteria are strongly inhibited in brine systems at or above 10.0 lb/gal.
The corrosion process, bacterial action, and thermal degradation of
organic additives can generate hydrogen sulfide in drilling fluids. With few exceptions brine fluids at this threshold do not require a
Hydrogen sulfide is very soluble in water. Dissolved hydrogen sulfide biostatic.
behaves as a weak acid and causes pitting. Another problem with Glutaraldehyde solutions are currently used in drilling and completion
hydrogen sulfide is that some of the hydrogen ions at the cathodic areas fluids to control bacteria. This chemical is scheduled for retirement in
may enter the steel instead of evolving from the surface as a gas. This
the near future and other biostatics (example: Isothiazolone-based
process can result in hydrogen blistering in low-strength steels. Both the
hydrogen and sulfide components of hydrogen sulfide can bring about agent) will be used.
drill string and tubing failures.
Hydrogen sulfide corrosion is mitigated by increasing the pH to above Dissolved salts (Zn++, Ca++, etc…)
9.5 and by using sulfide scavengers and film-forming inhibitors. Dissolved salts increase corrosion by decreasing the electrical resistance
Note: Hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide are often encountered in the of drilling fluids and increasing the solubility of corrosion by-products.
same geologic formation; therefore, design treatments to deal with
These by-products can cause a film to form on the surface of the metal.
both contaminants simultaneously.
Metal salts exhibit the highest rates of corrosion at relatively low
Carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations on the order of 2-10% by weight. Typically, brines with
Carbon dioxide is found in natural gas in trace element and major- densities at or above 10.0-lb/gal displays relatively low corrosion rates
element quantities. When combined with water, carbon dioxide forms but still require inhibitor treatment to achieve the best long-term
carbonic acid and decreases the water’s pH, which increases the water’s
corrosion control.
corrosivity. While carbon dioxide is not as corrosive as oxygen, it can
cause pitting. A large drop in pH, combined with a negative test for
hydrogen sulfide, is an indication that CO2 has contaminated the fluid.
Maintaining the correct pH is the primary treatment for carbon dioxide Packer-fluid
Recommended treatment
contamination. Either lime or caustic soda can be used to maintain pH. system
Lime is problematic in completion fluids and is used as a last resort at Increase pH to between 9.5 to 11.5
the well site. The following table provides the reactions for each of these Add 2 to 4 lb/bbl BARACOR 44
treatments. or NO-SULF to control hydrogen sulfide
Treatment with caustic soda produces water and sodium carbonate, a Add a biocide to control bacteria such as
Drilling mud
soluble precipitant, treatment with lime, produces an insoluble calcium- ALDACIDE-G. Add an oxygen scavenger such
carbonate precipitate and water. These treatments are for as Barascav D or L or Oxygon to control
formation produced gases not atmospheric conditions. soluble O2
The water by-product from these reactions can affect brine density with Add BARAFILM at 15 gal/100 bbl
sufficient gas ppm or over time. Density maintenance will be necessary Add a biocide to control bacteria such as
Oil or diesel
ALDACIDE G
in these conditions.
Atmospheric CO2 affects brines in a manner similar to atmospheric
oxygen; most fluids tend to become more acidic with time when Invermul oil Add 2 to 10 lb/bbl INVERMUL and 2 to 10
exposed to the atmosphere. Prolonged fluid aeration from equipment mud lb/bbl GELTONE II
and hopper circulation provides a constant source of gases uniformly Add BARACOR 100, 0.5 to 2 percent by
dispersed in the fluid. The preferred treatment for most brine types is Heavy brine volume or BARACOR 450, 0.2 to 0.4
(CaCl2 CaBr2 percent by weight
Barabuf pH buffer. All brines with the exception of ZnBr2 can be
ZnBr2 or Add an oxygen scavenger such as Oxygon
maintained at a pH of 7.5 to 9.0. blends of the to control soluble O2
three)
Brine Recommended pH Treatment
Formate 7.5 to 12.0 Barabuf or Caustic Soda Monovalent brines contain salts that have monovalent cations; such as
NaCl - KCl 7.5 to 9.0 Barabuf, Caustic soda or lime salts include sodium chloride, potassium chloride, potassium bromide,
NaBr & KBr 7.5 to12 Caustic Soda or Potash and sodium bromide. Potassium bromide and sodium bromide are
especially effective in calcium-sensitive formations and in formation
CaCl - CaBr 7.0-10.5 Barabuf, Caustic soda or lime
where carbon dioxide gas might react with calcium brines to create a
ZnBr 3.0-5.0 Barabuf or Lime calcium-carbonate precipitate. Monovalent brines generally show low
corrosivity, even at temperatures exceeding 400o F (204o C.)
96
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 97 -
Divalent brines contain salts that have divalent cations; such as calcium
chloride, calcium bromide, and zinc bromide. Divalent brine might Biocide
consist of single salt or a blend of salts, depending on the required brine In working with BJ Services, it has been brought to Baroid’s DRIL-N
density and crystallization point. department that caution needs to be had when selecting a bactericide
The corrosivity of these brines depends on their density and chemical for use in DRIL-N systems that are to be cleaned up with BJ Service’s
composition. Laboratory data show that the addition of calcium chloride MUDZYME S. According to BJ, the use of Magnacide and XCIDE 207 are
lowers the rate of corrosion, while the addition of zinc bromide rapidly the preferred bactericides to be applied when their enzymes are used in
increases the rate of corrosion. filter cake clean up.
The use of products containing Glutaraldehyde solutions (ALDACIDE G)
can produce damaging results. The combination of the enzyme and
Mineral scale (CaSO4, FeCO3, ZnSO4)
Glutaraldehyde solutions will create a cross link with the polymers and
Mineral scale deposits set up conditions for local corrosion-cell activity.
starch into plastic like strands of materials according to studies by BJ
Completion and workover programs are typically more concerned with Services. From the DRIL-N product line the products to be most
scale in packer fluid applications and inside production tubing. concerned with are N-VIS, N-VIS P PLUS and N-DRIL HT PLUS. Other
polymers and starches could have the same results and caution should
Packer Fluids be given to any operation that may involve the use of these enzymes
The final fluid conditioning in a completion or work over is the and bactericides containing Glutaraldehyde solutions.
installation of a packer fluid.
Packer fluids are used to provide a variety of benefits for the producing Baracor 450
well: A recent issue came up concerning Baracor 450. Baracor 450 is
• Weight and pressure on production packers and seals designed only for fluids containing zinc.
• Supporting medium and pressure for the production tubing The fluid should contain a minimum of 1% by weight zinc.
• Pressure against the casing to resist outside formation forces The primary reasons are:
• Thermal conductivity or insulation for the fluids flowing in the • In the absence of zinc and in higher temperature
production tubing environments (350 to 400+ BHT) the Baracor 450 can break
• Protective environment that inhibits against corrosion and down with H2S as a by-product. This situation could pose
potential acidic gas seepage from production hardware potential safety risks and should be avoided.
• Solids free fluids provide easier re-entry and hardware • Baracor 450 normally functions by reacting with zinc and iron
recovery as compared to solids laden fluids to form a iron/zinc sulfide complex that coats the pipe
somewhat similar to a galvanizing process. While Baracor 450
General Packer Fluid Treatment Guidelines does show a reduction in overall corrosion rates, the test
results are somewhat misleading. Even though overall
corrosion is reduced, Baracor 450 (in the absence of zinc) may
still allow pitting corrosion that in turn can help induce
Counter Indications chloride stress cracking.
Oxygen Scavengers The important thing to remember is that the Baracor 450 functions by
Some products used as oxygen scavengers contain sulfides that react combining with zinc and zinc must be present. All other brines should
with the dissolved oxygen in fluids to form sulfates, eliminating the be treated with Baracor 100 as long as the BHT allows.
If you have an application where light density brine is being treated with
corrosive effects of the dissolved oxygen. Calcium brines should not be
a BHT in excess of 350 degrees, the correct procedure would be to treat
treated with oxygen scavengers containing sulfides because chemicals the brine with at least 1% by weight zinc before adding the Baracor
could precipitate calcium scale and cause problems. Even though 450.
dissolved oxygen levels are low high higher density brines, the (Baracor 100 can actually be used up to 400 degrees BHT in some fluid
application of an oxygen scavenger such as OXYGON has proven types). (There are 123.6 lbs of zinc in one barrel of 19.2 ppg ZnBr).
beneficial. OXYGON is the preferred treatment for brines containing
Multiply total volume (bbls) times density (ppg) times 42 time .01 to get
calcium or zinc. total pounds of zinc required. Divide that by 123.6 to get total bbls of
19.2 required.
Performance of OXYGON & BARACOR 100 Example:
Corrosion rates (mpy) For 500 bbl 10.0 ppg CaCl ------> 500 x 10 x 42 x .01 / 123.6 = 17
Brine Density Blank BARACOR OXYGON BARACOR bbls of 19.2 ppg ZnBr
sg. 100 0.1 lb/bbl 100
(lb/gal) 0.5% (0.29kg/m3) +
(v/v) OXYGON
97
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 98 -
Product Guidelines Corrosion Trouble Shooting Table
Product Function Used In Description Treatment Oxygen from water additions
Water Based Source: Water additions By-product: Oxides of iron Black to
Drilling & red dust
0.2-0.5 lb/bbl
ALDACIDE Dril-N Fluids Glutaraldehyde Indication: Concentration cell pitting Tests:
Micro biocide (0.6-1.4
G Completion solution under barrier or deposits and pits filled Some by-product insoluble in 15% HCl
kg/m3)
Fluids <10.0 with black magnetic corrosion Some by-product attracted to magnet
lb/gal by-products
Pre-treat with
Water & Oil 2-5 lb/bbl;
Hydrogen Treatment:
BARACOR Based Powdered zinc additional
sulfide
44 Drilling & compound treatments Treat with an oxygen scavenger having a range equivalent of 2.5 to 10 lb/hr of
scavenger sodium sulfite.
Dril-N Fluids as required
(6-14 kg/m3) Maintain 20-to 300-mg/L sulfite residual.
High
Temperature Oxygen from mixing and solids-control equipment
Polymeric Source: Mixing and solids-control By-product: Oxides of iron Black to
Alkalinity
BARACOR Systems Liquid amine 0.25-1.4 lb/bbl equipment red dust
control
95 such as compound (0.7-4 kg/m3) Indication: Concentration cell pitting Tests:
agent
Therma-Dril under barrier or deposits and pits filled Some by-product insoluble in 15% HCl
& EZ-Mud with black magnetic corrosion by-products Some by-product attracted to magnet
PHPA
Clear fresh Treatment:
water or Coat pipe with film-forming inhibitors to reduce atmospheric attack and cover
salt water: 21- concentration cell deposits.
Reduce air entrapment in pits.
42
Defoam drilling fluid.
BARACOR Corrosion Completion Film-forming gal/100 bbl
100 inhibitor Brines amine fluid. Heavy Carbon dioxide
brine: 0.5- Source: By-product: Iron carbonate
2.0% by Formation
volume Thermally degraded mud products
(5-10 L/m3). Indications: Test: Slow effervescence in 15% HCl
Completion Cyanogen- Localized corrosion to pitting
BARACOR Corrosion Brines based 0.2-0.4% by Dark brown-to-black film
450 inhibitor Containing inorganic weight
Zinc compound
Blend of Treatment:
Water Based phosphonates Maintain basic pH with caustic soda, lime, or BARACOR 95 to neutralize the acid-
BARACOR Corrosion 0.5-1.5 lb/bbl forming gas.
Drilling & and
700 inhibitor (1.4-4 kg/m3)
Dril-N Fluids alkyl Bacteria
phosphates Source: Bacteria By-product: Carbon dioxide;
1.5-2 hydrogen
Drill Pipe sulfide
gal/1,000 ft of
Protective
Corrosion Film-forming pipe every 1-4 Indications: Tests:
BARAFILM Film for air,
inhibitor amine hours Fermentation of organic mud additives Phenol-red serum test (aerobic
mist & foam
(1.9-2.5 L/100 Change in viscosity bacteria)
drilling Lower pH Marine anaerobic serum test (anaerobic
m)
Oxygen Water Based Sour odor bacteria)
0.5-1 lb/gal of Gas formation
scavenger Fluids that Powdered
BARASCAV fresh
Thermal do not sodium
D water (1.4-2.9
extender contain Ca sulfite
kg/m3)
for polymers or Zn Treatment:
Oxygen Water Based Add biocides.
Initially 0.1-
scavenger Fluids that Liquid Dissolved salts
BARASCAV 0.5 lb/bbl
Thermal do not ammonium Source: Dissolved salts By-product: Oxides of iron
L (0.3-1.4
extender contain Ca bisulfite
kg/m3)
for polymers or Zn Indications: Test:
Oxygen Localized corrosion Black to red rust
Scavenger, Pitting
Iron Chelate Water & Powdered Treatment: Add film-forming inhibitors.
0.1 to 0.2
OXYGON & Inhibitor, Brine Based Sodium Mineral scale deposits
lb/bbl
Thermal Fluids Erythorbate Source: Formation and mud materials By-product: Iron products beneath
Extender for mineral deposit
Polymers Indication: Test:
Pre-treat with Corrosion cell pits beneath deposit White mineral scale: calcium, barium
Hydrogen Aqueous
Blend of zinc 0.1-5 and/or magnesium compounds
NO-SULF sulfide Drilling &
compounds lb/bbl (0.3-14 Treatment:
scavenger Dril-N Fluids
kg/m3) Slowly and continuously, add scale inhibitor at 5-15 mg/L.
Fresh Water Reduce treatments of scale inhibitor when phosphate residual exceeds 15 mg/L.
Thinner/scale Organophosph 0.1-1 lb/bbl
STABILITE Fluid Use 1 gal/1,000 bbl (0.25 L/m3) mud/day for maintenance treatment under
inhibitor onate (0.3-3 kg/m3) normal drilling conditions.
Systems
98
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 99 -
Packer Fluid Compatibility with Production Tool Seal Materials
Production packers and seal assemblies use a variety of materials that act as seal agents. The materials are selected based on performance at
pressure and temperature in various fluids or gasses.
99
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 100 -
SODIUM CHLORIDE w/ INHIBITOR COMPLETION FLUID: IMMERSION TEST
REI 8/21/00
PURPOSE: Evaluate the effect on various elastomers exposed to Sodium Chloride Completion Fluid
PROCEDURE: 1. Establish physical properties of each sample type before immersion.
2. Immerse specimens in fluid for 1 week @ 325°F (163°C) [275°F (135°C) for Nitrile].
3. Remove specimens & measure properties at indicated time since testing began.
FLUID: 10 #/gal. Sodium Chloride treated with 1% by vol. of Baracor 100 (inhibitor). Furnished by Baroid
Completion Fluid Services. pH ≅ 8-9
(A)
Tensile 2014 1033 925 783 -61.1% -2 .077 .077 .076 .077
Elongation 201 125 107 86 -57.2% % Swell --- 0 -1.27 -0.63%
50% Mod. 637 583 625 641 ---
100% Mod. 1094 872 894 --- --- Notes: --- Flex.
Flexi Cracks
ble
Tensile 2990 2947 3122 2952 -1.3% Thickness-1 .101 .101 .101 .101
Elongation 159 191 199 192 +20.8% -2 .107 .108 .108 .108
50% Mod. 1149 1032 1120 1035 --- % Swell --- 0.47 0.47 0.45%
100% Mod 2051 1808 1940 1803 --- Notes: --- Flex. Flexible Flexible
Tensile 3675 3438 3299 3209 -12.7% -2 .080 .080 .080 .080
Tensile 2982 2978 2979 2879 -3.5% -2 .083 .083 .083 .083
Elongation 125 145 132 130 +4.0% % Change --- 0.53% 1.08% 1.08%
50% Mod. 1624 1514 1659 --- --- Wt. in Air -1 --- 5.3053 5.2894 5.2668
100% Mod. 2505 2211 2408 --- --- -2 --- 4.9124 4.8971 4.8739
% Change --- --- -0.32 -0.75%
100
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 101 -
pH = 4-5, 8/7/00 MUST RE-RUN WITH FRESH SAMPLE OF FLUID {Fresh, pH ≅ 8-9}
Time-hrs. 0 24 hr 48 hr 1 week % Time-hrs 0 24 hr 48 hr 1 week
(Date) (8/7) (8/8) (8/9) (8/14) Change (Date) (8/7) (8/8) (8/9) (8/14)
COMPOUND: 7265 (Viton-ETP – Seals Eastern) O-Ring…[Marked #8 ; Position #1 ]
Hardness (A) 94 94 94 94 0% Thickness-1 0.112 .112 .112 .112
Wt. In Air –1 5.3896 5.4476 5.4452 5.4400 --- -2 0.109 .109 .109 .109
-2 5.3001 5.3567 5.3548 5.3487 --- % Swell --- 0 0 0%
% Change --- 1.07 1.03 0.93% --- Notes --- Flex Flex Flexible
COMPOUND: 9062 (Viton – Parco) O-Ring…[Marked #9 ; Position #4 ]
Hardness (A) 99 99 99 99 0% Thickness-1 0.106 .109 .109 .108
Wt. In Air –1 5.2484 5.3228 5.3284 --- --- -2 0.106 .107 .107 .107
-2 5.2436 5.3176 5.3223 5.2802 --- % Swell --- 1.88 1.88 1.42%
% Change --- 0.87 1.42 0.70% --- Notes --- Cracks Broke Very Brittle
COMPOUND: V8588 (Perfluoroelastomer – Parker) O-Ring…[Marked #10; Position #7 ]
Hardness (A) 98 98 99 98 0% Thickness-1 .115 .116 .115 .115
Wt In Air –1* 6.5849 6.5874 6.5868 6.5863 --- -2 .115 .116 .116 .115
-2** 6.5449 6.5492 6.5469 6.5460 --- % Swell --- 0.87 0.43 0%
% Change --- 0.05 0.03 0.02% --- Notes --- Stiff Stiff Stiff
* Sample-1: Batch #1128 ……..Sample-2: Batch #40000039
101
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 102 -
The Samples Below are Tested at 275°F (135°C) due to the Temperature Limit of the Compounds (Nitrile)
CONCLUSIONS:
1. All rubber compounds, except the standard fluoroelastomers, performed well in this fluid.
2. Standard fluoroelastomers should not be used in this fluid. This is due to the high pH of the fluid.
Note: Compound FF-8023 (Halliburton Proprietary, Fluorel) lost over half of its strength and
elongation, along with showing surface cracks at 168 hours. Compounds #7148 (Seals Eastern,
Fluorel) and #9062 (Parco, standard Viton) both became brittle and showed surface cracking within
48 hours and by 168 hours broke when flexed.
