Lubricant

This article is about industrial lubricants. For other uses, Non-liquid lubricants include grease, powders (dry
see Lubricant (disambiguation). graphite, PTFE, molybdenum disulfide, tungsten disul-
fide, etc.), PTFE tape used in plumbing, air cushion and
A lubricant is a substance introduced to reduce friction others. Dry lubricants such as graphite, molybdenum
disulfide and tungsten disulfide also offer lubrication at
between surfaces in mutual contact, which ultimately re-
duces the heat generated when the surfaces move. It may temperatures (up to 350 °C) higher than liquid and oil-
based lubricants are able to operate. Limited interest has
also have the function of transmitting forces, transporting
foreign particles, or heating or cooling the surfaces. The been shown in low friction properties of compacted ox-
property of reducing friction is known as lubricity. ide glaze layers formed at several hundred degrees Celsius
in metallic sliding systems, however, practical use is still
In addition to industrial applications, lubricants are used many years away due to their physically unstable nature.
for many other purposes. Other uses include cooking (oils
and fats in use in frying pans, in baking to prevent food
sticking), bio-medical applications on humans (e.g. lubri- 1.2 Additives
cants for artificial joints), ultrasound examination, med-
ical examinations, and the use of personal lubricant for Main article: Oil additive
sexual purposes.
A large number of additives are used to impart perfor-
mance characteristics to the lubricants. The main fami-
1 Properties lies of additives are:

A good lubricant generally possesses the following char- • Antioxidants

acteristics: • Detergents
• Anti-wear
• high boiling point and low freezing point (in order
to stay liquid within a wide range of temperature) • Metal deactivators

• high viscosity index • Corrosion inhibitors, Rust inhibitors

• thermal stability • Friction modifiers

• Extreme Pressure
• hydraulic stability
• Anti-foaming agents
• demulsibility
• Viscosity index improvers
• corrosion prevention
• Demulsifying/Emulsifying
• high resistance to oxidation. • Stickiness improver, provide adhesive property to-
wards tool surface (in metalworking)

1.1 Formulation • Complexing agent (in case of greases)

Typically lubricants contain 90% base oil (most of-
ten petroleum fractions, called mineral oils) and less
than 10% additives. Vegetable oils or synthetic liq-
uids such as hydrogenated polyolefins, esters, silicones,
fluorocarbons and many others are sometimes used as
base oils. Additives deliver reduced friction and wear,
increased viscosity, improved viscosity index, resistance
to corrosion and oxidation, aging or contamination, etc.
Note that many of the basic chemical compounds used
as detergents (example: calcium sulfonate) serve the pur-
pose of the first seven items in the list as well. Usually it
is not economically or technically feasible to use a single
do-it-all additive compound. Oils for hypoid gear lubri-
cation will contain high content of EP additives. Grease
lubricants may contain large amount of solid particle fric-
tion modifiers, such as graphite, molybdenum sulfide.

1
2 2 TYPES OF LUBRICANTS

2 Types of lubricants • Group I+ with a Viscosity Index of 103–108

In 1999, an estimated 37,300,000 tons of lubricants were • Group II+ with a Viscosity Index of 113–119
[1]
consumed worldwide. Automotive applications domi-
• Group III+ with a Viscosity Index of at least 140
nate, but other industrial, marine, and metal working ap-
plications are also big consumers of lubricants. Although
air and other gas-based lubricants are known (e.g., in fluid Can also be classified into three categories depending on
bearings), liquid and solid lubricants dominate the mar- the prevailing compositions:
ket, especially the former.
Lubricants are generally composed of a majority of base • Paraffinic
oil plus a variety of additives to impart desirable charac-
teristics. Although generally lubricants are based on one • Naphthenic
type of base oil, mixtures of the base oils also are used to
meet performance requirements. • Aromatic

