General Formulation of The Cavity Model: L As Two Segments of An

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CHAPTER 3
General Formulation of the Cavity Model
3.1 Introductory Remarks

There are two approaches to solving for the performance characteristics of
microstrip patch antennas. One is to devise a physical model based on a
number of simplifying assumptions; the other is to solve Maxwell’s equa-
tions subject to the boundary conditions.
Let us use the center-fed dipole antenna as an analogy. The simplify-
ing approach is to regard the dipole of length L as two segments of an
open ended parallel wire transmission line which are bended upward, as
illustrated in Figure 3.1
It is assumed that the current distribution on the bended segments (the
dipole) is essentially the same as that in the parallel open ended transmis-
sion line, namely, sinusoidal. The radiation and impedance characteristics
are then calculated based on the sinusoidal current distribution.
In the more rigorous approach, the currents on the dipole are regarded
as unknowns to be solved. By requiring the fields produced by this current
to satisfy the boundary condition on the conductor, at infinity, and across
the feed points, an integral equation is obtained for the unknown currents.
The integral equation is then solved by some numerical method. Once the
currents are determined, the radiation and impedance characteristics are
then calculated.
Similarly, for the basic geometry of the microstrip patch antenna shown
in Figure 3.2, a simplified physical model, known as the cavity model, can
be developed to deduce the characteristics of the antenna. It is based on
a number of simplifying assumptions which are valid for thin substrates.
These assumptions enable the fields between the patch and the ground
plane to be determined analytically for a number of patch shapes. From
these, the various characteristics of the MPA can be calculated.
As in the dipole case, a more general and rigorous approach will regard
the currents on the antenna structures to be the unknowns to be solved.
39
MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNAS

© World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
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40 Microstrip Patch Antennas
Fig. 3.1 Development of a dipole antenna of length L from an open-circuited

two-wire transmission line.
Fig. 3.2 Basic geometry of a microstrip patch antenna.
By requiring the fields produced by the currents to satisfy the boundary and
excitation conditions, integral equations are obtained for the unknown cur-
rents, which are solved by some numerical method. This approach is known
as the full-wave method. It has the advantages of being able to handle thick
substrates and complicated structures, such as multi-layer structures con-
taining dielectric cover, several patches and parasitic elements. However, it
requires extensive computation time and provides little physical insight.

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General Formulation of the Cavity Model 41
In this chapter, we present the general formulation of the cavity model

for the case of a coaxially fed microstrip patch antenna. This formulation
will be used in chapters 4–6 to obtain the characteristics of the rectangular,
circular, annular-ring, and equitriangular patch antennas.
3.2 Introducing the Cavity Model

Consider the region between the patch and the ground plane in the basic
microstrip patch antenna geometry shown in Figure 3.2. This region resem-
bles an electromagnetic resonator or cavity, excited by a coaxial probe.
In the usual resonant cavity used in microwave circuits, the vertical walls
are also conducting walls and the structure is in the form of a conducting
box, as illustrated in Figure 3.3 for the case of a rectangular cavity.
The fields that can exist inside the conducting box are obtained by first
solving Maxwell’s equations in the region inside the box and demanding
its solutions to satisfy the boundary conditions of the tangential electric
fields, Et = 0 on the top, bottom and on its sides. Similar to the vibrating
string problem reviewed in section 2.1, this leads to an infinite number of
discrete solutions or eigenfunctions. Each solution describes a field pattern
or mode, with its characteristic or resonant frequency. An infinite series
of appropriately weighted modes or eigenfunctions are used to satisfy the
conditions imposed by the feed.
In the patch antenna case, the side walls are not enclosed by conducting
walls and the fields inside the cavity can leak out to space, leading to
radiation. To find the radiation fields, we first need to find the fields inside
the cavity. To do this, we need to know what boundary condition to impose
on the side (vertical) walls.
The thickness of the substrate is denoted by the symbol t or h in the
literature. It will be shown in section 3.3 that, if the substrate is thin so that
t λ where λ is wavelength, the boundary condition on the side walls is
Fig. 3.3 Rectangular cavity with conducting walls.