3. Most of the other materials tested (AFLAS, HNBR, Glass filled TEFLON, PEEK, Ryton, Viton-ETP,
V8577 Perfluoroelastomer, Chemraz, Kalrez & EPDM) showed no significant swell, loss of
properties or change in hardness due to the fluid.
4. The harder Nitrile compounds (Halliburton Proprietary 201-75 & N-9029) were beginning to loose
elongation and increase Modulus by 168 hours; due to being at the upper temperature limit for long-
term use (275°F; 135°C). Nitrile should be limited to short-term (1 week max.) useage only.
102
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 103 -
PURPOSE: Evaluate the effect on elastomers exposed to Calcium Chloride/Calcium Bromide Completion Fluid. .
PROCEDURE: 1. Establish physical properties of each sample type before immersion.
2. Immerse specimens in test fluid for 1 week @ 325°F (163°C) [275°F (135°C) for Nitriles.
3. Remove specimens & measure properties at indicated time since testing began.
FLUID: 13.5 #/gal. Calcium Chloride/Calcium Bromide formulated to a 20 degree TCT and treated with 1% by
vol. of Baracor 100 (inhibitor). Furnished by Baroid Completion Fluid Services. pH ≅ 5-6
(A)
Tensile 1850 1980 2077 1893 +2.3% -2 .080 .080 .080 .080
Elongation 200 227 219 211 +5.5% % Swell --- 0 0 0%
50% Mod. 571 509 573 556 ---
100% Mod. 969 886 1003 948 --- Notes --- Flex
Flex Flexible
Tensile 3035 2954 2805 2834 -6.6% -2 .090 .090 .090 .090
Tensile 3711 3595 3603 3478 -6.3% -2 .070 .070 .070 .070
Tensile 2941 2871 2978 2858 -2.8% -2 .086 .088 .090 .090
Elongation 129 134 129 41 -68.2% % Change --- 1.75 2.91 3.50%
50% Mod. 1580 1611 1637 --- --- Wt. in Air -1 4.9504 4.8862 4.8773 4.8612
100% Mod. 2385 2232 2334 --- --- -2 4.9332 4.8884 4.8798 4.8662
% Change --- -1.10 -1.30 -1.58%
103
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 104 -
104
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 105 -
Samples Below Tested @275°F (135°C) due to the Temperature Limit of the Compounds (Nitrile)
CONCLUSIONS:
1. All materials tested, except Nitrile and sulfur-cured HNBR, performed well in this fluid.
2. Sulfur-cured HNBR and all Nitrile rubber samples (Halliburton Proprietary rubber compounds:
HNBR-9030, 320-60, 201-75 & N-9029) showed a dramatic loss in flexibility (loss in elongation) in
the fluid. These compounds should not be used in this fluid.
3. All of the other materials tested (AFLAS, peroxide-cured HNBR, Glass filled TEFLON, PEEK,
Ryton, Viton-ETP, Fluorel, Viton, V8577 Perfluoroelastomer, Chemraz, Kalrez & EPDM) are
suitable for use in this fluid.
105
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 106 -
Field Tests 3) Add 1.0 mL of the fluid sample to the Erlenmeyer flask using the
Alkalinity: WBM syringe.
4) Stopper the flask and shake vigorously.
Objective 5) Add 200 mL of distilled water and 10 to 15 drops of
Determine the alkalinity (Pm) of a water-based mud (WBM). phenolphthalein indicator solution to the flask. Stopper the flask
Unit and shake vigorously for a minimum of two minutes.
mL 6) Allow the phases to separate.
Example
P = 1.2 mL of 0.02N (N/50) sulfuric acid solution 7)
If... Then...
Equipment
• Titration dish A pink color develops and remains, Go to Step 8.
• 3-mL syringe (without
A pink color does not develop, Alkalinity is zero. Go to Step 16.
needle)
• 5-mL pipette
• Stirring rod 8) Add 3 mL of sulfuric acid solution to the flask using the 5-mL
• 50-mL graduated cylinder pipette.
(250-mL for lime mud’s) 9) Stopper the flask and shake vigorously. Allow the phases to
• 0.02N (N/50) sulfuric acid separate.
solution
• Phenolphthalein indicator If... Then...
solution
The solution remains pink, Go to Step 11.
• Distilled water
Procedure The solution turns colorless, Go to Step 12.
Collect a fluid sample.
1. Transfer 1 mL of the sample to the titration dish using the 10) Continue to add sulfuric acid solution in 3-mL increments until the
syringe. pink color disappears.
2. Add 50 mL of distilled water to the titration dish and stir. Note Note: Shake the solution after each addition of sulfuric acid.
the color of the mixture for Step 5. 11) Record the volume of sulfuric acid used in mL. Back titrate with
3. Note: For lime mud’s, use 200 mL of distilled water. sodium hydroxide using the 1-mL pipette until the pink color first
4. Add 10 to 15 drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution to reappears and remains.
the titration dish and stir. Note: Shake the solution after each addition of sodium hydroxide. Add
5. Add the sulfuric acid solution one drop at a time to the sodium hydroxide only until the pink color reappears.
titration dish until the color changes from pink or red to the
original color. 12) Record the volume of sodium hydroxide used in mL.
6. Record the amount of sulfuric acid solution used (in mL) as P. 13) Calculate alkalinity.
14) Alkalinity = mL N/10 sulfuric acid - mL N/10 sodium hydroxide
If... Then... 15) Calculate excess lime pounds per barrel of mud.
A pink or red color develops, Go to Step 5. 16) Excess lime, lb/bbl = 1.3 × alkalinity
106
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 107 -
107
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 108 -
Brine clarity bedded layer of solids at the tip that will require probing with a fine
Objective wire to dislodge for cleaning.
Estimate the solids content in a completion/workover fluid by measuring
brine turbidity and or percent solids v/v. Solids Content Cross Reference
Units PPM / MgL Fraction Value % Solids Decimal
Nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU)
Percent Solids (0.00%) 1 1/1,000,000 0.0001 0.000001
Part Per Million (PPM / MgL)
Example 10 1/100,000 0.001 0.00001
• Brine clarity = 20 NTU
100 1/10,000 0.01 0.0001
• Percent Solids = 0.01%
• Part Per Million = 100 PPM or 100 MgL
1000 1/1000 0.1 0.001
Note: PPM and MgL or similar measurements but not synonymous
Equipment 10,000 1/100 1 0.01
Turbidimeter
Centrifugal Spin-Out Kit 100,000 1/10 10 0.1
Procedure
1) Collect a 100-mL fluid 1,000,000 1 100 1
sample from each
location of interest.
Locations of interest Clean NTU Values for Fluid Types
might include one or Fluid Type NTU Range (Clean)
more of the following:
• Mixing plant at low-pressure line NH4CL, NaCl & KCl 1 – 20
• Transport truck, after half the volume has flowed from the
CaCl, KBr & NaBr 4 – 20
truck
• Transport boat, before offloading
CaBr & ZnBr 8 - 30
• Rig site tank at low-pressure line or tank
• Rig site flow line
• Rig site filtration sample
108
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 109 -
7. Spin the hydrometer and record the reading at which the
hydrometer rests.
8. Multiply the hydrometer reading (specific gravity) by 8.345 to 0.000253 14.0 (1.68) CaBr2 /CaCl2
convert it to density, lb/gal (sg × 8.345 = lb/gal). 0.000250 14.5 (1.74) CaBr /CaCl
9. Convert the sample density to the industry-standard reference 0.000250 15.0 (1.80) CaBr2 /CaCl2
density at 70°F (21°C).
0.000250 15.5 (1.86) ZnBr2 /CaBr2
/CaCl2
Dc = Dm (1 + Ve [Tm - 70])
0.000251 16.0 (1.92) ZnBr2 /CaBr2
/CaCl2
Where:
Dc = Corrected density at 70°F (21°C) 0.000252 16.5 (1.98) ZnBr2 /CaBr2
Dm = Density at temperature in lb/gal /CaCl2
Tm = Temperature of sample tested, °F 0.000254 17.0 (2.04) ZnBr2 /CaBr2
Ve = Volume expansion factors (dimensionless) /CaCl2
0.000259 17.5 (2.10) ZnBr2 /CaBr2
Note: Refer to the following table for Ve factors. /CaCl2
0.000264 18.0 (2.16) ZnBr2 /CaBr2
/CaCl2
0.000271 18.5 (2.22) ZnBr2 /CaBr2
/CaCl2
0.000278 19.0 (2.28) ZnBr2 /CaBr2
/CaCl2
Use this table to determine Ve factors.
109
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 110 -
Chloride content Note: Concentration of salt in lb/bbl can be calculated using the
Objective following formula:
Determine the chloride content of a water-based drilling fluid or
completion/workover fluid. lb/bbl salt = mg/L salt × 3.505 × 10-4
Note: If bromide is present, it will show up as chloride using this test
procedure. 12. Calculate brine sg (sg brine) using the table below.
Unit
Mg/L If the salt is... Then the sg brine is...
Example
Chloride = 15,000 mg/L Sea salt 0.998 + (1.359 × 10-6 ) (mg/L Cl– ) - (1.643 ×
Equipment 10-12 ) (mg/L Cl–)2
• Titration dish
• 1-mL pipette Sodium chloride 0.998 + (1.142 × 10-6 ) (mg/L Cl– ) - (4.926 ×
• 10-mL pipette (NaCl) 10-13 ) (mg/L Cl–)2
• Stirring rod
• Potassium chromate indicator Potassium chloride 0.998 + (1.312 × 10-6) (mg/L Cl–) - (5.970 ×
solution (KCl) 10-13) (mg/L Cl–)2
• 0.02N (N/50) sulfuric acid
solution Calcium chloride 0.998 + (1.243 × 10-6) (mg/L Cl–) - (3.715 ×
• Phenolphthalein indicator solution (CaCl2) 10-13) (mg/L Cl–)2
• Distilled water
• 0.0282N (1 mL = 0.001g Cl-/mL) or 0.282N (1 mL= 0.01g Cl-
/mL) silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution 13. Calculate the % by volume salt using the table below.
If testing a... Then use... If the salt is... Then the % by volume salt is (% by
Freshwater system 0.0282N AgNO3 volume dissolved solids)...
Saltwater system 0.282N AgNO3 Sea salt [7.368 × 10-6 + 4.804 × 10-7 × (mg/L Cl– )
+ 1.401 × 10-12 ×
Procedure (Mg/L Cl–)2] × % by vol water
1. Collect filtrate sample using the API filtrate (LPLT) method.
Sodium chloride [-3.025 × 10-4 + 5.068 × 10-7 × (mg/L Cl–)
2. Transfer 1 mL or more of filtrate to the titration dish. Note the
(NaCl) + 4.96 × 10-13 ×
color of the filtrate for Step 6.
(mg/L Cl–)2] × % by vol water
3. Add 20 to 50 mL of distilled water to the filtrate in the titration
dish. Potassium chloride [-2.479 × 10-4 + 7.922 × 10-7 × (mg/L Cl–)
4. Add 10 to 15 drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution. (KCl) + 6.011 × 10-13 ×
(Mg/L Cl–)2] × % by vol water
If... Then...
The color changes to pink or red, Go to Step 5. Calcium chloride [-5.538 × 10-4 + 3.181 × 10-7 × (mg/L Cl–)
No color change is observed, Go to Step 6. (CaCl2) + 3.795 × 10-13 ×
(mg/L Cl–)2] × % by vol water
5. Add the sulfuric acid solution slowly to the titration dish until
the color changes from pink or red to the original color.
6. Add 5 to 10 drops of potassium chromate indicator solution.
Crystallization point
7. Fill the 10-mL pipette with the silver nitrate solution.
8. Add the silver nitrate solution to the titration dish until the
Objective
color changes from yellow to orange or orange-red.
Determine the crystallization temperature of a high-density
9. Record the amount of silver nitrate solution used in mL.
completion/workover fluid, including:
10. Calculate the chloride content using the table below.
• First crystal to appear (FCTA)
• True crystallization temperature (TCT)
If using... Then the mg/L chloride content is...
• Last crystal to dissolve (LCTD)
0.0282N AgNO3 (1,000 × mL 0.0282N AgNO3) ÷ mL filtrate
Unit
°F (°C)
0.282N AgNO3 (10,000 × mL 0.282N AgNO3) ÷ mL filtrate Example
Crystallization point = 50°F (10°C)
11. Calculate the concentration of salt in the fluid using the table
below. Equipment
Note: Crystallization kit is available from FANN Instrument Company.
If the salt is... Then the mg/L salt is... • Digital thermometer (-50 to
Sea salt 1.804 × mg/L Cl– 100°F [-46 to 38°C]) with
thermometer probe
Sodium chloride (NaCl) 1.648 × mg/L Cl– • 25 × 150-mm test tube
Potassium chloride (KCl) 2.103 × mg/L Cl– • 20 × 150-mm test tube
2
• Seeding material (e.g., calcium
Calcium chloride (CaCl ) 1.565 × mg/L Cl– carbonate, diatomaceous earth)
• One or more of the cooling baths in the table below
Note: The temperature of the cooling bath should be no more than 20°F
(11°C) below the expected FCTA. Cool samples at a rate of no more
than 1°F (0.5°C) per minute.
110
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 111 -
Density: Baroid mud balance
If anticipated Then use... Note Objective
FCTA is... Measure the density of a drilling or completion/workover fluid with a
Baroid mud balance.
> 35°F Ice/water Cooling bath temperature will Units
(> 2°C) (50/50) be 32°F (0°C). lb/gal, lb/ft3 , g/cm3 , lb/in2/1,000 ft, sg
Example
Drilling fluid density = 12 lb/gal (1.44 g/cm3) or (1.44 sg)
> 10°F Ice/NaCl/water Cooling bath temperature will Equipment
(> -12°C) (50/50) be about 5 – 10°F (-15 – • Baroid mud balance
12°C). • 1-qt (946 cm3) graduated mud cup
NaCl solutions should contain • Thermometer: 32 to 220°F (0 to 104°C)
30 g NaCl in 90-cm3 water.
> -49°F Antifreeze/water Cooling bath is cooled by
(> -45°C) (60/40) placing the bath container in a
Ethylene glycol dry ice/acetone bath.
37% The bath should be cooled to
Note: 58.1 % 15°F (9°C) below the expected
volume FCTA.
= 50% weight
> -40°F Ice/CaCl2/water Cooling bath will cool brine to
(> -40°C) (50/50) -40°F (-40°C).
Note: 29.8%
weight by
volume CaCl2
Procedure
1. Transfer 25 mL of the sample brine into the 20 × 150-mm
test tube.
2. Add 0.03 g of seeding material to the brine.
3. Place the test tube containing the mixture into the 25 × 150-
mm test tube; then, put the test tubes in the cooling bath.
4. Place the thermometer in the brine mixture and use the
thermometer to slowly stir the mixture as it cools. Procedure
5. Record the following temperatures. 1. Place the base stand or carrying case on a flat, level surface.
a. FCTA: The minimum temperature reached just 2. Collect a fluid sample.
before crystallization occurs. 3. Measure and record the temperature of the sample; transfer
b. TCT: The maximum temperature reached just after the sample to the mud balance cup.
crystallization occurs. 4. Tap the side of the mud balance cup gently with the cup's lid
to break out any trapped air or gas.
Note: The brine will remain at the TCT temperature for about 10 to 20
seconds. If the temperature does not stabilize, suspect super cooling Note: If trapped air or gas is present, use the pressurized fluid density
and retest using a cooling bath with a warmer initial temperature. balance to determine mud weight. The procedure for using the
pressurized fluid density balance follows this procedure.