Lubricants for internal combustion

2.1 Base oil groups engines contain additives to reduce
oxidation and improve lubrication.
Mineral oil term is used to encompass lubricating base
The main constituent of such lubri-
oil derived from crude oil. The American Petroleum In-
cant product is called the base oil,
stitute (API) designates several types of lubricant base
base stock. While it is advanta-
oil:[2]
geous to have a high-grade base oil
in a lubricant, proper selection of
• Group I – Saturates < 90% and/or sulfur > the lubricant additives is equally as
0.03%, and Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) important. Thus some poorly se-
viscosity index (VI) of 80 to 120 lected formulation of PAO lubri-
cant may not last as long as more
Manufactured by solvent extraction, solvent or expensive formulation of Group
catalytic dewaxing, and hydro-finishing pro- III+ lubricant.
cesses. Common Group I base oil are 150SN
(solvent neutral), 500SN, and 150BS (bright-
stock) 2.2 Biolubricants made from vegetable oils
and other renewable sources
• Group II – Saturates > 90% and sulfur < 0.03%, and
SAE viscosity index of 80 to 120 These are primarily triglyceride esters derived from
plants and animals. For lubricant base oil use the veg-
Manufactured by hydrocracking and solvent or etable derived materials are preferred. Common ones in-
catalytic dewaxing processes. Group II base oil clude high oleic canola oil, castor oil, palm oil, sunflower
has superior anti-oxidation properties since vir- seed oil and rapeseed oil from vegetable, and Tall oil from
tually all hydrocarbon molecules are saturated. tree sources. Many vegetable oils are often hydrolyzed to
It has water-white color. yield the acids which are subsequently combined selec-
tively to form specialist synthetic esters. Other naturally
derived lubricants include lanolin (wool grease, a natural
• Group III – Saturates > 90%, sulfur < 0.03%, and water repellent).
SAE viscosity index over 120
Whale oil was a historically important lubricant, with
some uses up to the latter part of the 20th century as
Manufactured by special processes such as iso-
a friction modifier additive for automatic transmission
hydromerization. Can be manufactured from
fluid.[3]
base oil or slax wax from dewaxing process.
In 2008, the biolubricant market was around 1% of UK
lubricant sales in a total lubricant market of 840,000
• Group IV – Polyalphaolefins (PAO)
tonnes/year.[4]
• Group V – All others not included above such as Lanolin is a natural water repellent, derived from sheep
naphthenics, PAG, esters. wool grease, and is an alternative to the more common
petro-chemical based lubricants. This lubricant is also
The lubricant industry commonly extends this group ter- a corrosion inhibitor, protecting against rust, salts, and
minology to include: acids.
 3

Water can also be used on its own, or as a major compo-
nent in combination with one of the other base oils. Com-
monly used in engineering processes, such as milling and
lathe turning.
interfaces.[5] By continuous rapid exchange of bound wa-
ter with other free water molecules, these polymer films
keep the surfaces separated while maintaining a high
fluidity at the brush–brush interface at high compressions,
thus leading to a very low coefficient of friction.

2.3 Synthetic oils

• Polyalpha-olefin (PAO)
3 Applications
• Synthetic esters Lubricants perform the following key functions:

• Polyalkylene glycols (PAG) • Keep moving parts apart

• Phosphate esters • Reduce friction
• Alkylated naphthalenes (AN) • Transfer heat
• Silicate esters • Carry away contaminants & debris
• Ionic fluids • Transmit power