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Fig. 3.4 Boundary conditions for the cavity in the region under the patch.
Ht = 0. The boundary value problem to solve to obtain the eigenfunctions

or modes is illustrated in Figure 3.4 for the rectangular patch.
3.3 The Thin Substrate Assumption

Under the condition that the substrate thickness t is much less than wave-
length λ, there will be no variation of the fields with z. Since Et = 0 on the
perfectly conducting metal surfaces,
= ẑEz
E (3.1)
∝∇
Since H × E,
it follows that H is transverse to ẑ.
→
−
Consider the surface current density Js . Referring to Figure 3.5, we can
write
Js = −ẑ × H|
z=0 (3.2)
ẑ × Js = ẑ × (−ẑ × H)
= −ẑ(ẑ · H)
+ H(ẑ
· ẑ) = H
(3.3)
Js = τ̂ (τ̂ · Js ) + n̂(n̂ · Js ) (3.4)
Fig. 3.5 Thin substrate assumption.

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where τ̂ , n̂ are unit vectors tangential and normal to the perimeter of the
patch, C.
Since there should be no component normal to the boundary at the
perimeter, n̂ · Js |c = 0 for any point on C, we have:
c = ẑ × Js |c = ẑ × τ̂ Jsτ |c = −n̂Jsc |c
H| (3.5)
Hence H has only a normal component at the boundary, or Ht = 0 on

the boundary. Since there is no variation of the fields with z, it follows
that Ht = 0 on the vertical sides of the cavity. A wall with zero tangential
magnetic field is known as a magnetic wall. Thus the cavity is bounded by
magnetic walls on the sides, and by electric walls on the top and bottom.
3.4 Solution for Cavity Fields

Let J be the current density of the feed, assumed to be directed along z.
Since t λ, we assume J to be independent of z. Under these conditions,
the continuity equation reads
· J = ∂Jx + ∂Jy + ∂Jz = 0 = −jωρ ⇒ ρ = 0

∇ (3.6)
∂x ∂y ∂z
·E
∴∇ =0
In the cavity (region between patch and conducting plane),
× (∇
∇ × E)
= ∇(
∇ · E)
− ∇2 E + J)
= −jωµ0 (jωεE (3.7)
2 = jωµ0 J
2
∇ E + ω µ0 εE (3.8)
2
∇ Ez + kd2 Ez = jωµ0 Jz (3.9)
√
where kd = ω µ0 ε
−
→
Ez is obtained by first solving the homogeneous equation subject to the
boundary conditions. The solution to the inhomogeneous equation is then
obtained by superposition.
Homogeneous equation:
(∇2 + kd2 )Ez = 0 (3.10)
Boundary condition:
−
→
Ht = 0 on the side walls of the cavity.
From Maxwell’s equations, this translates into ( ∂E

∂n ) = 0 on the side walls
z
of the cavity.

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Let the solutions (eigenfunctions) be ψmn and the eigenvalues of kd be

kmn . For example, for a rectangular patch, the eigenfunctions and eigen-
values are given by
mπx nπy
Ez = E0 cos cos m, n = integers (3.11)
a b
mπ 2 nπ 2
2
kmn = + (3.12)
a b
Inhomogeneous equation:
∇2 Ez + kd2 Ez = jωµ0 Jz (3.13)
To solve Eq. (3.13), we use the eigenfunction expansion technique described

in sections 2.1 and 2.2.
Let

Ez = Amn ψmn (3.14)
m n
where the coefficients Amn are determined by requiring Eq. (3.14) to be the
solution to the inhomogeneous equation.
Substituting (3.14) into (3.13), we have

∇2 Ez = Amn ∇2 ψmn
m n

2
=− Amn kmn ψmn = jωµ0 Jz − kd2 Amn ψmn
m n m n
(3.15)
∗ ∗
Multiplying the left and right hand sides of (3.15) by ψrs ( denotes complex
conjugate) and integrating over the domain of the patch we obtain

(kd2 − kmn
2
)Amn ∗
ψmn ψrs dv = jωµ0 ∗
Jz ψrs dv (3.16)
m n
However, since the functions are independent of z, the volume integral in

(3.16) becomes the surface integral:

2 2 ∗ ∗
(kd − kmn )Amn ψmn ψrs ds = jωµ0 Jz ψrs ds (3.17)
m n sp sp
where integration is over the area of the patch “sp ”.

