Erikson's stages of psychosocial development as articulated by Erik Erikson explain eight stages

through which a healthily developing human should pass from infancy to late adulthood. In each stage the
person confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges. Each stage builds on the successful completion
of earlier stages. The challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as
problems in the future.

Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years)

• Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt

• Main Question: "Can I do things myself or must I always rely on others?"

• Virtue: Will

As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to
explore their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of security from which
the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents' patience and encouragement
helps foster autonomy in the child. Highly restrictive parents, however, are more likely to
instill the child with a sense of doubt and reluctance to attempt new challenges.

As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable of
satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed themselves, wash and dress
themselves, and use the bathroom. If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behavior,
toddlers develop a sense of autonomy- a sense of being able to handle many problems on
their own. But if caregivers demand too much too soon, refuse to let children perform
tasks of which they are capable, or ridicule early attempts at self-sufficiency, children
may instead develop shame and doubt about their ability to handle problems.

Stage two

The second stage is the toddler, from about eighteen months to three or four years old. The task is to
achieve a degree of autonomy while minimizing shame and doubt.

If mom and dad (and the other care-takers that often come into the picture at this point) permit the child,
now a toddler, to explore and manipulate his or her environment, the child will develop a sense of
autonomy (independence). The parents should not discourage the child, but neither should they push. A
balance is required. People often advise new parents to be "firm but tolerant" at this stage, and the
advice is good. This way, the child will develop both self-control and self-esteem.

On the other hand, it is rather easy for the child to develop instead a sense of shame and doubt. If the
parents come down hard on any attempt to explore and be independent, children will soon give up with
and assume that they cannot and should not act on their own. We should keep in mind that even
something as innocent as laughing at the toddler's efforts can lead the child to feel deeply ashamed, and
to doubt his or her abilities.

And there are other ways to lead children to shame and doubt: If you give children unrestricted freedom
and no sense of limits, or if you try to help children do what they should learn to do for themselves, you
will also give them the impression that they are not good for much. If you aren't patient enough to wait
for your child to tie his or her shoe-laces, your child will never learn to tie them, and will assume that
this is just too difficult to learn!

Shame and doubt sound very negative. Do we really need them? Yes, unless you think it is a good idea
to run around naked in public or jump off of buildings.

If you get the proper, positive balance of autonomy and shame and doubt, you will develop the virtue of
willpower (determination). One of the most admirable - and frustrating - thing about two- and three-
year-olds is their determination. "Can do" is their motto. If we can preserve that "can do" attitude (with
appropriate modesty to balance it) we are much better off as adults.
Promoting Optimum Health During Toddlerhood

• Nutrition

– Phenomenon of “physiologic anorexia”

• Sleep and activity
• Dental health
– Regular dental exams
– Removal of plaque
– Fluoride
– Low-cariogenic diet