• Multiply alkylated cyclopentanes (MAC) • Protect against wear

• Prevent corrosion
2.4 Solid lubricants • Seal for gases

Main article: Dry lubricant • Stop the risk of smoke and fire of objects
• Prevent rust.
PTFE: polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is typically used
as a coating layer on, for example, cooking utensils to One of the single largest applications for lubricants, in the
provide a non-stick surface. Its usable temperature range form of motor oil, is protecting the internal combustion
up to 350 °C and chemical inertness make it a useful ad- engines in motor vehicles and powered equipment.
ditive in special greases. Under extreme pressures, PTFE
Lubricants such as 2-cycle oil are added to fuels like gaso-
powder or solids is of little value as it is soft and flows
line which has low lubricity. Sulfur impurities in fuels
away from the area of contact. Ceramic or metal or al-
also provide some lubrication properties, which has to be
loy lubricants must be used then. “Teflon®" is a brand of
taken in account when switching to a low-sulfur diesel;
PTFE owned by DuPont Co.
biodiesel is a popular diesel fuel additive providing addi-
Inorganic solids: Graphite, hexagonal boron nitride, tional lubricity.
molybdenum disulfide and tungsten disulfide are exam-
Another approach to reducing friction and wear is to
ples of materials that can be used as solid lubricants, often
use bearings such as ball bearings, roller bearings or air
to very high temperature. The use of some such materials
bearings, which in turn require internal lubrication them-
is sometimes restricted by their poor resistance to oxida-
selves, or to use sound, in the case of acoustic lubrication.
tion (e.g., molybdenum disulfide can only be used up to
350 °C in air, but 1100 °C in reducing environments).
Metal/alloy: Metal alloys, composites and pure metals 3.1 Keep moving parts apart
can be used as grease additives or the sole constituents
of sliding surfaces and bearings. Cadmium and Gold are Lubricants are typically used to separate moving parts in a
system. This has the benefit of reducing friction and sur-
used for plating surfaces which gives them good corrosion
face fatigue, together with reduced heat generation, op-
resistance and sliding properties, Lead, Tin, Zinc alloys
and various Bronze alloys are used as sliding bearings, erating noise and vibrations. Lubricants achieve this in
several ways. The most common is by forming a physical
or their powder can be used to lubricate sliding surfaces
alone. barrier i.e., a thin layer of lubricant separates the moving
parts. This is analogous to hydroplaning, the loss of fric-
tion observed when a car tire is separated from the road
2.5 Aqueous lubrication surface by moving through standing water. This is termed
hydrodynamic lubrication. In cases of high surface pres-
Aqueous lubrication is of interest in a number of tech- sures or temperatures, the fluid film is much thinner and
nological applications. Strongly hydrated brush poly- some of the forces are transmitted between the surfaces
mers such as PEG can act as lubricants at liquid solid through the lubricant.
4 3 APPLICATIONS

3.2 Reduce friction and require cleaning or replacement, hence the recom-
mendation to change a car’s oil filter at the same time as
Typically the lubricant-to-surface friction is much less changing the oil. In closed systems such as gear boxes
than surface-to-surface friction in a system without any the filter may be supplemented by a magnet to attract any
lubrication. Thus use of a lubricant reduces the over- iron fines that get created.
all system friction. Reduced friction has the benefit of
It is apparent that in a circulatory system the oil will only
reducing heat generation and reduced formation of wear
be as clean as the filter can make it, thus it is unfortunate
particles as well as improved efficiency. Lubricants may
that there are no industry standards by which consumers
contain additives known as friction modifiers that chemi-
can readily assess the filtering ability of various automo-
cally bind to metal surfaces to reduce surface friction even
tive filters. Poor filtration significantly reduces the life of
when there is insufficient bulk lubricant present for hy-
the machine (engine) as well as making the system inef-
drodynamic lubrication, e.g. protecting the valve train in
ficient.
a car engine at startup.