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Assuming ψmn and ψrs are orthogonal over sp , which can be verified a
posterori,
∗

jωµ0 Jz ψrs
Ars = 2 2
(3.18)
kd − krs ∗
ψrs ψrs
∗
∗ ∗
∗
where Jz ψrs = sp Jz ψrs ds, ψrs ψrs = sp ψrs ψrs ds
The solution to the inhomogeneous equation is therefore
∗
1 Jψmn
Ez = jωµ0 2 2
ψmn (3.19)
m n
kd − kmn ψmn ψmn ∗
The characteristic or resonant frequencies are determined from

kd2 = kmn
2
(2πfmn )2 µ0 ε = kmn
2
(3.20)
Equation (3.20) yields
kmn
fmn = √ (3.21)
2π µ0 ε
If losses are not taken into account, kd is real and Eq. (3.19) shows that Ez
tends to infinity at the resonant frequency. In the realistic case with losses,
kd is complex and Eq. (3.19) shows that, at the resonant frequencies, Ez
assumes large but finite values.
3.5 Radiation Field

To calculate the radiation field, consider a closed surface S as shown in
Figure 3.6.
The top face of S lies just outside the patch and the bottom face lies
just outside the ground plane. The vertical face of S coincides with the
magnetic wall of the cavity. The fields exterior to S can be calculated from
the equivalent sources on S and their images; the latter is necessary to
Fig. 3.6 Microstrip antenna with a closed surface S.

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account for the ground plane, which is assumed to be infinite in extent

for the purpose of analysis. Since the tangential electric fields on the top
and bottom faces, as well as the tangential magnetic field on the vertical
surface, are zero, the only contribution to the equivalent sources are the
tangential electric field E, on the vertical surface of the cavity. Together
with its image (section 2.2.8), the total equivalent magnetic current is
M = 2−→
Es × n̂ (3.22)
where n̂ is the unit outward normal.
If the substrate thickness t is much less than the wavelength λ, its effect
on the radiation field is small and M can be assumed to radiate in free
space. From Eq. (2.47), the electric potential F at a point r is given by:
−jk0 |
r− r |
ε0 t e
F = M (r ) d
(3.23)
4π |r − r |
where integration is over the perimeter of the patch.
The fields in the far-zone are given by (section 2.2.4),

 Hr 0
H −jωFθ
 θ
Hφ −jωFθ

Er 0
Eθ η0 Hφ

Eφ −η0 Hθ

µo
where ηo = εo
3.6 Feed Modeling

In the development of the cavity model, the coaxial-line feed is represented
by a cylindrical band of electric current flowing from the ground plane
to the patch. To simply matters, this is idealized by assuming that it is
equivalent to a uniform current of some effective width, centered on the
feed axis. For example, for a circular patch fed at a distance d from the
center, it is illustrated in Figure 3.7 and described by
J = ẑJ(ψ)δ(ρ − d)/d (3.24)
where δ is the Dirac delta function and

J π−w <ψ <π+w
J(ψ) =
0 elsewhere

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Fig. 3.7 Modeling of a coaxial feed by a current ribbon for a circular patch.
The effective annular width 2w is a parameter chosen so that good agree-

ment between the theoretical and experimental impedances is obtained.
Usually, the arc length 2wd is several times the physical dimension of the
inner conductor.
3.7 Losses in Cavity

The losses in the cavity under the patch comprise dielectric loss (Pd ), con-
ductor loss (Pc ), radiation loss (Pr ) and surface-wave loss (Psw ).
Surface wave loss represents energy leaving the cavity in the form of
waves guided along the dielectric. For thin substrates, Psw can be neglected.
According to Wood [4] , it is required that t/λo < 0.07 for εr = 2.3 and
t/λo < 0.023 for εr = 9.8, if the antenna is to launch no more than 25% of
the total radiated power as surface waves. For a given thickness (in terms
of wavelength), the higher the dielectric constant, the more the surface
wave loss.
The dielectric loss (Pd ) and the conductor loss (Pc ) are calculated from
the electric field under the cavity, while the radiation loss (Pr ) is calculated
from the far-zone electromagnetic field. A good discussion of these can be

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found in Collin [5]. They are given by

ωεδ
Pd = |Ez |2 dv (3.25)
2

Rs 2 ds
Pc = 2 |H| (3.26)
2
2
1 2π π |E|
Pr = r2 sin θdθdφ (3.27)
2 0 0 2η0
The quantity δ in (3.25) is the loss tangent of the dielectric and Rs in
equation (3.26) is the surface resistivity of the conductors. (The loss tangent
is also denoted by tan δ).
The radiation efficiency is the ratio of radiated power to input power:
Pr
e% = × 100% (3.28)
Pc + Pd + Pr
In calculating the losses, it is usual to make use of the resonance approx-
imation. This arises from the observation that, if the frequency is close to
1
the resonant frequency of a particular mode, the factor k2 −k 2 in equa-
d mn
tion (3.19) is very large and the contribution to Ez , and hence to the
radiation field Ez , is due mainly to the resonant-mode term. At reso-
nance, the stored electric energy We is equal to the stored magnetic energy
Wm [5]:

ε Pd
We = |Ez |2 dv = (3.29)
4 2ωδ
Wm = We (3.30)
And the total stored energy at resonance is

ε Pd
Wt = |Ez |2 dv = (3.31)
2 ωδ
In an ideal cavity with lossless walls, the loss tangent and the cavity quality
factor Q are related by
1
δ= (3.32)
Q
To take into account the radiation loss and the copper loss, the concept of
effective loss tangent is defined as [2]
1
δeff = (3.33)
QT

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where
ωWT
QT = (3.34)
PT
PT = Pd + Pc + Pr (3.35)
In the formula for calculating the cavity field Ez , δ is to be replaced by
δeff . Since the calculation of the power losses depend on Ez , the definition
of the effective loss tangent leads to a nonlinear equation for δeff . δeff can
be solved by an iterative procedure:
δi+1 = [Pr (δi ) + Pc (δi ) + Pd (δi )]/2ω0 We (δi ) (3.36)
where the starting value is δo = δ. In practice, the value of δeff is found to
converge after one or two iterations.
3.8 Input Impedance

The input impedance at the feed of the antenna is given by
V Eav t
=−
Z = R + jX = (3.37)
I I
where Eav is the average value of the electric field at the feed point and
I is the total current. For example, if the feed is modeled by Eq. (3.24),
we have
π+w
1
Eav = Ez (d, ψ)dψ (3.38)
2w π−w
and
I = −J(2wd) (3.39)
Unlike the calculations of δeff , it was found that non-resonant modes
must be included in the calculation of input impedance if good agreement
between theory and experiment was to be obtained. The appropriate equa-
1
tion for Ez is therefore Eq. (3.19), which contains the factor k2 −k 2 . To
d mn
keep this term finite at resonance, the permittivity of the dielectric must
be considered complex. If only the dielectric loss is considered, we have
ε = ε0 εr (1 − jδ) (3.40)
kd2 = ω 2 µ0 ε = k02 εr (1 − jδ) (3.41)
However, Richard et al. [2] found that better agreement with experiment
was obtained if, instead of the loss tangent of the dielectric, the effective

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Fig. 3.8 Typical impedance characteristics around the resonant frequency of a

mode.
loss tangent is used. Thus, in calculating the input impedance, Eq. (3.19)
is modified to read
∞ ∞
1 ∗
Jz ψmn
Ez = jωµ0 ψmn (3.42)
k 2 − kmn
m=0 n=0 eff
2 ψmn ψmn ∗
where
2
keff = k02 εr (1 − jδeff ) (3.43)
A typical impedance versus frequency curve is illustrated in Figure 3.8.
There is usually some reactance at the resonant frequency of a mode due
to the contributions from the non-resonant modes.
3.9 VSWR Bandwidth

The bandwidth of an antenna is the range of frequencies within which
the performance of the antenna, with respect to some characteristic, con-
forms to a specified standard. In the case of the microstrip patch antenna
which is basically a strongly resonant device, it is usually the variation of

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impedance, rather than pattern, which limits the standard of performance.

If the antenna impedance is matched to the transmission line at resonance,
the mismatch off resonance is related to the voltage standing wave ratio
(denoted by VSWR or SWR). The value of VSWR which can be toler-
ated then defines the bandwidth of the antenna. If this value is to be
less than S, the usable bandwidth of the antenna is related to the total
Q-factor by
1 S −1
B= √ (3.44)
Q S
To derive Eq. (3.44), consider the transmission line of characteristic
resistance Ro terminated in the microstrip patch antenna, which has input
impedance Zin , as illustrated in Figure 3.9.
Consider the antenna as a resonant circuit. From elementary circuit
theory, the input impedance of the resonant circuit can be written in term
of the Q of the circuit and the frequency deviation from resonance, ∆:
Zin = Rin (1 + j2Q∆) (3.45)
where
f − fr
∆= (3.46)
fr
The voltage reflection coefficient Γ and the standing wave ratio S are
given by
Zin − R0
Γ= (3.47)
Zin + R0
1 + |Γ|
S= (3.48)
1 − |Γ|
Fig. 3.9 Equivalent circuit of microstrip antenna connected to a transmission

line with characteristic resistance Ro .