6. Take the tubes out of the bath and stir the mixture as it
warms. Record the temperature of the brine just after all of 5. Place the lid on the mud balance cup with a twisting motion
the crystals has dissolved, as the LCTD temperature. and make sure some of the test sample is expelled through
7. Repeat the test at least three more times. The same sample the lid's vent hole.
can be used. 6. Note: Immersing the lid in the fluid sample helps ensure a
8. Record the average of three tests. If the first test is better closing.
inconsistent with the remaining tests, do not include it in the 7. Seal the vent hole with a finger and clean the balance with
average. water, base oil, or solvent. Wipe off any excess water, base
oil, or solvent.
8. Fit the knife-edge of the balance into the fulcrum and balance
the assembly by moving the rider along the arm.
Note: The balance is level when the line on the sight glass is centered
across the bubble.
9. Record the density from the side of the rider nearest the
balance cup (the arrow on the rider points to this side).
Report the measurement to the nearest 0.1 lb/gal, 1 lb/ft3 ,
0.01 g/cm3, or 10.0 lb/in2/1,000 ft.
111
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 112 -
Density: Pressurized mud balance Fann convertible density Density: Pressurized mud balance Halliburton Tru-Wate Cup
balance
Objective
Measure the density of a fluid with a pressurized mud balance.
Objective
Measure the density of a fluid with a pressurized mud balance.
Units
lb/gal, lb/ft3 , g/cm3 , lb/in2/1,000 ft, sg
Units Example
lb/gal, lb/ft3 , g/cm3 (sg), lb/in2/1,000 ft Drilling fluid density = 12 lb/gal (1.44 g/cm3) or (1.44 sg)
Example
Drilling fluid density = 12 lb/gal (1.44 g/cm3) or (1.44 sg) Equipment
• Halliburton Tru-Wate Cup (fluid
Equipment density balance)
• Fann (convertible density balance) • 1-qt (946-mL) graduated mud
• 1-qt (946-mL) graduated mud cup cup
• Thermometer: 32 to 220°F (0 to 104°C) • Thermometer: 32 to 220°F (0 to
104°C)
Procedure
1. Collect a fluid sample. Procedure
2. Place the base stand or the carrying case on a flat, level 1. Collect a fluid sample.
surface. 2. Place the base stand or the carrying case on a flat, level
3. Measure and record the temperature of the sample, then surface.
transfer the sample to the balance cup, filling to between 1/4 3. Measure and record the temperature of the sample, then
and 1/8 inch of the top. Tap the side of the cup several times transfer the sample to the balance cup.
to break up any entrained air or gases. 4. Place the lid on the cup with the check valve in the down or
4. Place the lid on the cup with the check valve in the down or open position.
open position.
Note: Make sure some of the test sample is expelled through the valve.
Note: Some of the test sample may be expelled through the valve.
5. Pull the check valve to the closed position.
5. Rinse the pressurization port and balance with water, base oil, 6. Rinse the cap and threads with water, base oil, or solvent and
or solvent and dry. dry.
6. Slide the cup housing over the balance cup from the bottom, 7. Tighten the threaded cap on the cup.
aligning the slot with the balance arm. Screw the closure over 8. Fill the plunger assembly with the test sample.
the pressure lid and tighten as tight as possible by hand to 9. Push the nose of the plunger onto the mating O-ring surface
insure the pressure lid is completely seated. of the check valve.
7. Fill the pressurization pump with the test sample. 10. Pressurize the sample cup by maintaining a downward force
8. Push the nose of the pump onto the pressure port of the lid. on the cylinder housing. At the same time, force the piston
9. Pressurize the sample cup by maintaining a downward force rod down.
on the cylinder housing. At the same time, force the knob 11. Note: The check valve in the lid is pressure-actuated. When
down, with 50-70 lbs of force and release cylinder housing. there is pressure in the cup, the check valve is pushed upward
Remove the pump. to the closed position.
12. Clean the mud from the outside of the balance cup and lid.
Note: The check valve in the lid is pressure-actuated. When there is Wipe off any excess water, base oil, or solvent.
pressure in the cup, the check valve is pushed upward to the closed 13. Fit the knife-edge of the balance into the fulcrum and balance
position. the assembly by moving the rider along the arm.
14. Note: The mud balance is level when the line at the sight
10. Clean the mud from the outside of the balance cup and lid. glass is centered across the bubble.
Wipe off any excess water, base oil, or solvent. 15. Record the density from the side of the rider nearest the
11. Fit the knife-edge of the balance into the fulcrum and balance balance cup. Report the measurement to the nearest 0.1
the assembly by moving the rider along the arm. lb/gal, 1 lb/ft3, 0.01 g/cm3, or 10.0-lb/in2/1,000 ft.
16. Reconnect the empty plunger assembly and push downward
Note: The mud balance is level when the line at the sight glass is on the cylinder housing to release the pressure inside the cup.
centered across the bubble.
12. Record the density from the side of the rider nearest the
balance cup. Report the measurement to the nearest 0.1
lb/gal, 1 lb/ft3, 0.01 g/cm3, or 10.0-lb/in2/1,000 ft.
13. Reconnect the empty plunger assembly and push downward
on the cylinder housing to release the pressure inside the cup.
14. Remove the pressure lid being careful not to spill the sample,
then pore out the sample. Clean and dry all of the parts of the
balance as soon as possible.
112
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 113 -
Electrical stability
Objective
Measure the electrical stability of an oil-based or synthetic drilling fluid.
Unit
Volts (V)
Example
Electrical stability = 1,500 V
Equipment
• Fann model 23D electrical stability
tester
• 12-mesh screen or Marsh funnel
• Thermometer: 32 to 220°F (0 to
104°C)
• Heating cup
Procedure
1. Collect a drilling fluid sample.
2. Pour the sample through the 12-mesh screen or Marsh funnel.
3. Use the heating cup to adjust the temperature of the fluid to 120°F
(49°C).
4. Immerse the probe in the sample with the tester turned off. Ensure
the fluid covers the electrode surfaces.
5. Stir the sample with the probe for 15 to 30 seconds.
6. Turn the electrical stability tester on and press the Test button to
start the test.
Filtrate: LTLP
Objective
Measure the filtrate volume and filter cake of a drilling fluid using the
API filtrate (LPLT) method.
Unit
mL/30 min
Example
Filtrate = 4.3 mL/30 min
Equipment
• Filter press
• Filter paper
• 30-minute interval timer
• 25- or 50-mL graduated cylinder
Procedure
1. Collect a fluid sample.
2. Assemble the cell with the filter paper in place.
3. Pour the sample into the cell to within ½ inch (13 mm) from
the top.
4. Set the cell into the frame; place and tighten the top on the
cell.
5. Place a dry, graduated cylinder under the drain tube.
6. Close the relief valve and adjust the regulator so a pressure of
100 ± 5 psi (690 ± 35 kPa) is applied in 30 seconds or less.
7. Maintain the pressure at 100 ± 5 psi (690 ± 35 kPa) for 30
minutes.
8. Shut off the flow through the pressure regulator and open the
relief valve carefully.
9. Report the volume of filtrate in the graduated cylinder to the
nearest mL.
10. Release the pressure, verify that all pressure has been
relieved, and remove the cell from the frame.
11. Disassemble the cell and discard the mud.
12. Leave the filter cake on the paper and wash lightly with the
base fluid to remove any excess mud.
13. Measure and report the thickness of the filter cake to the
nearest 1/32-inch (1.0 mm).
113
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 114 -
Filtrate: HTHP Procedure
1. Collect a fluid sample.
Objective 2. Preheat the heating jacket to 10°F (6°C) above the desired
Measure the filtrate volume and filter cake of a drilling fluid using the test temperature.
high temperature/high pressure (HTHP) method.
Note: If necessary, adjust the thermostat to maintain this temperature.
Unit
mL/30 min 3. Close the bottom valve stem on the filter cell and pour a
Example stirred, fluid sample into the cell.
Filtrate = 8.3 mL/30 min
Equipment Note: Leave sufficient void space to allow for expansion of the mud.
• Baroid 175- or 500-mL HTHP filter press
Then the void space should be
Note: Use the Baroid 175 only with temperatures up to 300°F (149°C); If the temperature is °F (°C)...
Inches (cm)...
use the Baroid 500 for temperatures higher than 300°F (149°C).
Up to 300 (149) 1 (2.5)
• Filter paper
• 30-minute interval timer
300-350 (149-177) 1.5 (3.8)
• Thermometer up to 500°F (260°C) C 25- or 50-mL graduated
cylinder
• High-speed mixer 400-500 (204-260) 2.5-3.0 (6.3 - 7.5)
• Gas supply (CO2 or nitrogen)
Caution: Do not use nitrous oxide (N2O) as a pressure source 4. Place the filter paper in the cell.
for this test. N2O can detonate when under temperature and
5. Place the cap on the cell, tighten all set screws, and close the
pressure in the presence of oil, grease, or carbonaceous
valve stem on the cap.
materials. Use only carbon dioxide (CO2) or nitrogen (N2)!
Note: Apply Never-Seez® or an equivalent lubricant on the set screws
to prevent the set screws from seizing in place.
6. Place the cell in the heating jacket with the cell cap on the
bottom. Rotate the cell until it locks.
7. Put a thermometer in the cell thermometer well.
8. Connect the pressure unit to the top valve stem and lock the
unit in place.
9. Connect the pressure receiver to the bottom valve stem and
lock the receiver in place.
10. Apply 200 psi (1380 kPa) on the top and 100 psi (690 kPa) on
the bottom.
11. Open the top valve stem and maintain this pressure until the
desired test temperature is reached.
12. Open the bottom valve when the cell reaches the desired test
temperature.
13. Adjust the pressure immediately on the top and bottom
regulators. Use the following specifications as a guide.
114
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 115 -
15. Close the top and bottom valve stems.
16. Release the pressure off the top regulator and disconnect the If... Then...
pressure system. A red or purple color develops, Go to Step 7.
17. Back off the T-screw on the bottom regulator. The blue or gray color remains, The mL of the THTS is zero.
18. Drain the filtrate cautiously from the receiver into a graduated Go to Step 9.
cylinder.
19. Wait a few seconds for the filtrate to drain to the bottom of 7. Titrate with the THTS slowly until the color changes from red
the receiver. or purple to blue, gray, or green.
20. Tighten the T-screw slowly to flush any filtrate remaining in 8. Record the volume of THTS required to titrate the filtrate to
the receiver into the graduated cylinder. the endpoint.
21. Release the pressure off the bottom regulator and disconnect 9. Calculate the calcium concentration, mg/L. (see next table)
the pressure system.
22. Remove the cell from the heating jacket and allow the cell to If... Then...
cool. 2-epm THTS was used, (mL THTS × 40) / mL filtrate = mg/L
hardness as calcium
Caution: The cell is extremely hot; therefore, remove it 20-epm THTS was (mL THTS × 400) / mL filtrate = mg/L
carefully from the heating jacket. used, hardness as calcium
23. Hold the filter cell with the cap down and loosen the filter 200-epm THTS was (mL THTS × 4,000) / mL filtrate = mg/L
cell's valve stem to release pressure. used, hardness as calcium
24. Close the valve stem when all the pressure has been released.
25. Hold the filter cell with the cap up and loosen the valve stem. Hardness: Total hardness
26. Loosen the setscrews and remove the cap. Objective
27. Remove and measure the filter cake to the nearest 1/32-inch Determine the total hardness of a water-based drilling fluid.
(1.0 mm).
28. Record the HTHP filtrate as two times the filtrate volume Note: Divalent ions, such as magnesium, zinc, calcium, etc., will
collected. contribute to total hardness.
Unit
Hardness: Calcium-hardness mg/L
Example
Objective Total hardness = 80 mg/L as calcium
Determine the calcium-ion concentration in a water-based fluid.
Equipment
Note: If zinc is present, it will show up as calcium using this test • Titration dish
procedure. • Two 1-mL pipettes
• 50-mL graduated cylinder
Unit • Distilled water
Mg/L • Total hardness titration
Example solution (THTS) in 2-, 20-,
Calcium concentration = 300 mg/L 200-epm concentrations
• Versenate hardness buffer
Equipment solution
• Titration dish • Versenate hardness indicator solution
• 5-mL pipette
• 1-mL pipette Procedure
• 50-mL graduated cylinder 1. Collect a filtrate sample using the API filtrate (LPLT) method.
• Total hardness titration solution (THTS) in 2-, 20-, or 200-epm 2. Add approximately 20 to 50 mL of distilled water to the
concentrations titration dish.
• Calcium buffer solution 3. Add 10 to 15 drops of Versenate hardness buffer solution to
• CalVer II indicator powder the titration dish.
• Distilled water 4. Add 10 to 15 drops of Versenate hardness indicator solution
to the titration dish.
Procedure
1. Collect a filtrate sample using the API filtrate (LPLT) method. If... Then...
2. Add 20 to 50 mL of distilled water to the titration dish. A red or purple color develops, Go to Step 5.
3. Add 5 drops of Calcium buffer solution. A blue color develops, Go to Step 6.
4. Add 0.25 to 0.5 g of CalVer II indicator powder.
5. Titrate with the THTS slowly until the color changes from red
If... Then... or purple to blue.
A red or purple color develops, Go to Step 5.
6. Transfer 1 mL or more of filtrate to the titration dish using a
A blue color develops, Go to Step 6.
pipette.
5. Titrate with the THTS slowly until the color changes from red
If... Then...
or purple to blue.
6. Transfer 1 mL or more of filtrate to the titration dish using a A red or purple color develops, Go to Step 7.
pipette.
The blue color remains, The mL of the THTS is zero.
Go to Step 9.
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The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 116 -
7. Titrate with the THTS slowly until the color changes from red Objective
or purple to blue, gray, or green. Determine the cation exchange capacity (CEC) and the equivalent
8. Record the volume of THTS required to titrate the filtrate to bentonite concentration of a water-based drilling fluid or
the endpoint. completion/workover fluid.
9. Calculate the total hardness content, mg/L.
Unit
lb/bbl
If... Then... Example
2-epm THTS was used, (mL THTS × 40) / mL filtrate = mg/L CEC = 5 meq/mL of fluid
hardness as calcium Equivalent bentonite concentration =
20-epm THTS was used, (mL THTS × 400) / mL filtrate = mg/L 25 lb/bbl (71 kg/m3)
hardness as calcium
Equipment
200-epm THTS was used, (mL THTS × 4,000) / mL filtrate = mg/L • 250-mL Erlenmeyer flask
hardness as calcium • 10-mL syringe (without
needle)
Iron content • Two 1-mL pipettes
• 25-mL graduated cylinder
Objective • Stirring rod
Determine approximate iron (Fe+2) content of brines. • Hot plate
Unit • Distilled water
ppm • Methylene blue solution (3.74 g/L; 1 mL =0.01meq)
Example • 3% hydrogen peroxide solution
50 ppm • 5N sulfuric acid solution
• API filter paper
Equipment
• 1-mL volumetric pipette
• 25-mL volumetric flask
• 1N nitric acid solution
• 1N hydrochloric acid solution
• EM Quant strip
• Ascorbic acid
Procedure
1. Put 1 mL of brine in a 25-mL flask using a 1-mL pipette.
2. Add 1 mL of 1N nitric acid or 1N hydrochloric acid to the flask.
3. Add 10 to 19 mL of deionized water to the flask.
4. Stopper the flask and shake.
5. Add 2 level tablespoons of ascorbic acid to the flask.
6. Stopper the flask and shake.
7. Fill the flask to the scribe line with deionized water.
8. Stopper the flask and shake.
9. Wait 5 minutes for the iron contaminant to convert from a
ferric (Fe+3 ) to a ferrous (Fe+2) state.
10. Insert the EM Quant strip into the brine preparation for 1
second.
11. Withdraw the strip and allow the indicator band color to
develop for 15 to 60 seconds.
12. Compare the color of the exposed strip to the color chart on
Procedure
the EM Quant strip tube label; use the number associated with
1. Collect a fluid sample.
the color that best matches the developed strip.
2. Add 10 mL of distilled water to the Erlenmeyer flask.
13. Calculate the approximate iron content of the brine.
3. Transfer 1 mL of the fluid sample to the Erlenmeyer flask;
swirl the flask to disperse the sample.
Iron content, ppm = color chart number × 25.
4. Add 15 mL of the hydrogen peroxide solution to the mixture.
5. Add 0.5 mL of the sulfuric acid solution to the mixture.
6. Place the flask on the hot plate, bring the mixture to a boil,
and slow-boil the mixture for 10 minutes.
7. Remove the flask from the hot plate and dilute the mixture to
50 mL with distilled water. Allow the mixture to cool.
8. Add 0.5 mL of methylene blue solution to the mixture.
9. Agitate the contents of the Erlenmeyer flask for approximately
20 seconds.
10. Transfer a drop of the mixture onto the filter paper with the
stirring rod.
If the drop... Then...
Develops a blue halo, Go to Step 11.
Does not develop a blue halo, Repeat Steps 8 - 10.
116
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 117 -
If the drop... Then... pH: Meter method
Develops a blue halo, This is the endpoint. Go to
Objective
Step 13.
Determine the pH of a water-based drilling fluid or completion/workover
Does not develop a blue halo, Repeat Steps 8 - 12. fluid using the meter method.