3.5 Transmit power

3.3 Transfer heat
Main article: Hydraulics
Both gas and liquid lubricants can transfer heat. However,
liquid lubricants are much more effective on account of
their high specific heat capacity. Typically the liquid lu- Lubricants known as hydraulic fluid are used as the
bricant is constantly circulated to and from a cooler part working fluid in hydrostatic power transmission. Hy-
of the system, although lubricants may be used to warm as draulic fluids comprise a large portion of all lubricants
well as to cool when a regulated temperature is required. produced in the world. The automatic transmission's
This circulating flow also determines the amount of heat torque converter is another important application for
that is carried away in any given unit of time. High flow power transmission with lubricants.
systems can carry away a lot of heat and have the addi-
tional benefit of reducing the thermal stress on the lu-
bricant. Thus lower cost liquid lubricants may be used. 3.6 Protect against wear
The primary drawback is that high flows typically require
larger sumps and bigger cooling units. A secondary draw- Lubricants prevent wear by keeping the moving parts
back is that a high flow system that relies on the flow rate apart. Lubricants may also contain anti-wear or extreme
to protect the lubricant from thermal stress is susceptible pressure additives to boost their performance against
to catastrophic failure during sudden system shut downs. wear and fatigue.
An automotive oil-cooled turbocharger is a typical exam-
ple. Turbochargers get red hot during operation and the
oil that is cooling them only survives as its residence time 3.7 Prevent corrosion
in the system is very short (i.e. high flow rate). If the
Good quality lubricants are typically formulated with ad-
system is shut down suddenly (pulling into a service area
ditives that form chemical bonds with surfaces, or exclude
after a high speed drive and stopping the engine) the oil
moisture, to prevent corrosion and rust. It reduces cor-
that is in the turbo charger immediately oxidizes and will
rosion between two metallic surface and avoids contact
clog the oil ways with deposits. Over time these deposits
between these surfaces to avoid immersed corrosion.
can completely block the oil ways, reducing the cooling
with the result that the turbo charger experiences total
failure typically with seized bearings. Non-flowing lubri-
3.8 Seal for gases
cants such as greases and pastes are not effective at heat
transfer although they do contribute by reducing the gen-
Lubricants will occupy the clearance between moving
eration of heat in the first place.
parts through the capillary force, thus sealing the clear-
ance. This effect can be used to seal pistons and shafts.
3.4 Carry away contaminants and debris
3.9 Application by fluid types
Lubricant circulation systems have the benefit of carrying
away internally generated debris and external contami- • Automotive
nants that get introduced into the system to a filter where
they can be removed. Lubricants for machines that regu- • Engine oils
larly generate debris or contaminants such as automotive
• Petrol (Gasoline) engine oils
engines typically contain detergent and dispersant addi-
tives to assist in debris and contaminant transport to the • Diesel engine oils
filter and removal. Over time the filter will get clogged • Automatic transmission fluid
 5

• Gearbox fluids elimination of metallic contact and adhesion by the gener-

• Brake fluids ation of oxide, friction and wear is reduced. Effectively,
such a surface is self-lubricating.
• Hydraulic fluids
As the “glaze” is already an oxide, it can survive to very
• Tractor (one lubricant for all systems) high temperatures in air or oxidising environments. How-
ever, it is disadvantaged by it being necessary for the base
• Universal Tractor Transmission Oil – UTTO metal (or ceramic) having to undergo some wear first to
• Super Tractor Oil Universal – STOU – in- generate sufficient oxide debris.
cludes engine

• Other motors
5 Marketing
• 2-stroke engine oils

• Sexual The global lubricant market is generally competitive with

numerous manufacturers and marketers. Overall the
• Personal lubricant western market may be considered mature with a flat to
declining overall volumes while there is strong growth in
• Industrial the emerging economies. The lubricant marketers gener-
• Hydraulic oils ally pursue one or more of the following strategies when
pursuing business.
• Air compressor oils
• Food Grade lubricants • Specification:
• Gas Compressor oils
• Gear oils The lubricant is said to meet a certain specification. In the
• Bearing and circulating system oils consumer market, this is often supported by a logo, sym-
bol or words that inform the consumer that the lubricant
• Refrigerator compressor oils marketer has obtained independent verification of con-
• Steam and gas turbine oils formance to the specification. Examples of these include
the API’s donut logo or the NSF tick mark. The most
• Aviation widely perceived is SAE viscosity specification, like SAE
10W-40. Lubricity specifications are institute and man-
• Gas turbine engine oils
ufacturer based. In the U.S. institute: API S for petrol
• Piston engine oils engines, API C for diesel engines. For 2007 the current
specs are API SM and API CJ-4. Higher second letter
• Marine
marks better oil properties, like lower engine wear sup-
• Crosshead cylinder oils ported by tests. In EU the ACEA specifications are used.
There are classes A, B, C, E with number following the
• Crosshead Crankcase oils
letter. Japan introduced the JASO specification for mo-
• Trunk piston engine oils torbike engines. In the industrial market place the speci-
• Stern tube lubricants fication may take the form of a legal contract to supply a
conforming fluid or purchasers may choose to buy on the
• Horological basis of a manufacturers own published specification.