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Thus

S−1 Zin − R0

= |Γ| = (3.49)
S+1 Zin + R0
Using Eq. (3.45), we have
S−1 |1 + j2Q∆ − R0 /Rin |
= (3.50)
S+1 |1 + j2Q∆ + R0 /Rin |
R0
On letting T = Rin , we obtain
2
(1 − T )2 + 4Q2 ∆2 S−1
= (3.51)
(1 + T )2 + 4Q2 ∆2 S+1
The solution for ∆2 is:

1 (T S − 1)(S − T )
∆2 = (3.52)
4Q2 S
Referring to Figure 3.10, let f2 and f1 respectively be the frequencies above
and below resonance at which the voltage standing wave ratio equals S.
The fractional bandwidth corresponding to this value of S is then
f 2 − f1 2(f2 − fr )
B= = = 2∆ (3.53)
fr fr
Thus
B2 1 (T S − 1) (S − T )
= (3.54)
4 4Q2 S

1 (T S − 1) (S − T )
B= (3.55)
Q S
Fig. 3.10 Illustration of VSWR against frequency plot.

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If the antenna is matched at the frequency fr , Rin = Ro and T = 1 and we

obtain Eq. (3.44):
1 S −1
B= √
Q S
In the literature, S is usually chosen to be 2 for defining the VSWR BW.
In industry, the more stringent standard S = 1.5 is used.
3.10 Qualitative Description of the Results Predicted

by the Cavity Model
In chapters 4–6, the equations presented in this chapter will be used to
obtain the specific results for a number of microstrip patch antennas. It is
instructive to describe here the qualitative features which are common to
MPAs. These features follow naturally from viewing the MPA as a leaky
cavity.
1. There are an infinite number of resonant modes, each characterized by

a resonant frequency.
2. Because of fringing fields at the edge of the patch, the patch behaves as
if it has a slightly larger dimension. Semi-empirical factors are usually
introduced to obtain these effective dimensions. These factors vary from
patch to patch.
3. Each resonant mode has its own characteristic radiation pattern. The
lowest mode usually radiates strongest in the broadside direction. The
pattern of this mode is broad, with half-power beamwidths of the order
of 100◦.
4. For coaxial-fed antennas, the input impedance is dependent on the feed
position. The variation of input resistance at resonance with feed position
essentially follows that of the cavity field. For the lowest mode, it is
usually large when the feed is near the edge of the patch and decreases
as the feed moves inside the patch. Its magnitude can vary from tens to
hundreds of ohms. By choosing the feed position properly, an effective
match between the antenna and the transmission line can be obtained.
5. Since the cavity under the patch is basically a resonator, the total Q
and the impedance bandwidth are dependent on the thickness of the
substrate t and its permittivity εr . For low values of εr , the bandwidth
generally increases with increasing t and decreases with increasing εr .
However, detailed analysis shows that the bandwidth and Q are compli-
cated functions of frequency, substrate thickness and permittivity.

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6. For thin substrates, the impedance bandwidth varies from less than one
to several percent.
3.11 Limitations of the Cavity Model Analysis

Let us recap the assumptions and limitations of the cavity model. The basic
assumption which renders the calculations of the cavity model relatively
simple is that the substrate thickness is assumed to be much smaller than
wavelength so that the electric field has only a vertical (z) component which
does not vary with z. From this it follows that:
(1) The fields in the cavity are TM (transverse magnetic).

(2) The cavity is bounded by magnetic walls (Ht = 0) on the sides.
(3) Surface wave excitation is negligible.
(4) The current in the coaxial probe is independent of z.
The coaxial probe is modeled by a current ribbon of a certain width,

which is a free parameter chosen to fit the experimental data.
There are a number of limitations to the cavity model even if the thin
substrate condition is satisfied. The magnetic wall boundary condition leads
to resonant frequencies which do not agree well with experimental obser-
vations, and an ad hoc correction factor has to be introduced to account
for the effect of fringing fields. The width of the current ribbon used to
model the coaxial probe is another ad hoc parameter. The model cannot
handle designs involving parasitic elements, either on the same layer or on
another layer. It cannot analyze microstrip antennas with dielectric covers.
When the thickness of the substrate exceeds about 2% of the free space
wavelength, the cavity model results begin to become inaccurate, due to
the breakdown of (1)–(4).
Despite the limitations described above, the cavity model has the advan-
tage of being simple and providing physical insight. The basic characteris-
tics and design information for rectangular, circular, annular, and triangular
patches can be obtained with relative ease, as we show in the next three
chapters.
3.12 Problems
1. (a) Assuming E z to be independent of z, solve ∇2 Ez + kd2 Ez = 0 in a
rectangular cavity with electric walls (E t =0 ) on the top and bottom
and magnetic walls (H t =0 ) on the sides.