13. Record the volume of methylene blue solution used to reach Unit
the endpoint. pH
14. Calculate the methylene blue CEC. Example
pH = 9.5
CEC, meq/mL of the fluid = mL of methylene blue solution ÷ mL of fluid
sample Equipment
• pH meter with electrode
15. Calculate the equivalent bentonite content. • Thermometer
Equivalent bentonite content, lb/bbl = 5 × (CEC) kg/m3 = 14 × (CEC) • pH buffer solutions (pH 7 and pH 10)
• Distilled water
pH: Strip method
Procedure
Objective 1. Collect a fluid sample.
Determine the pH of a water-based drilling fluid or completion/workover 2. Allow the fluid sample and buffer solutions to reach ambient
temperature.
fluid using the strip method. 3. Immerse a clean thermometer into the pH 7 buffer solution
and measure the temperature.
Unit 4. Set the temperature control on the pH meter to match the
pH temperature of the buffer solution.
Example 5. Clean the probe with distilled water and blot dry with a soft,
pH = 9.5 lint-free cloth.
6. Immerse the probe in the pH 7 buffer solution.
Equipment 7. Allow the reading to stabilize.
• pH strips 8. Set the pH meter to display 7.00 using the standardize knob.
9. Rinse with distilled water and blot dry the probe.
Note: Make sure the pH strip range 10. Repeat Steps 6 and 7 substituting pH 10 buffer solution for
encompasses the expected pH of the pH 7 buffer solution.
sample. 11. Set the meter display to 10.00 using the slope adjustment
Procedure knob.
1. Collect filtrate from a fluid sample using the API filtrate (LTLP) 12. Check the meter with the pH 7 buffer solution.
method. 13. Rinse with distilled water and blot dry the probe.
2. Immerse the end of a pH strip in the filtrate for 5 seconds. 14. Recheck the calibration by repeating Steps 6 through 10.
3. Take the pH strip out of the fluid and wait 10 seconds.
Note: If the meter cannot be calibrated, replace the electrodes and start
Note: Do not touch the wet part of the strip. the procedure over using fresh buffer solutions.
4. Compare the color change on the strip with the color table on 15. Rinse with distilled water and blot dry the probe.
the box of pH strips. 16. Immerse the probe in the sample to be tested and stir.
17. Stop the stirring (after 10-20 seconds) and wait for the
If... Then... reading to stabilize.
18. Record the pH to the nearest 0.1 unit.
Repeat Steps 1 - 4 using a range
The color is off the chart and cannot
of pH strip closer to the expected
be matched,
pH range.
117
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 118 -
Retort analysis
Objective 14. Calculate the oil: water (OWR) ratio or synthetic: water (SWR)
Determine the liquid and solids content of a drilling fluid. ratio if the fluid is an oil-based or synthetic mud.
Unit
Percent by volume
Oil fraction = 100 × % by vol oil/synthetic
Example
% by vol oil/synthetic% + % by vol water
Liquid content % vol = 80%
Water fraction = 100 - oil/synthetic fraction
Equipment
OWR = oil fraction: water fraction
• Complete retort kit
SWR =synthetic fraction: water fraction
• JP volumetric receiver
• Fine steel wool
15. Calculate % by volume-undissolved solids.
• High temperature
lubricant
% by vol undissolved solids = % by vol total solids - % by vol
• Pipe cleaners
dissolved solids
• Putty knife or spatula
with blade
Note: For calculation of dissolved solids in oil-based or synthetic fluids,
see the water-phase salinity calculations. For water-based fluids, see the
Procedure
chloride content calculations.
1. Collect a fluid sample and cool it to approximately 80°F
(27°C).
16. Calculate % by vol brine.
2. Pack the upper retort chamber with very fine steel wool.
3. Lubricate the threads on the sample cup and condenser with a
% by vol brine = % by volume water + % by volume
light coating of lubricating/anti-seizing compound.
dissolved solids
Note: This will prevent vapor loss through the threads and facilitate
17. Calculate average specific gravity of solids (ASG).
disassembly of the equipment and cleanup at the end of the test.
ASG = (Mud density,lb/gal) (11.98) - (% by vol oil)(sg oil) - (% by
4. Fill the retort sample cup with gas-free mud.
volume brine) (sg brine)
% by volume undissolved solids
Note: Any trapped air will cause false readings.
Note: For oil-based mud, see the water-phase salinity calculations for
5. Place the lid on the retort cup; rotate the lid slowly.
brine density sg. For water-based mud, see the chloride content
calculations for brine sg.
Note: Make sure some of the test sample is expelled through the vent
hole on the lid.
18. Calculate % by volume low-gravity solids (LGS).
6. Wipe off any excess mud and screw the retort sample cup into
the upper retort chamber.
%LGS = (sg wt mtl - ASG) x 100
7. Place the retort in the insulator block and put the insulator
(sg wt mtl - sg of the LGS)
cover in place.
8. Place the volumetric receiver under the drain of the
condenser.
9. Heat the sample until the liquid stops coming out through the 19. Calculate lb/bbl of LGS.
condenser drain tube, or until the pilot light goes out on the
thermostatically controlled units. lb/bbl LGS = % LGS × sg of the LGS × 3.505
Note: This usually takes 45 to 60 minutes. 20. Calculate % by volume high gravity solids (weight material).
10. Remove the volumetric receiver and examine the liquid % by vol weight material = % by vol undissolved solids - % by vol
recovered. LGS
118
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 119 -
Rheological properties: Marsh funnel
Note: High viscosity polymer / brine solutions require a plus
Objective five (+5) spring; Brine fluids require a negative five (-5) spring
Use a Marsh funnel to obtain the funnel viscosity value of a drilling or if accurate dial readings of200 rpm or less are required such as
completion/workover fluid. with annular n & K values. Rheometers require factory
installation and calibration of spring components. Check with
Unit the local field lab for plus and negative five configured units.
sec/qt
Example Procedure
Funnel viscosity = 57 sec/qt 1. Collect a fluid sample.
2. Place the sample in a thermostatically controlled viscometer
Equipment cup.
• Marsh funnel
• 1-qt (946 cm3) Note: Leave enough empty volume for the displacement of the bob and
graduated mud cup sleeve.
• Thermometer: 32 to
220°F (0 to 104°C) 3. Immerse the viscometer rotor sleeve exactly to the scribed
• Stopwatch line.
4. Heat the sample to the selected temperature.
Procedure
1. Collect a fluid sample.
2. Cover the funnel orifice with a finger and pour the fluid Note: To obtain a uniform sample temperature, stir the sample at an
sample through the screen until the sample level reaches the intermittent or constant shear of 600 rpm while heating the sample.
underside of the screen.
3. Hold the funnel over the graduated mud cup. 5. Rotate the viscometer sleeve at 600 rpm until a steady dial
4. Remove the finger covering the funnel orifice and reading is obtained. Record the dial reading (θ600).
simultaneously start the stopwatch. 6. Rotate the viscometer sleeve at 300 rpm until a steady dial
5. Record the time it takes for 1 qt of sample to run out of the reading is obtained. Record the dial reading (θ300).
funnel as the Marsh funnel viscosity. 7. Stir the sample for 10 to 15 seconds at 600 rpm, then let the
mud stand undisturbed for 10 seconds.
Note: Record the time in seconds per quart. The time for 1 qt of clean, 8. Rotate the viscometer sleeve at 3 rpm until the maximum dial
fresh water to run through the Marsh funnel at 70°F (21°C) is 26 reading is obtained.
seconds (± 0.5 seconds). 9. Record the maximum dial reading obtained as the 10-second
gel strength, lbf/100 ft2.
6. Measure and record the temperature of the fluid sample. 10. Re-stir the sample for 10 to 15 seconds at 600 rpm, then let
the sample stand undisturbed for 10 minutes.
11. Rotate the viscometer sleeve at 3 rpm until the maximum dial
Rheological properties: Rotational viscometer reading is obtained.
12. Record the maximum dial reading obtained as the 10-minute
Objective gel strength, lbf/100 ft2.
Determine viscometer readings to calculate the following for a drilling or
completion/workover fluid: Formulas
• Plastic viscosity (PV) PV, cP= θ600 - θ300 rpm
• Yield point (YP) YP, lbf/100 ft2 = θ300 rpm - PV
• Gel strength
AV, cP = θ600 rpm ÷ 2
• Apparent viscosity (AV)
N = 3.32 x log (θ600 ÷ θ300)
• Consistency index (K)
K, lbf secn /100 ft2 = 1.07 (θ300 ÷ 511n )
• Yield stress (YS)
Gel strength, lbf/100 ft2 = Max dial reading at 3 rpm
• Flow index (n)
YS, lbf/100 ft2 = (2 ×θ3 rpm) -θ6 rpm
• Tau 0 (τ0 )
Unit Note: The above calculation is for a standard viscometer.
PV, centipoise (cP)
YP, lbf/100 ft2 (kPa) Note: To calculate Tau 0, use Baroid's software program CFG+, DFG+
Gel strength, lbf/100 ft2 (kPa) and DFG+ Win.
Tau 0, lbf/100 ft2 (kPa)
AV, centipoise (cP)
n [unit less]
K, lbf × secn /100 ft2 (dyne × secn /cm2, or eq cP)
YS, lbf/100 ft2 (kPa)
Equipment
• Calibrated FANN
concentric cylinder
rotational viscometer
• Thermostatically
controlled viscometer
heater cup
• Thermometer: 32 to
220°F (0 to 104°C)
119
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 120 -
Water-phase salinity
6. Determine the sodium chloride content.
Objective a. Add 50 mL of distilled water to a titration dish.
Determine the water-phase salinity of an oil-based or synthetic drilling b. Add 10 to 15 drops of potassium chromate
fluid sample. indicator.
c. Add 1.0 or more mL of mud/solvent/ AKTAFLO-E
Unit emulsion to the titration dish.
ppm, mg/L
d. Titrate with silver nitrate solution (1 mL is
Example
equivalent to 0.001 g Cl– ion) to the first color
Water-phase salinity = 250,000 ppm CaCl2 (307,000 mg/L)
change (from yellow to orange, not brick red).
e. Record the volume of silver nitrate used.
Equipment
• 10-mL syringe
7. Calculate concentrations of calcium chloride and sodium
• 1-mL pipette
• Two 5-mL pipettes chloride, using the following methods.
• Magnetic stirrer with 1.5-inch (38-mm) coated stirring bar
• Hamilton Beach® mixer or Multimixer® with cup Where
• Titration dish L = lime, lb/bbl of mud
• AKTAFLO-E nonionic surfactant r = Retort water fraction (decimal equivalent)
• Distilled water THTS = mL of total hardness titration solution
• Arcosol PNP solvent or base fluid SN = mL of silver nitrate solution
• Calcium buffer solution and CalVer II indicator powder
a. Calculate lb/bbl calcium chloride (CaCl2) using the calcium
Note: Keep the Calcium buffer solution in a closed, sealed bottle to titration (CCa).
minimize absorption of CO2 from the air.
If... Then...
• Potassium chromate indicator solution L ≤ 1, C Ca, lb/bbl = (9.706)(THTS/mL emulsion) - (1.5 L)
• 0.0282N silver nitrate titration solution (1 mL is equivalent to L > 1, C Ca , lb/bbl = (9.706)(THTS/mL emulsion) - 1.5
0.001 g Cl)
• 0.01 molar EDTA standardized or total hardness titration b. Calculate lb/bbl CaCl2 using the chloride titration (CCl).
solution (1 mL = 20 epm calcium) CCl, lb/bbl = (13.72)(SN/mL emulsion)
c. Determine actual lb/bbl CaCl (C).
Procedure
1. Use a 10-mL syringe to transfer 10 mL of the fluid to be
If... Then...
tested into a stirring cup.
CCa > CCl , C, lb/bbl = CCl sodium chloride (NaCl), lb/bbl = 0
2. Add 20 mL of Arcosol PNP solvent or base fluid to the 10 mL
CCa < CCl , C, lb/bbl = CCa calculate NaCl, lb/bbl
of mud and mix thoroughly.
3. Add 20 mL of AKTAFLO-E and 200 mL of distilled water to the
d. Calculate lb/bbl maximum soluble CaCl2 (CMAX).
mixture.
CMAX, lb/bbl = 233 r
4. Mix on a Multimixer or a Hamilton Beach mixer for 5 minutes.
e. Determine lb/bbl soluble CaCl2 (CSOL).
5. Determine the calcium chloride content.
a) Add 50 mL of distilled water to a titration dish.
b) Add 10 to 15 drops of Calcium buffer solution and a
pinch of CalVer II indicator powder to the 50 mL of
distilled water. If... Then...
C < CMAX, CSOL, lb/bbl = C
If... Then...
A wine-red color Titrate to the blue endpoint with total hardness C ≥ CMAX CSOL , lb/bbl = CMAX ; C – CMAX = insoluble CaCl2,
develops titration solution (1 mL = 20 epm). lb/bbl; soluble NaCl, lb/bbl = 0
Note: Do not include this volume of titration solution in calculating the f. Calculate lb/bbl NaCl using the chloride titration (NCl).
calcium chloride content. This part of the test removes calcium from the NCl, lb/bbl = (14.445 SN/mL emulsion) - 1.05CSOL)
distilled water and is for calibration purposes only. g. Calculate lb/bbl maximum soluble NaCl (NMAX).
NMAX, lb/bbl = r[124.83 -(0.843 × (CSOL)) - (0.00329 × (CSOL2)
c) Add 1.0 or more mL of the mud/solvent/ AKTAFLO-E +(0.0000438 x CSOL3) – (0.000000103 x CSOL4)]
emulsion into the titration dish.
d) Titrate to the endpoint with the total hardness titration h. Determine lb/bbl soluble NaCl (NSOL).
solution (1 mL = 20 epm).
If... Then...
Note: The chemical reaction of calcium ions with EDTA (hardness NCL < NMAX NSOL , lb/bbl = NCl
titration solution active component) is very slow. There may be an initial
NSOL, lb/bbl = NMAX ; NCl – NMAX = insoluble NaCl,
color change to blue while titration for calcium, but the color may revert NCl ≥ NMAX
lb/bbl
to the violet/purple color after a few seconds. This is not the endpoint.
The endpoint is reached when the color change from purple or violet to i. Calculate mg/L whole mud chlorides (ClOM).
blue or blue-green remains stable for at least 1 minute. Continue ClOM, mg/L = 25,000 SN/mL emulsion
intermittent additions of hardness titration solution until this endpoint
occurs. j. Calculate lb/bbl total soluble salts (T).
T, lb/bbl = CSOL , lb/bbl + NSOL, lb/bbl
e) Record the total volume of total hardness titration solution k. Calculate water-phase salinity (WPS).
(THTS) used to reach the endpoint. Water phase salinity (WPS) = [1 ÷ (1 + 350 x r/T)] x 106
120
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 121 -
Note: Use the following salinity charts if calculating water-phase salinity
is not a practical option.
121
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 122 -
122
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 123 -
FORMULAE & CALCULATIONS Density and mass of common materials
Where:
WI - WF
V DF = V I
W F - (8.3454)( ρ DF)
ρ = solution density
mx = mass of each component
Vx = volume of each component
Where
VDF is the volume of dilution fluid required, bbl
VI is the starting volume of mud, bbl
WI is the starting mud weight, lb/gal
WF is the final mud weight, lb/gal
ρDF is the specific gravity of the dilution fluid
123
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 124 -
Decrease mud weight (final volume specified)
Use the following formula to calculate the starting volume of mud and a Calculate the amount of weight material required to increase density
volume of dilution fluid required to decrease the density of a drilling fluid back to original density. See the sections titled Weight-up calculations.
when the final volume is specified. Formulas for adjusting the density of a brine (Liquid/Liquid)
(8.3454)( ρ DF) - W F The following calculation sequences provide a means to determine the
VI = x VD
(8.3454)( ρ DF) - W I
density adjustment factor for the entire system, the barrel fraction of
each component to generate exact volumes and a material balance to
verify the density adjustment factors.
V DF = V D - V I The sequence lends itself well to the use of a hand calculator under field
conditions.
Where
Increase the density of a brine
VI is the starting volume of mud, bbl
Increase the density of brine with higher density brine using the
ρDF is the specific gravity of the dilution fluid following formula sequence:
WF is the desired mud weight, lb/gal
WI is the starting mud weight, lb/gal
Df − Di
VD is the desired final volume, bbl = Dsf →
VDF is the volume of dilution fluid to add, bbl Ds − Df
Formulas for calculating material requirements to change Dsf + 1 = Vsb →
oil/water ratio (OWR)
Dsf
Use the following formulas to calculate the volume of oil or water = Dsv
required to change the oil/water ratio of a mud when a volume increase Vsb
can be tolerated.