• Original equipment manufacturer (OEM) ap-

4 Other relevant phenomena proval:

4.1 “Glaze” formation (high temperature Specifications often denote a minimum acceptable per-
wear) formance levels. Thus many equipment manufacturers
add on their own particular requirements or tighten the
A further phenomenon that has undergone investigation tolerance on a general specification to meet their partic-
in relation to high temperature wear prevention and lubri- ular needs (or doing a different set of tests or using dif-
cation, is that of a compacted oxide layer glaze formation. ferent/own testbed engine). This gives the lubricant mar-
This is the generation of a compacted oxide layer which keter an avenue to differentiate their product by designing
sinters together to form a crystalline 'glaze' (not the amor- it to meet an OEM specification. Often, the OEM carries
phous layer seen in pottery) generally at high tempera- out extensive testing and maintains an active list of ap-
tures, from metallic surfaces sliding against each other (or proved products. This is a powerful marketing tool in the
a metallic surface against a ceramic surface). Due to the lubricant marketplace. Text on the back of the motor oil
6 5 MARKETING

label usually has a list of conformity to some OEM spec-
ifications, such as MB, MAN, Volvo, Cummins, VW,
BMW or others. Manufactures may have vastly differ-
ent specifications for the range of engines they make; one
may not be completely suitable for some other.
• Performance:
higher specification with previous grade. Typically the
efficiency is proved by showing a reduction in energy
costs to operate the system. Guaranteeing improved ef-
ficiency is the goal of some oil test specifications such
as API CI-4 Plus for diesel engines. Some car/engine
manufacturers also specifically request certain higher ef-
ficiency level for lubricants for extended drain intervals.

The lubricant marketer claims benefits for the customer
based on the superior performance of the lubricant. Such
marketing is supported by glamorous advertising, spon-
sorships of typically sporting events and endorsements.
Unfortunately broad performance claims are common in
the consumer marketplace, which are difficult or impos-
sible for a typical consumer to verify. In the B2B mar-
ket place the marketer is normally expected to show data
that supports the claims, hence reducing the use of broad
claims. Increasing performance, reducing wear and fuel
consumption is also aim of the later API, ACEA and car
manufacturer oil specifications, so lubricant marketers
can back their claims by doing extensive (and expensive)
testing.
• Operational tolerance:
The lubricant is claimed to cope with specific operational
environment needs. Some common environments in-
clude dry, wet, cold, hot, fire risk, high load, high or low
speed, chemical compatibility, atmospheric compatibil-
ity, pressure or vacuum and various combinations. The
usual thermal characteristics is outlined with SAE vis-
cosity given for 100 °C, like SAE 30, SAE 40. For low
temperature viscosity the SAE xxW mark is used. Both
markings can be combined together to form a SAE 0W-
60 for example. Viscosity index (VI) marks viscosity
change with temperature, with higher VI numbers being
more temperature stable.

• Longevity: • Economy:

The marketer claims that their lubricant maintains its per-
formance over a longer period of time. For example, in
the consumer market, a typical motor oil change inter-
val is around the 3,000–6,000 miles (5,000–10,000 km).
The lubricant marketer may offer a lubricant that lasts
for 12,000 miles (19,000 km) or more to convince a user
to pay a premium. Typically, the consumer would need
to check or balance the longer life and any warranties of-
fered by the lubricant manufacturer with the possible loss
of equipment manufacturer warranties by not following
its schedule. Many car and engine manufacturers support
extended drain intervals, but request extended drain in-
terval certified oil used in that case; and sometimes a spe-
cial oil filter. Example: In older Mercedes-Benz engines
and in truck engines one can use engine oil MB 228.1 for
basic drain interval. Engine oils conforming with higher
specification MB 228.3 may be used twice as long, oil of
MB 228.5 specification 3x longer. Note that the oil drain
interval is valid for new engine with fuel conforming car
manufacturer specification. When using lower grade fuel,
or worn engine the oil change interval has to shorten ac-
cordingly. In general oils approved for extended use are
of higher specification and reduce wear. In the industrial
market place the longevity is generally measured in time
units and the lubricant marketer can suffer large financial
penalties if their claims are not substantiated.
The marketer offers a lubricant at a lower cost than ri-
vals either in the same grade or a similar one that will
fill the purpose for lesser price. (Stationary installations
with short drain intervals.) Alternative may be offering
a more expensive lubricant and promise return in lower
wear, specific fuel consumption or longer drain intervals.
(Expensive machinery, un-affordable downtimes.)
• Environment friendly:
The lubricant is said to be environmentally friendly. Typ-
ically this is supported by qualifying statements or con-
formance to generally accepted approvals. Several or-
ganizations, typically government sponsored, exist glob-
ally to qualify and approve such lubricants by evalu-
ating their potential for environmental harm. Typi-
cally, the lubricant manufacturer is allowed to indicate
such approval by showing some special mark. Exam-
ples include the German “Blue Angel”, European “Daisy”
Eco label, Global Eco-Label “GEN mark”, Nordic,
“White Swan”, Japanese “Earth friendly mark”; USA
“Green Seal”, Canadian “Environmental Choice”, Chi-
nese “Huan”, Singapore “Green Label” and the French
“NF Environment mark”.
• Composition:

• Efficiency: The marketer claims novel composition of the lubricant

which improves some tangible performance over its ri-
The lubricant marketer claims improved equipment effi- vals. Typically the technology is protected via formal
ciency when compared to rival products or technologies, patents or other intellectual property protection mecha-
the claim is usually valid when comparing lubricant of nism to prevent rivals from copying. Lot of claims in
 7

this area are simple marketing buzzwords, since most of become part of crude oil. Again there is considerable re-
them are related to a manufacturer specific process nam- luctance to this use as the additives, soot and wear metals
ing (which achieves similar results than other ones) but will seriously poison/deactivate the critical catalysts in the
the competition is prohibited from using a trademark. process. Cost prohibits carrying out both filtration (soot,
additives removal) and re-refining (distilling, isomerisa-
• Quality: tion, hydrocrack, etc.) however the primary hindrance to
recycling still remains the collection of fluids as refineries
need continuous supply in amounts measured in cisterns,
The marketer claims broad superior quality of its lubri- rail tanks.
cant with no factual evidence. The quality is “proven” by
references to famous brand, sporting figure, racing team, Occasionally, unused lubricant requires disposal. The
some professional endorsement or some similar subjec- best course of action in such situations is to return it to
tive claim. All motor oil labels wear mark similar to the manufacturer where it can be processed as a part of
“of outstanding quality” or “quality additives,” the actual fresh batches.
comparative evidence is always lacking. Environment: Lubricants both fresh and used can cause
considerable damage to the environment mainly due to
their high potential of serious water pollution. Further
6 Disposal and environmental the additives typically contained in lubricant can be toxic
to flora and fauna. In used fluids the oxidation products
can be toxic as well. Lubricant persistence in the envi-
It is estimated that 40% of all lubricants are released
ronment largely depends upon the base fluid, however if
into the environment. Common Disposal methods in-
very toxic additives are used they may negatively affect
clude Recycling, burning, landfill and discharge into wa-
the persistence. Lanolin lubricants are non-toxic making
ter, though typically disposal in landfill and discharge
them the environmental alternative which is safe for both
into water are strictly regulated in most countries, as
users and the environment.
even small amount of lubricant can contaminate a large
amount of water. Most regulations permit a threshold
level of lubricant that may be present in waste streams
and companies spend hundreds of millions of dollars an- 7 Societies and industry bodies
nually in treating their waste waters to get to acceptable
levels. • American Petroleum Institute (API)
Burning the lubricant as fuel, typically to generate elec- • Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers
tricity, is also governed by regulations mainly on account (STLE)
of the relatively high level of additives present. Burning
generates both airborne pollutants and ash rich in toxic • National Lubricating Grease Institute (NLGI)
materials, mainly heavy metal compounds. Thus lubri-
• Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
cant burning takes place in specialized facilities that have
incorporated special scrubbers to remove airborne pol- • Independent Lubricant Manufacturer Association
lutants and have access to landfill sites with permits to (ILMA)
handle the toxic ash.
• European Automobile Manufacturers Association
Unfortunately, most lubricant that ends up directly in the (ACEA)
environment is due to general public discharging it onto
the ground, into drains and directly into landfills as trash. • Japanese Automotive Standards Organization
Other direct contamination sources include runoff from (JASO)
roadways, accidental spillages, natural or man-made dis-
asters and pipeline leakages. • Petroleum Packaging Council (PPC)