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(b) Obtain the formula for the characteristic (resonant) frequencies of

TM mn modes.
(c) Obtain the resonant frequency of the lowest mode for the case a > b.
b
y
x
o
a
2. If, in the rectangular cavity of problem 1, the side wall y = 0 is shorted

so that E t = 0. At y = 0 as well as on the top and bottom,
(a) find the solution for E z ;
(b) find the formula for the resonant frequency of the lowest mode for
the case a > b.
References
[1] Y. T. Lo, D. Solomon and W. F. Richards, “Theory and experiment
on microstrip antennas,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., Vol. AP-27,
pp. 137–145, 1979.
[2] W. F. Richards, Y. T. Lo and D. D. Harrison, “An improved theory for
microstrip antennas and applications,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat.,
Vol. AP-29, pp. 38–46, 1981.
[3] R. S. Elliott, Antenna Theory and Design, Prentice Hall, 1981, Sections 3.7
and 7.18.
[4] C. Wood, “Analysis of microstrip circular patch antennas,” IEE Proc.
Vol. 128H, pp. 69–76, 1981.
[5] R. E. Collin, Foundations of Microwave Engineering, Second Edition,
McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York, 1992.
[6] K. F. Lee and J. S. Dahele, “Characteristics of microstrip patch antennas and
some methods of improving frequency agility and bandwidth,” in Handbook of
Microstrip Antennas, J. R. James and P. S. Hall (Editors), Peter Peregrinus,
Ltd., London, 1989.


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General Formulation of the Cavity Model

3.1 Introductory Remarks

MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNAS

40 Microstrip Patch Antennas

Fig. 3.1 Development of a dipole antenna of length L from an open-circuited

Fig. 3.2 Basic geometry of a microstrip patch antenna.

MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNAS

General Formulation of the Cavity Model 41

In this chapter, we present the general formulation of the cavity model

3.2 Introducing the Cavity Model

Fig. 3.3 Rectangular cavity with conducting walls.

MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNAS

42 Microstrip Patch Antennas

Ht = 0. The boundary value problem to solve to obtain the eigenfunctions

3.3 The Thin Substrate Assumption

Fig. 3.5 Thin substrate assumption.

MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNAS

General Formulation of the Cavity Model 43

Hence H has only a normal component at the boundary, or Ht = 0 on

3.4 Solution for Cavity Fields

· J = ∂Jx + ∂Jy + ∂Jz = 0 = −jωρ ⇒ ρ = 0

(∇2 + kd2 )Ez = 0 (3.10)

From Maxwell’s equations, this translates into ( ∂E

MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNAS

44 Microstrip Patch Antennas

Let the solutions (eigenfunctions) be ψmn and the eigenvalues of kd be

∇2 Ez + kd2 Ez = jωµ0 Jz (3.13)

To solve Eq. (3.13), we use the eigenfunction expansion technique described

However, since the functions are independent of z, the volume integral in

where integration is over the area of the patch “sp ”.

MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNAS

General Formulation of the Cavity Model 45

The characteristic or resonant frequencies are determined from

3.5 Radiation Field

Fig. 3.6 Microstrip antenna with a closed surface S.

MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNAS

46 Microstrip Patch Antennas

account for the ground plane, which is assumed to be inﬁnite in extent

3.6 Feed Modeling

MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNAS

General Formulation of the Cavity Model 47

The eﬀective annular width 2w is a parameter chosen so that good agree-

3.7 Losses in Cavity

MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNAS

48 Microstrip Patch Antennas

found in Collin [5]. They are given by

And the total stored energy at resonance is

MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNAS

General Formulation of the Cavity Model 49

3.8 Input Impedance

MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNAS

50 Microstrip Patch Antennas

Fig. 3.8 Typical impedance characteristics around the resonant frequency of a

3.9 VSWR Bandwidth

MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNAS

General Formulation of the Cavity Model 51

impedance, rather than pattern, which limits the standard of performance.

Zin = Rin (1 + j2Q∆) (3.45)

Fig. 3.9 Equivalent circuit of microstrip antenna connected to a transmission

MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNAS

52 Microstrip Patch Antennas

Fig. 3.10 Illustration of VSWR against frequency plot.