1
Increase oil/water ratio = Div →
Increase the oil/water ratio by adding oil using the following formulas. Vsb
PW =
RW ( Dsv * Ds ) + ( Div * Di ) = Dmb
(R W + R O + VO)
Or Where
Df is the density of the final barrel (desired density)
RW -
VO = R W - RO Di is the density of the initial fluid (present density)
PW Ds is the density of the spike or higher density fluid
Dsf is the spike or higher density treatment factor
Vsb is the volume of the spike and initial fluid
W I + (8.3454)( ρ O)(VO ) Dsv is the fractional % of the spike fluid in the blend
WR =
1 + VO Div is the fractional % of the initial fluid in the blend
Where Dmb Is the material balance density of the blend
VO is the volume of oil to be added, bbl/bbl mud
RO is the % oil from retort, decimal equivalent
RW is the % water from retort, decimal equivalent
PW is the new % by volume water in the liquid phase, decimal Decrease the density of a brine
equivalent
Decrease the density of brine with lower density brine (or water) using
WR is the resulting mud weight, lb/gal the following formula sequence:
WI is the starting mud weight, lb/gal
ρO is the specific gravity of the oil
Di − Df
= Dcf →
Decrease oil/water ratio Df − Dc
Decrease the oil/water ratio by adding water using the following
formulas. Dcf + 1 = Vsb →
RO Dcf
PO = = Dcv
(R O + R W + V W )
Vsb
Or
RO - 1
VW = RO - R W = Div →
PO Vsb
W I + (8.3454)(V W )
( Dcv * Dc ) + ( Div * Di ) = Dmb
WR =
1 + VW
Where
Where Df is the density of the final barrel (desired density)
VW is the volume of water to be added, bbl/bbl mud Di is the density of the initial fluid (present density)
RO is the % oil from retort, decimal equivalent Dc is the density of the lower density fluid
RW is the % water from retort, decimal equivalent Dcf is the lower density treatment factor
PO is the new % by volume oil in the liquid phase, decimal Vsb is the volume of the cut fluid and initial fluid
equivalent Dcv is the fractional % of the lower density fluid in the blend
WR is the resulting mud weight, lb/gal Div is the fractional % of the initial fluid in the blend
WI is the starting mud weight, lb/gal Dmb Is the material balance density of the blend
124
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 125 -
Increase the density of a brine with sack salt Hydrostatic Pressure Loss during Trip for dry pipe
To increase the density of brine with a dry salt use the following median The mass of one barrel of steel with a SG of 7.84 is 2748 lb.
values for the type salt desired. Steel displaces 0.000364 bbl/lb
Note: These values are a median and results may vary above or below
the desired density. Displacement of pipe or collars
Pressure gradient to pounds per gallon Add the length of each section and find the percent of the composite
column for each section:
Ψ / ft
= lb / gal Secl / Ccl = C%
0.052
Find the Average Column Capacity, Ccavg,, by multiplying the bbl/ft factor
Pounds per gallon to pressure gradient for each section times its section percentage.
ρ * 0.052 = psi/ft
Csec * C% + … = Ccavg,
Where
DPnw is the pipe nominal weight in lb/ft
DPd is the displacement of the pipe in bbl
DCnw is the drill collar nominal weight in lb/ft
DCd is the displacement of the collar in bbl
ρ is fluid density
ID2sec Section ID
ID2R Riser ID
Csec is the capacity of the section in bbl/ft
Secl is the section length in feet
Ccl is the column composite length in feet
C% is the percentage of column length
Ccavg Is the average capacity of the composite column in bbl/ft
125
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 126 -
Formulas for calculating area and volume
Annular volume (capacity)
Formulas for calculating pit and tank volume
(hole diameter )2 - (pipe diameter )2
Volume (bbl) = section length x
Rectangular tank 1029.4
Note: All dimensions are expressed in feet.
length x width x height (hole diameter )2 - (pipe diameter )2
Volume(bbl) = Volume(bbl/ft) =
5.6146 1029.4
length x width Drillpipe or drill collar capacity and displacement
Volume(bbl/ft) =
5.6146 (inside diameter )2
Capacity (bbl/ft) =
length x width 1029.4
Volume(bbl/in) =
67.375 Displacement (bbl/ft) =
(outside diameter )2 - (inside diameter )2
Vertical cylindrical tank
1029.4
(diameter )2 x height
Volume(bbl) = Calculations (metal only with couplings)
7.1486 0.002 * (weight of pipe/ft with couplings) * (depth, ft) =
Displacement of pipe, ft3
(diameter )2 0.000364 * (Weight of pipe/ft with couplings) * (depth, ft) =
Volume(bbl/ft) = Displacement of pipe, bbl
7.1486
(diameter )2
Volume(bbl/in) =
85.7833
Horizontal cylindrical tank (half full or less)
h x length
3
0.3168 d h + 1.403 h 2 - 0.933
d
Volume (bbl) =
5.6146
Where
h is the height of the fluid level, ft
d is the diameter of the tank, ft
h x length
3
0.3168 d h + 1.403 h 2 - 0.933
d
Volume (bbl) =
5.6146
Where
h is the height of the empty portion of the tank, ft
d is the diameter of the tank, ft
126
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 127 -
127
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 128 -
CHEMICAL AND FLUID DATA TABLES
Chemical properties
The following table identifies the chemical properties of
some elements used in the oilfield. Pounds chemical to remove certain contaminants
Atomic
Element Symbol Atomic weight Chemical used to Conversion factor mg/L
number Contaminant to
Aluminum Al 26.98 13 remove (Contaminant) × factor
be Removed
Arsenic As 74.92 33 contaminant = lb/bbl chemical to add
Barium Ba 137.36 56
Bromine Br 79.916 35
Calcium Ca 40.08 20 Ca ++ Soda ash 0.000925
Carbon C 12.011 6
Ca ++ Sodium bicarbonate 0.000734
Cesium Cs 132.91 55
Chlorine Cl 35.457 17 Mg ++ Caustic soda 0.00115
Chromium Cr 52.01 24 CO3-2 Lime 0.00043
Copper Cu 63.54 29
HCO3-1 Lime 0.00043
Fluorine F 19 9
Hydrogen H 1.008 1 H2 S Lime 0.00076
Iodine I 126.91 53 H2S Zinc carbonate 0.00128
Iron Fe 55.85 26
Lead Pb 207.21 82 H2S Zinc oxide 0.000836
Lithium Li 6.94 3
Magnesium Mg 24.32 12
Manganese Mn 54.94 25 Note: Due to the extreme danger associated with
Mercury Hg 200.61 80 Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), it is recommended that a
Nitrogen N 14.008 7 Minimum of 1 ½ times the calculated amount of
Oxygen O 16 8 Chemical be added.
Phosphorous P 30.975 15
Potassium K 39.1 19
Silicon Si 28.09 14
Density of The following table gives specific gravities and
Silver Ag 107.873 47
common materials densities for common materials.
Sodium Na 22.991 11
Sulfur S 32.066 16 Material Specific gravity lb/gal lb/bbl
Titanium Ti 47.9 22 Barite 4.2 to 4.3 35.0 to 35.8 1470 to 1504
Tungsten W 183.86 74 Calcium carbonate 2.7 22.5 945
Zinc Zn 65.38 30 Cement 3.1 to 3.2 25.8 to 26.7 1085 to 1120
Clays and/or drilled
2.4 to 2.7 20.0 to 22.5 840 to 945
solids
Chemical conversions Diesel oil 0.84 7.0 294
Epm to ppm conversion
Dolomite 2.8 to 3.0 23.3 to 25.0 980 to 1050
The following table lists the equivalent weight of various cations
Feldspar 2.4 to 2.7 20.0 to 22.5 840 to 945
and anions.
Fresh water 1.0 8.33 350
Ion Equivalent weight
Ca +2 20.0 Galena 6.5 54.1 2275
Mg +2 12.2 Gypsum 2.3 19.2 805
Fe +3 18.6 Halite (rock salt) 2.2 18.3 770
Na + 23.0 Iron 7.8 65.0 2730
Cl- 35.5 Iron oxide (hematite) 5.1 42.5 1785
SO4-2 48.0 Lead 11.4 95.0 3990
OH- 17.0 Limestone 2.7 to 2.9 22.5 to 24.2 945 to 1015
CO3-2 30.0 Slate 2.7 to 2.8 22.5 to 23.3 945 to 980
HCO3- 61.0 Steel 7.0- to 8.0 58.3 to 66.6 2450 to 2800
PO4-3 31.7
Use the following equation to convert concentration in
equivalents per million (epm) to parts per million (ppm).
Equivalent weight × epm = ppm
128
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 129 -
Specific Gravity of
Spent Acid 1.096 1.175 1.233 1.295 1.34
Density of Spent
Acid (lb/gal) 9.14 9.79 10.28 10.79 11.17
129
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 130 -
Ammonium Chloride Blend Tables & Property
Tables
NH4Cl @ Fresh
Lb/Ga TC PSI/F Appx. %
SpG Lb/Cu.Ft. 100% Water
l T t NH4Cl
Purity Lb Gal
1.001
8.36 62.61 4 41.7 31 0.435 1
3
1.004
8.38 62.81 7 41.3 30 0.436 2
5
1.010
8.43 63.20 14 40.8 27 0.439 4
7
1.016
8.49 63.58 21 40.1 25 0.441 6
8
1.022
8.53 63.95 29 39.5 22 0.444 8
7
1.028
8.58 64.32 36 38.9 19 0.446 10
6
1.034
8.63 64.68 43 38.3 17 0.449 12
4
1.040
8.68 65.04 51 37.6 14 0.451 14
1
1.045
8.73 65.39 59 36.9 11 0.454 16
7
1.051
8.77 65.73 66 36.3 8 0.456 18
2
1.056
8.82 66.08 74 35.5 * 0.459 20
7
1.062
8.86 66.42 82 34.8 * 0.461 22
1
1.067
8.91 66.75 90 34.1 * 0.463 24
4
130
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 131 -
16 66.67 1.0694 178600 108370 9.3 69.7 0.888 109 10.0 1.20 25 (-3.9) --- 1.00
131
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 132 -
8.6 1.032 0.976 18.9 28 52,326 24,884 53,929 25,647 5.2% 0.986 11.6 8.5 1.02 29 (-1.7) 17041 15452 3.2
8.7 1.044 0.969 26.1 26 71,429 33,969 74,473 35,417 7.1% 0.976 18.9 8.6 1.03 28 (-2-2) 27441 24882 5.2
9.1 1.092 0.933 55.2 20 144,427 68,685 157,506 74,905 14.4% 0.933 55.2 9.1 1.09 20 (-6.7) 75743 68684 14.4
9.2 1.104 0.924 62.4 18 161,491 76,800 178,050 84,675 16.1% 0.924 62.4 9.2 1.10 18 (-7.8) 84692 76799 16.1
132
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 133 -
Calcium chloride solution requirements to make 1 bbl
Calcium Chloride - Properties (42 gal)
Using sacked
Specific Bbl Lbs. ppm ppm mg/l mg/l % By CaCl2 Brine Specific CP Using 11.6 lb/gal
PPG TCT (94-97%) density gravity, (LCTD) F (C) CaCl2 brine (38%)
Gravity Water CaCl CaCl Cl CaCl Cl Weight
Fresh at 70F sg Fresh 11.6
8.4 1.008 0.999 2.9 31 8,220 5,253 8,275 5,288 0.8% water, CaCl2, (21C), water, lb/gal
bbl lb lb/gal bbl CaCl2,
8.5 1.020 0.997 8.2 22,969 14,677 23,398 14,951 2.3% bbl
8.6 1.032 0.994 13.4 37,099 23,706 38,235 24,432 3.7% 0.998 3.8 8.4 1.01 31 (-.6) 0.979 0.021
8.7 1.044 0.991 18.7 28 51,177 32,702 53,358 34,096 5.1% 0.997 8.2 8.5 1.02 30 (-.1) 0.948 0.052
133
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 134 -
Sodium bromide solution requirements to make 1 bbl Sodium bromide/sodium chloride solution requirements to
(42 gal) make 1 bbl (42 gal)
134
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 135 -
135
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 136 -
136
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 137 -
14.2 ppg Calcium Bromide Spike Chart 15.1 ppg Calcium Bromide Spike Chart
11.7 0.042 0.087 0.137 0.191 0.250 11.8 0.032 0.065 0.100 0.138 0.179
11.9 0.033 0.067 0.104 0.143 0.186
11.8 0.044 0.091 0.143 0.200 0.264
12.0 0.034 0.069 0.108 0.149 0.193
11.9 0.046 0.096 0.150 0.211 0.278
For 1 bbl Starting Volume and Starting Density
12.4 0.059 0.125 0.200 0.286 0.385 12.6 0.042 0.087 0.137 0.191 0.250
12.7 0.044 0.091 0.143 0.200 0.264
12.5 0.063 0.134 0.215 0.308 0.417
12.8 0.046 0.096 0.150 0.211 0.278
12.6 0.067 0.143 0.231 0.334 0.455
12.9 0.048 0.100 0.158 0.223 0.295
12.7 0.072 0.154 0.250 0.364 0.500
13.0 0.050 0.106 0.167 0.236 0.313
12.8 0.077 0.167 0.273 0.400 0.556 13.1 0.053 0.112 0.177 0.250 0.334
12.9 0.084 0.182 0.300 0.445 0.625 13.2 0.056 0.118 0.188 0.267 0.358
13.0 0.091 0.200 0.334 0.500 0.715 13.3 0.059 0.125 0.200 0.286 0.385
13.4 0.063 0.134 0.215 0.308 0.417
13.1 0.100 0.223 0.375 0.572 0.834
13.5 0.067 0.143 0.231 0.334 0.455
13.2 0.112 0.250 0.429 0.667 1.000
13.6 0.072 0.154 0.250 0.364 0.500
13.3 0.125 0.286 0.500 0.800 1.250
13.7 0.077 0.167 0.273 0.400 0.556
13.4 0.143 0.334 0.600 1.000 1.667 13.8 0.084 0.182 0.300 0.445 0.625
13.5 0.167 0.400 0.750 1.334 2.500 13.9 0.091 0.200 0.334 0.500 0.715
14.0 0.100 0.223 0.375 0.572 0.834
Instructions 14.1 0.112 0.250 0.429 0.667 1.000
• Find the starting density in the left column
• Follow across to the amount of weight up desired 14.2 0.125 0.286 0.500 0.800 1.250
• Multiply the corresponding number by the starting volume 14.3 0.143 0.334 0.600 1.000 1.667
• This gives the total amount of spike required
14.4 0.167 0.400 0.750 1.334 2.500
Example: 14.5 0.200 0.500 1.000 2.000 5.000
• Weight up a 13.0 ppg 3 points to a 13.3 ppg
• Follow across the 13.0 row to the number in the column for 3 14.6 0.250 0.667 1.500 4.000 n/a
points. 14.7 0.334 1.000 3.000 n/a n/a
• The number is .167
• For 750 bbl starting volume 750 x .167 = 125.25
Instructions
• Find the starting density in the left column.
• Follow across to the amount of weight up desired
• Multiply the corresponding number by the starting volume
• This gives the total amount of spike required
Example
• Weight up a 13.0 ppg 3 points to 13.3 ppg
• Follow across the 13.0 row to the number in the column for 3
points.
• The number is .167
• For 750 bbl starting volume 750 x .167 = 125.25 bbl
137
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 138 -
19.2 ZnBr Spike Table Instructions
138
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 139 -
8.9 0.203 0.797 9.13 6.9 9.6 1.150 25.2 118.06 0.861 -9 15.8
9 0.239 0.761 10.76 9.7 9.8 1.174 28.6 140.37 0.839 -11 12.2
9.1 0.275 0.725 12.39 13 10 1.198 31.9 163.89 0.817 -14 6.8
10.2 1.222 35.1 193.80 0.794 -20 -4
9.2 0.312 0.688 14.02 16.9
10.4 1.246 38.3 217.13 0.77 -27 -16.6
9.3 0.348 0.652 15.65 21.3
10.6 1.270 41.3 246.67 0.746 -34 -29.2
9.4 0.384 0.616 17.28 26.2
10.8 1.294 44.4 279.92 0.72 -42 -43.6
9.5 0.42 0.58 18.91 31.7
11 1.318 47.5 315.71 0.695 -48 -54.4
9.6 0.457 0.543 20.54 37.8
11.1 1.330 48.8 333.55 0.682 -52 -61.6
9.7 0.493 0.507 22.17 44.5
11.2 1.342 50.2 353.13 0.669 -54 -65.2
9.8 0.529 0.471 23.8 51.8
11.3 1.354 51.6 373.49 0.656 -57 -70.6
9.9 0.565 0.435 25.43 59.8 11.4 1.366 53 394.66 0.643 -59 -74.2
10 0.601 0.399 27.07 68.4 11.5 1.378 54.4 417.94 0.629 -60 -76
10.1 0.638 0.362 28.7 77.6 11.6 1.390 55.8 442.27 0.615 -62 -79.6
10.2 0.674 0.326 30.33 87.6 11.7 1.402 57.2 467.73 0.601 -60 -76
10.3 0.71 0.29 31.96 98.2 11.8 1.414 58.5 494.42 0.587 -59 -74.2
10.4 0.746 0.254 33.59 109.5 11.9 1.426 59.8 520.88 0.574 -57 -70.6
10.5 0.783 0.217 35.22 121.5 12 1.438 61.2 551.79 0.559 -54 -65.2
10.6 0.819 0.181 36.85 134.3 12.1 1.450 62.5 582.68 0.545 -51 -59.8
12.2 1.462 63.7 615.21 0.531 -48 -54.4
10.7 0.855 0.145 38.48 147.9
12.3 1.474 65 651.43 0.516 -44 -47.2
10.8 0.891 0.109 40.11 162.2
12.4 1.486 66.3 689.83 0.501 -40 -40
10.9 0.928 0.072 41.74 177.2
12.5 1.498 67.5 728.37 0.487 -37 -34.6
11 0.964 0.036 43.37 193.1
12.6 1.510 68.8 771.57 0.472 -33 -27.4
11.1 1 0 45 209.8
12.7 1.522 70 817.60 0.457 -29 -20.2
12.8 1.534 71.3 869.52 0.441 -25 -13
12.9 1.546 72.5 922.35 0.426 -22 -7.6
13 1.558 73.8 985.54 0.409 -19 -2.2
13.1 1.570 75 1050.64 0.393 -16 3.2
13.2 1.582 76.3 1129.11 0.375 -2 28.4
13.3 1.594 77.6 1215.49 0.357 9 48.2
139
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 140 -
140
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 141 -
Example:
A well is deviated from the surface at a 30-degree angle. The MD is 800
feet. If the well is loaded with 11.4 lb/gal drilling fluid what is the
hydrostatic pressure at the TD?