Improvement in filtration technologies and processes has

now made recycling a viable option (with rising price of
base stock and crude oil). Typically various filtration sys-
8 Major publications
tems remove particulates, additives and oxidation prod-
ucts and recover the base oil. The oil may get refined • Peer reviewed
during the process. This base oil is then treated much • Tribology Transactions
the same as virgin base oil however there is considerable
reluctance to use recycled oils as they are generally con- • Journal of Synthetic Lubricants
sidered inferior. Basestock fractionally vacuum distilled • Tribology Letters
from used lubricants has superior properties to all natu- • Lubrication Science
ral oils, but cost effectiveness depends on many factors.
Used lubricant may also be used as refinery feedstock to • Trade periodicals
8 11 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Tribology and Lubrication Technology • Boughton and Horvath, 2003, Environmental As-
• Fuels & Lubes International sessment of Used Oil Management Methods, Envi-
ronmental Science and Technology, V38
• Oiltrends
• I.A. Inman. Compacted Oxide Layer Formation
• Lubes n’ Greases
under Conditions of Limited Debris Retention at
• Compoundings the Wear Interface during High Temperature Slid-
• Chemical Market Review ing Wear of Superalloys, Ph.D. Thesis (2003),
Northumbria University, ISBN 1-58112-321-3
• Machinery lubrication
• Mercedes-Benz oil recommendations, extracted
from factory manuals and personal research
9 See also • Measuring reserve alkalinity and evaluation of wear
dependence
• Castor oil
• Testing used oil quality, list of possible measure-
• Grease (lubricant) ments

• Lubrication • Lubricant Additives: Chemistry and Applications,

Leslie R. Rudnick, CRC Press.
• Mineral oils

• Motor oil
11 External links
• Oil analysis
• SAE-ISO-AGMA viscosity conversion chart
• Penetrating oil
• Chart of API Gravity and Specific gravity
• Personal lubricant

• Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers

• Tribology

10 References

10.1 Notes
[1] Thorsten Bartels et al. “Lubricants and Lubrication” in
Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2005,
Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a15_423

[2] Engine Oil Publications

[3] Turbo hydra-matic 350 By Ron Sessions, page 20.

[4] National Non-Food Crops Centre. NNFCC Conference

Poster. Improved winter rape varieties for biolubricants

[5] Macrotribological Studies of Poly(L-lysine)-graft-

Poly(ethylene glycol) in Aqueous Glycerol Mixtures PC
Nalam, JN Clasohm, A Mashaghi, ND Spencer. Tribol
Lett (2010) 37:541–552

10.2 Sources
• API 1509, Engine Oil Licensing and Certification
System, 15th Edition, 2002. Appendix E, API Base
Oil Interchangeability Guidelines for Passenger Car
Motor Oils and Diesel Engine Oils (revised)
 9

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text
• Lubricant Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubricant?oldid=713950823 Contributors: The Anome, Eclecticology, Rgamble, Heron,
Hephaestos, Patrick, Liftarn, MartinHarper, Delirium, Shimmin, CesarB, Ahoerstemeier, Andrewa, Bemoeial, Maximus Rex, Pollina-
tor, Robbot, Fredrik, Jeezis is Lard !, Yosri, Timrollpickering, Pko, Everyking, Michael Devore, Yekrats, Nayuki, Pne, Joeblakesley,
Bearings, H Padleckas, Ukexpat, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Fluzwup, 1pezguy, Art LaPella, Bobo192, Longhair, Smalljim, Duk,
Pschemp, Pearle, Hooperbloob, Alansohn, SlaveToTheWage, Mac Davis, Zantastik, Mikeo, Henry W. Schmitt, Dragunova, Gene Ny-
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