COS 30 = 0.8660
800 ft x 0.8660 x 0.5922 psi/ft = 410.2762 psi
141
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 142 -
142
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 143 -
when:
eT = change in length in inches
depth = feet
T = average temperature change
144
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 145 -
145
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 146 -
147
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 148 -
NC46(XH
10.6 EU NC38(IF) 4.75 2.6875 2.563 20 22.1 IEU 6.25 3 2.875
)
10.3 EU NC38(WO) 4.75 3 2.804
9.5 21.7 IEU FH 6 3 2.875
10 EU OH 4.5 3 2.804
21.7 IEU H90 6 3 2.875
10.2 EU SL-H90 4.625 3 2.847
NC50(XH
3 1/2 14 EU NC38(IF) 4.75 2.6875 2.457 20.9 IEU 6.325 3.75 3.625
19.5 )
3.50 14 EU OH 4.75 2.6875 2.414
22.1 IEU 5 1/2 FH 7 3.75 3.625
13.3
5
14.2 IU XH 4.75 2.4375 2.313
NC50(XH
13.6 IU NC31(SH) 4.125 2.125 2 26.9 IEU 6.325 3.5 3.375
25.6 )
28.1 IEU 5 1/2 FH 7 3.5 3.375
15.5 16.6 EU NC38(IF) 5 2.5625 2.414
21.9 23.8 IEU FH 7 4 3.875
13.5 EU NC46(IF) 6 3.25 3.125 5 1/2
13.3 EU NC46(WO) 5.75 3.4375 3.313 5.5
24.7 26.3 IEU FH 7 4 3.875
11.85 12.1 EU OH 5.25 3.4678 3.287
6 5/8 25.2 27.3 IEU FH 8 5 4.875
13.1 IU H-90 5.5 2.8125 2.688 6.625
148
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 149 -
Dimension & Weight Properties Of New Tool Joints And New Dimension & Weight Properties Of New Tool Joints And New
High Strength Drill Pipe High Strength Drill Pipe
Drill Pipe Data Tool Joint Data Drill Pipe Data Tool Joint Data
Type
Nominal Nominal Approx. Drift Nominal Nominal Approx. Type Upset Drift
Upset & OD ID OD ID
Size Weight Weight Conn. Diameter Size Weight Weight & Pipe Conn. Diameter
Pipe Inches Inches Inches Lb/Ft Lb/Ft Grade
Inches Inches
Inches
Inches Lb/Ft Lb/Ft Inches
Grade
18.3 EU-95 NC50(IF) 6.325 3.75 3.625
7.1 EU-95 NC26(IF) 3.325 1.75 1.625
2 3/8 7 EU-95 SL-H90 3.25 1.8125 1.67 18.3 EU-105 NC50(IF) 6.325 3.75 3.625
6.65
2.325
7.1 EU-105 NC26(IF) 3.325 1.75 1.625 18.6 EU-135 NC50(IF) 6.325 3.5 3.375
7 EU-105 SL-H90 3.25 1.8125 1.67
18.7 IEU-95 NC46(XH) 6.25 3 2.875
11.1 EU-95 NC31(IF) 4.125 2 1.875 18.3 IEU-95 FH 6 3 2.875
10.9 EU-95 SL-H90 4 2 1.875 16.6 18 IEU-95 H-90 6 3.25 3.125
2 7/8 11.1 EU-105 NC31(IF) 4.125 2 1.875 18.9 IEU-105 NC46(XH) 6.25 3 2.875
10.4
2.875 10.9 EU-105 SL-H90 4 2 1.875 19.1 IEU-105 FH 6 3 2.625
18.3 IEU-105 H-90 6 3.25 3.125
11.5 EU-135 NC31(IF) 4.325 1.625 1.5
11.3 EU-135 SL-H90 4.125 1.625 1.5 18.9 IEU-135 NC46(XH) 6.25 2.75 2.625
19.1 IEU-135 FH 6.25 2.5 2.375
4 1/2
14.6 EU-95 NC38(IF) 5 2.5625 2.438 4.5 18.3 IEU-135 H-90 6 3 2.875
14.2 EU-95 SL-H90 4.75 2.5625 2.438
22 EU-95 NC50(IF) 6.325 3.5 3.25
15.3 IU-95 NC49(FH) 5.25 2.6875 2.563 22.5 IEU-135 NC50(XH) 6.625 2.75 2.625
14
15.6 IU-95 H-90 5.5 2.8125 2.688 5
23.2 IEU-135 5 1/2 FH 7.25 3.5 3.375
27.8 IEU-95 NC50(XH) 6.5 3 2.875
15.9 IU-105 NC49(FH) 5.5 2.4375 2.313
28.3 IEU-95 5 1/2 FH 7 3.5 3.375
15.6 IU-105 H-90 5.5 2.8125 2.688
25.6
28.3 IEU-105 NC50(XH) 6.625 2.75 2.625
16.1 IU-135 NC40(FH) 5.5 2 1.875 28.9 IEU-105 5 1/2 FH 7.25 3.5 3.375
15.6 IU-135 H-90 5.5 2.8125 2.688 29.2 IEU-135 5 1/2 FH 7.25 3.25 3.125
5 1/2 21.9 24.4 IEU-95 FH 7 3.75 3.625
15.7 17.8 EU-95 NC46(IF) 6 3.25 3.125 5.5
API TUBING
Tubing Nominal API TUBING
Size Weight Tubing Nominal
T&C Size Weight
T&C Wall Inside Drift T&C
Nom. OD Non- T&C Wall Inside Drift
Upset Grade Thickness Dia. Dia. Nom. OD Non-
In. In. Upset Upset Grade Thickness Dia. Dia.
Lb/ft In. In. In. In. In. Upset
Lb/ft Lb/ft In. In. In.
H-40 Lb/ft
J-55
6.4 6.5 N-80 0.217 2.441 2.347
C-75 8.6 8.7 N-80 0.308 2.259 2.165
0.75 1.05 1.14 1.2 N-80 0.113 0.824 0.73 6.4 6.5 P-105 0.217 2.441 2.347
H-40 8.6 8.7 P-105 0.308 2.259 2.165
J-55 7.7 H-40 0.216 3.068 2.943
2.875 2.875 9.2 9.3 H-40 0.254 2.992 2.867
10.2 H-40 0.289 2.922 2.797
7.7 J-55 0.216 3.068 2.943
C-75 0.113 1.049 9.2 9.3 J-55 0.254 2.992 2.867
N-80 10.2 J-55 0.289 2.922 2.797
1 1.315 1.7 1.8 0.955 7.7 C-75 0.216 3.068 2.943
H-40 0.125 1.41
H-40 0.14 1.38 9.2 9.3 C-75 0.254 2.992 2.867
J-55 0.125 1.41
10.2 C-75 0.289 2.922 2.797
J-55 0.14 1.38 12.7 12.95 C-75 0.375 2.75 2.625
C-75 0.14 1.38 7.7 N-80 0.216 3.068 2.943
1.25 1.66 2.3 2.4 N-80 0.14 1.38 1.286 9.2 9.3 N-80 0.254 2.992 2.867
H-40 0.125 1.65 10.2 N-80 0.289 2.922 2.797
H-40 0.145 1.61 12.7 12.95 N-80 0.375 2.75 2.625
3.5 3.5
J-55 0.125 1.65 9.2 9.3 P-105 0.254 2.992 2.867
12.7 12.95 P-105 0.375 2.75 2.625
J-55 0.145 1.61 H-40 0.226 3.548 3.423
C-75 0.145 1.61 H-40 0.262 3.476 3.351
1.5 1.9 2.75 2.9 1.516 J-55 0.226 3.548 3.423
N-80 0.145 1.61
H-40 J-55 0.262 3.476 3.351
J-55
150
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 151 -
3.5 0.156 3.188 1.6389 5.571 9.873
3.5 0.175 3.15 1.828 6.215 9.639
3.5 0.188 3.124 1.9561 6.65 9.48
3.5 0.203 3.094 2.1026 7.148 9.299
COIL TUBING
COILED TUBING TECHNICAL DATA
Wash Pipe Dimensions
Specified Wall Cross- Volume N-80 Wash Pipe
Outside Wall Inside Section Weight Internal
Diameter Thickness* Diameter Area Capacity Size
Weight Wall ID
D t d At W Vi OD
In. In. In. Sq. in. Lb/ft Bbl/1000 ft (In.) (mm) (Lbs/ft) (Kg/m) (In.) (mm) (In.) (mm)
2.25 57.2 4.12 6.12 0.19 4.7 1.875 47.6
1 0.08 0.84 0.2312 0.7861 0.6854
2.75 69.9 6.68 9.93 0.25 6.4 2.25 57.2
1 0.087 0.826 0.2495 0.8483 0.6628
3.25 82.6 8 11.89 0.25 6.4 2.75 69.9
1 0.095 0.81 0.2701 0.9182 0.6373
3.50 88.9 9.91 14.73 0.29 7.3 2.922 74.2
1 0.102 0.796 0.2878 0.9783 0.6155
3.75 95.3 9.32 13.85 0.25 6.4 3.25 82.6
1 0.109 0.782 0.3051 1.037 0.594
1.25 0.08 1.09 0.2941 1 1.154 4.00 101.6 11.6 17,24 0.29 7.3 3.428 87.1
1.25 0.087 1.076 0.3179 1.081 1.125 4.00 101.6 14 20.81 0.33 8.4 3.34 84.8
1.25 0.095 1.06 0.3447 1.172 1.091 4.00 101.6 15.7 23.33 0.38 9.7 3.24 82.3
1.25 0.102 1.046 0.3679 1.251 1.063 4.38 111.1 12 17.84 0.28 7.0 3.825 97.2
1.25 0.109 1.032 0.3907 1.328 1.035 4.50 114.3 11.6 17.24 0.25 6.4 4 101.6
1.25 0.125 1 0.4418 1.502 0.9714 4.50 114.3 16.6 24.67 0.34 8.6 3.826 97.2
1.25 0.134 0.982 0.4698 1.597 0.9367 5.00 127.0 15 22.29 0.3 7.5 4.408 112.0
1.25 0.156 0.938 0.5362 1.823 0.8547 5.00 127.0 18 26.75 0.36 9.2 4.276 108.6
1.5 0.095 1.31 0.4193 1.426 1.667 5.50 139.7 17 25.27 0.3 7.7 4.892 124.3
1.5 0.102 1.296 0.448 1.523 1.632 5.63 142.9 17.7 26.31 0.31 7.9 5 127.0
1.5 0.109 1.282 0.4763 1.619 1.597 5.75 146.1 18 26.75 0.31 8.0 5.125 130.2
1.5 0.125 1.25 0.54 1.836 1.518
5.75 146.1 22.5 33.44 0.38 9.7 4.99 126.7
1.5 0.134 1.232 0.575 1.955 1.474
6.00 152.4 20 29.73 0.32 8.2 5.352 135.9
1.5 0.156 1.188 0.6587 2.239 1.371
6.33 161.9 24 35.67 0.38 9.5 5.625 142.9
1.5 0.175 1.15 0.7285 2.476 1.285
1.75 0.109 1.532 0.5619 1.91 2.28 6.63 168.3 24 35.67 0.35 8.9 5.921 150.4
1.75 0.125 1.5 0.6381 2.169 2.186 7.00 177.8 26 38.64 0.36 9.2 6.276 159.4
1.75 0.134 1.482 0.6803 2.313 2.134 7.33 187.3 29 43.10 0.38 9.5 6.625 168.3
1.75 0.156 1.438 0.7812 2.666 2.009 7.50 190.5 28 41.62 0.37 9.3 6.765 171.8
1.75 0.175 1.4 0.8659 2.944 1.904 7.65 193.7 29.7 44.14 0.38 9.5 6.875 174.6
1.75 0.188 1.374 0.9225 3.136 1.834 8.13 206.4 39.5 58.71 0.47 11.9 7.185 182.5
2 0.109 1.782 0.6475 2.201 3.085 8.33 212.7 35.5 52.76 0.38 9.5 7.625 193.7
2 0.125 1.75 0.7363 2.503 2.975 8.63 219.1 36 53.51 0.4 10.2 7.825 198.8
2 0.134 1.732 0.7855 2.671 2.914 9.00 228.6 40 59.45 0.43 10.8 8.15 207.0
2 0.156 1.688 0.9037 3.072 2.768 9.63 244.5 43.5 64.65 0.44 11.0 8.755 222.4
2 0.175 1.65 1.0033 3.411 2.645 10.75 273.1 51 75.80 0.45 11.4 9.85 250.2
2 0.188 1.624 1.0702 3.638 2.562 11.75 298.5 60 89.18 0.49 12.4 10.77 273.6
2 0.203 1.594 1.146 3.896 2.468 13.33 339.7 72 107.01 0.51 13.1 12.35 313.6
2.375 0.109 2.157 0.776 2.638 4.52
16.00 406.4 84 124.85 0.5 12.6 15.01 381.3
2.375 0.125 2.125 0.8836 3.004 4.386
2.375 0.134 2.107 0.9434 3.207 4.312
2.375 0.156 2.063 1.0875 3.697 4.134
2.375 0.175 2.025 1.2095 4.112 3.983
2.375 0.188 1.999 1.2917 4.391 3.882
2.375 0.203 1.969 1.3852 4.709 3.766
2.875 0.125 2.625 1.0799 3.671 6.694
2.875 0.134 2.607 1.1539 3.923 6.602
2.875 0.156 2.563 1.3326 4.53 6.381
2.875 0.175 2.525 1.4844 5.046 6.193
2.875 0.188 2.499 1.587 5.395 6.066
2.875 0.203 2.469 1.7041 5.793 5.922
3.5 0.134 3.232 1.417 4.817 10.15
151
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 152 -
BOUYANCY FACTORS FOR STEEL PIPE SAND (20-40 MESH) FILL-UP IN CASING
Mud Mud Mud Mud Pounds Linear Feet per
Buoyancy Buoyancy Buoyancy Buoyancy Size Weight ID Capacity Capacity Sand per Per Pound
wt. wt. wt. wt.
in. lb/ft in. Ft3/ft Ft/ft3 Linear Foot of Sand
(ppg) Factor (ppg) Factor (ppg) Factor (ppg) Factor
9.5 4.09 0.0912 10.9604 9.7259 0.1028
8.3 0.873 10.8 0.835 13.2 0.8 15.7 0.762 10.5 4.052 0.0896 11.1669 9.546 0.1048
8.4 0.872 10.9 0.834 13.3 0.798 15.8 0.76 4½ 11.6 4 0.0873 11.4592 9.3026 0.1075
13.5 3.92 0.0838 11.9316 8.9342 0.1119
8.5 0.87 11 0.832 13.4 0.797 15.9 0.759 11.5 4.56 0.1134 8.8174 12.0897 0.0827
8.6 0.869 11.1 0.831 13.5 0.795 16 0.757 13 4.494 0.1102 9.0783 11.7422 0.0852
15 4.408 0.106 9.436 11.2971 0.0885
8.7 0.867 11.2 0.829 13.6 0.794 16.1 0.756
18 4.276 0.0997 10.0276 10.6307 0.0941
8.8 0.866 11.3 0.827 13.7 0.792 16.2 0.754 21 4.154 0.0941 10.6253 10.0327 0.0997
5
13 5.044 0.1388 7.2065 14.7923 0.0676
8.9 0.864 11.4 0.826 13.8 0.791 16.3 0.753
14 5.012 0.137 7.2988 14.6052 0.0685
9 0.863 11.5 0.824 13.9 0.789 16.4 0.751 15 4.974 0.1349 7.4107 14.3845 0.0695
9.1 0.861 11.6 0.823 14 0.788 16.5 0.75 15.5 4.95 0.1336 7.4828 14.2461 0.0702
17 4.892 0.1305 7.6613 13.9142 0.0719
9.2 0.86 11.7 0.821 14.1 0.786 16.6 0.748 20 4.778 0.1245 8.0312 13.2732 0.0753
9.3 0.858 11.8 0.82 14.2 0.785 16.7 0.747 23 4.67 0.1189 8.407 12.68 0.0789
5½ 17 6.538 0.2331 4.2893 24.8527 0.0402
9.4 0.856 11.9 0.818 14.3 0.783 16.8 0.745 20 6.456 0.2273 4.3989 24.2332 0.0413
9.5 0.855 12 0.817 14.4 0.782 16.9 0.744 22 6.398 0.2233 4.479 23.7998 0.042
23 6.366 0.221 4.5242 23.5623 0.0424
9.6 0.853 12.1 0.815 14.5 0.78 17 0.742
24 6.336 0.219 4.5671 23.3408 0.0428
9.7 0.852 12.2 0.814 14.6 0.779 17.1 0.74 26 6.276 0.2148 4.6549 22.9008 0.0437
28 6.214 0.2106 4.7482 22.4506 0.0445
9.8 0.85 12.3 0.812 14.7 0.777 17.2 0.739
29 6.184 0.2086 4.7944 22.2343 0.045
9.9 0.849 12.4 0.811 14.8 0.776 17.3 0.737 30 6.154 0.2066 4.8413 22.0191 0.0454
10 0.847 12.5 0.809 14.9 0.774 17.4 0.736 32 6.094 0.2026 4.9371 21.5918 0.0463
34 6.04 0.199 5.0257 21.2109 0.0471
10.1 0.846 12.6 0.808 15 0.773 17.5 0.734 7
35 6.004 0.1966 5.0862 20.9588 0.0477
10.2 0.844 12.7 0.806 15.1 0.771 17.6 0.733 38 5.92 0.1911 5.2315 20.3764 0.0491
40 5.836 0.1858 5.3832 19.8023 0.0505
10.3 0.843 12.8 0.805 15.2 0.769 17.7 0.731
20 7.125 0.2769 3.6116 29.5158 0.0339
10.4 0.841 12.9 0.803 15.3 0.768 17.8 0.73 24 7.025 0.2692 3.7152 28.6931 0.0349
26.4 6.969 0.2649 3.7751 28.2375 0.0354
10.5 0.84 15.4 0.766 17.9 0.728
29.7 6.875 0.2578 3.8791 27.4808 0.0364
10.6 0.838 15.5 0.765 18 0.727 33.7 6.765 0.2496 4.0062 26.6085 0.0376
10.7 0.837 15.6 0.763 39 6.625 0.2394 4.1773 25.5186 0.0392
43.5 6.435 0.2259 4.4277 24.0759 0.0415
7 5/8
24 8.097 0.3576 2.7966 38.1182 0.0262
28 8.017 0.3506 2.8527 37.3687 0.0268
32 7.921 0.3422 2.9222 36.4791 0.0274
36 7.825 0.334 2.9944 35.6003 0.0281
8 5/8 38 7.775 0.3297 3.033 35.1468 0.0285
40 7.725 0.3255 3.0724 34.6962 0.0288
43 7.651 0.3193 3.1321 34.0346 0.0294
44 7.625 0.3171 3.1535 33.8037 0.0296
49 7.511 0.3077 3.25 32.8005 0.0305
29.3 9.063 0.448 2.2322 47.7561 0.0209
32.3 9.001 0.4419 2.263 47.1049 0.0212
36 8.921 0.4341 2.3038 46.2713 0.0216
38 8.885 0.4306 2.3225 45.8986 0.0218
152
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 153 -
40 8.835 0.4257 2.3489 45.3835 0.022
43.5 8.755 0.4181 2.392 44.5653 0.0224
47 8.681 0.411 2.4329 43.8151 0.0228
53.5 8.535 0.3973 2.5169 42.3537 0.0236
9 5/8
58.4 8.435 0.3881 2.5769 41.3671 0.0242
61.1 8.375 0.3826 2.614 40.7807 0.0245
71.8 8.125 0.3601 2.7773 38.3823 0.0261
153
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 154 -
27. .893 7.45 55.7 2.58 .387
DETERMINE THE API GRAVITY OF AN OIL 26. .898 7.49 56 2.57 .389
25. .904 7.54 56.4 2.55 .392
Use the API Hydrometer and obtain the gravity of the oil. At the same 24. .910 7.59 56.8 2.54 .394
time obtain the temperature of the oil. The gravity should be reported 23. .916 7.64 57.2 2.52 .397
in API* at 60ºF. If the temperature of the oil is not 60ºF., a correction
22. .922 7.69 57.5 2.51 .399
must be made. If the oil is above 60ºF., the correction is (–) minus. If
20. .934 7.79 58.3 2.47 .405
the oil is below 60ºF., the correction is (+) plus. The correction is 1º
API for every 10ºF. over or under 60ºF. (15.56ºC.)* 19. .940 7.84 58.7 2.46 .407
18. .946 7.89 59.0 2.44 .410
Example:
17. .953 7.95 59.5 2.42 .413
Temperature above 60ºF. 16. .959 8.00 59.8 2.40 .416
Observed API Gravity = 35.2º API 15. .966 8.06 60.3 2.39 .419
Observed Temperature = 77ºF.
14. .973 8.11 60.7 2.38 .421
Correction is (–) minus 77-60
13. .979 8.16 61.0 2.36 .424
Temperature is above 60ºF. = 17 / 10
Correction = 1.7 12. .986 8.22 61.5 2.34 .427
The API Gravity corrected to 60ºF., is: 11. .993 8.28 61.9 2.33 .430
35.2 – 1.7 = 33.5º API @ 60ºF. 10o API or 1.00 8.34 62.4 2.31 .433
Temperature below 60ºF. Pure Water 1.01 8.4 62.8 2.29 .436
Observed API Gravity = 38.3º API 1.03 8.6 64.3 2.24 .447
Observed Temperature = 51.0ºF. 1.06 8.8 65.8 2.19 .457
Correction is (+) plus as 60-51 1.08 9.0 67.3 2.14 .468
Temperature is below 60ºF., = 9 / 10 1.10 9.2 68.8 2.09 .478
Correction = 0.9 1.13 9.4 70.3 2.05 .488
The API Gravity corrected to 60ºF., is: 1.15 9.6 71.8 2.00 .499
38.3 + 0.9 = 39.2º API @ 60ºF. Salt Water 1.154 9.625 72.0 2.00 .500
*
1.18 9.8 73.3 1.96 .509
Must convert Celsius (°C) to Fahrenheit (F°) for this correction.
1.20 10.0 74.8 1.93 .519
1.22 10.2 76.3 1.89 .530
API Gravity/Density Conversion Table 1.25 10.4 77.8 1.85 .540
1.27 10.6 79.3 1.81 .551
Weight (Density) Fluid Head 1.29 10.8 80.8 1.78 .561
Height 1.32 11.0 82.3 1.75 .571
Cubi Pressure 1.34 11.2 83.8 1.72 .582
Degrees Specific Gallon Per
c Per Foot 1.37 11.4 85.3 1.69 .590
API Gravity Pounds Pound
Foot Lb/sq in.
Feet 1.39 11.6 86.8 1.66 .603
60. .739 6.16 46.1 3.13 .320 1.41 11.8 88.3 1.63 .613
59. .743 6.20 46.4 3.11 .322 1.44 12.0 89.8 1.61 .623
58. .747 6.23 46.6 3.09 .324 1.46 12.2 91.3 1.58 .634
57. .751 6.26 46.8 3.08 .325 1.49 12.4 92.8 1.55 .644
56. .755 6.30 47.1 3.06 .327 1.51 12.6 94.3 1.53 .655
55. .759 6.33 47.4 3.04 .329 1.53 12.8 95.8 1.50 .665
54. .763 6.36 47.6 3.03 .330 1.56 13.0 97.3 1.48 .675
53. .767 6.40 47.9 3.01 .332 1.58 13.2 98.7 1.46 .686
52. .771 6.43 48.1 2.99 .334 1.61 13.4 100. 1.44 .696
51. .775 6.46 48.3 2.98 .336 1.63 13.6 102. 1.42 .706
50. .780 6.51 48.7 2.96 .338 1.65 13.8 103. 1.39 .717
49. .784 6.54 48.9 2.94 .340 1.68 14.0 105. 1.38 .727
48. .788 6.57 49.2 2.93 .341 1.70 14.2 106. 1.36 .738
47. .793 6.61 49.5 2.92 .343 1.73 14.4 108. 1.34 .748
46. .797 6.65 49.8 2.90 .345 1.75 14.6 109. 1.32 .758
45. .802 6.69 50.0 2.87 .348 1.77 14.8 111. 1.30 .769
44. .806 6.72 50.3 2.87 .349 1.80 15.0 112. 1.28 .779
43. .811 6.76 50.6 2.85 .351 1.82 15.2 114. 1.27 .790
42. .816 6.81 50.9 2.82 .354 1.85 15.4 115. 1.25 .800
41. .820 6.84 51.2 2.82 .355 1.87 15.6 117. 1.23 .810
40. .825 6.88 51.5 2.80 .357 1.89 15.8 118. 1.22 .821
39. .830 6.92 51.8 2.79 .359
38. .835 6.96 52.1 2.76 .362
37. .840 7.01 52.4 2.75 .364
36. .845 7.05 52.7 2.73 .366
35. .850 7.09 53.0 2.72 .368
34. .855 7.13 53.3 2.70 .370
33. .860 7.17 53.6 2.69 .372
32. .865 7.21 53.9 2.67 .375
31. .871 7.26 54.3 2.65 .377
30. .876 7.31 54.7 2.63 .380
29. .882 7.36 55.1 2.62 .382
28. .887 7.4 55.4 2.6 .384
154
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 155 -
API Gravity/Density Conversion Table
GAS TABLES
Weight (Density) Fluid Head
Height Per Pressure To find the bottomhole pressure, multiply the surface pressure by the
Degrees Specific Gallon Cubic
Pound Per Foot factor corresponding to the well depth and gravity of the gas.
API Gravity Pounds Foot
Feet Lb/sq in.
Correction Factors Correction Factors
Common 1.92 16.0 120. 1.20 .831
Well 0.6 0.7 0.8 Well 0.6 0.7 0.8
Cement 1.94 16.2 121. 1.19 .842
Depth Gravity Gravity Gravity Depth Gravity Gravity Gravity
Slurry 1.97 16.4 123. 1.17 .852
4,500 1.099 1.116 1.132 7,500 1.171 1.195 1.227
1.99 16.6 124. 1.16 .862
5,000 1.110 1.130 1.149 8,000 1.181 1.210 1.241
2.01 16.8 126. 1.15 .873
2.04 17.0 127. 1.13 .883 5,500 1.120 1.141 1.163 8,500 1.190 1.230 1.260
2.06 17.2 129. 1.12 .894 6,000 1.132 1.155 1.181 9,000 1.202 1.240 1.273
2.09 17.4 130. 1.11 .904 6,500 1.143 1.175 1.195 9,500 1.215 1.250 2.285
2.11 17.6 132. 1.09 .914 7,000 1.155 1.184 1.211 10,000 1.225 1.265 1.305
2.13 17.8 133. 1.08 .925
2.16 18.0 135. 1.07 .935
2.18 18.2 136. 1.06 .945
2.21 18.4 138. 1.05 .956
2.23 18.6 139. 1.04 .966
2.25 18.8 141. 1.02 .977
2.28 19.0 142. 1.01 .987
2.30 19.2 144. 1.00 .997
2.33 19.4 145. .992 1.01
2.35 19.6 147. .982 1.02
2.37 19.8 148. .972 1.03
2.40 20.0 150. .962 1.04
2.42 20.2 151. .953 1.05
2.45 20.4 153. .943 1.06
2.47 20.6 154. .935 1.07
2.49 20.8 156. .925 1.08
2.52 21.0 157. .917 1.09
2.54 21.2 159. .908 1.10
2.57 21.4 160. .899 1.11
2.59 21.6 162. .891 1.12
2.61 21.8 163. .883 1.13
155
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 156 -
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND FLUID
WEIGHT CONVERSION TABLES
STRETCH DATA FOR DRILL PIPE, TUBING AND CASING
To find the Hydrostatic pressure of a column of fluid, multiply the
appropriate value in Lbs./Sq. in. per foot of depth times the depth in
Stretch Per Pull Above Stretch
Due To Own feet.
Length 1000 Lb. Weight of
Size of Weight Example: find the Hydrostatic Pressure at a depth of 13,760 feet (4
of Pipe Pull Above Pipe Per
Tubing, D.P. Suspended 194m) in a hole filled with mud weighing 12.3 Lbs./Gal. (92.01 Lbs./Cu.
Suspended Wt. of Pipe, In. Stretch
or Casing in Water, Ft.) (1.474 kg/L) The value 0.6390 is found opposite 12.3 Lbs./Gal. in
in Well, Inches of Pipe
Inches the table. Then 0.6390 x 13760 = 8793 Lbs. per Sq. In. (or 14.455
Feet Factor C Pounds
kPa/mX 4 194m = 60 624 kPa) hydrostatic pressure.
500 .115 6,450 .14
1,000 .310 3,225 .56
2.375” HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND FLUID WEIGHT
2,000 .620 1,612 2.22
Upset
3,000 .930 1,075 5.00
Tubing Lbs./Sq. In.
4.70 #/Ft. 4,000 1.240 806 8.88 Lbs./Cu. Sp.
Lbs./Gal. Per Ft. of kg/L kPa/m
5,000 1.550 644 13.88 Ft. Gr.
Depth
10,000 3.100 322 55.51
500 .110 9,080 .14 7.0 52.36 0.84 0.3636 0.839 8.225
1,000 .220 4,540 .56 7.1 53.11 0.85 0.3688 0.851 8.342
2.875” 7.2 53.86 0.86 0.3740 0.863 8.460
2,000 .440 2,270 2.22
Upset 7.3 54.61 0.87 0.3792 0.875 8.578
3,000 .660 1,513 5.00
Tubing 7.4 55.36 0.89 0.3844 0.887 8.695
6.50 #/Ft. 4,000 .880 1,135 8.88
5,000 1.100 908 13.88 7.5 56.10 0.90 0.3896 0.899 8.813
10,000 2.200 454 55.51 7.6 56.85 0.91 0.3948 0.911 8.931
500 .0772 12,960 .14 7.7 57.60 0.92 0.4000 0.923 9.048
1,000 .1544 6,480 .56 7.8 58.35 0.93 0.4052 0.935 9.166
3.500” 7.9 59.10 0.95 0.4104 0.947 9.283
2,000 .3088 3,240 2.22
Upset 8.0 59.84 0.96 0.4156 0.959 9.401
3,000 .4632 2,160 5.00
Tubing 8.1 60.59 0.97 0.4208 0.971 9.519
9.30 #/Ft. 4,000 .6176 1,620 8.88
8.2 61.34 0.98 0.4260 0.983 9.636
5,000 .7720 1,296 13.88
8.3 62.09 0.99 0.4312 0.995 9.754
10,000 1.544 648 55.51
8.33* 62.31 1.00 0.4330 1.000 9.807
500 .070 14,300 .14
8.4 62.84 1.01 0.4364 1.007 9.872
1,000 .140 7,150 .56
8.5 63.58 1.02 0.4416 1.019 9.989
2.875” 2,000 .280 3,575 2.22
8.6 64.33 1.03 0.4468 1.031 10.107
Drill Pipe 3,000 .420 2,383 5.00
8.7 65.08 1.04 0.4519 1.043 10.222
10.40 #/Ft. 4,000 .560 1,787 8.88 8.8 65.83 1.05 0.4571 1.054 10.340
5,000 .700 1,430 13.88 8.9 66.58 1.07 0.4623 1.066 10.457
10,000 1.40 715 55.51 9.0 67.32 1.08 0.4675 1.078 10.575
500 .055 18,200 .14 9.1 68.07 1.09 0.4727 1.090 10.693
1,000 .110 9,100 .56 9.2 68.82 1.10 0.4779 1.102 10.810
3.500” 2,000 .220 4,550 2.22 9.3 69.57 1.11 0.4831 1.114 10.928
Drill Pipe 3,000 .330 3,033 5.00 9.4 70.32 1.13 0.4883 1.126 11.046
13.30 #/Ft. 4,000 .440 2,275 8.88 9.5 71.06 1.14 0.4935 1.138 11.163
5,000 .550 1,820 13.88 9.6 71.81 1.15 0.4987 1.150 11.281
10,000 1.10 910 55.51 9.7 72.56 1.16 0.5039 1.162 11.399
500 .0450 22,200 .14 9.8 73.31 1.17 0.5091 1.174 11.516
1,000 .0900 11,100 .56 9.9 74.06 1.19 0.5143 1.186 11.634
4.500” 2,000 .180 5,550 2.22 10.0 74.80 1.20 0.5195 1.198 11.751
Drill Pipe 3,000 .270 3,700 5.00 10.1 75.55 1.21 0.5247 1.210 11.869
16.60 #/Ft. 4,000 .360 2,775 8.88 10.2 76.30 1.22 0.5299 1.222 11.987
5,000 .450 2,220 13.88 10.3 77.05 1.23 0.5351 1.234 12.104
10,000 .900 1,110 55.51 10.4 77.80 1.25 0.5403 1.246 12.222
500 .0402 24,800 .14 10.5 78.55 1.26 0.5455 1.258 12.340
1,000 .0804 12,400 .56 10.6 79.29 1.27 0.5506 1.270 12.455
5.500” 2,000 .160 6,230 2.22 10.7 80.04 1.28 0.5558 1.282 12.573
Casing 3,000 240 4,133 5.00 10.8 80.79 1.29 0.5610 1.294 12.690
17 #/Ft. 4,000 .320 3,100 8.88 10.9 81.54 1.31 0.5662 1.306 12.808
5,000 .402 2,480 13.88 11.0 82.29 1.32 0.5714 1.318 12.925
10,000 804 1,240 55.51 11.1 83.03 1.33 0.5766 1.330 13.043
500 .0301 33,220 .14 11.2 83.78 1.34 0.5818 1.342 13.161
1,000 .0602 16,610 .56 11.3 84.53 1.35 0.5870 1.354 13.278
7.000” 2,000 .120 8,305 2.22 11.4 85.28 1.37 0.5922 1.366 13.396
Casing 3,000 .181 5,537 5.00 11.5 86.03 1.38 0.5974 1.378 13.514
23 #/Ft. 4,000 241 4,152 8.88 11.6 86.77 1.39 0.6026 1.390 13.631
5,000 .301 3,322 13.88 11.7 87.52 1.40 0.6078 1.402 13.749
10,000 .602 1,661 55.51 11.8 88.27 1.412 0.6130 1.414 13.866
11.9 89.02 1.43 0.6182 1.426 13.984
12.0 89.77 1.44 0.6234 1.438 14.102
156
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 157 -
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND FLUID WEIGHT HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND FLUID WEIGHT
157
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 158 -
Conversion Factors
Cu. Ft. 28.3168 Liter
TO CONVERT MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN
Barrel(US)(liquid) 9702 Cu. Inch Cu. Ft. /Min 0.1247 Gallon / Second
Barrel(US)(liquid) 5.6146 Cu. Ft. Cu. Ft. /Min 0.472 Liter / Second
Barrel(US) / Day(liquid) 0.00662433 Cu. Meters / hour Cu. in 1.732x 10-2 Quart(liquid) (US)
6
Centimeters 0.3937 Inches Cu. M 1x 10 Cu. Centimeters
3
Centimeters 0.0100 Meters Cu. M 1x 10 Liter
158
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 159 -
Conversion Factors Conversion Factors
TO CONVERT MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN TO CONVERT MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN
Fahrenheit Degree Horsepower 33,000 Ft-lb / min
Celsius Degree (°C) 1.8(°C)+ 32
(°F) Horsepower 550 Ft-lb / sec
Degree (Angle) 60 Minutes Horsepower 1.014 Hp Metric
Degree (Angle) 0.01745 Radians Horsepower 0.7457 Kilowatt
Degree (Angle) 3600 Seconds Horsepower 745.7 Watts
Degree/Second 0.01745 Radians / Second Joule 1.0 Newton.Meters
Degree/Second 0.1667 Revolutions / Minute Joule / Sec 1.0 Watts
Degree/Second 0.002778 Revolutions / Second Kilogram(force) 2.205 lb (force)
Fahrenheit Degree(°F) (°F - 32)/1.8 Celsius Degree(°C) Kilogram (force) 9.807 Newtons
Ft. 30.48 Centimeters Kilogram / Meter 0.6720 lb / Ft.
Ft. 0.3048 Meters Kilogram / Sq. Meter 9.678x 10-5 Atmosphere
Ft. / Minute 0.508 Centimeter / Second Kilogram / Sq. Meter 0.2048 lb / Sq. Ft.
Ft. / Minute 0.01667 Ft. / Second Kilogram / Sq. Meter 1.4223x 10-3 psi
Ft. / Minute 0.01829 Kilometer / Hour Kilogram / Sq. Meter 9.80665 Pascal(Pa)
Ft. / Minute 0.01136 MPH Kilometer 1x 10 5 Centimeter
Ft. / Second 30.48 Centimeter / Second Kilometer 3281 Ft.
Ft. / Second 1.097 Kilometer / Hour Kilometer 0.6214 Miles
Ft. / Second 18.29 Meter / Minute Kilometer / Hour 27.78 Centimeter / Second
Ft. / Second 0.6818 MPH Kilometer / Hour 54.68 Ft. / Minute
Kilometer / Hour 0.9113 Ft. / Second
Ft. / Second 0.01136 Miles / Minute
Kilometer / Hour 16.67 Meter / Minute
Ft-lb 5.050x 10-7 HP - Hour
Kilometer / Hour 0.6214 Miles / Hour
Ft-lb 1.35582 N-m (Joule)
Liter 1x 10 3 Cu. Centimeter
Ft-lb 0.1383 Kilogram-meter
Liter 0.03531 Cu. Ft.
Ft-lb 3.766x 10-7 Kw - Hour
Liter 61.02 Cu. Inch
Ft-lb / Minute 0.01667 Ft-lb / Second
Liter 1x 10-3 Cu. Meter
Ft-lb / Minute 3.030x 10-5 Hp
Liter 0.2642 Gallon(U.S.)
Ft-lb / Minute 2.260x 10-5 Kw
Liter 0.2149 Gallon(Imp)
Ft-lb / Second 1.818x 10-3 Hp
Liter 2.113 Pint(U.S.)liquid
Ft-lb / Second 1.35582 Watts Liter 1.057 Quart(U.S.)liquid
Gallons(US) 3785 Cu. Centimeters Liter / Minute 5.866x 10-4 Cu. Ft. / Second
Gallons(US) 0.1337 Cu. Ft. Liter / Minute 4.403x 10-3 Gallon(US) / Second
Gallons(US) 231 Cu. Inch Meter 0.00062 Mile
Gallons(US) 3.785x 10-3 Cu. Meters Meter 100 Centimeter
Gallons(US) 3.785 Liter Meter 3.281 Feet
Gallons(UK) 4.546 Liter Meter 39.37 Inches
Gallons(US) 8 Pint(liquid) Meter 1x 10-3 Kilometers
Gallons(US) 4 Quart(liquid) Meter 1x 10 3 Millimeters
Gallons(UK) Imp 1.2009 Gallon(U.S.) Meter 1x 10 6 Micrometers
Gallons(US) 0.83267 Gallon(Imp) Meter / Minute 1.667 Centimeter / Second
Gallons(US) Water 8.3453 lb Water Meter / Minute 3.281 Ft. / Minute
Gallons(US) / Minute 0.06308 Liter / Second Meter / Minute 0.05468 Ft. / Second
Gallons(US) / Minute 8.0208 Cu. Ft. / Hour Meter / Minute 0.06 Kilometer / Hour
Gallons(US) / Minute 0.0022228 Cu. Ft. / Second Meter / Minute 0.03728 MPH
Gallons(US) Water / Min 6.0086 Tons / Day Meter / Second 196.8 Ft. / Minute
Gallons(US) 0.02381 bbl Meter / Second 3.281 Ft. / Second
Gallons(US) / Minute 34.2857 Barrel / Day Meter / Second 3.6 Kilometer / Hour
Gallons(US) / Minute 1.429 Barrel / Hour Meter / Second 0.06 Kilometer / Min
Grains (Troy ) 1.0 Grains avdp Meter / Second 2.237 MPH
Grains (Troy) 0.06480 Grams Meter / Second 0.03728 Miles / Minute
Grains (Troy) 2.0833x 10-3 Ounce Troy Milligrams / Liter 1.0x Sol' Density ppm
Grains / Gallon(US) 17.118 ppm Miles 5280 Feet
Grains 1.429x 10-4 lb Miles 1.609 Kilometers
Grams 0.03527 Ounces(avdp) Pascal 1.00 Newton / Sq. Meter
Grams 0.03215 Ounces(troy) Kilopascal 0.1450377 psi
Grams 1x10-3 Kilogram Megapascal 145.0377 psi
Grams 1x10 3 Milligram Parts per Million 0.0584 Grains / Gallon(U.S.)
Grams 2.205 10-3 lb Parts per Million 0.07016 Grains / Gallon(Imp)
Grams / Centimeter 5.6x 10-3 lb / Inch lb/Million Gallon
Parts per Million 8.345
(U.S.)
Grams / Cu. Centimeter 62.43 lb / Cu. Ft.
Pint(U.S.) 28.875 Cu. Inches
Grams / Cu. Centimeter 0.03613 lb / Cu. Inches
Pint(U.S.) 0.125 Gallon(U.S.)
Grams / Liter 58.417 Grains / Gallon
Grams / Liter 0.062427 lb / Cu. Ft.
159
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 160 -
Conversion Factors
TO CONVERT MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN MILLIMETER & DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS
lb / Gallon(U.S.) 0.1198 Grams / Cu. Cm Fraction mm Decimal Fraction mm Decimal
1 33
lb / Gallon(U.S.) 119.84 Grams / Litre /64 0.4 .015625 /64 13.0 .515625
1 17
lb 16.0 Ounces /32 0.8 .03125 /32 13.5 .53125
3 35
lb 453.6 Grams /64 1.2 .046875 /64 14.0 .546875
1 9
lb 7000 Grains /16 1.6 .0625 /16 14.3 .5625
5 37
lb 0.4536 Kilograms /64 2.0 .078125 /64 14.7 .578125
3 19
lb(force) 4.44822 Newtons /32 2.4 .09375 /32 15.0 .59375
7 39
lb Water 0.01602 Cu. Feet /64 2.8 .109375 /64 15.5 .609375
1 5
lb Water 27.68 Cu. Inches /8 3.2 .125 /8 16.0 .625
lb Water 0.1198 Gallon(U.S.) 9
/64 3.6 .140625 41
/64 16.3 .640625
lb Water / Minute 2.67x 10-4 Cu. Ft. / Second 5
/32 4.0 .15625 21
/32 16.7 .65625
lb / cu. Foot 0.01602 Gram/Cu. Centimeter 11
/64 4.4 .171875 43
/64 17.0 .671875
lb / cu. Foot 16.02 Kilogram / Cu. Meter 3
/16 4.8 .1875 11
/16 17.5 .6875
lb / cu. Foot 5.787x 10-4 lb / Cu. Inch 13
/64 5.2 .203125 45
/64 18.0 .703125
lb / cu. Inch 27.68 Gram/Cu. Centimeter 7
/32 5.6 .21875 23
/32 18.3 .71875
lb / cu. Inch 2.768x 10-4 Kilogram / Cu. Meter 15
/64 6.0 .234375 47
/64 18.7 .734375
lb / cu. Inch 1728 lb / Cu. Foot 1
/4 6.4 .250 3
/4 19.0 .750
lb / Foot 1.488 Kilogram / Meter 17
/64 6.8 .265625 49
/64 19.5 .765625
lb / Inch 178.6 Gram / Centimeter 9
/32 7.2 .28125 25
/32 20.0 .78125
lb / Sq. Foot 4.883 Kilogram / Sq. Meter 19
/64 7.6 .296875 51
/64 20.3 .796875
lb / Sq. Foot 6.945x 10-3 psi 5
/16 8.0 .3125 13
/16 20.7 .8125
lb / Sq. Inch 703.1 Kilogram / Sq. Meter 21
/64 8.4 .328125 53
/64 21.0 .828125
lb / Sq. Inch 0.06804 Atmospheres 11
/32 8.8 .34375 27
/32 21.5 .84375
lb / Sq. Inch 0.06895 Bars 23
/64 9.2 .359375 55
/64 22.0 .859375
lb / Sq. Inch 1.450377 N / Sq. Centimeters 3
/8 9.6 .375 7
/8 22.3 .875
Revolutions 6.283 Radians 25
/64 10.0 .390625 57
/64 22.7 .890625
RPM 0.1047 Radians / Second 13
/32 10.4 .40625 29
/32 23.0 .90625
Radians 2.0627x 10-3 Seconds(angle) 27
/64 10.8 .421875 59
/64 23.5 .921875
Sq. Centimeter 1.076x 10-3 Sq. Feet 7
/16 11.2 .4375 15
/16 24.0 .9375
Sq. Centimeter 0.1550 Sq. Inch 29
/64 11.5 .453125 61
/64 24.2 .953125
Sq. Centimeter 1x 10-4 Sq. Meter 15
/32 12.0 .46875 31
/32 24.6 .96875
Sq. Feet 2.296x 10-5 Acres 31
/64 12.3 .484375 63
/64 25.0 .984375
Sq. Feet 929.0 Sq. Centimeter 1
/2 12.7 .500 1 25.4 1.000
Sq. Feet 0.0929 Sq. Meter
Sq. Feet 3.587x 10-8 Sq. Miles Formulas for calculating pump output
Sq. Inches 6.452 Sq. Centimeter Duplex pump
Sq. Inches 6.944x 10-3 Sq. Feet
Sq. Inches 645.2 Sq. Millimeter
Sq. Kilometer 247.1 Acres
Sq. Kilometer 10.76x 10 6 Sq. Feet
Sq. Kilometer 0.3861 Sq. Miles
Sq. Meter 2.471x 10-4 Acres
Sq. Meter 10.76 Sq. Feet
Sq. Meter 3.861x 10-7 Sq. Miles
Sq. Miles 640 Sq. Acres
Sq. Miles 27.88x 106 Sq. Feet
Sq. Miles 2.59 Sq. Kilometer Duplex pump capacities
The capacities of duplex pumps are given in barrels per cycle at
Sq. Millimeter 1.55x 10-3 Sq. Inches
different liner bores and strokes.
Tons(long) 1016 Kilogram
Note: No allowance is made for the volume occupied by the pump rods.
Tons(long) 2240 lb(avdp)
Tons (long) 1.12 Tons(short)
Tons(metric) 1000 Kilogram
Tons(metric) 2205 lb
Tons(short) 2000 lb
Tons(short) 907.185 Kilogram
Tons(short) 0.89287 Tons(long)
Tons(short) 0.90718 Tons(metric)
Watt 44.26 Ft-lb / Minute
Watt 0.7376 Ft-lb / Minute
Watt 1.341x 10-3 Hp
Watt 1.0 Joule / Second
Kilowatt 1x 103 Watt
160
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 161 -
161
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 162 -
Atomic
Element Symbol Atomic weight
number
Aluminum Al 26.98 13 Ca ++ Soda ash 0.000925
Arsenic As 74.92 33 Ca ++ Sodium bicarbonate 0.000734
Barium Ba 137.36 56
Bromine Br 79.916 35 Mg ++ Caustic soda 0.00115
-2
Calcium Ca 40.08 20 CO 3 Lime 0.00043
Carbon C 12.011 6
HCO3-1 Lime 0.00043
Cesium Cs 132.91 55
Chlorine Cl 35.457 17 H2 S Lime 0.00076
Chromium Cr 52.01 24 H2S Zinc carbonate 0.00128
Copper Cu 63.54 29
H2S Zinc oxide 0.000836
Fluorine F 19 9
Hydrogen H 1.008 1
Iodine I 126.91 53
Iron Fe 55.85 26 Note: Due to the extreme danger associated with
Lead Pb 207.21 82 Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), it is recommended that a
Lithium Li 6.94 3 Minimum of 1 ½ times the calculated amount of
Magnesium Mg 24.32 12 Chemical be added.
Manganese Mn 54.94 25
Mercury Hg 200.61 80
Nitrogen N 14.008 7 Density of The following table gives specific gravities and
Oxygen O 16 8 common materials densities for common materials.
Phosphorous P 30.975 15
Material Specific gravity lb/gal lb/bbl
Potassium K 39.1 19
Silicon Si 28.09 14 Barite 4.2 to 4.3 35.0 to 35.8 1470 to 1504
Silver Ag 107.873 47 Calcium carbonate 2.7 22.5 945
Sodium Na 22.991 11 Cement 3.1 to 3.2 25.8 to 26.7 1085 to 1120
Sulfur S 32.066 16 Clays and/or drilled
2.4 to 2.7 20.0 to 22.5 840 to 945
Titanium Ti 47.9 22 solids
Tungsten W 183.86 74 Diesel oil 0.84 7.0 294
Zinc Zn 65.38 30 Dolomite 2.8 to 3.0 23.3 to 25.0 980 to 1050
Feldspar 2.4 to 2.7 20.0 to 22.5 840 to 945
Fresh water 1.0 8.33 350
Chemical conversions Galena 6.5 54.1 2275
Epm to ppm conversion Gypsum 2.3 19.2 805
The following table lists the equivalent weight of various cations Halite (rock salt) 2.2 18.3 770
and anions. Iron 7.8 65.0 2730
Ion Equivalent weight Iron oxide (hematite) 5.1 42.5 1785
Ca +2 20.0
Lead 11.4 95.0 3990
Mg +2 12.2
Limestone 2.7 to 2.9 22.5 to 24.2 945 to 1015
Fe +3 18.6
Na + 23.0 Slate 2.7 to 2.8 22.5 to 23.3 945 to 980
Cl- 35.5 Steel 7.0- to 8.0 58.3 to 66.6 2450 to 2800
SO4-2 48.0
OH- 17.0
CO3-2 30.0
HCO3- 61.0
PO4-3 31.7
Use the following equation to convert concentration in
equivalents per million (epm) to parts per million (ppm).
Equivalent weight × epm = ppm
162
The Baroid CFS COMPLETION FLUIDS MANUAL - 163 -
163